The cell is the fundamental unit of life. All the life activities are carried out by cells.

The
organisms can be classified based on the number of cells present in them. Unicellular organisms
are single-celled, while multicellular organisms have a large number of cells.

Unicellular organisms are believed to be one of the earliest forms of life on earth. Eventually,
more complex multicellular organisms evolved from these unicellular life forms over the
aeons. Multicellular organisms have specialized cells with complicated cell organelles, which
unicellular organisms typically lack.

In an ecosystem, plants have the role of producers, while animals have taken the role of
consumers. Hence, their daily activities and functions vary, and so does their cell structure. Cell
structure and organelles vary in plants and animals, and are primarily classified based on their
function. The difference in their cell composition is the reason behind the difference between
plant and animal cells.

Each cell organelle has a particular function to perform. Some of the cell organelles are present
in both plant cells and animal cells, while others are unique to just one of them. Most of the
earth’s higher organisms are eukaryotes, including all plants and animals. Hence, these cells
share some similarities typically associated with eukaryotes.

For example, all eukaryotic cells consist of a nucleus, plasma membrane, cytoplasm,
peroxisomes, mitochondria, ribosomes and other cell organelles.

Differences between Plant Cell and Animal Cell

Both plant and animal cells share a few common cell organelles, as both are eukaryotes. The
function of all these organelles is said to be very much similar. However, there are major
differences between plant and animal cells.

The major differences between the plant cell and animal cell are mentioned below:
 Plant Cell Animal Cell

Cell Shape

Square or rectangular Irregular or round in

in shape shape

Cell Wall

Present Absent

Plasma/Cell Membrane

Present Present

Endoplasmic Reticulum

Present Present

Nucleus

Present and lies on Present and lies in

one side of the cell the centre of the cell

Lysosomes

Present but are very Present

rare

Golgi Apparatus

Present Present

Cytoplasm
 Present Present

Ribosomes

Present Present

Plastids

Present Absent

Vacuoles

Few large or a single, Usually small and

centrally positioned numerous
vacuole

Cilia

Absent Present in most of

the animal cells

Mitochondria

Present but fewer in Present and are

number numerous

Mode of Nutrition

Primarily autotrophic Heterotrophic

Plasma membrane
Plasma membrane is also referred to as the cell membrane. It is the membrane found in all cells,
that separate the inner part of the cell from the exterior. A cell wall is found to be attached to the
plasma membrane to its exterior in plant and bacterial cells. Plasma membrane is composed of a
lipid layer which is semipermeable. It is responsible to regulate the transportation of materials
and the movement of substances in and out of the cell.

Fluid Mosaic Model

The description of the structure of plasma membrane can be carried out through the fluid mosaic
model as a mosaic of cholesterol, carbohydrates, proteins and phospholipids.

First proposed in 1972 by Garth L. Nicolson and S.J. Singer, the model explained the structure
of plasma membranes. The model evolved with time however, it still accounts for the functions
and structure of plasma membranes the best way. The model describes plasma membrane
structure as a mosaic of components which includes proteins, cholesterol, phospholipids, and
carbohydrates; it imparts a fluid character on the membrane.

Thickness of the membrane is in the range of 5-10nm. The proportion of constituency of plasma
membrane i.e., the carbohydrates, lipids and proteins vary from cell to cell. For instance, the
inner membrane of the mitochondria comprises 24% lipid and 76% protein, in myelin, 76%
lipids is found and 18% protein.

Parts of Plasma membrane

It is composed of the following constituents:

 Phospholipids – forms the ultimate fabric of the membrane

  Peripheral proteins – present on the outer or inner surface of phospholipid bilayer but are
not implanted in the hydrophobic core
 Cholesterol – folded between the hydrophobic tails of phospholipid membrane
 Carbohydrates – found to be attached to the lipids or proteins on the extracellular side of
the membrane, leading to the formation of glycolipids and glycoproteins
 Integral proteins – found to be implanted in the phospholipid bilayer

Structure of Plasma Membrane – Bio membrane structure

 Plasma membrane is a fluid mosaic of proteins, lipids and carbohydrates.
 The plasma membrane picture provided above shows the detailed structure of the plasma
membrane.
 It is impermeable to ions and water-soluble molecules crossing membranes only through
carriers, transmembrane channels and pumps.
 The transmembrane proteins nourish the cell with nutrients, regulate the internal ion
concentration and set up a transmembrane electrical potential. It is composed of a
phospholipid bilayer, which is two layers of phospholipids back-to-back.
 Phospholipids are lipids with a phosphate group associated with them. The phospholipids
have one head and two tails where the head is polar and water-loving or hydrophilic.
Tails on the other hand are nonpolar and water-fearing or hydrophobic.

Plasma Membrane Functions

 This membrane is composed of a phospholipid bilayer implanted with proteins.
 It forms a stable barrier between two aqueous compartments, which are towards the
outside and inside of a cell in plasma membrane.
 The embedded proteins perform specialized functions which include cell-cell recognition
and selective transport of molecules.
 Plasma membrane renders protection to the cell along with providing a fixed
environment within the cell. It is responsible for performing different functions.
 it also maintain the shape to a cell and in associating with extracellular matrix and other
cells to assist the cells in forming a tissue. It also maintains the cell potential.
 Plasma membrane is responsible for interacting with other, adjacent cells which can be
glycoprotein or lipid proteins.
 The membrane also assists the proteins to monitor and maintain the chemical climate of
the cell, along with the assistance in the shifting of molecules across the membrane.

Eukaryotic Cel
Eukaryotic cells have a nucleus enclosed within the nuclear membrane and form large and
complex organisms. Protozoa, fungi, plants, and animals all have eukaryotic cells. They are
classified under the kingdom Eukaryota.
They can maintain different environments in a single cell that allows them to carry out various
metabolic reactions. This helps them grow many times larger than the prokaryotic cells.

Characteristics of Eukaryotic Cells

1. Eukaryotic cells have the nucleus enclosed within the nuclear membrane.
2. The cell has mitochondria.
3. Flagella and cilia are the locomotory organs in a eukaryotic cell.
4. A cell wall is the outermost layer of the eukaryotic cells.
5. The cells divide by a process called mitosis.
6. The eukaryotic cells contain a cytoskeletal structure.
7. The nucleus contains a single, linear DNA, which carries all the genetic information.
Structure Of Eukaryotic Cell
The eukaryotic cell structure comprises the following:
Plasma Membrane
 The plasma membrane separates the cell from the outside environment.
 It comprises specific embedded proteins, which help in the exchange of substances in and
out of the cell.
Cell Wall
 A cell wall is a rigid structure present outside the plant cell. It is, however, absent in
animal cells.
 It provides shape to the cell and helps in cell-to-cell interaction.
 It is a protective layer that protects the cell from any injury or pathogen attacks.
 It is composed of cellulose, hemicellulose, pectins, proteins, etc.
Cytoskeleton
The cytoskeleton is present inside the cytoplasm, which consists of microfilaments,
microtubules, and fibres to provide perfect shape to the cell, anchor the organelles, and stimulate
the cell movement.
Endoplasmic Reticulum
It is a network of small, tubular structures that divides the cell surface into two parts: luminal and
extraluminal.
Endoplasmic Reticulum is of two types:
 Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum contains ribosomes.
 Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum that lacks ribosomes and is therefore smooth.
Nucleus
 The nucleoplasm enclosed within the nucleus contains DNA and proteins.
 The nuclear envelop consists of two layers- the outer membrane and the inner membrane.
Both the membranes are permeable to ions, molecules, and RNA material.
 Ribosome production also takes place inside the nucleus.
Golgi Apparatus
 It is made up of flat disc-shaped structures called cisternae.
 It is absent in red blood cells of humans and sieve cells of plants.
  They are arranged parallel and concentrically near the nucleus.
 It is an important site for the formation of glycoproteins and glycolip
Ribosomes
These are the main site for protein synthesis and are composed of proteins and ribonucleic acids.
Mitochondria
 These are also known as “powerhouse of cells” because they produce energy.
 It consists of an outer membrane and an inner membrane. The inner membrane is divided
into folds called cristae.
 They help in the regulation of cell metabolism.
Lysosomes
They are known as “suicidal bags” because they possess hydrolytic enzymes to digest protein,
lipids, carbohydrates, and nucleic acids.
Plastids
These are double-membraned structures and are found only in plant cells. These are of three
types:
 Chloroplast that contains chlorophyll and is involved in photosynthesis.
 Chromoplast that contains a pigment called carotene that provides the plants yellow, red,
or orange colours.
 Leucoplasts that are colourless and store oil, fats, carbohydrates, or proteins.
Eukaryotic Cell Diagram
Eukaryotic cell diagram mentioned below depicts different cell organelles present in eukaryotic
cells. The nucleus, endoplasmic reticulum, cytoplasm, mitochondria, ribosomes, lysosomes are
clearly mentioned in the diagram.
Lysosomes are an important cell organelle found within eukaryotic animal cells. Due to their
peculiar function, they are also known as the “suicide bags” of the cell.

The term was coined by Christian de Duve, a Belgian biologist, who discovered it and ultimately
got a Nobel Prize in Medicine or Physiology in the year 1974.

Let us have a detailed overview of lysosome structure, functions and diseases associated with it.

Lysosome Definition
“Lysosomes are sphere-shaped sacs filled with hydrolytic enzymes that have the capability to
break down many types of biomolecules.”

In other words, lysosomes are membranous organelles whose specific function is to breakdown
cellular wastes and debris by engulfing it with hydrolytic enzymes.

Lysosome Structure
Lysosomes are membrane-bound organelles and the area within the membrane is called the
lumen, which contains the hydrolytic enzymes and other cellular debris.

The diagram below shows the lysosome structure within a cell.

Lysosomes known as Suicidal Bags

As stated before, lysosomes work as the waste discarding structures of the cell by processing
undesirable materials and degrading them, both from the exterior of the cell and waste
constituents inside the cell.

But sometimes, the digestive enzymes may end up damaging the lysosomes themselves, and this
can cause the cell to die. This is termed as autolysis, where “auto” means “self” and “lysis”
means “the disintegration of the cell by the destruction of its cell membrane“.

Hence, lysosomes are known as “Suicidal Bags” of the cell.

Lysosome function?
The key function of lysosomes is digestion and removal of waste. Cellular debris or foreign
particles are pulled in to the cell through the process of endocytosis. The process of endocytosis
happens when the cell membrane falls in on itself (invagination), creating a vacuole or a pouch
around the external contents and then bringing those contents into the cell.
On the other hand, discarded wastes and other substances originating from within the cell is
digested by the process of autophagocytosis or autophagy. The process of autophagy involves
disassembly or degradation of the cellular components through a natural, regulated mechanism.

Mitochondria
Popularly known as the “Powerhouse of the cell,” mitochondria (singular: mitochondrion) are a
double membrane-bound organelle found in most eukaryotic organisms. They are found inside
the cytoplasm and essentially function as the cell’s “digestive system.”

They play a major role in breaking down nutrients and generating energy-rich molecules for the
cell. Many of the biochemical reactions involved in cellular respiration take place within the
mitochondria. The term ‘mitochondrion’ is derived from the Greek words “mitos” and
“chondrion” which means “thread” and “granules-like”, respectively. It was first described by
a German pathologist named Richard Altmann in the year 1890.

Mitochondria Diagram
The diagram of mitochondria below illustrates several structural features of mitochondria.

Structure of Mitochondria

 The mitochondrion is a double-membraned, rod-shaped structure found in both plant

and animal cell.
 Its size ranges from 0.5 to 1.0 micrometre in diameter.
 The structure comprises an outer membrane, an inner membrane, and a gel-like material
called the matrix.
  The outer membrane and the inner membrane are made of proteins and phospholipid
layers separated by the intermembrane space.
 The outer membrane covers the surface of the mitochondrion and has a large number of
special proteins known as porins.

Cristae
The inner membrane of mitochondria is rather complex in structure. It has many folds that form
a layered structure called cristae, and this helps in increasing the surface area inside the
organelle. The cristae and the proteins of the inner membrane aid in the production of ATP
molecules. The inner mitochondrial membrane is strictly permeable only to oxygen and ATP
molecules. A number of chemical reactions take place within the inner membrane of
mitochondria.

Mitochondrial Matrix
The mitochondrial matrix is a viscous fluid that contains a mixture of enzymes and proteins. It
also comprises ribosomes, inorganic ions, mitochondrial DNA, nucleotide cofactors, and organic
molecules. The enzymes present in the matrix play an important role in the synthesis of ATP
molecules.

Functions of Mitochondria
The most important function of mitochondria is to produce energy through the process
of oxidative phosphorylation. It is also involved in the following process:

1. Regulates the metabolic activity of the cell

2. Promotes the growth of new cells and cell multiplication
3. Helps in detoxifying ammonia in the liver cells
4. Plays an important role in apoptosis or programmed cell death
5. Responsible for building certain parts of the blood and various hormones like testosterone
and oestrogen
6. Helps in maintaining an adequate concentration of calcium ions within the compartments
of the cell
7. It is also involved in various cellular activities like cellular differentiation, cell signalling,
cell senescence, controlling the cell cycle and also in cell growth.
Chloroplasts
Chloroplasts are found in all green plants and algae. They are the food producers of plants.
These are found in mesophyll cells located in the leaves of the plants. They contain a high
concentration of chlorophyll that traps sunlight. This cell organelle is not present in animal cells.

Chloroplast has its own extra-nuclear DNA and therefore is semiautonomous, like mitochondria.
They also produce proteins and lipids required for the production of chloroplast membrane.

Diagram of Chloroplast
The chloroplast diagram below represents the chloroplast structure mentioning the different parts
of the chloroplast. The parts of a chloroplast such as the inner membrane, outer membrane,
intermembrane space, thylakoid membrane, stroma and lamella can be clearly marked out.

Chloroplast Diagram representing Chloroplast Structure

Structure of Chloroplast
Chloroplasts are found in all higher plants. It is oval or biconvex, found within the mesophyll of
the plant cell. The size of the chloroplast usually varies between 4-6 µm in diameter and 1-3 µm
in thickness. They are double-membrane organelle with the presence of outer, inner and
intermembrane space. There are two distinct regions present inside a chloroplast known as the
grana and stroma.

 Grana are made up of stacks of disc-shaped structures known as thylakoids or

lamellae. The grana of the chloroplast consists of chlorophyll pigments and are the
functional units of chloroplasts.
 Stroma is the homogenous matrix which contains grana and is similar to the cytoplasm in
cells in which all the organelles are embedded. Stroma also contains various enzymes,
DNA, ribosomes, and other substances. Stroma lamellae function by connecting the
stacks of thylakoid sacs or grana.
The chloroplast structure consists of the following parts:

Membrane Envelope
It comprises inner and outer lipid bilayer membranes. The inner membrane separates the stroma
from the intermembrane space.

Intermembrane Space
The space between inner and outer membranes.

Thylakoid System (Lamellae)

The system is suspended in the stroma. It is a collection of membranous sacs called thylakoids or
lamellae. The green coloured pigments called chlorophyll are found in the thylakoid membranes.
It is the sight for the process of light-dependent reactions of the photosynthesis process. The
thylakoids are arranged in stacks known as grana and each granum contains around 10-20
thylakoids.

Stroma
It is a colourless, alkaline, aqueous, protein-rich fluid present within the inner membrane of the
chloroplast present surrounding the grana.

Grana
Stack of lamellae in plastids is known as grana. These are the sites of conversion of light energy
into chemical energy.

Chlorophyll

It is a green photosynthetic pigment that helps in the process of photosynthe

Functions of Chloroplast
Following are the important chloroplast functions:

 The most important function of the chloroplast is to synthesise food by the process of
photosynthesis.
 Absorbs light energy and converts it into chemical energy.
 Chloroplast has a structure called chlorophyll which functions by trapping the solar
energy and is used for the synthesis of food in all green plants.
 Produces NADPH and molecular oxygen (O2) by photolysis of water.
 Produces ATP – Adenosine triphosphate by the process of photosynthesis.
 The carbon dioxide (CO2) obtained from the air is used to generate carbon and sugar
during the Calvin Cycle or dark reaction of photosynthesis.
Golgi apparatus
The Golgi apparatus has multiple names such as Golgi complex or Golgi body. The name is
given on the name of the scientist, who discovered the organelle, i.e. Camillo Golgi. It is found
in all the eukaryotic cells, plants as well as animals. They are membrane-bound organelle present
in the cytosol of the cell. Let us explore more about Golgi complex.

Golgi Apparatus
The Golgi body comprises 5 to 8 cup-shaped, series of compartments known as
cisternae. Cisternae is a flattened, disk-shaped, stacked pouches that make up the Golgi
apparatus. A Golgi stack mostly contains 4 to 8 cisternae. However, ~60 cisternae are found in
some protists. A mammalian cell contains ~40 to 100 stacks of cisternae.

Animal cells generally contain around 10 to 20 Golgi stacks per cell, which are connected by
tubular connections. Golgi complex is mostly found near the nucleus.

Creation, or evolution, whichever one, you hold a belief in has worked in wondrous ways to
evolve or design the various living beings in this world in the most optimum ways. For example,
take the Golgi complex, it has been designed in such a way, to ensure a sufficient number of
Golgi bodies are present in the cell as per the requirement.

Golgi Bodies Functions

Its main function is the packaging and secretion of proteins. It receives proteins from
Endoplasmic Reticulum. It packages it into membrane-bound vesicles, which are then
transported to various destinations, such as lysosomes, plasma membrane or secretion. They also
take part in the transport of lipids and the formation of lysosomes.
Post-translational modification and enzymatic processing occur near the membrane surface in
Golgi bodies, e.g. phosphorylation, glycosylation, etc.

Golgi apparatus is the site for the synthesis of various glycolipids, sphingomyelin, etc.

In the plant cells, complex polysaccharides of the cell wall are synthesised in the Golgi
apparatus.

Endoplasmic Reticulum
The endoplasmic reticulum transpires in two forms: a type with a ribosome-studded surface and
another with a smooth surface. The latter is called the smooth endoplasmic reticulum, and the
former is called the rough endoplasmic reticulum. These membranes form continuous folds,
eventually joining the outer layer of the nuclear membrane. Except for sperm cells and red blood
cells, the endoplasmic reticulum is observed in every other type of eukaryotic cell.

Endoplasmic Reticulum Diagram

The below diagram shows the variants of the endoplasmic reticulum:

 Rough ER
 Smooth ER
Rough endoplasmic reticulum has ribosomes embedded within its structure, giving a “rough”
appearance. The smooth endoplasmic reticulum does not have these ribosomes, hence appearing
“smooth.”
 Endoplasmic Reticulum diagram

Structure of Endoplasmic Reticulum

The structure of the endoplasmic reticulum is shaped like a sac. Since ER is of two types, each
has its own distinguishing features:

Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum Structure

 The rough endoplasmic reticulum is named so because of its appearance.

 It is a series of connected flattened sacs having several ribosomes on its outer surface,
hence the name.
 It synthesizes and secretes proteins in the liver, hormones and other substances in the
glands.
 Rough ER is prominent in cells where protein synthesis happens (such as hepatocytes)

Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum Structure

 The smooth endoplasmic reticulum, on the other hand, does not have ribosomes.
 The smooth endoplasmic reticulum has a tubular form.
 It participates in the production of phospholipids, the chief lipids in cell membranes and
are essential in the process of metabolism.
 Smooth ER transports the products of the rough ER to other cellular organelles,
especially the Golgi apparatus.

Functions of Endoplasmic Reticulum

As stated above, the endoplasmic reticulum is categorised into two types, and both these types of
ER perform specific functions:

Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum Function:

 Smooth ER is responsible for the synthesis of essential lipids such as phospholipids and
cholesterol.
 Smooth ER is also responsible for the production and secretion of steroid hormones.
 It is also responsible for the metabolism of carbohydrates.
 The smooth ER store and releases calcium ions. These are quite important for the nervous
system and muscular systems.
Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum Function:

 The majority of the functions of rough ER is associated with protein synthesis.

 The rough endoplasmic reticulum also plays a vital role in protein folding.
 Also ensures quality control (regarding correct protein folding).
 The second most important function after protein synthesis and protein folding is protein
sorting.