376 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON CIRCUITS AND SYSTEMSPART I: FUNDAMENTAL THEORY AND APPLICATIONS, VOL. 47, NO.

3, MARCH 2000

Synthesis of Neural Controller Applied to Flexible

AC Transmission Systems
Dingguo Chen, Member, IEEE, Ronald R. Mohler, Fellow, IEEE, and Lung-Kee Chen

AbstractThis paper first addresses the power system stability TCSC device is used for implementation of the nonlinear
issue involving the regular generator-angle transient stability and controllers developed in this paper.
load-driven voltage instability. Transient stabilization of simpli- As a first attempt at exploration of the voltage collapse mech-
fied power systems equipped with the flexible ac transmission
system (FACTS) device, the thyristor-controlled series capacitor anism, the transient stability issue is investigated while consid-
(TCSC), is studied with consideration of unknown loads. With ering the effect of loads connected to the system. Such an ef-
some off-line time-optimal trajectories computed based on the fort is significantin that: 1) since the TCSC installed on the
switching-times-variation method (STVM), some techniques are tie line is intended to help dampen the interarea mode oscilla-
developed to synthesize robust near-time-optimal neural con- tions between the two subsystems connected through a tie line,
trollers. The theoretical support for these techniques is presented.
The simulations illustrate the performance of the synthesized it is shown in [13] that such a system can be simplified as a
neural controllers. Furthermore, the results developed can be single-machine infinite-bus (SMIB) system with a TCSC and
readily generalized to more general nonlinear systems. time-varying parameters under some assumptions and 2) the in-
Index TermsFlexible AC transmission systems (FACTS), sights gained and the techniques developed from the study of
neural controller, switching-times-variation method (STVM), an SMIB with a load may help develop techniques which are
thyristor-controlled series capacitor (TCSC), time-optimal con- useful for preventing voltage instability problems in multima-
trol. chine systems with various kinds of loading characteristics.
A number of studies, involving a bilinear adaptive control
I. INTRODUCTION scheme [14], [15], variable-structure control [16], robust con-
trol [17], and neural network control [18] have been performed

T HE concern for maintaining power system voltage

stability has been growing, for many voltage instability
incidents have occurred around the world [1], [2]. Transient
on the controller design for stabilization of the postfault power
systems. Nonlinear control strategies have been effective on a
case-by-case basis and there is no general universal generic con-
voltage stability is usually closely associated with regular troller that can be used for all power system applications. It is
generator angle stability ([3] and therein). But longer term also noted that adaptive control, robust control, and variable-
voltage stability is more closely associated with loading structure control are typically model-based schemes and neural
dynamics, which has been a subject of wide interest [4][12]. control is data based. This difference makes neural control su-
However, voltage stability and rotor angle stability are more perior to the others in case of unmodeled system dynamics since
or less interlinked, and their mechanisms can be difficult to the off-line generated optimal trajectories or the desired trajec-
separate. In general, the mechanism of the transient stability is tories are available and may be used to train a proper neural
well understood while the voltage collapse mechanism is much controller. In order to handle the uncertainty that exists in prac-
more complicated that might be associated with either the rotor tical systems, a control-switching scheme is introduced in [19]
angle stability or load-driven stability or both and needs many in order to generate the intelligent control. The idea was further
in-depth investigations. developed in [18], [20][22], resulting in a multiplicative con-
There is currently interest in flexible ac transmission system trol scheme, which is essentially a convex interpolation of the
(FACTS) devices for enhancement of power system stability nominal controllers designed for specific cases instead of con-
and also for improvement of power transfer capability over trol switching.
existing transmission lines. These devices, which include Since it is desired to stabilize the postfault power systems
the thyristor-controlled series capacitors (TCSC), statice var as quickly as possible by means of the constrained control, the
compensators (SVC), etc., permit rapid manipulation of the time-optimal control policy or near-time-optimal control policy
network impedance and affect the system nonlinearly. The in a more practical sense is studied in the context of neural con-
trol design. Regarding the SMIB system, yet with the consider-
Manuscript receeived February 5, 1998; revised August 10, 1998 and January ation of the effect of the load, the uncertainty of the load makes
28, 1999. This paper was recommended by Associate Editor M. K. Kazimier- the whole power system uncertain and, thus, a somewhat intelli-
czkuk. gent controller is necessary. To this end, a number of novel tech-
D. Chen is with Siemens Power Systems Control, Northland Drive, Brooklyn
Park, MN 55428 USA. niques for synthesis of neural controllers are developed to sta-
R. R. Mohler is with the Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, bilize the transients incurred by occurrence of large faults to the
Oregon State University, Corvallis, OR 97331 USA. SMIB system with an uncertain load. The techniques proposed
L.-K. Chen is with the Department of Mathematics, Oregon State University,
Corvallis, OR 97331 USA. mainly include: 1) tessellation schemes which help synthesize
Publisher Item Identifier S 1057-7122(00)02307-2. reliable controllers with respect to an uncertain load and large
10577122/00$10.00 2000 IEEE
CHEN et al.: SYNTHESIS OF NEURAL CONTROLLER APPLIED TO FLEXIBLE AC TRANSMISSION SYSTEMS 377

faults; 2) a couple of pattern recognition schemes which are in- where

tended to well approximate the switching manifold in the con-
text of time-optimal control; 3) a hierarchical control structure , and
leading to a multiplicative control of a bang-bang type; and 4) a , with
coordination scheme of a hierarchical neural control and a linear ,
control. The former drives the system state to some neighbor- and . It can be
hood of the equilibrium, and then the latter takes over and drives readily shown that for . When
the system state to the equilibrium, thereby accommodating the the system stay equilibrium corresponds to the
possible computation errors in the available calculated optimal fixed compensation .
trajectories and also avoiding the so-called chattering phenom- On the study of power system stability, the load is usually as-
enon [16], [23], [24]. sumed to be a constant in the literature. In this section, the SMIB
This paper is organized as follows: Section II formu- system with a load is considered for stability concern and con-
lates the problems that will be studied in detail later on. trol design, while the load is assumed to have some properties
In Section III, time-optimal control is considered and the but its parameters or itself needs to be identified. Several dif-
switching-times-variation method (STVM) [25], [26] which ferent system models are formulated and discussed.
makes best use of the linearity in control may be used to Case I: The load is assumed to be fixed but is unknown.
compute the numerical solutions. Based on the available The SMIB system with a constant load can be de-
optimal trajectories, neural control schemes are discussed scribed as follows:
and used to stabilize postfault power systems in Section IV.
Then Section V presents some theoretical justification for the
proposed methods. Some illustrative simulations are shown
in Section VI. The proposed methods are generalized to more (3)
general systems in Section VII. Finally, some comments and By using the same transformations introduced before, the above
conclusions are presented. equation can be transformed as follows:

II. PROBLEM FORMULATION

A SMIB system with a FACTS device TCSC installed can be (4)
described by where and all other coefficients are defined as
before.
Case II: The load is assumed to be an affine function of the
(1) frequency.
The SMIB system with such a load can be
where described as follows:
rotor angle (rad);
rotor speed (p.u.);
synchronous speed as base (rad/sec); (5)
mechanical power input assumed to be constant (p.u.);
damping factor;
system inertia referenced to the base power; The above equation can also be transformed as follows:
terminal bus voltage (p.u.);
infinite-bus voltage (p.u.);
transient reactance of the generator (p.u.); (6)
transmission reactance (p.u.);
series compensation degree ( is the reactance of where and all other coeffi-
the TCSC, and often ). cients are defined as before.
The system is to be driven, after a transient period, to its equi- Note that for Case I, the parameter is an unknown constant
librium by the admissible control and and must be identified in order to proceed with a proper control.
stay in the equilibrium thereafter by the fixed compensation For Case II, the parameters and are unknown constants
. and must be identified for the same purpose.
Some algebraic manipulations to the above equation yield the Case III: the analytic model for the load is not known, but
following: may be identified with previous data.
The SMIB system with such a load can be described as
follows:

(2) (7)
378 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON CIRCUITS AND SYSTEMSPART I: FUNDAMENTAL THEORY AND APPLICATIONS, VOL. 47, NO. 3, MARCH 2000

The above equation can also be transformed as follows: where

(8)
where . and
To achieve the design of neural controllers for stabilization
of the power system in each case, some numerical techniques
are employed for computation of optimal controls and optimal
trajectories. The computed optimal trajectories and optimal con-
trols are used for training a neural network which approximately
and . Here designates matrix transpose.
characterizes the switching manifold in a way described in later
Define the adjoint equation as follows:
sections. The synthesis of neural controllers for each case is fur-
ther presented in Section IV.
(14)
III. SWITCHING-TIMES-VARIATION METHOD
where and
Consider (2) for minimal time control. The optimal time per- .
formance index can be expressed as From the Hamiltonian, , the minimum prin-
ciple yields the extreme control in terms of the switching func-
(9) tion , which is given by

where and specify the initial and terminal time instants, (15)
respectively.
The Pontryagin's minimum principle is applied in order to Suppose the number of the optimal switching times is (in-
derive the optimal control. It can be readily shown that the re- cluding the variable terminal time). Let the switching vector be
sulting Hamiltonian system is a coupled two-point boundary- . As shown in [25] and [26], the gra-
value problem, and its analytic solution is not available, to our dient of the cost function with respect to the switching vector
best knowledge. In order to get the time-optimal control, the can be given by
STVM is used [25], [26].
Define the performance index by
(16)
(10)
where and

Minimization of the above index is equivalent to minimization .

of the following index: The optimal switching vector can then be obtained by using
a gradient-based method through iterations given by

(17)

where is the switching vector, is the negative gradient

vector, and is a properly chosen -dimensional di-
(11)
agonal matrix with non-negative entries for the th iteration.
Details about this method and its software implementation, are
where is a positive real number. Note that for (10) and (11)
available in [25] and [26].
there is only a constant difference.
It is observed that the STVM is also applicable to (4) and (6)
Define
for calculation of optimal trajectories for different initial condi-
tions.
(12)
IV. SYNTHESIS OF NEURAL CONTROLLER
Then as the performance index used for solution The design of optimal feedback controllers for general non-
by the minimum principle following conventional calculus of linear systems is usually intractable. Yet by means of a numer-
variations or maximum principle of Pontryagin [27]. ical method, the optimal trajectories and optimal controls can be
Define the augmented state vector as . The computed [18]. The information inherent in them help establish
augmented system is then the following: the link between them. This link is actually a closed-loop feed-
back to generate approximately an optimal policy. To put this
(13) more specifically for time-optimal control, the link thereof can
CHEN et al.: SYNTHESIS OF NEURAL CONTROLLER APPLIED TO FLEXIBLE AC TRANSMISSION SYSTEMS 379

Remark (4): The alternative for inputs to the neural network

for system (2), (4), or (6) may be the rotor angle and its previous
value, which can be used to reconstruct a state approximation.
Since the deviated rotor speed is too small relative to the devi-
Fig. 1. Optimal control pattern recognition by neural network. ated rotor angle, use of the rotor angle and its previous value
may be conducive to training of the neural network.
be completely characterized by the associated switching curve
(or manifold in general). B. Near Time-Optimal Hierarchical Neural Control

A. Time-Optimal Neural Control For parameterized systems with fixed parameters, for in-
stance, system (2), (system (4) or (6) takes exactly the same
Consider the system equation (2). The switching curve, as form as system (2) once related parameters are given), the
a solution to the minimum principle above for , transient stabilization of power systems can be done by means
is represented by where is the state vector of the of time-optimal neural control even though the explicit analytic
system of interest. Note that as shown previously, the control form of the state based feedback control is not available. The
range can be converted to . Then the optimal control same task, however, may become more challenging if the
of a bang-bang type can be given by where the parameters of the load are not known, which calls for somewhat
function is defined by robust control. Note that the range for the parameters can
if often be assumed to be specified without loss of generality.
if The parameter (or parameter vector) space can be tessellated
into a number of subintervals (or rectangles, or rectangles in
Denote by . Then . the high-dimensional case, which later on are simply called
The off-line optimal trajectories and optimal controls may be rectangles). For each case on which the parameter (or parameter
computed by a gradient-based numerical method, say an STVM vector) corresponding to an endpoint (or vertex) is specified,
[25], [26]. The function can then be approximated by training the case-specific time-optimal neural controller can be trained.
a neural network. For simplicity, these cases may be termed nominal cases.
Denote by the region of stability interest, which is assumed It is then expected that a near time-optimal control may be
to be compact. Then the switching curve (or manifold) divides synthesized by making use of the information extracted from
the region into two parts. On one side of the switching curve each nominal case. However, the information about those
(or manifold) the optimal control takes one extreme value of nominal cases, for which the unknown parameter (or parameter
the confined control, while on the other side the optimal con- vector) lies within the subinterval (or rectangle) determined
trol takes the other control limit. From this observation a pattern by the corresponding endpoints (or vertices) may be more
recognition scheme is proposed as follows. Note that the true relevant than that about other nominal cases. Therefore, a rough
state feedback control displays a discontinuity on the estimate of the parameter (or parameter vector) is necessary in
switching curve (or manifold). This may lead to the training of order to determine which subinterval (or rectangle) it is within.
a neural network for approximating such a control being a diffi- After such an identification, a control corresponding to the
cult job. Also note that sufficiently many trajectories uniformly unknown parameters can be synthesized as:
distributed in the region of interest may ensure the desired ap- where the time-optimal neural control corresponds to a spe-
proximation with respect to the Lebesgue measure. Let the func- cific case; is the multiplier for control ; and
tion realized by a neural network be denoted by NN . and for convexity. 's are constructed from the state or
Since the time-optimal control only takes the extreme values, the its previous values.
control by means of the trained neural network can be formed Neural networks are trained such that if the dynamics fol-
as NN . (the singular solution can be shown to lows a nominal trajectory for case (note that the neural con-
be unimportant here.) Therefore, a new neural network may be trol is very close to the optimal control ), the multiplier
formed by means of a conventional neural network, followed by takes an approximate value of one while all other multipliers
a neuron with a heaviside sigmoidal function. This is shown in take an approximate value of zero. Of course, the normalization
Fig. 1. of the multipliers needs to be performed and after summation
Remark (1): This structure can recognize the optimal control of the multipliers corresponding to either a positive control or
pattern which is characterized by a switching curve (or mani- a negative control is done the winner-take-all strategy is used,
fold). The output of the new neural network precisely matches thereby making the resulting weighted multiplicative control a
the optimal control on both sides of the switching curve (or bang-bang type.
manifold) except in some small neighborhood containing the In the resulting hierarchical neural control structure shown
switching curve (or manifold). The training patterns are in the in Fig. 2, the lower level neural controllers compute the time-
form of . optimal control values while the upper level neural networks
Remark (2): This structure will be a component of the lower compute the multipliers 's in order to construct the weighted
level neural networks in the hierarchical neural network archi- multiplicative control.
tecture, which is detailed next. Remark (1): TDL stands for tapped delay line such that the
Remark (3): The above method can be applied to system (2), previous values and also the current value are available to feed
system (4), or system (6) with relevant parameters specified. into the input of neural networks.
380 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON CIRCUITS AND SYSTEMSPART I: FUNDAMENTAL THEORY AND APPLICATIONS, VOL. 47, NO. 3, MARCH 2000

Remark (5): The neural networks used in this paper are con-
ventional feedforward neural networks. The backpropagation
with momentum and an adaptive learning rate is used to train
neural networks. The size of the neural network used for the
simulation in this paper will be described in the simulation sec-
tion.
It is pointed out that the proposed control scheme can be ap-
plied to Cases I and II, described in Section II.

C. Adaptive Near Time-Optimal Hierarchical Neural Control

Consider the system equation (8), where the load , hence,
is a continuous nonlinear function of but its explicit form
may not be known. This is usually the case in reality, which
accounts for the fluctuation and randomness nature of loads. The
modeling of an aggregate load is usually useful from available
data and measurements [28]. Here, again, a neural network is
trained with available data to approximate the nonlinear load
such that the approximation error is uniformly bounded. That
is, the load can be modeled as NN or, equivalently,
Fig. 2. Hierarchical time-optimal neural control.
NN and the approximation error can be expressed as
with , where is a prespecified
positive number.
Remark (2): Note that the outputs of lower level neural net- Note that is a continuous function of with a compact
works as lower level controls take a value of either or . support since the maximum value and minimum value for are
For state at instant ( is the sampling pe- usually physically determined for stability concern. can then
riod), it can be driven to by means of an optimal control be approximated by a piecewise linear function such that the
. Also note that for some optimal trajectories and corre- approximation error is uniformly bounded by a
sponding optimal controls, they are related in the second equa- positive number . That is, .
tion of system (2), (4), or (6). This means that the multiplier It then follows that
may be somehow related to . It is then expected that .
may characterize the behavior Since is a piecewise linear function, the near time-optimal
specific to the th case. Therefore, the training patterns are in hierarchical neural control scheme applies in the same way as
such a form . As was for Case II. Since can be approximated by a piecewise linear
pointed out previously, the state can be replaced by the function with a uniformly bounded small error, the near time-
rotor angle and its previous values. It is desired that the multi- optimal hierarchical neural control scheme also applies, but in
plier may take one if the trajectories and controls are specific an adaptive manner.
to the th case and for other cases the multiplier may take
zero. Based on these arguments, the upper level neural networks V. THEORETICAL JUSTIFICATION
can be trained.
Remark (3): Since , then This section provides theoretical support for the control
as well. In addition, the outputs of the upper schemes developed in the last section.
level neural networks need normalization (still denote
A. Switching Manifold Approximation
them by 's) such that . Note that all
's only take either or . Thus, if all 's have Consider the system equation (2)
the same sign, then from . For
other situations, let and let (18)
. Then, if and
if . These operations are mainly done by the Let
multiplier processing unit, which is shown in Fig. 2. Therefore, , and . The
the resulting control is still a bang-bang type, which drives the above equation can be rewritten as
system to a neighborhood of the equilibrium in near optimal
time. (19)
Remark (4): To accommodate the possible computation er-
rors involved in obtaining the off-line optimal trajectories and Note that .
to avoid the so-called chattering phenomenon, the linear feed- Suppose that with the initial condition , a proper
back controller is necessary, which also performs very effec- bang-bang control for can be found such that
tively around the equilibrium. These will be illustrated in later the state can be driven to the origin at the instant . Note that
simulations. the control can be completely specified by giving the switching
CHEN et al.: SYNTHESIS OF NEURAL CONTROLLER APPLIED TO FLEXIBLE AC TRANSMISSION SYSTEMS 381

vector (where designates the That is

number of switching times) and the first initialized control, and
that the corresponding trajectory is a function of and the
switching times and can be denoted by . For our interest,
without loss of generality, the initial control is assumed to be the
positive control.
Suppose there is a perturbation in the initial state while this
does not cause a change of the sign of the initial control and
a change of the number of the switching either. Let the per-
turbed initial state be (the optimal trajectory
starting from ), and the resulting switching vector
. In what follows, it is shown that for the
small change in the initial state, the switching times may make
an accordingly small change in order to drive the final state to
the origin.
Integrating the system equation from to yields
(22)

where is the identity matrix.

Define

.
Notice that since the desired final state is the
(20) origin. Then we have

Observation from the above equation indicates that if is

fixed, then is a continuous function of the switching
vector. Since satisfies the Lipschitz condition [27], that
is, a constant exists such that (23)
for all in the region of interest, the solution It can be readily shown that is bounded. Then
is unique. This also means for different initial conditions the it follows that there may be some freedom for and to
corresponding solutions are distinct. In a word, is a take some small values. Hence, for any positive small number ,
continuous function of and the switching times. It is noted there exists a positive small number such that
that the notation should be replaced by the notation where and are different initial con-
when the switching vector is involved. For brevity, ditions and and are corresponding switching vectors.
is used uniformly later on. It should be noted from (25) that since all the first-order par-
Note that tial derivatives are bounded, any small perturbations to both the
for and switching times and the initial state only cause small change to
. the final state.
It follows that Therefore, some conclusions naturally follow.
Conclusion 1: Suppose is a compact region where with
proper control the optimal trajectories starting in the compact
region will still remain in it. That is, for any initial state
, there exists an optimal control which is a state
feedback control such that the state can be driven to the origin
in a finite amount of time. Let the switching curve (or manifold)
be . Let a region surrounding the switching curve be
defined as . Then
a neural controller NN which only takes or ,
with being the state, can be trained such that if ,
. Then for any and there exists
such that if , there exists the terminal time
such that , and
(21) where is the optimal terminal time for the initial state and
is the optimal trajectory starting from .
382 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON CIRCUITS AND SYSTEMSPART I: FUNDAMENTAL THEORY AND APPLICATIONS, VOL. 47, NO. 3, MARCH 2000

Remark: First, the optimal control with is a the system does not change much), and that the goal is still to
discontinuous function only on . It can be approximated drive the system state to the origin. Suppose that this will cause
with a continuous function, say , with the same support some increments in the switching vector and . Therefore,
with sufficiently small error such that if we have the following equation by means of perturbation anal-
and for . Then a neural network ysis:
NN can be trained to approximate the function such
that NN with being an arbitrarily small
positive number. Note that takes a value of or if
. Then NN or
NN for . As long as is chosen such
that , then NN for . However,
NN is another neural network. Thus, the existence of
such a neural controller is assured.
Conclusion 2: Suppose is a compact region where with
proper control the optimal trajectories starting in the compact
region will still remain in it. That is, for any initial state
there exists an optimal control which is a state
feedback control such that the state can be driven to the origin in
a finite amount of time. Let the switching curve (or manifold) be
. Let be the piecewise linear approximation of the switching
curve. Suppose that and where and are points
of an optimal trajectory. Then for any and there
exists and , such that if
, and , there exists the terminal time such (25)
that and where
is the optimal terminal time for the initial state and Define
is the optimal trajectory starting form .
Remark: Such a piecewise linear approximation of the
switching manifold may be realized by a constructive neural
network.
can be further expressed as
B. Support for Construction of Hierarchical
Neural Controllers
Consider again the system equation

(24)

Note that since a load is considered in the SMIB case,

is now a fixed unknown scalar. is assumed to be within the
interval . Thus, the above system equation
is equivalent to (4).
For any fixed , the control can be designed to stabilize the
system in a near optimal manner. The question then arises how
an effective control can be designed for the fixed but unknown It follows that
parameter. One natural solution would be identifying the pa-
rameter first and then activating a corresponding control. One
other alternative is to use all available specific controllers cor-
responding to specific cases and make a combination of them.
In what follows, the theoretical aspects for the latter case are (26)
investigated as to how such a combined controller can be syn-
thesized and how well such a synthesized controller performs. Since we assume that the variation in does not cause any
For any given initial state in the region of stability interest structure change in the system, is bounded for any
and the corresponding optimal switching vector and the final . Thus, is bounded. Since for
time . If is a variable, then the state is a con- and are bounded, any small change in
tinuous function of the switching vector, and as well as will cause small changes in the switching vector and the ter-
and, hence, is denoted by . Suppose there is an minal time.
increment in , that this variation in does not cause a Based on the above discussion, the interval is divided into
structure change in the system (which means the behavior of parts such that .
CHEN et al.: SYNTHESIS OF NEURAL CONTROLLER APPLIED TO FLEXIBLE AC TRANSMISSION SYSTEMS 383

Since must be in some interval, . Further

suppose there exist a number of optimal controllers cor-
responding to the parameter , where ranges from one to
for the above system. For any , define the combined
controller by where for
and . Since there exists such
that , it is then reasonable to use, for synthesis
of a control corresponding to , only the information about the
system and control corresponding to both cases where the pa-
rameter takes a value of and , respectively. Therefore, a
controller can be synthesized in the two stages that follow.
1) First, identify the subinterval that is likely
within.
2) Second, construct the control by means of a combination
of the predesigned controller and . That is,
.
Remark (1): Since the analytic form for may not be avail-
able, it is then therefore necessary to use the method described
before to train a neural controller NN for each case. Fig. 3. Time-optimal trajectories calculated by STVM.

Remark (2): Since is not known, it must be identified.

This can be done by using the available optimal trajectories to
train another neural network. That is, NN .
Remark (3): To identify the parameter , first feed the initial
state to all neural controllers. Let the number of the resulting
controls taking be . If , then the control for
the first cycle takes ; otherwise it takes . With the control
for the first cycle, the measurement can then be used to deter-
mine the parameter . That is,
. Note that is now the rotor angle not the rotor angle
deviation from the equilibrium, because for each , the equi-
librium is different from the other.
It should be noted that for system (6) with a couple of un-
known parameters, similar theoretical results and implementa-
tion procedures can be readily obtained.By means of the effi-
cient STVM in the region of stability interest a number of op-
timal trajectories, corresponding to different initial conditions
as well as the load , are generated and shown in Fig. 3.
Note that in Fig. 3, the equilibrium is the origin, and the rotor
angle and the rotor speed are translated from the equilibrium
Fig. 4. Rotor angle deviation data for neural net training.
of rotor angle and rotor speed, respectively. To make a distinc-
tion, the rotor angle and the rotor speed are called the rotor
angle deviation and the rotor speed deviation. Hereafter, this are trained and neural controllers are obtained in the configura-
will be done for similar cases. Since for different sets of pa- tion shown in SectionIV-A. The learned patterns in terms of the
rameters for a load, the corresponding equilibrium points are rotor angle and its previous value by the neural network with
different, the specific equilibrium will, therefore, be mentioned 15 and 30 neurons in the first hidden layer and second hidden
in case the confusion arises. The trajectories shown in Fig. 3 layer are shown in Fig. 5. Accordingly, the learned patterns in
are computed in a continuous time setup. For the sake of neural terms of the system state are respectively shown in Fig. 6. Com-
network training, the time continuous trajectories are sampled parisons between Figs. 4 and 5 and between Figs. 3 and 6 in-
at a rate of one sample per cycle. As was pointed out earlier, dicate that the lower level neural network in the configuration
since the deviated rotor speed is too small relative to the devi- shown in Section IV-A performs satisfactorily well in terms of
ated rotor angle, use of the rotor angle and its previous value the given patterns. For an initial condition corresponding to an
may be conducive to training of the neural network. The devi- off-line calculated optimal trajectory. The resulting trajectory by
ated rotor angle and its previous value are used as the inputs to means of the trained time-optimal neural controller is shown in
a lower level neural network. The total 1064 patterns are used Fig. 7. It can be seen that the resulting trajectory and the corre-
for training the corresponding lower level neural network. The sponding off-line optimal trajectory are actually indistinguish-
computed trajectories in terms of the rotor angle and its pre- able. (Note that a linearized controller further brings the system
vious value are shown in Fig. 4. The lower level neural networks to the exact equilibrium. This will not be mentioned hereafter
384 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON CIRCUITS AND SYSTEMSPART I: FUNDAMENTAL THEORY AND APPLICATIONS, VOL. 47, NO. 3, MARCH 2000

Fig. 5. Learned pattern of rotor angle deviation. Fig. 7. Training performance. Solid: the resulting trajectory from the neural
controller; dashed: the off-line calculated trajectory.

Fig. 6. Learned pattern about time-optimal trajectories. Fig. 8. Performance of the neural controller for the untrained case. Solid: the
resulting trajectory from the neural controller; dashed: the off-line calculated
trajectory; dotted: the trajectory resulted from fixed compensation.
unless the confusion arises.) The system, after experiencing a
severe short-circuit fault from which the resulting initial condi-
A controller is to be synthesized to stabilize the postfault
tion is not trained, loses its stability with the fixed compensation
SMIB system in minimal time, taking into account the unknown
(or ). By application of the trained neural controller, the
load.
system can be stabilized in near optimal time. The resulting tra-
Due to the uncertainty of the load, this can be achieved by ap-
jectory is shown in Fig. 8, which is very close to the computed
plication of a somewhat intelligent time-optimal control to drive
optimal trajectory by means of the STVM method.
the system to a small neighborhood of the equilibrium in near
optimal time and thereafter a conventional linear feedback con-
VI. SIMULATIONS troller can take over and maintain the equilibrium. Also note that
due to the calculation error involved in computing the off-line
A SMIB system with a load , described by (6), is considered time-optimal trajectories and other practical reasons mentioned
for simulations with the parameters and some related data given previously, the system is expected to be driven to a small neigh-
as borhood of the equilibrium. This neighborhood can be charac-
terized by an elliptic region where
. and are two positive numbers and is much larger than .
CHEN et al.: SYNTHESIS OF NEURAL CONTROLLER APPLIED TO FLEXIBLE AC TRANSMISSION SYSTEMS 385

Fig. 9. Time-optimal trajectories calculated by STVM. Fig. 10. Rotor angle deviation data for neural net training.

Therefore, a linearized state-feedback controller around equi-

librium is useful to enhance stability around the equilibrium
of the SMIB power system. Let the feedback gain vector be
. Then . The choice of
based on some tradeoffs ensures much stronger
stability of the SMIB system to be simulated. In what follows,
approximation of switching manifolds, synthesis of neural con-
trollers, and synthesis of a hierarchical neural controller are
demonstrated.
Note that the load in system (6), denoted by ,
is parameterized and that the each of the parameters can
be generally assumed to lie within some ranges. That is,
assume and . Tessel-
late the region spanned by and into small subregions
's whose vertices are
and , where

and . Note that

once the subregion within which the load parameter vector Fig. 11. Learned pattern of rotor angle deviation.
may lie is roughly identified, only the predesigned lower level
time-optimal neural controllers corresponding to the loads seen that the resulting trajectory and the corresponding off-line
and , optimal trajectory are actually indistinguishable. With employ-
respectively, enable controller synthesis, with the hierarchical ment of the trained neural controller, the system after experi-
structure described in Section IV, applicable to this unknown encing a severe short-circuit fault can be brought to a pre-des-
load case. For simplicity, let while may range from 0 ignated small neighborhood of the equilibrium in near optimal
to . time, and further brought to the equilibrium by a linearized con-
Similarly, for a load , the off-line calculated troller discussed above. The resulting trajectory is shown in
optimal trajectories in the region of interest are shown in Fig. 9. Fig. 14, which is also very close to the computed optimal tra-
The corresponding trajectories in terms of the rotor angle and jectory by means of the STVM method.
its previous value are composed of 917 patterns and are shown Similarly, other lower level time-optimal neural controllers
in Fig. 10. In terms of the state the rotor angle and its previous can be obtained corresponding to the case on which the load
value, the learned patterns by a time-optimal neural controller etc.
with 15 and 30 neurons in the first hidden layer and second Next the training of the upper level neural networks is ad-
hidden layer, are shown in Figs. 11 and 12, respectively. For dressed. The inputs include the current rotor angle and its
an initial condition corresponding to an off-line calculated op- previous values ( and ) and the current con-
timal trajectory, the resulting trajectory by means of the trained trol and its previous value ( and ) coming from
time-optimal neural controller is shown in Fig. 13. It can be the corresponding lower level neural controller. Each of those
386 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON CIRCUITS AND SYSTEMSPART I: FUNDAMENTAL THEORY AND APPLICATIONS, VOL. 47, NO. 3, MARCH 2000

Fig. 12. Learned pattern about time-optimal trajectories. Fig. 14. Performance of the neural controller for untrained case. Solid: the
resulting trajectory from the neural controller; dashed: the off-line calculated
trajectory.

Fig. 13. Training performance. Solid: the resulting trajectory from the neural
controller; dashed: the off-line calculated trajectory.
Fig. 15. Performance of the hierarchical neural controller for SMIB with
unknown load after experiencing a short-circuit fault. Solid: the resulting
neural networks can be described by NN trajectory from the neural controller; dashed: the off-line calculated trajectory.
. A number of 1983 patterns are
used for training upper level neural networks. These upper level and V. The resulting trajectory is shown in Fig. 15 and is also
neural networks have 15 and 30 neurons in the first hidden layer very close to the off-line calculated time-optimal trajectory.
and second hidden layer. With these upper level neural networks
trained, the outputs of the upper level neural networks are nor-
VII. GENERALIZATION TO MORE GENERAL SYSTEMS
malized and the winner-take-all strategy is used in order to pro-
duce the appropriate multipliers. The sum of the lower level con- The results obtained for simplified power systems with loads
trols multiplied by the resulting multipliers forms the current can be generalized to more general nonlinear systems. In partic-
control to the power system. ular, these results should be useful for controller design for mul-
The hierarchical neural control shown in Section IV-B is timachine power systems, which are being investigated in our
examined for a severe short-circuit fault for an unknown load ongoing project. Consider an autonomous parameterized non-
, for which the related optimal trajectory is linear system described by
not used for neural network training. Following the proposed
identification and control procedures described in Sections IV (42)
CHEN et al.: SYNTHESIS OF NEURAL CONTROLLER APPLIED TO FLEXIBLE AC TRANSMISSION SYSTEMS 387

where is the system state, is the admissible (or parameter vector) are within. The idea behind these schemes
control vector, and is the parameter vector confined should be readily generalized to more general systems.
within some subspace. Assume for the region of interest the The linear controller around an equilibrium is designed so
existence of a bang-bang type of control is assured. Through that it is sufficient to drive the system into a predesigned neigh-
tessellation of the parameter vector space, lower level time-op- borhood of the equilibrium by means of a time optimal control.
timal controllers can be designed corresponding to the vertices This may accommodate some slight differences between the ac-
of each subregion. The upper level neural networks in the hier- tual switching and the optimal switching.
archical neural control structure investigated in Section IV can As a subsequent effort, more complex power systems will be
also be trained in the way discussed previously. Then, for an studied along with the dynamics of connected loads in order to
unknown parameter vector, its identification based on the mea- further investigate the mechanism of voltage collapse, which is
surements of the state helps locate which subregion it is likely a part of the ongoing research.
within, and then the lower level neural controllers are enabled
corresponding to the vertices of this subregion. With the state ACKNOWLEDGMENT
and its previous value fed in, the upper level neural networks
calculate and produce the proper multipliers with normalization The authors would like to acknowledge the suggestions of the
performed and the winner-take-all strategy used. The intelligent associate editor and anonymous reviewers.
control signal, the sum of the modulated control by the multi-
pliers, results. REFERENCES
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[21] K. Tanaka et al., Fuzzy control of a vehicle with two trailers, presented Ronald R. Mohler (M59SM79F80) received the B.S. degree from Penn-
at the Proc. American Control Conf., Albuquerque, NM, 1997. sylvania State University, University Park, in 1956, the M.S. degree from the
[22] T. W. Long et al., A neural network based receding horizon optimal University of Southern California, Los Angeles, in 1958, and the Ph.D. degree
controller, presented at the Proc. American Control Conf., Albu- from the University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, in 1965.
querque, NM, 1997. He has over ten years of industrial type experience at the Los Alamos National
[23] R. R. Mohler, Nonlinear Systems Volume I, Dynamics and Con- Laboratory, Hughes Aircraft Corp., and Rockwell International (Texile Machine
trol. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1991. Works). He has been an industrial consultant since 1965. Since 1971 he has been
[24] R. R. Mohler, Nonlinear Systems Volume II, Applications to Bilinear Professor of Electrical and Computer Engineering at Oregon State University,
Control. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1991. Corvallis, where he was Department Head from 1971 to 1978. Formerly, he was
[25] R. Mohler, Bilinear Control Processes. New York, NY: Academic, a Professor of Electrical, Aerospace, Mechanical, and Nuclear Engineering, as
1973. well as Chairperson of Information and Computing Science at the University
[26] S. F. Moon, Optimal control of bilinear systems and systems linear in of Oklahoma, Norman, and was Associate Professor of Electrical Engineering
control, Ph.D. dissertation, Univ. of New Mexico, 1969. and Computer Science at the University of New Mexico, Albuquerque. He has
[27] E. B. Lee and L. Markus, Foundations of Optimal Control held visiting positions at the University of Rome, the University of London,
Theory. New York: Wiley, 1967. the Australian National University, the University of California at Los Angeles,
[28] D. Chen and R. Mohler, Load modelling and voltage stability analysis the Naval Postgraduate School, the University of Sydney, and the International
by neural networks, presented at the Proc. American Control Conf., Institute for Applied Systems Analysis. His interests include nonlinear control,
Albuquerque, NM, 1997. immunology, power systems, and aerospace applications. He is the author of
[29] W. J. Rugh, Linear System Theory. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice- five books and editor of four others on these topics.
Hall, 1993.

Dingguo Chen (S'95M'99) received the M.S. degree in electrical engineering Lung-Kee (Larry) Chen received the M.S. and Ph.D. degrees in mathematics
from Tsinghua University, Beijing, China, in 1991 and the Ph.D. degree in elec- from the University of Chicago, Chicago, IL, in 1986.
trical and computer engineering from Oregon State University, Corvallis, in In 1986, he joined the Department of Mathematics, Oregon State University,
1998. Corvallis, as an Assistant Professor. He and he spent two years at Washington
From 1991 to 1995, he was an engineer in the State CIMS Engineering Re- University from 1990 to 1992, where he became an Associate Professor in 1991.
search Center, Tsinghua University. From 1995 to 1998, he was a Graduate Re- He became a Professor at Oregon State University in 1997. His current research
search Assistant at Oregon State University. Currently, he is with Siemens Power interests are in the areas of harmonic analysis, singular equations, and control
Systems Control Division, Brooklyn Park, MN. His research interests include theory.
nonlinear control, power systems, neural network, digital signal processing, and Dr. Chen was awarded a National Science Foundation Mathematical Sciences
telecommunications. Postdoctoral Research Fellowship