Cell Structure

Differences Between Light and Electron Microscope

Light Microscope Electron Microscope

Techniques are simple High technical skills required

Light rays are used to Electron beam produced by

illuminate the specimens cathode is used.

Low resolving power High resolving power

Magnification and Resolution

Living things are composed of Cells. Cells are very small (usually between 1 and 100 m) and

can only be seen by magnification with a microscope. A distinction is made

between Magnification and Resolution: Magnification is how large the image is compared to real

life, whereas Resolution is the amount of information that can be seen in the image - defined

as the smallest distance below which two discrete objects will be seen as one.
Animal Cell

Plant Cell
Cell Structure

Nucleus: typical size of the nucleus is 10m. it is important as it controls the cells activities. It

contains the genetic information (DNA). Surrounding the nucleus is a double membrane

structure with pores called the nuclear envelope.

Nuclear Envelope: It is a double membrane structure that surrounds the entire nucleus. The

outer layer is consistent with the endoplasmic reticulum. The nuclear envelope has pores that

allow substances to pass through it.

Nucleolus: It is a structure found in the nucleus. That synthesizes rRNA and assemble

ribosomes.

Cell Membrane: The cell membrane is a phospholipid bilayer that allows certain substances to

enter and leave the cell. It is a selectively permeable membrane that aids to protect the contents

of the cell.

Cell Wall: A tough flexible layer that surrounds the cell membrane providing the cell with

support and protection. The cell wall is permeable and is made up of cellulose.

Chloroplast: This is found in plant cells and contains chlorophyll. Chlorophyll enables the plant

to trap light energy and photosynthesize. It is a double membrane structure.

Endoplasmic Reticulum: It is an interconnected membrane enclosed sac. The membranes of the

ER are continuous with the outer membrane of the nuclear envelope. There are two types of ER:

Rough ER: This ER is studded with ribosomes that attach and detach when needed. This

is responsible for the assembling of proteins.

metabolism of fat. The sER also produces steroid hormones. It is more tubular than rER

and forms a separate sealed interconnected network. sER plays a role in detoxifying

organic chemicals converting it to safer water soluble ones.

Golgi Apparatus: This is a series of tubular networks that are connected. It is responsible for

receiving and distributing proteins made in the ER. Proteins synthesized in the ER are packaged

into vesicles, which then fuse with the Golgi apparatus. These cargo proteins are modified and

destined for secretion via exocytosis or for use in the cell. In this respect, the Golgi can be

thought of as similar to a post office: it packages and labels items which it then sends to different

parts of the cell or to the extracellular space. The Golgi apparatus is also involved

in lipid transport and lysosome formation.

Mitochondria: These are double membrane bound organelle. It produces the energy needed for

the cell to function and as a result it is called the powerhouse of the cell.

Ribosomes: They can be found free or bound to structure such as to rER. Ribosomes make

proteins.

Lysosomes: It is a membrane bound organelle found in most animal cells. They contain enzymes

that break down biomolecules. Enzymes of the lysosomes are synthesised in the rough

endoplasmic reticulum. The enzymes are released from Golgi apparatus in small vesicles which

ultimately fuse with acidic vesicles called endosomes, thus becoming full lysosomes. Lysosomes

digest excess or worn-out organelles, food particles, and engulfed viruses or bacteria.

The membrane around a lysosome allows the digestive enzymes to work as they require.
Lysosomes fuse with autophagic vacuoles (phagosomes) and dispense their enzymes into the

autophagic vacuoles, digesting their contents.

Centrioles: All animal cell has two centrioles. The centrioles become important in cell division,

they allow spindle fibres to attach to it to guide chromosomes.

Plant cell vs Animal cell

Plant Cell Animal Cell

1 A plant cell is usually larger in size. An animal cell is comparatively

smaller in size.

Plant Cell Animal Cell

It is enclosed by a rigid cellulose It is enclosed by a thin, flexible

cell in addition to plasma membrane. plasma only.

3 It cannot change its shape. An animal cell can often change its

shape.
4 Plastids are present. Plant cells Plastids are usually absent.

exposed to sunlight contain

chloroplast.

A mature plant cell contains a large An animal cell often possesses

5 central vacuole. many small vacuoles.

Nucleus lies on one side in the Nucleus usually lies in the centre.

6 peripheral cytoplasm.

Centrioles are usually absent except Centrioles are practically present in

7 in motile cells of lower plants. animal cells

Lysosomes are rare. Lysosomes are always present in

8 animal cells.

Glyoxysomes may be present. They are absent.

Tight junctions and desmosomes are Tight junctions and desmosomesare

10 lacking. present between cells.

Plasmodesmata is present. Plasmodesmata are usually absent.

of starch.

12 Plant cell synthesise all amino acids Animal cell cannot synthesise all the

, coenzymes and vitamins required amino acids, co enzymes and

by them. vitamins required by them.

13 Spindles formed during cell divisions Spindle formed during cell division is

in anastral i.e. without asters at amphiastral i.e. has an ester at each

opposite poles. pole.

14 Cytokinesis occurs by cell plate Cytokinesis occurs by construction

method. or furrowing.

15 Plant cell does not burst if placed in Animal cell lacking contractile

hypotonic solution due to the vacuoles usually burst, if placed in

presence of the cell wall. hypertonic solution.

Part or Component of Prokaryotic Cell:

1. Capsule: The outer layer of prokaryotic cells is a gummy or slimy covering (it is sometimes

labelled as the "slime capsule") that may help bacteria stay together in colonies and/or provide

some protection to the cell.

2. Cell Wall: Prokaryotic cell walls have a rigid framework of murein, which is a polysaccharide

cross-linked by peptide chains. (Compare with plant cell walls which are made mainly of

cellulose and animal cells which do not have cell walls.)

3. Plasma membrane: The plasma membrane (sometimes also called the "cell membrane") is

phospholipid bilayer. Note that it is flexible i.e. non-rigid. See also functions of the plasma

membrane.
4. Cytoplasm: Cytoplasm is a gel-like substance that consists mainly of water. In general

cytoplasm may also contain enzymes, salts, cell components (e.g. ribosomes, plasmids, food

stores etc.), and various organic molecules.

5. Flagellum (sing.): Flagella are not limited to prokaryotic cells; certain eukaryotic cells also

have flagella - but there are differences between the three types of flagella i.e. those found in:

Bacterial cells (also called prokaryotes) and the subject of this page

Archaeal cells (although archaeal flagella are superficially similar to bacterial flagella)

Eukaryotic cells (e.g. animal cells)

In many cases the flagellum of a prokaryotic cell (e.g. a bacterium) is responsible for the

motility, i.e. ability to move spontaneously and actively - consuming energy in the process, of

the cell. The flagellum of a prokaryotic cell does not "beat" but rotates about a "bearing" in the

cell wall - resulting in a "corkscrew" motion that drives the cell forwards in much the same way

as a propeller propels some ships forwards.

6.Pili (pl.): A pilus is a hair-like appendage many of which are present on the surface of many

bacteria. In this context the words "pilus" and "fimbria" are sometimes used interchangeably.

The words "fimbria" (singular) and fimbriae (plural) are also used in other contexts within

biology, with different meanings in each.

In the context of prokaryotic cells, a fimbria (or a pilus) is a protein rod that is sometimes called

a proteinaceous appendage. It is shorter and thinner than a flagellum. Fimbriae (or pili) tend to be

approx.3-10 nm in diameter and up to several m long. Fimbriae (or pili) help bacterial cells
adhere to each other, to animal cells and to inanimate objects. A single bacterium can have as

many as 1,000 fimbriae.

7. Photosynthetic membranes: Photosynthetic membranes are surfaces on which light-

absorbing pigments are located. Bacteriochlorophylls are photosynthetic pigments found in

phototrophic bacteria.

Photosynthesis and bacterial photosynthesis: Photosynthesis occurs in plants, algae, and many

species of bacteria. It can happen in different ways but always starts by light energy being

absorbed by proteins called photosynthetic reaction centers that contain chlorophylls or

chlorophyll-type molecules. In plant cells these proteins are inside organelles called chloroplasts

while in bacteria they are embedded in the plasma membrane - on surfaces called photosynthetic

membranes. (Bacterial cells do not contain any membrane-bound organelles so they obviously

do not contain chloroplasts!)

8. Mesosomes: Mesosomes are structures of prokaryotic cells formed by folded invaginations

(sometimes described simply as "infoldings") of the plasma membrane. Enzymes associated with

respiration of the prokaryotic cell, e.g. a bacterium, are located on the infoldings. Not all

prokaryotic cells have mesosomes. Both mesosomes and the cristae (folds of the inner-

membrane) of mitochondria participate in the aerobic part of aerobic cellular respiration. As

mesosomes are only found in prokaryotic cells and mitochondria only in eukaryotic cells, these

structures are sometimes compared when discussing the differences between prokaryotic and

eukaryotic cells.
9. Nuclear body: The genetic material consists of a circle of double-stranded DNA. The nuclear

body of prokaryotic cells differs from the nucleus of eukaryotic cells in that the nuclear body

(genetic material) of prokaryotic cell is not enclosed by a nuclear membrane.

10. Plasmids: Plasmids are short pieces of circular DNA. They replicate independently of the

cell genome. Plasmids are not present in eukaryotic cells (also called eukaryotes, e.g. plant cells

and animal cells).

11. Food Stores: The food stores in prokaryotic cells can be e.g. lipid globules or glycogen

granules - hence the slightly different sizes and colours of "food store" particles in the above

diagram of a prokaryotic cell.

12. Ribosomes: The ribosomes found in prokaryotic cells are much smaller than the ones in

eukaryotic cells. The (smaller) ribosomes in prokaryotic cells are the 70S type, compared with

the (larger) ribosomes in eukaryotic cells which are the 80S type.

The ribosomes in bacterial cells are scattered throughout the cytoplasm - as opposed to supported

on an endoplasmic reticulum as is usual in eukaryotic cells.

Now that we know about both prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells, let's look at the endosymbiosis

theory. This theory suggests that mitochondria and plastids in eukaryotic cells were once

independent prokaryotic cells. Basically, this means that once upon a time, there were three

prokaryotic cells: one that was capable of aerobic respiration and converting energy, one that

was capable of photosynthesis and one that was incapable of doing either of these processes. The

lazy cell that was incapable of doing respiration and photosynthesis engulfed - or ate - the other

cells.

Cells living inside a host cell are called

endosymbionts

Now, this may have been intentional or accidental. However, when the lazy cell engulfed the

respiration cell, it was then able to make useful energy. When it engulfed the photosynthesis cell,

it was then able to convert energy from the sun into stored chemical energy.

Let's go back to the term endosymbiosis to understand the role of each of these cells. You may

remember that symbiosis is a close relationship between two different organisms. In this case, we

are looking at the relationships between several ancient cells. The cell that ate the other cells is
called the host, while the other two - the respiration and photosynthesis cells - are endosymbionts

because they live within the host. It may sound like the only one benefiting in this situation is the

cell that ate the other cells, but it could be that all cells are benefiting. While the lazy cell now

has a source of energy and a way to convert that energy, the other cells have a safe place to live

and grow.

Because all eukaryotic cells have mitochondria but not all have chloroplasts, it is thought that the

host cell first engulfed the respiration cell. Quite a while later, one of these cells that contained

the respiration cell engulfed the photosynthesis cell.