1.

2 OPERATIONS ON
FUNCTIONS AND TYPES OF
FUNCTIONS
New functions may be formed from given functions
by adding, subtracting, multiplying, and dividing
function values. Accordingly, these new functions are
known as the sum, difference, product, and quotient
of the original functions.
1.2.1 Definitions of the Sum, Difference, Product,
and Quotient of Two Functions
Given the two functions f and g:
(i) their sum, denoted by f + g, is the function
defined by
(f + g)(x) = f(x) + g(x)
(ii) their difference, denoted by f g, is the
function defined by
(f g)(x) = f(x) g(x)
(iii) their product, denoted by f * g, is the function
defined by
 (f * g)(x) = f(x) * g(x)
(iv) their quotient, denoted by f/g, is the function
defined by
(f/g)(x) = f(x) / g(x) g(x) 0
In each case the domain of the resulting function
consists of those values of x common to the domains
of f and g, with the additional requirement in case
(iv) that the values of x for which g(x) = 0 are
excluded.
EXAMPLE 1 Given that f and g are the functions
defined by f(x) = and g(x) = define the
following functions and determine the domain of the
resulting function: (a) f + g, (b) f g, (c) f * g, (d) f/g.
SOLUTION
(a) (f + g)(x) =
(b) (f g)(x) =
(c) (f * g)(x) =
(d) (f/g)(x) =
The domain of f is [1, +), and the domain of g is [4,
+). So in parts (a), (b), and (c) the domain of the
resulting function is *4, +). In part (d) the
denominator is zero when x = 4; thus 4 is excluded
from the domain and the domain is therefore (4,
+).
Obtaining the composite function of two given
functions is another operation on functions.
1.2.2 Definition of a Composite Function
Given the two functions f and g, the composite
function, denoted by f g, is defined by (f g)(x) = f(g(x))
And the domain of f g is the set of all numbers x in
the domain of g such that g(x) is in the domain of f.
The definition indicates that when computing (f
g)(x), we first apply function g to x and then function
f to g(x). To visualize this computation see Figure 1.
Function g assigns the value g(x) to the number x in
the domain of g. Then function f assigns the value
f(g(x)) to the number g(x) in the domain of f. Observe
in Figure 1 that the range of g is a subset of the
domain of f and the range of f g is a subset of the
range of f.
ILLUSTRATION 1 If f and g are defined by f(x) =
and g(x) = 2x -3
(f g)(x) = f(g(x))
= f(2x 3)
=
The domain of g is (-, +), and the domain of f is
*0, +). The domain of f g is, therefore, the set of
real numbers x for which 2x 3 0 or, equivalently,
[ , +).

EXAMPLE 2 Given f(x) = and g(x) = 2x + 1

Compute (f g)(3) by two methods: (a) Find g(3) and
use that number to find (f(g(3)); (b) Compute (f
g)(x) and use that value to find (f g)(3).
SOLUTION
(a) g(3) = 2(3) + 1
=7
(b) (f g)(x) = f(g(x))
= f(2x + 1)
=( )
 =
Thus Therefore
f(g(3)) = f(7) (f g)(3) = ( )

= =1
=1
EXAMPLE 3 Given that f and g are defined by f(x) =
2
and g(x) = x - 1
Find: (a) f f; (b) g g; (c) f g; (d) g f. Also
determine the domain of the composite function in
each part.
SOLUTION The domain of f is [0, +) and the domain
of g is (-, +).
(a) (f f)(x) = f(f(x)) (b) (g g)(x) = g(g(x))
= f( ) = g(x2 1)
= = (x2 1) 2 - 1
= = 2x2
The domain is *0, +). The domain is (-, +).
(c) (f g)(x) = f(g(x)) (d) (g f)(x) = g(f(x))
 = f( 1) = g( )
= = ( ) - 1
The domain is =x-1
(-, -1] *1, +) The domain is *0, +).
In part (d) note that even though x 1 is defined for
all values of x, the domain of g f, by the definition
of a composite function, is the set of all numbers x in
the domain of f such that f(x) is in the domain of g.
Thus the domain of g f must be a subset of the
domain of f.
Observe from the results of parts (c) and (d) of
Example 3 that (f g)(x) and (g f)(x) and (g f)(x) are
not necessarily equal.
An important theorem in calculus, called the chain
rule, discussed in Section 2.8, involves composite
function. When applying the chain rule it is necessary
to think of a function as the composition of two
other functions, as shown in the following
illustration.
ILLUSTRATION 2 If h(x) = (4x2 + 1)3, we can express h
as the composition of the two functions f and g for
which
f(x) = x3 and g(x) = 4x2 + 1
because
(f g)(x) = f(g(x))
= f(4x2 + 1)
= (4x2 + 1)3
The function h in Illustration 2 can be expressed as
the composition of other pairs of functions. For
example, if
F(x) = (4x + 1)3 and G(x) = x2
Then
(F G)(x) = F(G(x))
= F(x2)
= (4x2 + 1)3
EXAMPLE 4 Given
h(x) =

express h as the composition of two functions f and g
in two ways; (a) the function f contains the radical;
(b) the function g contains the radical.

SOLUTION
(a) f(x) = (b) f(x) =

g(x) = g(x) = x2 g(x) = ( )

Then Then
(f g)(x) = f(g(x)) (f g)(x) = f(g(x))
= f(x2) = f(( ))
= =

A function whose range consist of only one number is
called a constant function. Thus if f(x) = c, and if c is
any real number, then f is a constant function, and its
graph is a horizontal line at directed distance of c
units from the x axis.
ILLUSTRATION 3
(a) The function defined by f(x) = 5 is a constant
function, and its graph, sketched in Figure 2, is a
horizontal line 5 units above the x axis.
(b) The function defined by g(x) = -4 is a constant
function whose graph is a horizontal line 4 units
below the x axis. See Figure 3.

A linear function is defined by

f(x) = mx + b
where m and b are constants and m 0. Its graph is a
line having slope m and y intercept b.
ILLUSTRATION 4 The function defined by
f(x) = 2x 6
is linear. Its graph is the line shown in Figure 4.
The particular linear function defined by
f(x) = x
is called the identity function. Its graph, sketched in
Figure 5, is the line bisecting the first and third
quadrants.
 If a f is defined by
f(x) = anxn + an-1xn-1 + an-2xn-2 + + a1x + a0
where a0, a1 an are real numbers (an 0) and n is a
nonnegative integer, then f is called a polynomial
function of degree n. Thus the function defined by
f(x) = 3x5 x2 + 7x 1
is a polynomial function of degree 5
A linear function is a polynomial function of degree 1.
If the degree of a polynomial function is 2, it is called
a quadratic function, and if the degree is 3, it is
called a rational function.
An algebraic function is one formed by a finite
number of algebraic operations on the identity
function and a constant function. These algebraic
operations include addition, subtraction,
multiplication, division, raising to powers, and
extracting roots. Polynomial and rational functions
are particular kinds of algebraic functions. A
complicated example of an algebraic function is the
one defined by
( )
f(x) =

In addition to algebraic functions, we shall consider
transcendental function, examples of which are the
trigonometric functions discussed in Appendix
Section A.9 and logarithmic and exponential
functions introduced in Chapter 5.
An even function is one whose graph is symmetric
with respect to the y axis, and an odd function is one
whose graph is symmetric with respect to the origin.
Following are the formal definitions.

1.2.3 Definition of an Even and an Odd Function

(i) A function f is and even function if for every x
in the domain of f, f(-x) = f(x).
(ii) A function f is an odd function if for every x in
the domain of f, f(-x) = -f(x)
In both parts (i) and (ii) it is understood that x is in
the domain of f whenever x is.
The symmetry properties of even and odd functions
follow from the symmetry test given in Appendix
Section A.2.
ILLUSTRATION 5
(a) If f(x) = x2, f(-x) = (-x)2. Therefore f(-x), and f is an
even function. Its graph is a parabola symmetric with
respect to the y axis. See Figure 6
(b) If g(x) = x3, g(-x) = (-x)3. Because g(-x) = -g(x), g is
an odd function. The graph of g, shown in Figure 7, is
symmetric with respect to the origin.

EXAMPLE 5 Plot the graph of the given function and

from the graph conjecture whether the function is
even, odd, or neither; then confirm the conjecture
analytically:
(a) f(x) = 3x4 2x2 + 7
(b) g(x) = 3x5 4x3 -9x
(c) h(x) = 2x4 + 7x3 x2 + 9
SOLUTION
(a) The graph of f, plotted in Figure 8, appears
symmetric with respect to the y axis. We, therefore,
suspect the function is even. To prove this fact
analytically, we compute f(-x):
f(-x) = 3(-x)4 2(-x)2 + 7
= 3x4 2x2 + 7
= f(x)
Because f(-x) = f(x), f is even.
(b) Figure 9 shows the graph of g apparently
symmetric with respect to the origin. We suspect,
therefore, that the function is odd. We compute g(-
x):
g(-x) = 3(-x)5 4(-x)3 9(-x)
= -3x5 + 4x3 + 9x
= -(3x5 4x3 9x)
= -g(x)
Because g(-x) = -g(x), we have proved analytically
that g is odd.
(c) Because the graph of h, appearing in Figure 10, is
not symmetric with respect to either the y axis or the
origin, the function is neither even nor odd. We
compute h(-x):
h(-x) = 2(-x)4 + 7(-x)3 (-x)2 + 9
= 2x4 7x3 x2 + 9
Because h(-x) h(x) and h(-x) -h(x), we have
confirmed that h is neither even nor odd.
EXAMPLE 6 Given
F(x) = |x + 3| - |x 3|
(a) Define F(x), without absolute value bars,
piecewise in the following intervals: (-,-3); *3, +).
(b) Support the answer in part (a) graphically by
plotting the graph of F from the given equation. (c)
From the graph in part (b) state whether F is even,
odd, or neither. (d) Confirm the answer in part (c)
analytically from the given question.
SOLUTION
(a) From the definition of the absolute value of a
number
|x + 3| = {x + 3 if x + 3 0
{-(x + 3) if x + 3 < 0
And
|x 3| = {x 3 if x 3
{-x(x 3) if x 3 < 0
That is,
|x + 3| = {x + 3 if x -3
{- x - 3 if x < -3
 And
|x 3| = {x 3 if x
{-x + 3) if x < 3
If x (-, -3), |x + 3| = -x 3 and |x 3| = -x + 3.
Hence
|x + 3| - |x 3| = -x -3 (-x + 3)
= -6

If x [-3, 3), |x + 3| = x + 3 and |x 3| = -x + 3. Thus

|x + 3| - |x 3| = x + 3 (-x + 3)
= 2x
If x *3, +), |x + 3| = x + 3 and |x 3| = x -3.
Therefore |x + 3| - |x 3| = x + 3 (x 3)
=6
With these results, we define F(x) piecewise as
follows:
F(x) = {-6 if x < - 3
{2x if x 3 x < 3
{6 if 3 x
(b) Figure 11 shows the graph of F plotted from the
given equation. The graph supports our answer in
part (a)
(c) Because the graph in Figure 11 is symmetric with
respect to the origin, function F is odd.
(d) We confirm our answer in part (c) by computing
F(-x) from the given equation:
F(-x) = |-x + 3| - |-x 3|
= |-(x 3)| - |-(x + 3)|
= |x 3| - |x + 3|
= F(x)
We have, therefore proved analytically that F is odd.