Lecture 1: Functions and Their Representations

(Section 1.1)

Definition 1
A function f is a rule that assigns to each element x in a set D
exactly one element, called f (x) in a set E .

D = the domain of f

E = the range of f

We can define functions in several ways:

algebraically - by using an explicit formula
visually - by a graph
numerically - by a table of values
verbally - described in words

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Example 1:
Find the domain of a given function
1
(a) f (x) = 2
x −1

√
(b) g (x) = 4−x
Definition 2
The graph of a function f (x) is the set of order pairs (x, y ) in the
xy −plane, where x is in the domain of definition of f , and
y = f (x).

Example 2: Graph f (x) = x 3 − 4x 2

Vertical Line Test
f is a function if and only if no vertical line crosses its graph more
than once.
Example 3: Which of the following graphs represent y as a
function of x:
(a)
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Piecewise defined functions

Example 4: Graph the function f (x) = |x|.


x, if x ≥ 0;
f (x) = |x| =
−x, if x < 0

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 |x|
Example 5: Graph the function g (x) = .
x
Example 6: Graph the function
 2
 x , if x < 0;
f (x) = x + 1, if 0 ≤ x < 4;
10 − x, if x ≥ 4.

Even Functions
Function f (x) is said to be an even function if

f (−x) = f (x)

for all x in the domain of f.

Example 7: f (x) = x 4 + x 2 + 2 is

Example 8: cos x is
Odd Functions
Function f (x) is said to be an odd function if

f (−x) = −f (x)

for all x in the domain of f.

Example 9: f (x) = x 3 + x is

Example 10: sin x is an odd function

tan x is an odd function:
tan (−x) =
cot x is an odd function too.
Example 11: Determine if the function f (x) = x 2 − x is odd,
even, or neither.
Definition
A function f (x) is said to be increasing on an interval I if

x1 < x2 ⇒ f (x1 ) < f (x2 )

for x1 , x2 ∈ I

Definition
A function f (x) is said to be decreasing on an interval I if

x1 < x2 ⇒ f (x1 ) > f (x2 )

for x1 , x2 ∈ I
Section 1.2: Essential Functions

Linear Functions
A linear function f (x) has the form

f (x) = ax + b

where a,b are real constants.

Polynomial Functions
A polynomial P(x) is a function that has the following form

P(x) = an x n + an−1 x n−1 + . . . + a1 x + a0

where n is a non-negative number, and real numbers

an , an−1 , . . . , a0 are coefficients of P.
A polynomial P(x) = an x n + an−1 x n−1 + . . . + a1 x + a0 , where
an 6= 0, is said to be of degree n.

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Polynomial functions are defined for all x ∈ (−∞, ∞).
Example 12:
P(x) = x 15 + x 7 + 120x is a polynomial
all linear functions f (x) = ax + b are polynomials; Note that
n = 1 (if a 6= 0)

Power Functions
A function of the form f (x) = x a , where a is a real constant, is
called a power function.

Let a = n, n is a positive integer - polynomial P(x) = x n

 √
Let a = n1 , n is a positive integer - root function f (x) = x 1/n = n
x
Example 13: For a = 1/2, f (x) = x a becomes the square root
√
function f (x) = x.
For a = 1/3, f (x) = x a becomes the cube root function
√
3
f (x)
√ = x.
y= x y = x 1/3
Let a = −1. Then we have the reciprocal function
f (x) = x −1 = x1 , which is defined for all x except at 0. Its graph is
shown below:
Rational Functions
A rational function f is a ratio of two polynomials:

P(x)
f (x) = .
Q(x)

The domain of f consists of all points for which Q(x) 6= 0

Trigonometric Functions
sin x, cos x, tan x
and their reciprocals csc x, sec x, cot x
Exponential Functions
An exponential function has the form f (x) = ax , where the base a
is a positive constant. The domain of f (x) = ax is (−∞, ∞), and
its range is (0, ∞).

Logarithmic Functions
The logarithmic functions f (x) = loga x, where the base a is
positive constant, are the inverse functions of exponential
functions.
Transformations of Functions
Vertical and Horizontal Shifts
Let c > 0.
The graph of y = f (x) + c is obtained by shifting the graph of
y = f (x) by c units upward

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The graph of y = f (x) − c is obtained by shifting the graph of
y = f (x) by c units downward

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The graph of y = f (x − c) is obtained by shifting the graph of
y = f (x) by c units to the right

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The graph of y = f (x + c) is obtained by shifting the graph of
y = f (x) by c units to the left

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Vertical and Horizontal Stretching and Reflecting
Suppose that c > 1. To obtain the graph of y = cf (x), stretch the
graph of y = f (x) vertically by a factor of c

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To obtain the graph of y = (1/c)f (x), compress the graph of
y = f (x) vertically by a factor of c.

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To obtain the graph of y = f (cx), compress the graph of y = f (x)
horizontally by a factor of c

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To obtain the graph of y = f (x/c), stretch the graph of y = f (x)
horizontally by a factor of c

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To obtain the graph of y = −f (x), reflect the graph of y = f (x)
about the x-axis

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To obtain the graph of y = f (−x), reflect the graph of y = f (x)
about the y-axis

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 x −1
Example 1: Graph y =
x
x −1 1 1
Write = 1 − = − + 1.
x x x
1
We start with the graph of y = and use needed transformations.
x

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Combinations of Functions

For two given functions f and g we define f + g , f − g , f · g , and

f /g as follows:
f + g is defined on A ∩ B, where A=domain of f, and B=domain
of g, by:
(f + g )(x) = f (x) + g (x)
f − g is defined on A ∩ B, by:

(f − g )(x) = f (x) − g (x)

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fg is defined on A ∩ B, by:

(fg )(x) = f (x)g (x)

f /g is defined on {x ∈ A ∩ B|g (x) 6= 0}, by:

 
f f (x)
(x) =
g g (x)

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Definition
Given two functions f and g , the composition f ◦ g is defined by

(f ◦ g )(x) = f (g (x))

The domain of of f ◦ g is the set of all x in the domain of g such

that g (x) is in the domain of f .

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 1 √
Example 2: Let f (x) = x and g (x) = x. Find
(a) f ◦ g

(b) g ◦ f

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(c) find g ◦ (f + h) and f ◦ g ◦ h, where h(x) = x + 1

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Lecture 2: Limits

Sections 1.3 & 1.4

Example 1: Find an equation of the tangent line to y = x 2 + 1 at

the point P(1, 2).

We know that the equation of this line is

y − 2 = m(x − 1)

where m is its slope.

As we are not given two points on the tangent line, we cannot find
its slope m directly, but we can approximate it. Note that the
secant lines of the parabola, passing through P(1, 2) and nearby
points Q(x, x 2 + 1) approximate our tangent line.

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Note that the slopes of the secant lines s1 , s2 approximate m and
are given by
x2 + 1 − 2
mPQ =
x −1
At x = 2, m = 3,

at x = 1.5, m = 2.5,

x = 1.25, m = 2.25.

x = 1.05, m = 2.05, etc.

As the point Q approaches P, mPQ approaches m, and we write:

x2 − 1
lim mPQ = m and lim =2
Q→P x→1 x − 1
Example 2: Suppose an object is s(t) meters from its start at t
seconds. Find the average velocity on the time interval from t = 2
to t = 2 + h seconds, where s(t) = t 2 .
change in position
average velocity = =
time elapsed

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Average velocity for successively smaller intervals:
Time Interval Average Velocity
2 ≤ t ≤ 2.5
2 ≤ t ≤ 2.1
2 ≤ t ≤ 2.01
2 ≤ t ≤ 2.001
The instantaneous velocity v when t = 2 is defined to be the
limiting value of these average values over shorter and shorter
intervals. From the table we see that v= m/s.
Introduction to Limits

Definition
We write
lim f (x) = L
x→a

if we can make the values of f (x) arbitrarily close to L by taking x

sufficiently close to a (on either side of a), but not equal to a.

We say that f (x) approaches L, as x approaches a.

or
the limit of f (x), as x approaches a, equals L.

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 x2 − 1
Example 3: Find lim .
x→1 x − 1

x2 − 1
f (x) = is not defined for x = 1.
x −1

Consider the following table:

x f(x)
1.5
1.1
From the table we find that
1.01
1.001 x2 − 1
0.5 lim =
x→1 x − 1
0.9
0.99
0.999
 x2 − 1
Sketch the graph of f (x) = .
x −1
Example 4: If

x − 1, if x =
6 0;
f (x) =
2, if x = 0
find lim f (x)
x→0
One-sided Limits

Definition
The limit of f(x) as x approaches a from the left is equal to L
if the values of f(x) can be made arbitrarily close to L by taking x
to be sufficiently close to a, and x < a.
We write
lim f (x) = L
x→a−

Definition
The limit of f(x) as x approaches a from the right is equal to L
if the values of f(x) can be made arbitrarily close to L by taking x
to be sufficiently close to a, and x > a.
We write
lim+ f (x) = L
x→a

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Note:
x → a− means that x < a, x approaches a.
x → a+ means that x > a, x approaches a.

Fact
lim f (x) = L ⇔ lim f (x) = L and lim f (x) = L
x→a x→a− x→a+
Example 5: Let

x + 1, if x ≥ 0;
g (x) =
x, if x < 0

From the graph of y = g (x) we

can see that

lim g (x) =
x→0−

and
lim g (x) =
x→0+
Evaluating Limits (Section 1.4)
Limit Laws

Suppose that c is a constant and lim f (x) and lim g (x) exist.
x→a x→a
Then

1. lim [f (x) ± g (x)] = lim f (x) ± lim g (x)

x→a x→a x→a

2. lim cf (x) = c lim f (x)

x→a x→a

3. lim [f (x)g (x)] = lim f (x) · lim g (x)

x→a x→a x→a

f (x) lim f (x)

4. lim = x→a if lim g (x) 6= 0
x→a g (x) lim g (x) x→a
x→a

5. lim [f (x)]n = [ lim f (x)]n , where n is a positive integer

x→a x→a
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 p
n
p
6. lim f (x) = n limx→a f (x), where n is a positive integer
x→a

7. lim c = c
x→a

8. lim x = a
x→a

9. lim x n = an , where n is a positive integer

x→a

√
n
√
n
10. lim x= a, where n is a positive integer, and a > 0
x→a
Example 1: Find lim (x 3 + 2x 2 + 1).
x→2

x2 + 1
Example 2: Find lim .
x→1 x + 1
Direct Substitution Property
If f is a polynomial or a rational function and a is in the domain of
f, then
lim f (x) = f (a)
x→a

x 3 + 3x 2
Example 3: Find lim
x→2 x − 1

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Fact
If f (x) = g (x) when x 6= a, then lim f (x) = lim g (x), if the limits
x→a x→a
exist.

x3 − 1
Example 4: Find lim
x→1 x − 1

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 √
x2 + 8 − 3
Example 5: Find lim
x→1 x −1

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 x 2 + 3x
Example 6: Find lim
x→0 |x|

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Example 7: Let
 √
9 − x, if x < 0;
g (x) =
x + 3, if x ≥ 0

Find lim g (x). Sketch the graph of y = g (x).

x→0

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Fact
If f (x) ≤ g (x) when x is near a, except possibly at a, and the
limits lim f (x), lim g (x) exist, then
x→a x→a

lim f (x) ≤ lim g (x)

x→a x→a

The Squeeze Theorem

If f (x) ≤ g (x) ≤ h(x) when x is near a, except possibly at a, and
lim f (x) = lim h(x) = L, then
x→a x→a

lim g (x) = L
x→a

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4 1
Example 8: Show that lim x cos =0
x→0 x

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Lecture 3: Continuity (Section 1.5)
Definition
A function f is continuous at a number a if

lim f (x) = f (a).

x→a

If f is defined on an open interval containing a, except perhaps at

a, we say that f is discontinuous at a if f is not continuous at a.

The definition implies three conditions for continuity of f:

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At a point x = a, f may have two types of discontinuities:
Removable

Nonremovable
Jump Discontinuity

Infinite Discontinuity

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Example 1: Discuss the continuity and determine any removable
x2 − 1
and nonremovable discontinuities of f (x) = 3 .
x −x

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Example 2: Discuss the continuity and determine any removable
and nonremovable discontinuities of
 √
 4 − x, if x < 0;
f (x) = x + 1, if 0 ≤ x ≤ 1
2x 2 , if x > 1


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Definition
A function f is continuous from the right at x=a if

lim f (x) = f (a)

x→a+

f is continuous from the left at x=a if

lim f (x) = f (a)

x→a−

f is continuous on an interval if it is continuous at every point in

the interval (continuous from the right at the left endpoint, and
continuous from the left at the right endpoint)

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Example 3: Discuss the continuity of
 2
 x + 1, if x < 0;
g (x) = x + 1, if 0 ≤ x ≤ 1
3, if x > 1


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Example 4: Find the value of c for which f will become continuous

4 − x, if x < 1;
f (x) =
cx 2 + 1, if x ≥ 1

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Fact
If f and g are continuous at x=a, and c is a constant, then the
following functions are also continuous at x=a:

f ±g cf
f
fg , if g (a) 6= 0
g

Fact
The following functions are continuous for each x in their domains:
polynomials
rational functions
root functions
trigonometric functions and inverse trigonometric functions
exponential and logarithmic functions

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 √
Example 5: On what interval is f (x) = x 2 − 1 + x 4 continuous?

Fact
If f is continuous at b, and lim g (x) = b, then
x→a

lim f (g (x)) = f (b),

x→a

that is
lim f (g (x)) = f ( lim g (x))
x→a x→a

Fact
If g is continuous at a, and f is continuous at g(a), then f ◦ g is
continuous at a.

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 x4 + x + 2
Example 6: Find lim .
x→0 x +1

Example 7: Find limπ sin2 x.

x→ 2

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Intermediate Value Theorem
Suppose f is continuous on an interval [a, b], and let N be any
number between f(a) and f(b), where f (a) 6= f (b). Then there
exists c in (a, b) such that f (c) = N.

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Example 8: Use IVT to show that f (x) = x 3 − 3x − 1 has a zero
in the interval [−1, 1].

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Lecture 4: Limits Involving Infinity (Section 1.6)
1
Example 1: Graph f (x) = , and use its graph to find
x −2
lim f (x) and lim+ f (x).
x→2− x→2
x f(x)
2.5
2.1
2.01
2.001
x f(x)
1.5
1.9
1.99
1.999

We see that absolute value of f(x) becomes

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Definition
Let f be defined on both sides of a, except possibly at a. Then

lim f (x) = ∞
x→a

means that the values of f(x) can be made arbitrarily large by

taking x sufficiently close to a, but not equal to a.

lim f (x) = ∞ is read f(x) becomes infinite as x approaches a.

x→a

Definition
Let f be defined on both sides of a, except possibly at a. Then

lim f (x) = −∞
x→a

means that the values of f(x) can be made arbitrarily large

negative by taking x sufficiently close to a, but not equal to a.
Similarly, we can define

lim f (x) = ∞ and lim f (x) = ∞

x→a+ x→a−

lim f (x) = −∞ and lim f (x) = −∞

x→a+ x→a−

In our example
1 1
lim = and lim =
x→2− x −2 x→2+ x −2
Definition
The line x=a is called a vertical asymptote of the curve y=f(x) if
at least one of the following is true:

lim f (x) = ∞ lim f (x) = ∞ lim f (x) = ∞

x→a x→a+ x→a−

lim f (x) = −∞ lim f (x) = −∞ lim f (x) = −∞

x→a x→a+ x→a−

1
x = 2 is a vertical asymptote to f (x) = (Example 1).
x −2

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 x +2 x +2
Example 2: Find lim+ and lim
x→1 x −1 x→1 x − 1
−

x +2
lim+ =
x→1 x −1
x +2
lim =
x→1− x −1

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Example 3: y = ln x is defined for x > 0. From the graph of
y = ln x,

we can see that

lim+ ln x =
x→0

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 x2 x2
Example 4: Find lim and lim
x→∞ x 2 + 3 x→−∞ x 2 + 3

x f(x)
10 0.9709
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100

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 x f(x)
-10 0.9709
-20
-30
-40
-50
-60
-70
-80
-90
-100

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Definition
Let f be a function defined on (a, ∞), for some a. Then

lim f (x) = L
x→∞

means that that the values of f can be made arbitrarily close to L

by taking x sufficiently large.

Definition
Let f be a function defined on (−∞, a), for some a. Then

lim f (x) = L
x→−∞

means that that the values of f can be made arbitrarily close to L

by taking x sufficiently large negative.

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 Definition
The line y = L is called a horizontal asymptote of the curve
y = f (x) if either

lim f (x) = L or lim f (x) = L

x→∞ x→−∞

1 1
Example 5: Find lim , and lim
x→∞ x x→−∞ x
x f(x)
10 0.1
102
103
104 1
lim =
x→∞ x
105
1
x f(x) lim =
x→−∞ x
-10 -0.1
-102
-103
-104
Theorem
If r > 0 is a rational number, then
1
lim =0
x→∞ x r

If r > 0 is a rational number such that x r is defined for all x, then

1
lim =0
x→−∞ xr
x3 + 1
Example 6: Find lim
x→∞ x 3 + x 2

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Shortcut for finding limits at infinity for rational
functions:

p(x)
Let f (x) = , where
q(x)

p(x) =an x n + an−1 x n−1 + . . . + a1 x + a0

q(x) =bm x m + bm−1 x m−1 + . . . + b1 x + b0

are of degree n and degree m, respectively. Then

1 If n < m, then
2 If n = m, then
3 If n > m, then
 x2
Example 7: Find all horizontal asymptotes of y =
x2+3

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 p
Example 8: Find lim ( x 2 + 1 − x)
x→∞

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 sin 2x
Example 9: Find lim
x→∞ x

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