Solder Wiki Inc Solder Melting Points
Solder Wiki Inc Solder Melting Points
Solder Wiki Inc Solder Melting Points
Solder
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
permanent bond between metal workpieces. The word solder comes from the Middle English word soudur, via Old
[3]
French solduree and soulder, from the Latin solidare, meaning "to make solid". In fact, solder must be melted in
order to adhere to and connect the pieces together, so a suitable alloy for use as solder will have a lower melting
point than the pieces it is intended to join. Whenever possible, the solder should also be resistant to oxidative and
corrosive effects that would degrade the joint over time. Solder that is intended for use in making electrical
connections between electronic components also usually has favorable electrical characteristics.
[4]
Soft solder typically has a melting point range of 90 to 450C (190 to 840F; 360 to 720K), and is commonly
used in electronics, plumbing, and sheet metal work. Manual soldering uses a soldering iron or soldering gun. Alloys
A soldered joint used to attach a
that melt between 180 and 190C (360 and 370F; 450 and 460K) are the most commonly used. Soldering
wire to the pin of a component on
performed using alloys with a melting point above 450C (840F; 720K) is called "hard soldering", "silver
the rear of a printed circuit board
soldering", or brazing.
In specic proportions, some alloys can become eutectic that is, their melting point is the same as their freezing
point. Non-eutectic alloys have markedly different solidus and liquidus temperatures, and within that range they
exist as a paste of solid particles in a melt of the lower-melting phase. In electrical work, if the joint is disturbed in
the pasty state before it has solidied totally, a poor electrical connection may result; use of eutectic solder reduces
this problem. The pasty state of a non-eutectic solder can be exploited in plumbing, as it allows molding of the
solder during cooling, e.g. for ensuring watertight joint of pipes, resulting in a so-called "wiped joint".
For electrical and electronics work, solder wire is available in a range of thicknesses for hand-soldering, and with
Spool of solder, 1.6 mm diameter
cores containing ux. It is also available as a paste or as a preformed foil shaped to match the workpiece, more
suitable for mechanized mass-production. Alloys of lead and tin were commonly used in the past and are still
available; they are particularly convenient for hand-soldering. Lead-free solders have been increasing in use due to
regulatory requirements plus the health and environmental benets of avoiding lead-based electronic components. They are almost exclusively used
[5]
today in consumer electronics.
Plumbers often use bars of solder, much thicker than the wire used for electrical applications. Jewelers often use solder in thin sheets, which they cut
into snippets.
Contents
1 Lead-free solder
2 Lead solder
3 Flux-core solder
4 Hard solder
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5 Solder alloys
5.2 Properties
5.3 Solidifying
6 Intermetallics in solders
7 Glass solder
8 Preform
9 See also
10 References
11 Bibliography
12 External links
Lead-free solder
On July 1, 2006 the European Union Waste Electrical and Electronic Equipment Directive (WEEE) and Restriction of
Hazardous Substances Directive (RoHS) came into effect prohibiting the inclusion of signicant quantities of lead in
most consumer electronics produced in the EU. In the US, manufacturers may receive tax benets by reducing the
use of lead-based solder. Lead-free solders in commercial use may contain tin, copper, silver, bismuth, indium, zinc,
antimony, and traces of other metals. Most lead-free replacements for conventional 60/40 and 63/37Sn-Pb solder
[6]
have melting points from 5 to 20C higher, though there are also solders with much lower melting points.
It may be desirable to use minor modication of the solder pots (e.g. titanium liners or impellers) used in wave-
Lead-free solder may be less desirable for critical applications, such as aerospace and medical projects, because its
Tin-Silver-Copper (Sn-Ag-Cu, or "SAC") solders are used by two-thirds of Japanese manufacturers for reow and
wave soldering, and by about 75% of companies for hand soldering. The widespread use of this popular lead-free
solder alloy family is based on the reduced melting point of the Sn-Ag-Cu ternary eutectic behavior (217C), which
is below the 22/78Sn-Ag (wt.%) eutectic of 221C and the 59/41Sn-Cu eutectic of 227C (recently revised by P.
Snugovsky to 53/47Sn-Cu). The ternary eutectic behavior of Sn-Ag-Cu and its application for electronics assembly
was discovered (and patented) by a team of researchers from Ames Laboratory, Iowa State University, and from
Much recent research has focused on selection of 4th element additions to Sn-Ag-Cu to provide compatibility for propane torch and lead-free solder
the reduced cooling rate of solder sphere reow for assembly of ball grid arrays, e.g., 18/64/14/4Tin-Silver-Copper-
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Tin-based solders readily dissolve gold, forming brittle intermetallics; for Sn-Pb alloys the critical concentration of gold to embrittle the joint is about
4%. Indium-rich solders (usually indium-lead) are more suitable for soldering thicker gold layer as the dissolution rate of gold in indium is much slower.
Tin-rich solders also readily dissolve silver; for soldering silver metallization or surfaces, alloys with addition of silvers are suitable; tin-free alloys are
also a choice, though their wettability is poorer. If the soldering time is long enough to form the intermetallics, the tin surface of a joint soldered to gold
[7]
is very dull.
Lead solder
Tin-lead (Sn-Pb) solders, also called soft solders, are commercially available with tin concentrations between 5%
and 70% by weight. The greater the tin concentration, the greater the solders tensile and shear strengths.
Historically, lead has been widely believed to mitigate the formation of tin whiskers, though the precise mechanism
[8]
for this is unknown. Today, many techniques are used to mitigate the problem, including changes to the annealing
process (heating and cooling), addition of elements like copper and nickel, and the inclusion of conformal
[9] [10]
coatings. Alloys commonly used for electrical soldering are 60/40Sn-Pb, which melts at 188C (370F), and
63/37Sn-Pb used principally in electrical/electronic work. 63/37 is a eutectic alloy of these metals, which:
1. has the lowest melting point (183C or 361F) of all the tin-lead alloys; and
In the United States, lead is prohibited in solder and ux in plumbing applications for drinking water use, per the
[11]
Safe Drinking Water Act (SDWA). Historically, a higher proportion of lead was used, commonly 50/50. This had
Sn60Pb40 solder
the advantage of making the alloy solidify more slowly. With the pipes being physically tted together before
soldering, the solder could be wiped over the joint to ensure water tightness. Although lead water pipes were
displaced by copper when the signicance of lead poisoning began to be fully appreciated, lead solder was still used until the 1980s because it was
thought that the amount of lead that could leach into water from the solder was negligible from a properly soldered joint. The electrochemical couple of
copper and lead promotes corrosion of the lead and tin. Tin, however, is protected by insoluble oxide. Since even small amounts of lead have been found
[12]
detrimental to health, lead in plumbing solder was replaced by silver (food-grade applications) or antimony, with copper often added, and the
The addition of tinmore expensive than leadimproves wetting properties of the alloy; lead itself has poor wetting characteristics. High-tin tin-lead
[13]
alloys have limited use as the workability range can be provided by a cheaper high-lead alloy.
Karl J. Puttlitz; Kathleen A. Stalter (2004). Handbook
In electronics, components on printed circuit boards (PCBs) are connected to the printed circuit, and
assemblies hence
. CRC to other
Press. p.541. components, by soldered joints. For
ISBN0-8247-4870-0.
miniaturized PCB joints with surface mount components, solder paste has largely replaced solid solder.
[7]
Lead-tin solders readily dissolve gold plating and form brittle intermetallics. 60/40Sn-Pb solder oxidizes on the surface, forming a complex 4-layer
structure: tin(IV) oxide on the surface, below it a layer of tin(II) oxide with nely dispersed lead, followed by a layer of tin(II) oxide with nely dispersed
[14]
tin and lead, and the solder alloy itself underneath.
Lead, and to some degree tin, as used in solder contains small but signicant amounts of radioisotope impurities. Radioisotopes undergoing alpha decay
are a concern due to their tendency to cause soft errors. Polonium-210 is especially problematic; lead-210 beta decays to bismuth-210 which then beta
[15][16]
decays to polonium-210, an intense emitter of alpha particles. Uranium-238 and thorium-232 are other signicant contaminants of alloys of lead.
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Flux-core solder
Flux is a reducing agent designed to help reduce (return oxidized metals to their metallic state) metal oxides at the
points of contact to improve the electrical connection and mechanical strength. The two principal types of ux are
acid ux (sometimes called "active ux"), used for metal mending and plumbing, and rosin ux (sometimes called
"passive ux"), used in electronics, where the corrosiveness of the vapors released when acid ux is heated would
Due to concerns over atmospheric pollution and hazardous waste disposal, the electronics industry has been
gradually shifting from rosin ux to water-soluble ux, which can be removed with deionized water and detergent,
wire of solder, with one or more continuous bodies of non-acid ux embedded lengthwise inside it. As the solder
melts onto the joint, it frees the ux and releases that on it as well.
Hard solder
Hard solders are used for brazing, and melt at higher temperatures. Alloys of copper with either zinc or silver are the most common.
In silversmithing or jewelry making, special hard solders are used that will pass assay. They contain a high proportion of the metal being soldered and
lead is not used in these alloys. These solders vary in hardness, designated as "enameling", "hard", "medium" and "easy". Enameling solder has a high
melting point, close to that of the material itself, to prevent the joint desoldering during ring in the enameling process. The remaining solder types are
used in decreasing order of hardness during the process of making an item, to prevent a previously soldered seam or joint desoldering while additional
sites are soldered. Easy solder is also often used for repair work for the same reason. Flux or rouge is also used to prevent joints from desoldering.
Silver solder is also used in manufacturing to join metal parts that cannot be welded. The alloys used for these purposes contain a high proportion of
Solder alloys
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M.P. C
Composition Toxic Eutectic Comments Sn Pb Ag Cu Sb Bi In Zn Cd Au oth.
S/L
Galvanite Lead-free
galvanizing solder
formulation designed
quality repairs to
galvanized steel
surfaces. Simple,
[17]
Sn50Zn49Cu1 200/300 no effective and easy to 50 1 49
use, in both
manufacturing and
eld applications.
Metallurgically bonds
seamless protective
[17]
barrier.
KappFree provides
vibration resistance,
fatigue resistance in
[18]
electrical products as
Sn95.5Cu4Ag0.5 226/260 no 95.5 .5 4
opposed to tin-lead
solders. Higher
working temperature.
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M.P. C
Composition Toxic Eutectic Comments Sn Pb Ag Cu Sb Bi In Zn Cd Au oth.
S/L
[19]
Kapp Eco-Babbitt
Commonly used in
capacitor
manufacturing as
protective coating to
shield against
electromotive force
(EMF) and
electromagnetic
interference (EMI)
performance of the
[19]
Sn90Zn7Cu3 200/222 no capacitor, to prevent 90 3 7
capacitor, and to
prevent the
development of
diminish capacitor
performance, coating,
[19]
and capacitor life.
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M.P. C
Composition Toxic Eutectic Comments Sn Pb Ag Cu Sb Bi In Zn Cd Au oth.
S/L
CBGA components,
replaced by
[6]
Sn95.5Ag3.9Cu0.6.
bonding properties.
recommended for
[22]
those. Used for
[20]
268/302 fabrication of car
Pb90Sn10 Pb no 10 90
[21]
275/302 radiators and fuel
moderate service
temperatures. Body
[23]
solder. Has low
used as an alternative
to Cd70 where
parasitic
thermocouple voltage
[24]
has to be avoided.
moderate service
temperatures. Body
solder.
[23]
and sheets and
Pb85Sn15 227/288 Pb no 15 85
fabrication of car
[21]
Used for coating
Pb80Sn20 183/280 Pb no 20 80
radiator tubes for
[23]
joining ns.
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M.P. C
Composition Toxic Eutectic Comments Sn Pb Ag Cu Sb Bi In Zn Cd Au oth.
S/L
construction plumbing
works, ame-melted.
[20]
engine radiators. Used
Pb75Sn25 183/266 Pb no 25 75
for machine, dip and
hand soldering of
construction plumbing
works, ame-melted,
hand soldering of
[21]
Pb68Sn30Sb2 185/243 Pb no Pb68 30 68 2
Kapp GalvRepair
galvanized surface
[27]
repair.
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M.P. C
Composition Toxic Eutectic Comments Sn Pb Ag Cu Sb Bi In Zn Cd Au oth.
S/L
[27]
Aluminum and cast
Sn33Pb40Zn28 230/275 Pb no 33 40 28
Iron. Have been used
galvanized surface
[27]
repair.
for construction
plumbing works,
Pb67Sn33 187230 Pb no 33 67
ame-melted,
temperature depends
on additives
Sn35. Used as a
cheaper alternative of
[21]
Pb65Sn35 183/250 Pb no Sn60Pb40 for wiping 35 65
and sweating
[23]
joints.
[20]
where wider melting
183/238
Pb60Sn40 Pb no point range is desired. 40 60
[21]
183/247
For joining cables. For
radiators and
[23]
electrical systems.
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M.P. C
Composition Toxic Eutectic Comments Sn Pb Ag Cu Sb Bi In Zn Cd Au oth.
S/L
soldering of brass,
tinning and
sheetmetal work.
[20]
183/216 Becomes brittle below
Sn50Pb50 Pb no 50 50
[21] [7][26]
183212 150C. Low
properties. Rapidly
silver, not
recommended for
[22]
those. For wiping
and assembling
Minimizes dissolution
of copper. Originally
designed to reduce
erosion of the
[28]
About 100 times
Sn50Pb48.5Cu1.5 183/215 Pb no 50 48.5 1.5
slower erosion of
tin/lead alloys.
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M.P. C
Composition Toxic Eutectic Comments Sn Pb Ag Cu Sb Bi In Zn Cd Au oth.
S/L
Sn60, ASTM60A,
ASTM60B. Common in
electronics, most
properties. Used in
through-hole
electronics. Rapidly
cheaper than
point difference is
insignicant in
practice. On slow
increases hardness of
solder.
Sn60Pb39Cu1 Pb no 60 39 1
"Tinman's solder",
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M.P. C
Composition Toxic Eutectic Comments Sn Pb Ag Cu Sb Bi In Zn Cd Au oth.
S/L
Sn63, ASTM63A,
ASTM63B. Common in
electronics;
exceptional tinning
and wetting
good bonding
properties. Used in
through-hole
electronics. Rapidly
[31]
Sn63Pb37 183 Pb yes 63 37
dissolves gold and
silver, not
recommended for
[22]
those. Sn60Pb40 is
melting point
difference is
insignicant in
practice. On slow
Sn63PbP. A special
machines. Addition of
[32]
phosphorus reduces
Sn63Pb37P0.00150.04 183 Pb yes 63 37 P
oxidation. Unsuitable
foam.
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M.P. C
Composition Toxic Eutectic Comments Sn Pb Ag Cu Sb Bi In Zn Cd Au oth.
S/L
Similar to Sn63Pb37.
Copper content
increases hardness of
solder.
[20]
Sn70Pb30 183/193 Pb no Sn70 70 30
[21]
formerly used for
Sn90Pb10 183/213 Pb no 90 10
joints in food industry
For higher-
[30]
Pb92Sn5.5Ag2.5 286/301 Pb no temperature 5.5 92 2.5
applications.
[21]
Used for soldering iron
Pb80Sn18Ag2 252/260 Pb no 18 80 2
[26]
and steel
General purpose
solder. Antimony
content improves
mechanical properties
Pb55Sn43.5Sb1.5 Pb no 43.5 55 1.5
but causes brittleness
when soldering
cadmium, zinc, or
[26]
galvanized metals.
resistance combined
soldering.
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M.P. C
Composition Toxic Eutectic Comments Sn Pb Ag Cu Sb Bi In Zn Cd Au oth.
S/L
[21]
Sn46Pb46Bi8 120/167 Pb no Bi8 46 46 8
resistance combined
Reasonable shear
Combination with
dramatically lower
[21]
Bi46Sn34Pb20 100/105 Pb no Bi46 34 20 46
Sn62. Common in
electronics. The
strongest tin-lead
solder. Appearance
identical to Sn60Pb40
or Sn63Pb37. Crystals
treatment leads to
formation of crystals
solubility of silver,
silver-metallized
silver-metallized
[7][29][33]
ceramics.
purpose.
[20]
Sn62.5Pb36Ag2.5 179 Pb yes 62.5 36 2.5
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M.P. C
Composition Toxic Eutectic Comments Sn Pb Ag Cu Sb Bi In Zn Cd Au oth.
S/L
content reduces
solubility of silver
recommended for
operation above
120C.
[20]
Pb90Sn5Ag5 292 Pb yes 5 90 5
[20]
287/296
Pb92.5Sn5Ag2.5 Pb no Pb93. 5 92.5 2.5
[21]
299/304
HMP. Service
temperatures up to
temperatures as it
[20]
296/301
Pb93.5Sn5Ag1.5 Pb no remains ductile down 5 93.5 1.5
[21]
305/306
to 200C, while
[20]
Pb95.5Sn2Ag2.5 299/304 Pb no 2 95.5 2.5
temperature
malleability of indium,
strength improved by
[35]
addition of silver.
In97Ag3 143 yes 3 97
Particularly good for
cryogenic
packaging of photonic
devices.
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M.P. C
Composition Toxic Eutectic Comments Sn Pb Ag Cu Sb Bi In Zn Cd Au oth.
S/L
low-temperature
[36]
malleable as indium.
In90Ag10 143/237 no 10 90
Large plastic range.
[22]
for die attachment,
In75Pb25 156/165 Pb no 25 75
general circuit
assembly and
packaging
[22]
closures.
properties.
properties.
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M.P. C
Composition Toxic Eutectic Comments Sn Pb Ag Cu Sb Bi In Zn Cd Au oth.
S/L
to formation of cracks
[22]
surfaces gold-indium
180/209
In50Pb50 Pb no intermetallics tend to 50 50
[21]
178/210
be formed, and the
gold-depleted zone
properties.
Malleable, can
compensate some
[39]
In50Sn50 118/125 no thermal expansion 50 50
temperature physics
as a glass-wetting
[40]
solder.
[41]
In70Sn15Pb9.6Cd5.4 125 Pb,Cd 15 9.6 70 5.4
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M.P. C
Composition Toxic Eutectic Comments Sn Pb Ag Cu Sb Bi In Zn Cd Au oth.
S/L
leaching. Good
thermal fatigue
assembly and
packaging closures.
Less dissolution of
[20]
162 General purpose. Good
Sn70Pb18In12 Pb yes 70 18 12
[43]
154/167 physical properties.
[20]
Pb90In5Ag5 290/310 Pb no 90 5 5
[20]
thermal fatigue
Pb92.5In5Ag2.5 300/310 Pb no 92.5 2.5 5
properties. Reducing
atmosphere
frequently used..
[21]
Pb92.5In5Au2.5 300/310 Pb no In5 92.5 5 2.5
[21]
305/364
Pb94.5Ag5.5 Pb no Ag5.5, UNS L50180 94.5 5.5
[44]
304/343
[45]
Pb95Ag5 305/364 Pb no 95 5
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M.P. C
Composition Toxic Eutectic Comments Sn Pb Ag Cu Sb Bi In Zn Cd Au oth.
S/L
corrosion resistance;
[20]
joints suffered
303
[21]
corrosion in both
Pb97.5Ag2.5 304 Pb yes no 97.5 2.5
[46]
atmospheric and
304/579
underground
Torch solder.
commutators,
remelting when
working on nearby
joints is
[25]
undesirable. Silver
content reduces
solubility of silver
coatings in molten
[20]
solder. Not
Pb97.5Ag1.5Sn1 309 Pb yes 1 97.5 1.5
recommended for
[22]
gold. Standard
PbAgSn eutectic
semiconductor
assembly. Reducing
protective atmosphere
cryogenic
temperatures.
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M.P. C
Composition Toxic Eutectic Comments Sn Pb Ag Cu Sb Bi In Zn Cd Au oth.
S/L
exceptional strength,
high-temperature
Pb96Ag4 305 Pb 96 4
[25]
joints
[21]
Pb96Sn2Ag2 252/295 Pb Pb96 2 96 2
[7]
Sn61Pb36Ag3 Pb 61 36 3
[7]
Sn56Pb39Ag5 Pb 56 39 5
[7]
Sn98Ag2 98 2
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M.P. C
Composition Toxic Eutectic Comments Sn Pb Ag Cu Sb Bi In Zn Cd Au oth.
S/L
SAC305. It is the
JEITA recommended
high temperatures
tends to dissolve
copper; copper
increased bridging).
be maintained
between 0.40.85%,
alloy. Nitrogen
atmosphere can be
by dross formation.
formation of dendritic
tin crystals.
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M.P. C
Composition Toxic Eutectic Comments Sn Pb Ag Cu Sb Bi In Zn Cd Au oth.
S/L
SN96C-Ag3.5 A
high temperatures
tends to dissolve
copper; copper
increased bridging).
be maintained
between 0.40.85%,
SN96Ce). Nitrogen
atmosphere can be
by dross formation.
formation of dendritic
tin crystals.
Determined by NIST to
Sn95.6Ag3.5Cu0.9 217 yes 95.6 3.5 0.9
be truly eutectic.
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M.P. C
Composition Toxic Eutectic Comments Sn Pb Ag Cu Sb Bi In Zn Cd Au oth.
S/L
SN96C. Preferred by
high temperatures
tends to dissolve
copper; copper
increased bridging).
[49]
Sn95.5Ag3.8Cu0.7 217 almost Copper content must 95.5 3.8 0.7
be maintained
between 0.40.85%,
SN96Ce). Nitrogen
atmosphere can be
by dross formation.
formation of dendritic
tin crystals.
Preferred by the
European IDEALS
Sn95.25Ag3.8Cu0.7Sb0.25 95.25 3.8 0.7 0.25
consortium for wave
soldering.
Recommended by the
US NEMI consortium
components, a
[50]
Sn95.5Ag3.9Cu0.6 217 yes 95.5 3.9 0.6
replacement for
Sn10Pb90. Solder
SMT assembly.
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M.P. C
Composition Toxic Eutectic Comments Sn Pb Ag Cu Sb Bi In Zn Cd Au oth.
S/L
SAC405. Lead-Free,
Cadmium Free
formulation designed
specically to replace
[51]
Lead solders in
Sn95.5Ag4Cu0.5 217 yes 95.5 4 0.5
Copper and Stainless
electrical and
electronic
[18]
applications.
[20]
Sn96.5Ag3.5 221 yes Sn96, Sn96.5, 96S. 96.5 3.5
of densely distributed
Ag3Sn. Annealing at
as a result of lattice
[16]
diffusion. Used as
soldering rework;
compatible with
SnCu0.7, SnAg3Cu0.5,
SnAg3.9Cu0.6, and
BGA/CSP
attachment in high
power devices.
Established history in
[6]
the industry. Widely
minimizes solubility of
recommended for
[22]
gold. Marginal
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M.P. C
Composition Toxic Eutectic Comments Sn Pb Ag Cu Sb Bi In Zn Cd Au oth.
S/L
soldering stainless
steel as it wets
dissolution of silver
[29]
metallizations.
allows absorbing
signicant amount of
gold without
[52]
embrittlement.
ASTM96TS. "Silver-
service equipment,
refrigeration, heating,
air conditioning,
[25]
plumbing. Widely
Sn96Ag4 221229 no 96 4
used. Strong lead-free
minimizes solubility of
recommended for
[22]
gold.
content minimizes
solubility of silver
coatings. Not
recommended for
tolerance to vibration
strengths to 30,000
[53]
psi on Stainless.
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M.P. C
Composition Toxic Eutectic Comments Sn Pb Ag Cu Sb Bi In Zn Cd Au oth.
S/L
ductile joints on
tolerance to vibration
strengths to 30,000
[53]
psi on Stainless.
ductile joints on
tolerance to vibration
strengths to 31,000
[53]
psi on Stainless.
[53]
Sn93Ag7 221/302 no Audio industry 93 7
speaker installations.
requires a higher
temperature range,
Sn95Ag4Cu1 95 4 1
non-dulling. Use in
food processing
equipment, wire
Sn 232 pure 99.99
tinning, and
[25]
alloying.
Susceptible to tin
pest.
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M.P. C
Composition Toxic Eutectic Comments Sn Pb Ag Cu Sb Bi In Zn Cd Au oth.
S/L
Sn99Cu1. Also
designated as
Sn99Cu1. Cheap
soldering,
recommended by the
US NEMI consortium.
Coarse microstructure
Sparsely distributed
[55]
Cu6Sn5. Forms
crystals in a network
of eutectic
microstructure with
Sn99.3Cu0.7 227 yes 99.3 0.7 (Ni)
nely dispersed
strength, high
ductility. Susceptible
[16]
to tin pest. Addition
of small amount of
increase occurs at
modied or nickel
[56]
stabilized.
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M.P. C
Composition Toxic Eutectic Comments Sn Pb Ag Cu Sb Bi In Zn Cd Au oth.
S/L
Tin-silver-copper
simple applications.
soldering. At high
temperatures tends to
dissolve copper;
[57]
Sn99Cu0.7Ag0.3 217/228 no bridging). Copper 99 0.3 0.7
content must be
maintained between
0.40.85%, e.g. by
Sn96.2Ag3.8 alloy
(designated e.g.
SN96Ce). Nitrogen
atmosphere can be
by dross formation.
formation of dendritic
tin crystals.
For high-temperature
insulation from an
water plumbing.
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M.P. C
Composition Toxic Eutectic Comments Sn Pb Ag Cu Sb Bi In Zn Cd Au oth.
S/L
resistant. For
radiators, stained
[23]
potable water
Sn97Cu2.75Ag0.25 228/314 97 0.25 2.75
plumbing. Excellent
high-strength solder
and colors.
For soldering
aluminium. Good
wettability of
Zn100 419 pure 100
aluminium, relatively
good corrosion
[59]
resistance.
Used as a non-
superconducting
solder in low-
temperature physics.
Bi100 271 pure 100
Does not wet metals
well, forms a
mechanically weak
[40]
joint.
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M.P. C
Composition Toxic Eutectic Comments Sn Pb Ag Cu Sb Bi In Zn Cd Au oth.
S/L
KappAloy9 Designed
specically for
Aluminum-to-
Aluminum and
Aluminum-to-Copper
corrosion resistance
avoiding damage to
substrate deformation
or Copper wire to
Aluminum busses or
[60]
contacts. UNS#:
L91090
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M.P. C
Composition Toxic Eutectic Comments Sn Pb Ag Cu Sb Bi In Zn Cd Au oth.
S/L
KappAloy15 Designed
specically for
Aluminum-to-
Aluminum and
Aluminum-to-Copper
corrosion resistance
[60]
brazing alloys, thereby
Sn85Zn15 199/260 no 85 15
avoiding damage to
substrate deformation
soldering Aluminum
allowing manipulation
For soldering
[59]
wetting.
containing
[61]
metallizations. U.S.
Sn91.8Bi4.8Ag3.4 211/213 no 91.8 3.4 4.8
Patent 5,439,639 (ICA
Licensed Sandia
Patent).
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M.P. C
Composition Toxic Eutectic Comments Sn Pb Ag Cu Sb Bi In Zn Cd Au oth.
S/L
KappAloy30 For
soldering of
aluminium. Good
wetting. Used
extensively in spray
electronic parts.
Higher temperature
strength compared to
85Sn/15Zn and
[60]
91Sn/9Zn.
KappAloy20 For
soldering of
aluminium. Good
wetting. Used
extensively in spray
electronic parts.
Higher temperature
strength compared to
85Sn/15Zn and
[60]
91Sn/9Zn.
KappAloy40 For
soldering of
aluminium. Good
wetting. Used
extensively in spray
electronic parts.
Higher temperature
strength compared to
85Sn/15Zn and
[60]
91Sn/9Zn.
[21]
Pb63Sn35Sb2 185/243 Pb no Sb2 35 63 2
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M.P. C
Composition Toxic Eutectic Comments Sn Pb Ag Cu Sb Bi In Zn Cd Au oth.
S/L
Poor wetting of
For soldering
For low-temperature
soldering of heat-
[30]
soldering in the
Sn48Bi32Pb20 140/160 Pb no 48 20 32
vicinity of already
soldered joints
without their
remelting.
zinc content. On
a brittle Cu-Zn
nickel plating of
copper inhibits
[63]
this.
Patent #5,242,658.
Lead-free. Corrosion
[65]
concerns and high
Sn86.5Zn5.5In4.5Bi3.5 174/186 no 86.5 3.5 4.5 5.5
drossing due to zinc
content.
[66]
chip assembly, no
Sn86.9In10Ag3.1 204/205 86.9 3.1 10
issues with tin-indium
eutectic phase.
[63]
Sn95Ag3.5Zn1Cu0.5 221L no 95 3.5 0.5 1
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M.P. C
Composition Toxic Eutectic Comments Sn Pb Ag Cu Sb Bi In Zn Cd Au oth.
S/L
US plumbing industry
standard. It displays
good resistance to
Forms coarse
dendrites of tin-rich
SbSn intermetallic
dispersed between.
temperature ductility.
glide of dislocations
creep-resistant than
sealing chip
[20]
235/240 packagings, attaching
Sn95Sb5 no 95 5
[21]
232/240 I/O pins to ceramic
attachment; a possible
lower-temperature
replacement of
[16]
AuSn. High
conditioning,
refrigeration, some
high-temperature
[25]
applications. Good
potable water
stained glass,
repairs.
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M.P. C
Composition Toxic Eutectic Comments Sn Pb Ag Cu Sb Bi In Zn Cd Au oth.
S/L
[67]
Sn97Sb3 232/238 no 97 3
[68]
Sn99Sb1 232/235 no 99 1
Patented by
Sn88In8.0Ag3.5Bi0.5 197208 88 3.5 0.5 8
Matsushita/Panasonic.
Addition of silver
improves mechanical
strength. Established
137/139
Bi57Sn42Ag1 history of use. Good 42 1 57
[69]
139/140
thermal fatigue
performance.
Patented by Motorola.
[20][22]
Bi58Sn42 138 yes Bi58. Reasonable 42 58
fatigue properties.
Combination with
dramatically lower
Low-temperature
Particularly strong,
[20]
very brittle. Used
extensively in
through-hole
technology assemblies
in IBM mainframe
soldering temperature
used as a coating of
copper particles to
under pressure/heat
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M.P. C
Composition Toxic Eutectic Comments Sn Pb Ag Cu Sb Bi In Zn Cd Au oth.
S/L
and creating a
conductive
[63]
metallurgical joint.
Sensitive to shear
electronics. Used in
thermoelectric
applications. Good
thermal fatigue
[70]
performance.
Established history of
on casting, then
further shrinkage or
expansion, unlike
temperature alloys
which continue
changing dimensions
[71]
Bi58Pb42 124/126 Pb 42 58
be used in step
soldering.
[21]
leaching. Good
Pb60In40 195/225 Pb no 60 40
thermal fatigue
properties.
[21]
Pb70In30 245/260 Pb no In30 70 30
[21]
Sn37.5Pb37.5In26 134/181 Pb no In26 37.5 37.5 26
[21]
130/154
Sn54Pb26In20 Pb no In20 54 26 20
[73]
140/152
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M.P. C
Composition Toxic Eutectic Comments Sn Pb Ag Cu Sb Bi In Zn Cd Au oth.
S/L
properties.
temperature soldering
Good wettability of
low-temperature
malleability, can
compensate for
different thermal
expansion coefcients
of joined materials.
[20]
very low tensile
Sn52In48 118/131 no 52 48
strength
[75]
Sn58In42 118/145 no 58 42
General-purpose.
[76]
Maintains creep
Sn51.2Pb30.6Cd18.2 145 Pb,Cd yes 51.2 30.6 18.2
strength well.
Similar mechanical
properties with
Sn63Pb37,
Sn62Pb36Ag2 and
lead-free replacement.
[78]
In74Cd26 123 Cd yes 74 26
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M.P. C
Composition Toxic Eutectic Comments Sn Pb Ag Cu Sb Bi In Zn Cd Au oth.
S/L
[79]
In61.7Bi30.8Cd7.5 62 Cd yes 30.8 61.7 7.5
[80]
Bi47.5Pb25.4Sn12.6Cd9.5In5 57/65 Pb,Cd no 12.6 25.4 47.5 5 9.5
[81]
Bi48Pb25.4Sn12.8Cd9.6In4 61/65 Pb,Cd no 12.8 25.4 48 9.6
[82]
Bi49Pb18Sn15In18 58/69 Pb no 15 18 49 18
expands on cooling,
shrinkage in couple
hours afterwards.
Bi49Pb18Sn12In21 58 Pb yes 12 18 49 21
Used as a solder in
low-temperature
[40]
physics. Also the
ChipQuik desoldering
[83]
alloy.
[84]
Bi50.5Pb27.8Sn12.4Cd9.3 70/73 Pb,Cd no 12.4 27.8 50.5 9.3
Cerrobend. Used in
a solder in low-
Bi44.7Pb22.6In19.1Cd5.3Sn8.3 47 Cd,Pb yes 8.3 22.6 44.7 19.1 5.3
temperature
[40]
physics.
[20]
In60Sn40 113/122 no 40 60
Bi49.5Pb27.3Sn13.1Cd10.1 70.9 Pb,Cd yes Lipowitz Metal 13.1 27.3 49.5 10.1
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M.P. C
Composition Toxic Eutectic Comments Sn Pb Ag Cu Sb Bi In Zn Cd Au oth.
S/L
cooling.
ChipQuik desoldering
Bi56Sn30In14 79/91 no 30 56 14
[85]
alloy, lead-free
KappTec General
metals except
Aluminum. High
temperature, high
strength solder. It is
[86]
Cd95Ag5 338/393 Cd no used in applications 5 95
strength of Silver-
Medium temperature
strong, corrosion-
resistant joints on
[87]
most metals. Also
for soldering
electrical potential
leads to specimens of
superconductive at
liquid helium
[40]
temperatures.
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M.P. C
Composition Toxic Eutectic Comments Sn Pb Ag Cu Sb Bi In Zn Cd Au oth.
S/L
Medium temperature
strong, corrosion-
resistant joints on
especially well on
Aluminum-to-
Aluminum and
[87]
Aluminum-to-Copper
Cd70Zn30 265/300 Cd no 30 70
joints, with excellent
corrosion resistance
high stress
applications in
electronics, lighting
and electrical
[87]
products.
Medium temperature
strong, corrosion-
resistant joints on
especially well on
Aluminum-to-
Aluminum and
[87]
Aluminum-to-Copper
Cd60Zn40 265/316 Cd no 40 60
joints, with excellent
corrosion resistance
high stress
applications in
electronics, lighting
and electrical
[87]
products.
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M.P. C
Composition Toxic Eutectic Comments Sn Pb Ag Cu Sb Bi In Zn Cd Au oth.
S/L
KappTecZ High
temperature, high
extremely well on
solder is extremely
[89]
KappRad
Developed specically
Aluminum and
[89]
Aluminum/Copper
Sn40Zn27Cd33 176/260 Cd no 40 27 33
radiators and heat
exchangers. A lower
For soldering
For soldering
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M.P. C
Composition Toxic Eutectic Comments Sn Pb Ag Cu Sb Bi In Zn Cd Au oth.
S/L
Cd70, thermal-free
[21]
copper, does not form
Cd70Sn30 140/160 Cd no 29.56 70.44
parasitic
thermocouples. Used
in low-temperature
[40]
physics.
[21]
Sn50Pb32Cd18 145 Cd,Pb Cd18 50 32 18
Low melting
temperature allows
[90]
Sn40Pb42Cd18 145 Cd,Pb repairing pewter and 40 42 18
die-cast toys.
For soldering
aluminium. Excellent
Zn70Sn30 199/376 no 30 70
[47]
wetting. Good
strength.
For soldering
For soldering
[91]
Sn90Au10 217 yes 90 10
resistance, high
thermal conductivity,
attachment of metal
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M.P. C
Composition Toxic Eutectic Comments Sn Pb Ag Cu Sb Bi In Zn Cd Au oth.
S/L
lids to semiconductor
carriers. Coefcient of
expansion matching
many common
pressure to form a
As some gold
surfaces during
the composition to
increase of Au content
point by 30C),
subsequent
desoldering requires
higher
[92]
temperature.
Forms a mixture of
two brittle
intermetallic phases,
[93]
AuSn and Au5Sn.
achieved usually by
joint.
Comprehensively
tested through
military standard
environmental
conditioning. Good
long-term electrical
performance, history
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M.P. C
Composition Toxic Eutectic Comments Sn Pb Ag Cu Sb Bi In Zn Cd Au oth.
S/L
[38]
of reliability. One
for soldering in
optoelectronic devices
and components
[94]
packaging. Low
vapor pressure,
in applications that
require a melting
temperature over
[95]
150C. Good
ductility. Also
classied as a braze.
Au98. A non-eutectic
attachment of silicon
dies. Ultrasonic
[21]
Au98Si2 370/800 assistance is needed 98 Si2
surface so a eutectic
reow.
[92]
Au97. AuSi3.2 is a
forms a meniscus at
composite material
structure of submicron
slow crack
[55]
propagation.
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M.P. C
Composition Toxic Eutectic Comments Sn Pb Ag Cu Sb Bi In Zn Cd Au oth.
S/L
attachment of some
[20]
chips. The high
[21]
Au87.5Ge12.5 361 356 yes temperature may be 87.5 Ge12.5
detrimental to the
Au82. High-
[21]
temperature,
Au82In18 451/485 no 18 82
extremely hard, very
stiff.
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M.P. C
Composition Toxic Eutectic Comments Sn Pb Ag Cu Sb Bi In Zn Cd Au oth.
S/L
attachment of some
dissolution rate of
than in tin-based
of gold can be
tolerated without
signicant
embrittlement. Good
performance at
cryogenic
[97]
temperatures.
many ceramics.
Deforms indenitely
low temperatures.
Used as a solder in
low-temperature
aluminium. Can be
glass with an
ultrasonic soldering
[40]
iron.
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M.P. C
Composition Toxic Eutectic Comments Sn Pb Ag Cu Sb Bi In Zn Cd Au oth.
S/L
C-Solder. Lead-free,
low-temperature
joining of various
carbon materials
metal arrangements.
[98]
Produces
Sn90.7Ag3.6Cu0.7Cr5 217/1050 no 90.7 3.6 0.7 Cr5
mechanically strong
and electrically
conductive bonds.
Provides wetting of
[99]
carbon and other
materials generally
considered as difcult
to solder, including
aluminium, stainless
[20]
Temperature ranges for solidus and liquidus (the boundaries of the mushy state) are listed as solidus/liquidus.
[20]
In the Sn-Pb alloys, tensile strength increases with increasing tin content. Indium-tin alloys with high indium content have very low tensile strength.
For soldering semiconductor materials, e.g. die attachment of silicon, germanium and gallium arsenide, it is important that the solder contains no
impurities that could cause doping in the wrong direction. For soldering n-type semiconductors, solder may be doped with antimony; indium may be
[47]
added for soldering p-type semiconductors. Pure tin and pure gold can be used.
Various fusible alloys can be used as solders with very low melting points; examples include Field's metal, Lipowitz's alloy, Wood's metal, and Rose's
metal.
Properties
3 [101][102]
The thermal conductivity of common solders ranges from 32 to 94 W/(mK), and the density from 9.25 to 15.00g/cm .
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[102] [102]
Thermal conductivity Melting point
Material
[W/(mK)] [C]
Pb-5Sn 63 310
FR-4 1.7
Solidifying
The solidifying behavior depends on the alloy composition. Pure metals solidify at a certain temperature, forming crystals of one phase. Eutectic alloys
also solidify at a single temperature, all components precipitating simultaneously in so-called coupled growth. Non-eutectic compositions on cooling
start to rst precipitate the non-eutectic phase; dendrites when it is a metal, large crystals when it is an intermetallic compound. Such a mixture of solid
particles in a molten eutectic is referred to as a mushy state. Even a relatively small proportion of solids in the liquid can dramatically lower its
[56]
uidity.
The temperature of total solidication is the solidus of the alloy, the temperature at which all components are molten is the liquidus.
The mushy state is desired where a degree of plasticity is benecial for creating the joint, allowing lling larger gaps or being wiped over the joint (e.g.
when soldering pipes). In hand soldering of electronics it may be detrimental as the joint may appear solidied while it is not yet. Premature handling of
such joint then disrupts its internal structure and leads to compromised mechanical integrity.
Antimony is added to increase strength without affecting wettability. Prevents tin pest. Should be avoided on zinc, cadmium, or galvanized metals
[26]
as the resulting joint is brittle.
Bismuth signicantly lowers the melting point and improves wettability. In presence of sufcient lead and tin, bismuth forms crystals of
Sn Pb Bi with melting point of only 95C, which diffuses along the grain boundaries and may cause a joint failure at relatively low
16 32 52
temperatures. A high-power part pre-tinned with an alloy of lead can therefore desolder under load when soldered with a bismuth-containing
solder. Such joints are also prone to cracking. Alloys with more than 47% Bi expand upon cooling, which may be used to offset thermal expansion
mismatch stresses. Retards growth of tin whiskers. Relatively expensive, limited availability.
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Copper lowers the melting point, improves resistance to thermal cycle fatigue, and improves wetting properties of the molten solder. It also slows
down the rate of dissolution of copper from the board and part leads in the liquid solder. Forms intermetallic compounds. May promote growth of
tin whiskers. Supersaturated (by about 1%) solution of copper in tin may be employed to inhibit dissolution of thin-lm under-bump metallization
[103]
of BGA chips, e.g. as Sn Ag Cu .
94 3 3
[103]
Nickel can be added to the solder alloy to form a supersaturated solution to inhibit dissolution of thin-lm under-bump metallization.
Indium lowers the melting point and improves ductility. In presence of lead it forms a ternary compound that undergoes phase change at 114C.
Very high cost (several times of silver), low availability. Easily oxidizes, which causes problems for repairs and reworks, especially when oxide-
removing ux cannot be used, e.g. during GaAs die attachment. Indium alloys are used for cryogenic applications, and for soldering gold as gold
dissolves in indium much less than in tin. Indium can also solder many nonmetals (e.g. glass, mica, alumina, magnesia, titania, zirconia, porcelain,
brick, concrete, and marble). Prone to diffusion into semiconductors and cause undesired doping. At elevated temperatures easily diffuses
through metals. Low vapor pressure, suitable for use in vacuum systems. Forms brittle intermetallics with gold; indium-rich solders on thick gold
[104]
are unreliable. Indium-based solders are prone to corrosion, especially in presence of chloride ions.
Lead is inexpensive and has suitable properties. Worse wetting than tin. Toxic, being phased out. Retards growth of tin whiskers, inhibits tin pest.
Silver provides mechanical strength, but has worse ductility than lead. In absence of lead, it improves resistance to fatigue from thermal cycles.
Using SnAg solders with HASL-SnPb-coated leads forms SnPb Ag phase with melting point at 179C, which moves to the board-solder
36 2
[6]
interface, solidies last, and separates from the board. Addition of silver to tin signicantly lowers solubility of silver coatings in the tin phase. In
eutectic tin-silver (3.5% Ag) alloy it tends to form platelets of Ag Sn, which, if formed near a high-stress spot, may serve as initiating sites for
3
[103]
cracks; silver content needs to be kept below 3% to inhibit such problems.
Tin is the usual main structural metal of the alloy. It has good strength and wetting. On its own it is prone to tin pest, tin cry, and growth of tin
whiskers. Readily dissolves silver, gold and to less but still signicant extent many other metals, e.g. copper; this is a particular concern for tin-rich
Zinc lowers the melting point and is low-cost. However it is highly susceptible to corrosion and oxidation in air, therefore zinc-containing alloys
are unsuitable for some purposes, e.g. wave soldering, and zinc-containing solder pastes have shorter shelf life than zinc-free. Can form brittle Cu-
Zn intermetallic layers in contact with copper. Readily oxidizes which impairs wetting, requires a suitable ux.
Germanium in tin-based lead-free solders inuences formation of oxides; at below 0.002% it increases formation of oxides. Optimal concentration
[105]
for suppressing oxidation is at 0.005%.
Impurities in solders
Impurities usually enter the solder reservoir by dissolving the metals present in the assemblies being soldered. Dissolving of process equipment is not
[106]
common as the materials are usually chosen to be insoluble in solder.
Aluminium little solubility, causes sluggishness of solder and dull gritty appearance due to formation of oxides. Addition of antimony to solders
Antimony added intentionally, up to 0.3% improves wetting, larger amounts slowly degrade wetting
Arsenic forms thin intermetallics with adverse effects on mechanical properties, causes dewetting of brass surfaces
Copper most common contaminant, forms needle-shaped intermetallics, causes sluggishness of solders, grittiness of alloys, decreased wetting
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Gold easily dissolves, forms brittle intermetallics, contamination above 0.5% causes sluggishness and decreases wetting. Lowers melting point
[52]
of tin-based solders. Higher-tin alloys can absorb more gold without embrittlement.
[7]
Iron forms intermetallics, causes grittiness, but rate of dissolution is very low; readily dissolves in lead-tin above 427C.
Phosphorus forms tin and lead phosphides, causes grittiness and dewetting, present in electroless nickel plating
Silver often added intentionally, in high amounts forms intermetallics that cause grittiness and formation of pimples on the solder surface
Zinc in melt forms excessive dross, in solidied joints rapidly oxidizes on the surface; zinc oxide is insoluble in uxes, impairing repairability;
copper and nickel barrier layers may be needed when soldering brass to prevent zinc migration to the surface
Intermetallics in solders
[106]
Many different intermetallic compounds are formed during solidifying of solders and during their reactions with the soldered surfaces.
The intermetallics form distinct phases, usually as inclusions in a ductile solid solution matrix, but also can form the matrix itself with metal inclusions or
form crystalline matter with different intermetallics. Intermetallics are often hard and brittle. Finely distributed intermetallics in a ductile matrix yield a
hard alloy while coarse structure gives a softer alloy. A range of intermetallics often forms between the metal and the solder, with increasing proportion
Layers of intermetallics can form between the solder and the soldered material. These layers may cause mechanical reliability weakening and
brittleness, increased electrical resistance, or electromigration and formation of voids. The gold-tin intermetallics layer is responsible for poor
mechanical reliability of tin-soldered gold-plated surfaces where the gold plating did not completely dissolve in the solder.
Gold and palladium readily dissolve in solders. Copper and nickel tend to form intermetallic layers during normal soldering proles. Indium forms
intermetallics as well.
Indium-gold intermetallics are brittle and occupy about 4 times more volume than the original gold. Bonding wires are especially susceptible to indium
[107]
attack. Such intermetallic growth, together with thermal cycling, can lead to failure of the bonding wires.
Copper plated with nickel and gold is often used. The thin gold layer facilitates good solderability of nickel as it protects the nickel from oxidation; the
[16]
layer has to be thin enough to rapidly and completely dissolve so bare nickel is exposed to the solder.
Lead-tin solder layers on copper leads can form copper-tin intermetallic layers; the solder alloy is then locally depleted of tin and form a lead-rich layer.
[108]
The Sn-Cu intermetallics then can get exposed to oxidation, resulting in impaired solderability.
Two processes play a role in a solder joint formation: interaction between the substrate and molten solder, and solid-state growth of intermetallic
compounds. The base metal dissolves in the molten solder in an amount depending on its solubility in the solder. The active constituent of the solder
reacts with the base metal with a rate dependent on the solubility of the active constituents in the base metal. The solid-state reactions are more
complex the formation of intermetallics can be inhibited by changing the composition of the base metal or the solder alloy, or by using a suitable
[109]
barrier layer to inhibit diffusion of the metals.
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Antimony SbSn
Bismuth BiPb3
Palladium Pd3Sn, Pd2Sn, Pd3Sn2, PdSn, PdSn2, PdSn4 Pd3In, Pd2In, PdIn Pd2In3
Platinum Pt3Sn, Pt2Sn, PtSn, Pt2Sn3, PtSn2, PtSn4 Pt3Pb, PtPb PtPb4 Pt2In3, PtIn2, Pt3In7
Cu Sn common on solder-copper interface, forms preferentially when excess of tin is available; in presence of nickel (Cu,Ni) Sn compound can
6 5 6 5
be formed
Cu Sn common on solder-copper interface, forms preferentially when excess of copper is available, more thermally stable than Cu Sn , often
3 6 5
Ag Sn- at higher concentration of silver (over 3%) in tin forms platelets that can serve as crack initiation sites.
3
AuSn
4
-phase brittle, forms at excess of tin. Detrimental to properties of tin-based solders to gold-plated layers.
AuIn forms on the boundary between gold and indium-lead solder, acts as a barrier against further dissolution of gold
2
Glass solder
Glass solders are used to join glasses to other glasses, ceramics, metals, semiconductors, mica, and other materials, in a process called glass frit
bonding. The glass solder has to ow and wet the soldered surfaces well below the temperature where deformation or degradation of either of the
joined materials or nearby structures (e.g., metallization layers on chips or ceramic substrates) occurs. The usual temperature of achieving owing and
Two types of glass solders are used: vitreous, and devitrifying. Vitreous solders retain their amorphous structure during remelting, can be reworked
repeatedly, and are relatively transparent. Devitrifying solders undergo partial crystallization during solidifying, forming a glass-ceramic, a composite of
glassy and crystalline phases. Devitrifying solders usually create a stronger mechanical bond, but are more temperature-sensitive and the seal is more
[110]
likely to be leaky; due to their polycrystalline structure they tend to be translucent or opaque. Devitrifying solders are frequently "thermosetting",
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as their melting temperature after recrystallization becomes signicantly higher; this allows soldering the parts together at lower temperature than the
subsequent bake-out without remelting the joint afterwards. Devitrifying solders frequently contain up to 25% zinc oxide. In production of cathode ray
Very low temperature melting glasses, uid at 200400C, were developed for sealing applications for electronics. They can consist of binary or
[111]
ternary mixtures of thallium, arsenic and sulfur. Zinc-silicoborate glasses can also be used for passivation of electronics; their coefcient of thermal
expansion must match silicon (or the other semiconductors used) and they must not contain alkaline metals as those would migrate to the
[112]
semiconductor and cause failures.
[113]
The bonding between the glass or ceramics and the glass solder can be either covalent, or, more often, van der Waals. The seal can be leak-tight;
glass soldering is frequently used in vacuum technology. Glass solders can be also used as sealants; a vitreous enamel coating on iron lowered its
[114]
permeability to hydrogen 10 times. Glass solders are frequently used for glass-to-metal seals and glass-ceramic-to-metal seals.
Glass solders are available as frit powder with grain size below 60 micrometers. They can be mixed with water or alcohol to form a paste for easy
[115]
application, or with dissolved nitrocellulose or other suitable binder for adhering to the surfaces until being melted. The eventual binder has to be
burned off before melting proceeds, requiring careful ring regime. The solder glass can be also applied from molten state to the area of the future joint
during manufacture of the part. Due to their low viscosity in molten state, lead glasses with high PbO content (often 7085%) are frequently used. The
most common compositions are based on lead borates (leaded borate glass or borosilicate glass). Smaller amount of zinc oxide or aluminium oxide can
be added for increasing chemical stability. Phosphate glasses can be also employed. Zinc oxide, bismuth trioxide, and copper(II) oxide can be added for
inuencing the thermal expansion; unlike the alkali oxides, these lower the softening point without increasing of thermal expansion.
Glass solders are frequently used in electronic packaging. CERDIP packagings are an example. Outgassing of water from the glass solder during
encapsulation was a cause of high failure rates of early CERDIP integrated circuits. Removal of glass-soldered ceramic covers, e.g., for gaining access to
[116]
the chip for failure analysis or reverse engineering, is best done by shearing; if this is too risky, the cover is polished away instead.
As the seals can be performed at much lower temperature than with direct joining of glass parts and without use of ame (using a temperature-
controlled kiln or oven), glass solders are useful in applications like subminiature vacuum tubes or for joining mica windows to vacuum tubes and
instruments (e.g., Geiger tube). Thermal expansion coefcient has to be matched to the materials being joined and often is chosen in between the
coefcients of expansion of the materials. In case of having to compromise, subjecting the joint to compression stresses is more desirable than to
tensile stresses. The expansion matching is not critical in applications where thin layers are used on small areas, e.g., reable inks, or where the joint will
[111]
be subjected to a permanent compression (e.g., by an external steel shell) offsetting the thermally introduced tensile stresses.
Glass solder can be used as an intermediate layer when joining materials (glasses, ceramics) with signicantly different coefcient of thermal
[117] [118]
expansion; such materials cannot be directly joined by diffusion welding. Evacuated glazing windows are made of glass panels soldered together.
A glass solder is used, e.g., for joining together parts of cathode ray tubes and plasma display panels. Newer compositions lowered the usage
temperature from 450 to 390C by reducing the lead(II) oxide content down from 70%, increasing the zinc oxide content, adding titanium dioxide and
bismuth(III) oxide and some other components. The high thermal expansion of such glass can be reduced by a suitable ceramic ller. Lead-free solder
Phosphate glasses with low melting temperature were developed. One of such compositions is phosphorus pentoxide, lead(II) oxide, and zinc oxide, with
[119]
addition of lithium and some other oxides.
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Preform
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A preform is a pre-made shape of solder specially designed for the application where it is to be used. Many methods are used to manufacture the
solder preform, stamping being the most common. The solder preform may include the solder ux needed for the soldering process. This can be an
[121]
internal ux, inside the solder preform, or external, with the solder preform coated.
See also
Body solder
RoHS
Solderability
Solder mask
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External links
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