Telecommunication

Telecommunication is the transmission of signs, signals, messages, words, writings, images and sounds
or intelligence of any nature by wire, radio, optical or
other electromagnetic systems. Telecommunication occurs when the exchange
of information between communication participants includes the use of technology. It is transmitted
either electrically over physical media, such as cables, or via electromagnetic radiation.[3][4][5][6][7][8] Such
transmission paths are often divided into communication channels which afford the advantages
of multiplexing. The term is often used in its plural form, telecommunications, because it involves many
different technologies.
Early means of communicating over a distance included visual signals, such as beacons, smoke
signals, semaphore telegraphs, signal flags, and optical heliographs.[9] Other examples of pre-modern
long-distance communication included audio messages such as coded drumbeats, lung-blown horns, and
loud whistles. 20th and 21st century technologies for long-distance communication usually involve
electrical and electromagnetic technologies, such as telegraph, telephone,
and teleprinter, networks, radio, microwave transmission, fiber optics, and communications satellites.
A revolution in wireless communication began in the first decade of the 20th century with the pioneering
developments in radio communications by Guglielmo Marconi, who won the Nobel Prize in Physics in
1909. Other notable pioneering inventors and developers in the field of electrical and electronic
telecommunications include Charles Wheatstone and Samuel Morse (inventors of
the telegraph), Alexander Graham Bell (inventor of the telephone), Edwin Armstrong and Lee de
Forest (inventors of radio), as well as Vladimir K. Zworykin, John Logie Baird and Philo Farnsworth (some
of the inventors of television).

Telegraph and telephone

Sir Charles Wheatstone and Sir William Fothergill Cooke invented the electric telegraph in 1837. [20] Also,
the first commercial electrical telegraph is purported to have been constructed by Wheatstone and
Cooke and opened on 9 April 1839.[citation needed] Both inventors viewed their device as "an improvement to
the [existing] electromagnetic telegraph" not as a new device. [21]
Samuel Morse independently developed a version of the electrical telegraph that he unsuccessfully
demonstrated on 2 September 1837. His code was an important advance over Wheatstone's signaling
method. The first transatlantic telegraph cable was successfully completed on 27 July 1866, allowing
transatlantic telecommunication for the first time. [22]
The conventional telephone was invented independently by Alexander Bell and Elisha Gray in 1876.
[23]
Antonio Meucci invented the first device that allowed the electrical transmission of voice over a line
in 1849. However Meucci's device was of little practical value because it relied upon the electrophonic
effect and thus required users to place the receiver in their mouth to "hear" what was being said. [24] The
first commercial telephone services were set-up in 1878 and 1879 on both sides of the Atlantic in the
cities of New Haven and London
Radio and television
In 1832, James Lindsay gave a classroom demonstration of wireless telegraphy to his students. By 1854,
he was able to demonstrate a transmission across the Firth of Tay from Dundee, Scotland to Woodhaven,
a distance of two miles (3 km), using water as the transmission medium.[27] In December 1901, Guglielmo
Marconi established wireless communication between St. John's, Newfoundland (Canada) and Poldhu,
Cornwall (England), earning him the 1909 Nobel Prize in physics (which he shared with Karl Braun).
[28]
However small-scale radio communication had already been demonstrated in 1893 by Nikola Tesla in a
presentation to the National Electric Light Association. [29]
On 25 March 1925, John Logie Baird was able to demonstrate the transmission of moving pictures at the
London department store Selfridges. Baird's device relied upon the Nipkow disk and thus became known
as the mechanical television. It formed the basis of experimental broadcasts done by the British
Broadcasting Corporation beginning 30 September 1929.[30] However, for most of the twentieth century
televisions depended upon the cathode ray tube invented by Karl Braun. The first version of such a
television to show promise was produced by Philo Farnsworth and demonstrated to his family on 7
September 1927.[31]

Computers and the Internet

On 11 September 1940, George Stibitz transmitted problems for his Complex Number Calculator in New
York using a teletype, and received the computed results back at Dartmouth College in New Hampshire.
[32]
This configuration of a centralized computer (mainframe) with remote dumb terminals remained
popular well into the 1970s. However, already in the 1960s, researchers started to investigate packet
switching, a technology that sends a message in portions to its destination asynchronously without
passing it through a centralized mainframe. A four-node network emerged on 5 December 1969,
constituting the beginnings of the ARPANET, which by 1981 had grown to 213 nodes. [33] ARPANET
eventually merged with other networks to form the Internet. While Internet development was a focus of
the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) who published a series of Request for Comment documents,
other networking advancement occurred in industrial laboratories, such as the local area network (LAN)
developments of Ethernet (1983) and the token ringprotocol (1984).
.

Basic elements
Telecommunication technologies may primarily be divided into wired and wireless methods. Overall
though, a basic telecommunication system consists of three main parts that are always present in some
form or another:

A transmitter that takes information and converts it to a signal.

A transmission medium, also called the physical channel that carries the signal. An example of
this is the "free space channel".

A receiver that takes the signal from the channel and converts it back into usable information for
the recipient.

For example, in a radio broadcasting station the station's large power amplifier is the transmitter; and
the broadcasting antenna is the interface between the power amplifier and the "free space channel".
The free space channel is the transmission medium; and the receiver's antenna is the interface between
the free space channel and the receiver. Next, the radio receiver is the destination of the radio signal,
and this is where it is converted from electricity to sound for people to listen to.
Sometimes, telecommunication systems are "duplex" (two-way systems) with a single box
of electronics working as both the transmitter and a receiver, or a transceiver. For example, a cellular
telephone is a transceiver. [34] The transmission electronics and the receiver electronics within a
transceiver are actually quite independent of each other. This can be readily explained by the fact that
radio transmitters contain power amplifiers that operate with electrical powers measured
in watts or kilowatts, but radio receivers deal with radio powers that are measured in
the microwatts or nanowatts. Hence, transceivers have to be carefully designed and built to isolate their
high-power circuitry and their low-power circuitry from each other, as to not cause interference.
Telecommunication over fixed lines is called point-to-point communication because it is between one
transmitter and one receiver. Telecommunication through radio broadcasts is called broadcast
communication because it is between one powerful transmitter and numerous low-power but sensitive
radio receivers.[34]
Telecommunications in which multiple transmitters and multiple receivers have been designed to
cooperate and to share the same physical channel are called multiplex systems. The sharing of physical
channels using multiplexing often gives very large reductions in costs. Multiplexed systems are laid out in
telecommunication networks, and the multiplexed signals are switched at nodes through to the correct
destination terminal receiver.

Analog versus digital communications

Communications signals can be sent either by analog signals or digital signals. There are analog
communication systems and digital communication systems. For an analog signal, the signal is
varied continuously with respect to the information. In a digital signal, the information is
encoded as a set of discrete values (for example, a set of ones and zeros). During the
propagation and reception, the information contained in analog signals will inevitably be
degraded by undesirable physical noise. (The output of a transmitter is noise-free for all
practical purposes.) Commonly, the noise in a communication system can be expressed as adding
or subtracting from the desirable signal in a completely random way. This form of noise is
called additive noise, with the understanding that the noise can be negative or positive at
different instants of time. Noise that is not additive noise is a much more difficult situation to
describe or analyze, and these other kinds of noise will be omitted here.
On the other hand, unless the additive noise disturbance exceeds a certain threshold, the information
contained in digital signals will remain intact. Their resistance to noise represents a key advantage of
digital signals over analog signals.

Telecommunication networks
A telecommunications network is a collection of transmitters, receivers, and communications
channels that send messages to one another. Some digital communications networks contain one or
more routers that work together to transmit information to the correct user. An analog communications
network consists of one or more switches that establish a connection between two or more users. For
both types of network, repeaters may be necessary to amplify or recreate the signal when it is being
transmitted over long distances. This is to combat attenuation that can render the signal
indistinguishable from the noise.[36] Another advantage of digital systems over analog is that their output
is easier to store in memory, i.e. two voltage states (high and low) are easier to store than a continuous
range of states.

Communication channels
The term "channel" has two different meanings. In one meaning, a channel is the physical medium that
carries a signal between the transmitter and the receiver. Examples of this include the atmosphere for
sound communications, glass optical fibers for some kinds of optical communications, coaxial cables for
communications by way of the voltages and electric currents in them, and free space for
communications using visible light, infrared waves, ultraviolet light, and radio waves. This last channel is
called the "free space channel". The sending of radio waves from one place to another has nothing to do
with the presence or absence of an atmosphere between the two. Radio waves travel through a
perfect vacuum just as easily as they travel through air, fog, clouds, or any other kind of gas.
The other meaning of the term "channel" in telecommunications is seen in the phrase communications
channel, which is a subdivision of a transmission medium so that it can be used to send multiple streams
of information simultaneously. For example, one radio station can broadcast radio waves into free space
at frequencies in the neighborhood of 94.5 MHz (megahertz) while another radio station can
simultaneously broadcast radio waves at frequencies in the neighborhood of 96.1 MHz. Each radio
station would transmit radio waves over a frequency bandwidth of about 180 kHz (kilohertz), centered at
frequencies such as the above, which are called the "carrier frequencies". Each station in this example is
separated from its adjacent stations by 200 kHz, and the difference between 200 kHz and 180 kHz
(20 kHz) is an engineering allowance for the imperfections in the communication system.
In the example above, the "free space channel" has been divided into communications channels
according to frequencies, and each channel is assigned a separate frequency bandwidth in which to
broadcast radio waves. This system of dividing the medium into channels according to frequency is called
"frequency-division multiplexing". Another term for the same concept is "wavelength-division
multiplexing", which is more commonly used in optical communications when multiple transmitters
share the same physical medium.
Another way of dividing a communications medium into channels is to allocate each sender a recurring
segment of time (a "time slot", for example, 20 milliseconds out of each second), and to allow each
sender to send messages only within its own time slot. This method of dividing the medium into
communication channels is called "time-division multiplexing" (TDM), and is used in optical fiber
communication. Some radio communication systems use TDM within an allocated FDM channel. Hence,
these systems use a hybrid of TDM and FDM .

Modulation
The shaping of a signal to convey information is known as modulation. Modulation can be used to
represent a digital message as an analog waveform. This is commonly called "keying" a term derived
from the older use of Morse Code in telecommunications and several keying techniques exist (these
include phase-shift keying, frequency-shift keying, and amplitude-shift keying). The "Bluetooth" system,
for example, uses phase-shift keying to exchange information between various devices. [37][38] In addition,
there are combinations of phase-shift keying and amplitude-shift keying which is called (in the jargon of
the field) "quadrature amplitude modulation" (QAM) that are used in high-capacity digital radio
communication systems.
Modulation can also be used to transmit the information of low-frequency analog signals at higher
frequencies. This is helpful because low-frequency analog signals cannot be effectively transmitted over
 free space. Hence the information from a low-frequency analog signal must be impressed into a higher-
frequency signal (known as the "carrier wave") before transmission. There are several different
modulation schemes available to achieve this [two of the most basic being amplitude modulation (AM)
and frequency modulation(FM)]. An example of this process is a disc jockey's voice being impressed into
a 96 MHz carrier wave using frequency modulation (the voice would then be received on a radio as the
channel "96 FM").[39] In addition, modulation has the advantage that it may use frequency division
multiplexing (FDM).

Congestion-aware and traffic load

balancing scheme for routing in WSNs

Abstract

Congestion in a Wireless Sensor Network (WSN) is one of the causes of

performance degradation due to severe packet loss that leads to excessive
energy consumption. Solutions in WSNs try to avoid and overcome congestion
by selecting sensor nodes with sufficient buffer space and adjusting the traffic
rate at the source node over the shortest discovered route that usually decreases
the End-to-End (ETE) throughput. On-demand routing protocols have the
potential to discover the least congested route when it is required. In a WSN,
most of the on-demand routing protocols replace the routing metric of the
prevalent routing protocol with their proposed routing metric and keep the
route discovery mechanism intact, which is not sufficient to increase the
performance of the WSN. To address these problems, a novel Congestion-aware
and Traffic Load balancing Scheme (CTLS) for routing has been proposed. The
CTLS proactively avoids congestion through a novel route discovery mechanism
to select the optimum node based on a composite metric. If congestion occurs,
CTLS tries to detect it in a timely manner and alleviates it reactively using a
novel ripple-based search approach. The simulation results show that the CTLS
performs better as compared to the congestion avoidance, detection and
alleviation and no congestion control schemes in terms of packet delivery ratio,
ETE delay, throughput, and energy consumption per data packet in a resource
constraint wireless network.