Pile Foundation Design A Student Guide
Pile Foundation Design A Student Guide
Pile Foundation Design A Student Guide
Test piles
Factors of safety
1.2 Historical
1.4.1 Classification of pile with respect to load transmission and functional behaviour
2.1 Introduction
4.1 Introduction
8.1 Introduction
8.3.2 Underreaming
8.3.3 C.H.P
9.1 Introduction
Objectives: Texts dealing with geotechnical and ground engineering techniques classify piles in a number of ways. The objective of this
unit is that in order to help the undergraduate student understand these classifications using materials extracted from several sources,
this chapter gives an introduction to pile foundations.
Pile foundations are the part of a structure used to carry and transfer the load of the structure to the bearing ground located at some
depth below ground surface. The main components of the foundation are the pile cap and the piles. Piles are long and slender members
which transfer the load to deeper soil or rock of high bearing capacity avoiding shallow soil of low bearing capacity The main types of
materials used for piles are Wood, steel and concrete. Piles made from these materials are driven, drilled or jacked into the ground and
connected to pile caps. Depending upon type of soil, pile material and load transmitting characteristic piles are classified accordingly. In
the following chapter we learn about, classifications, functions and pros and cons of piles.
1.2 Historical
Pile foundations have been used as load carrying and load transferring systems for many years.
In the early days of civilisation[2], from the communication, defence or strategic point of view villages and towns were situated near to
rivers and lakes. It was therefore important to strengthen the bearing ground with some form of piling.
Timber piles were driven in to the ground by hand or holes were dug and filled with sand and stones.
In 1740 Christoffoer Polhem invented pile driving equipment which resembled to days pile driving mechanism. Steel piles have been used
since 1800 and concrete piles since about 1900.
The industrial revolution brought about important changes to pile driving system through the invention of steam and diesel driven
machines.
More recently, the growing need for housing and construction has forced authorities and development agencies to exploit lands with poor
soil characteristics. This has led to the development and improved piles and pile driving systems. Today there are many advanced
techniques of pile installation.
A structure can be founded on piles if the soil immediately beneath its base does not have adequate bearing capacity. If the results of site
investigation show that the shallow soil is unstable and weak or if the magnitude of the estimated settlement is not acceptable a pile
foundation may become considered. Further, a cost estimate may indicate that a pile foundation may be cheaper than any other
compared ground improvement costs.
In the cases of heavy constructions, it is likely that the bearing capacity of the shallow soil will not be satisfactory, and the construction
should be built on
pile foundations. Piles can also be used in normal ground conditions to resist horizontal loads. Piles are a convenient method of
foundation for works over water, such as jetties or bridge piers.
1.4.1 Classification of pile with respect to load transmission and functional behaviour
These piles transfer their load on to a firm stratum located at a considerable depth below the base of the structure and they derive most of
their carrying capacity from the penetration resistance of the soil at the toe of the pile (see figure 1.1). The pile behaves as an ordinary
column and should be designed as such. Even in weak soil a pile will not fail by buckling and this effect need only be considered if part of
the pile is unsupported, i.e. if it is in either air or water. Load is transmitted to the soil through friction or cohesion. But sometimes, the soil
surrounding the pile may adhere to the surface of the pile and causes "Negative Skin Friction" on the pile. This, sometimes have
considerable effect on the capacity of the pile. Negative skin friction is caused by the drainage of the ground water and consolidation of
the soil. The founding depth of the pile is influenced by the results of the site investigate on and soil test.
Carrying capacity is derived mainly from the adhesion or friction of the soil in contact with the shaft of the pile (see fig 1.2).
Figure 1-1 End bearing piles Figure 1-2 Friction or cohesion pile
These piles transmit most of their load to the soil through skin friction. This process of driving such piles close to each other in groups
greatly reduces the porosity and compressibility of the soil within and around the groups. Therefore piles of this category are some times
called compaction piles. During the process of driving the pile into the ground, the soil becomes moulded and, as a result loses some of
its strength. Therefore the pile is not able to transfer the exact amount of load which it is intended to immediately after it has been driven.
Usually, the soil regains some of its strength three to five months after it has been driven.
An extension of the end bearing pile when the bearing stratum is not hard, such as a firm clay. The pile is driven far enough into the lower
material to develop adequate frictional resistance. A farther variation of the end bearing pile is piles with enlarged bearing areas. This is
achieved by forcing a bulb of concrete into the soft stratum immediately above the firm layer to give an enlarged base. A similar effect is
produced with bored piles by forming a large cone or bell at the bottom with a special reaming tool. Bored piles which are provided with a
bell have a high tensile strength and can be used as tension piles (see fig.1-3)
Timber
Concrete
Steel
Composite piles
Used from earliest record time and still used for permanent works in regions where timber is plentiful. Timber is most suitable for long
cohesion piling and piling beneath embankments. The timber should be in a good condition and should not have been attacked by
insects. For timber piles of length less than 14 meters, the diameter of the tip should be greater than 150 mm. If the length is greater than
18 meters a tip with a diameter of 125 mm is acceptable. It is essential that the timber is driven in the right direction and should not be
driven into firm ground. As this can easily damage the pile. Keeping the timber below the ground water level will protect the timber against
decay and putrefaction. To protect and strengthen the tip of the pile, timber piles can be provided with toe cover. Pressure creosoting is
the usual method of protecting timber piles.
Pre cast concrete Piles or Pre fabricated concrete piles : Usually of square (see fig 1-4 b), triangle, circle or octagonal section, they are
produced in short length in one metre intervals between 3 and 13 meters. They are pre-caste so that they can be easily connected
together in order to reach to the required length (fig 1-4 a) . This will not decrease the design load capacity. Reinforcement is necessary
within the pile to help withstand both handling and driving stresses. Pre stressed concrete piles are also used and are becoming more
popular than the ordinary pre cast as less reinforcement is required .
Figure 1-4 a) concrete pile connecting detail. b) squared pre-cast concert pile
The Hercules type of pile joint (Figure 1-5) is easily and accurately cast into the pile and is quickly and safely joined on site. They are
made to accurate dimensional tolerances from high grade steels.
Two of the main types used in the UK are: Wests shell pile : Pre cast, reinforced concrete tubes, about 1 m long, are threaded on to a
steel mandrel and driven into the ground after a concrete shoe has been placed at the front of the shells. Once the shells have been
driven to specified depth the mandrel is withdrawn and reinforced concrete inserted in the core. Diameters vary from 325 to 600 mm.
Franki Pile: A steel tube is erected vertically over the place where the pile is to be driven, and about a metre depth of gravel is placed at
the end of the tube. A drop hammer, 1500 to 4000kg mass, compacts the aggregate into a solid plug which then penetrates the soil and
takes the steel tube down with it. When the required depth has been achieved the tube is raised slightly and the aggregate broken out.
Dry concrete is now added and hammered until a bulb is formed. Reinforcement is placed in position and more dry concrete is placed and
rammed until the pile top comes up to ground level.
Steel piles: (figure 1.4) steel/ Iron piles are suitable for handling and driving in long lengths. Their relatively small cross-sectional area
combined with their high strength makes penetration easier in firm soil. They can be easily cut off or joined by welding. If the pile is driven
into a soil with low pH value, then there is a risk of corrosion, but risk of corrosion is not as great as one might think. Although tar coating
or cathodic protection can be employed in permanent works.
It is common to allow for an amount of corrosion in design by simply over dimensioning the cross-sectional area of the steel pile. In this
way the corrosion process can be prolonged up to 50 years. Normally the speed of corrosion is 0.2-0.5 mm/year and, in design, this value
can be taken as 1mm/year
Combination of different materials in the same of pile. As indicated earlier, part of a timber pile which is installed above ground water
could be vulnerable to insect attack and decay. To avoid this, concrete or steel pile is used above the ground water level, whilst wood pile
is installed under the ground water level (see figure 1.7).
Figure 1-7 Protecting timber piles from decay:
a) by pre-cast concrete upper section above water level.
b) by extending pile cap below water level
Driven piles are considered to be displacement piles. In the process of driving the pile into the ground, soil is moved radially as the pile
shaft enters the ground. There may also be a component of movement of the soil in the vertical direction.
Figure 1-8 driven piles
Bored piles(Replacement piles) are generally considered to be non-displacement piles a void is formed by boring or excavation before
piles is produced. Piles can be produced by casting concrete in the void. Some soils such as stiff clays are particularly amenable to the
formation of piles in this way, since the bore hole walls do not requires temporary support except cloth to the ground surface. In unstable
ground, such as gravel the ground requires temporary support from casing or bentonite slurry. Alternatively the casing may be permanent,
but driven into a hole which is bored as casing is advanced. A different technique, which is still essentially non-displacement, is to
intrude,a grout or a concrete from an auger which is rotated into the granular soil, and hence produced a grouted column of soil.
There are three non-displacement methods: bored cast- in - place piles, particularly pre-formed piles and grout or concrete intruded piles.
Augered
Large-diameter under-reamed
Drilled-in tubes
Mini piles
Figure 1-8. for a quick understanding of pile classification, a hierarchical representation of pile types can be used. Also advantages and
disadvantages of different pile materials is given in section 1.6.
Figure 1-9 hierarchical representation of pile types
Wood piles
-- The piles will rot above the ground water level. Have a limited bearing capacity.
-- The piles are difficult to splice and are attacked by marine borers in salt water.
Prefabricated concrete piles (reinforced) and pre stressed concrete piles. (driven) affected by the ground water conditions.
+ Stable in squeezing ground, for example, soft clays, silts and peats pile material can be inspected before piling.
+ Can be re driven if affected by ground heave. Construction procedure unaffected by ground water.
+ Can be driven in long lengths. Can be carried above ground level, for example, through water for marine structures.
+ Can be inspected before casting can easily be cut or extended to the desired length.
+ Relatively inexpensive.
+ An enlarged base can be formed which can increase the relative density of a granular founding stratum leading to much higher end
bearing capacity.
-- Heave of neighbouring ground surface, which could lead to re consolidation and the development of negative skin friction forces on
piles.
-- Displacement of nearby retaining walls. Lifting of previously driven piles, where the penetration at the toe have been sufficient to resist
upward movements.
-- Tensile damage to unreinforced piles or piles consisting of green concrete, where forces at the toe have been sufficient to resist upward
movements.
-- Damage piles consisting of uncased or thinly cased green concrete due to the lateral forces set up in the soil, for example, necking or
waisting. Concrete cannot be inspected after completion. Concrete may be weakened if artesian flow pipes up shaft of piles when tube is
withdrawn.
-- Light steel section or Precast concrete shells may be damaged or distorted by hard driving.
-- Limitation in length owing to lifting forces required to withdraw casing, nose vibration and ground displacement may a nuisance or may
damage adjacent structures.
-- Relatively expensive.
-- Limited length.
+ Soil removed in boring can be inspected and if necessary sampled or in- situ test made.
-- Cannot be readily extended above ground level especially in river and marine structures.
-- Boring methods may loosen sandy or gravely soils requiring base grouting to achieve economical base resistance.
-- Sinking piles may cause loss of ground I cohesion-less leading to settlement of adjacent structures.
+ The piles are easy to handle and can easily be cut to desired length.
+ Can be driven through dense layers. The lateral displacement of the soil during driving is low (steel section H or I section piles) can be
relatively easily spliced or bolted.
+ Small displacement piles particularly useful if ground displacements and disturbance critical.
- Task
LOAD ON PILES
2.1 Introduction
This section of the guide is divided into two parts. The first part gives brief summary on basic pile arrangements
while part two deals with load distribution on individual piles.
Piles can be arranged in a number of ways so that they can support load imposed on them. Vertical piles can be
designed to carry vertical loads as well as lateral loads. If required, vertical piles can be combined with raking piles
to support horizontal and vertical forces.
often, if a pile group is subjected to vertical force, then the calculation of load distribution on single pile that is
member of the group is assumed to be the total load divided by the number of piles in the group. However if a
group of piles is subjected to lateral load or eccentric vertical load or combination of vertical and lateral load which
can cause moment force on the group which should be taken into account during calculation of load distribution.
In the second part of this section, piles are considered to be part of the structure and force distribution on
individual piles is calculated accordingly.
Objective: In the first part of this section, considering group of piles with limited number of piles subjected to
vertical and lateral forces, forces acting centrally or eccentrically, we learn how these forces are distributed on
individual piles.
The worked examples are intended to give easy follow through exercise that can help quick understanding of pile
design both single and group of piles. In the second part, the comparison made between different methods used
in pile design will enable students to appreciate the theoretical background of the methods while exercising pile
designing.
Learning outcome
Calculate load distribution on group of piles consist of vertical piles subjected to eccentric vertical
load.
Calculate load distribution on vertically arranged piles subjected to lateral and vertical forces.
Calculate load distribution on vertical and raking piles subjected to horizontal and eccentric
vertical loads.
Calculate load distribution on symmetrically arranged vertical and raking piles subjected to vertical
and lateral forces
Normally, pile foundations consist of pile cap and a group of piles. The pile cap distributes the applied load to the
individual piles which, in turn,. transfer the load to the bearing ground. The individual piles are spaced and
connected to the pile cap or tie beams and trimmed in order to connect the pile to the structure at cut-off level,
and depending on the type of structure and eccentricity of the load, they can be arranged in different patterns.
Figure 2.1 bellow illustrates the three basic formation of pile groups.
a) PILE GROUP CONSIST OF ONLY b) PILE GROUP CONSIST OF BOTH c) SYMMETRICALLY ARRANGED
VERTICAL PILES VERTICAL AND RAKING PILES VERTICAL AND RAKING PILES
LOAD DISTRIBUTION
To a great extent the design and calculation (load analysis) of pile foundations is carried out using
computer software. For some special cases, calculations can be carried out using the following
methods?...For a simple understanding of the method, let us assume that the following conditions
are satisfied:
Each pile receives the load only vertically (i.e. axially applied );
The force P acting on the pile is proportional to the displacement U due to compression
P = k.U 3.1
Since P = E.A
3.3
where:
k = material constant
U = displacement
The length L should not necessarily be equal to the actual length of the pile. In a group of piles, If all piles
are of the same material, have same cross-sectional area and equal length L , then the value of k is the
same for all piles in the group.
Let us assume that the vertical load on the pile group results in vertical, lateral and torsion movements.
Further, let us assume that for each pile in the group, these movements are small and are caused by the
component of the vertical load experienced by the pile. The formulae in the forthcoming sections which
are used in the calculation of pile loads, are based on these assumptions.
3.1 Pile foundations: vertical piles only
Here the pile cap is causing the vertical compression U, whose magnitude is equal for all members of the
group. If Q (the vertical force acting on the pile group) is applied at the neutral axis of the pile group, then
the force on a single pile will be as follows :
3.4
where:
Pv = vertical component of the load on any pile from the resultant load Q
If the same group of piles are subjected to an eccentric load Q which is causing rotation around axis z
(see fig 3.1); then for the pile i at distance rxi from axis z:
3.5
rxi positive measured the same direction as e and negative when in the opposite direction.
e = distance between point of intersection of resultant of vertical and horizontal loading with underside of pile (see
figure 3.8)
The sum of all the forces acting on the piles should be zero
3.6
Figure 3-2 Moment
If we assume that the forces on the piles are causing a moment M about axis z-z then the sum of
moments about axis z-z should be zero (see figure 3.1 a& b)
????????3.7
MZ = MZ
3.8
applying the same principle, in the x direction we get equivalent equation.If we assume that the moment
MX and MZ generated by the force Q are acting on a group of pile, then the sum of forces acting on a
single pile will be as follows:
3.9
if we dividing each term by the cross-sectional area of the pile, A, we can establish the working stream
:
Example 3.1
As shown in figure 3.2, A group of Vertical piles are subjected to an eccentric force Q, magnitude of
2600kN. Determine the maximum and the minimum forces on the piles. Q is located 0.2 m from the x-
axis and 0.15 m from the z-axis.
Figure 3-3 Worked example
Solution
DIS
T. r2xi rzi r2zi MX MZ
PIL
E 2 2
rxi m m m kN kNm
m
6.48 12.153
Mxrzi/
r2zi
Q/n Mzrxi/ r2xi Pi
PIL
E (520
kN (390* rxi)/ 6.48 kN
rzi)/12.1
53
217-58-54 = 105** Minimum load 105 KN, carried by pile
a1 217 58 54
a1
a2 19 54 217-19-54 = 144
a3 19 54 217+19-54 = 182
a4 58 54 217+58-54 = 221
b1 58 0 217-58-00 = 157
b2 19 0 217-19-00 = 157
b3 19 0 217+19-00 = 236
b4 58 0 217+58-00 = 275
c1 58 54 217+58-54 = 221
c2 19 54 217-19+54 = 252
c3 19 54 217+19+54=290
Example 3.2
A pile trestle shown on figure 3-3 consists of four vertical piles surmounted by a 1.2m
thick pile cap. It carries a horizontal load applied to the surface of the cap of 400kN.
The only vertical load exerted on the pile group is the weight of the pile cup. Determine
the loads on the piles.
Solution:
1. Determine the magnitude of the vertical force: For a pile cape 4.000m square, weight of pile cap is:
3 . resultant of vertical load and horizontal load cuts the underside of the pile cup at a point 1.06m from
N.A. pile group. This can be achieved graphically. E.g. On a millimetre paper, in scale, draw the pile cup.
Taking the top of the pile cup draw the vertical component downward as shown in figure 2-3 then taking
the tip of the vertical component as reference point draw the horizontal component perpendicular to the
vertical component. By joining the two components establish the resultant force R. Measure the distance
from the N.A to the cutting point of R at the underside of the pile cup.
4. Using the following formula, calculate the load on each pile:
To resist lateral forces on the pile group, it is common practice to use vertical piles combined with raking
piles (see figure3-5) The example below illustrates how the total applied load is distributed between the
piles and how the forces acting on each pile are calculated.
Figure 3-5 Load distribution for combined vertical and raking piles
To derive the formulae used in design, we first go through the following procedures:-
1. Decide the location of the N.A of the vertical and the raking piles in plan position. (see
example below).
2. Draw both N.A till they cross each other at point c, this is done in Elevation and move the
forces Q, H& M to point c (see fig.3.5 elevation).
3. Let us assume that the forces Q &M cause lateral and torsional movements at point c.
4. Point c is where the moment M is zero. Y is the moment arm (see fig. 3.5)
Figure 3.6 shows that the resultant load R (in this case Q) is only affecting the vertical piles.
Figure 3-6
Pv =
As shown in figure 3.6 the lateral force, H, is kept in equilibrium by the vertical and the raking piles.
H = 0: H-m Pr sin = 0
V = 0: m Pr cosine - n Pv = 0
where:
Pr = H/(m sin
Pv = H/(n tan )
Figure 3-7
as a result of moment M:
ri measured perpendicular to the N.A of both the vertical and raking piles
Example 3.3
Figure 3.7 shows a pile group of vertical and raking piles subjected to vertical load Q = 3000 kN and
lateral load H = 250 kN. Determine the forces acting on each pile. The raking piles lie at an angle of 4:1.
Solution:
First we determine the location of the neutral axis, N.A, of both the vertical piles and the raking piles.
From figure 3.7 we see that the number of vertical piles = 8 and the number of raking piles = 4
Here we assume through piles a1, a2, a3, a4 as a reference point and start measuring in the positive
direction of the X axis, where it is denoted on figure 3.10 as X-X
neo = 8eO and the numbers 4, 2, 2 are number of piles in the same axis
Here we can assume that the for the raking piles b1and b4 as a reference line and calculate the
location of the neutral axis for the raking piles as follows:
4 e1 e1 = = 0.5 m the location of neutral axis of raking piles at a distance of ( 0.25 + 0.5) m =
0.75m from eo or from the N.A Of the vertical piles.
where 0.75 m is the location of N.A of raking piles from eo or from the N.A Of the vertical piles.
4. Establish the angle and calculate sin, cos, and tangent of the angle
tan = 0.25
sin = 0.24
cos. = 0.97
cos2 = 0.94
Figure 3-9 Example 3.3
Figure 3-10
b ,b , ri = -0.5(0.97) = -0.485 m
c ,c , ri = 0.5(0.97) = 0.485
Vertical Piles
a , a , a , a , ri = -0.75m
*As we can see the maximum load 279kN will be carried by pile c1 and the minimum load 233kN is
carried by piles in row a1
Just as we did for the previous cases, we first decide the location of the neutral axis for both the vertical
and raking piles.
Extend the two lines till they intersect each other at point c and move the forces Q & H to point C. (see
fig.11)
Figure 3-11symmetrically arranged piles
In the case of symmetrically arranged piles, the vertical pile I is subjected to compression stress by the
vertical component Pv and the raking pile Pr is subjected to tension (see figure 3.11 - 12)
pr = k (U cos. ) = PV cos.
V = 0 Q - n Pv - m Pr cos. = 0
Pr = Pv cos. Pv =
The symmetrical arrangement of the raking piles keeps the lateral force, H, in equilibrium and it?s effect
on the vertical piles is ignored.
With reference to figure 3.13 Horizontal projection of forces yield the following formulae.
H=0
Figure 3-14
NB the lateral force H imposes torsional stress on half of the raking piles.
Example3.4
Determine the force on the piles shown in figure 3.15. The inclination on the raking piles is 5:1, the
vertical load, Q =3600 kN the horizontal load, H =200 kN and is located 0.6 m from pile cutting level.
Figure 3-15 Example 3.4
Solution
sin = 0.196
cos = 0.98
cos2 = 0.96
tan = 0.20
Raking piles
= (0.32 cos2 )
= (0.62 cos2 )
= (0.346+1.037) 2 = 2.07 m2
Vertical piles
ri = 0.5 m
Q PV =
Pr = Pv cos = 232 0.98 = 227kN
H Pr =
PILE ar br bv cv cr dr
where:
ar, br, bv, cv, cr, dr represent raking and vertical piles on respective axis.
Until now we have been calculating theoretical force distribution on piles. However during installation of
piles slight changes in position do occur and piles may miss their designed locations. The following
example compares theoretical and the actual load distribution as a result of misalignment after pile
installation.
Figure 3-16 Example on installation error
MZ = 500 0 = 0
After installation
Displacement of piles in the X-X direction measured, left edge of pile cap as reference point (see figure
3.17)
(0.5+0.6+0.4+2.0+2.1+1.7) 1 = 6 e e = 1.22 m
Measured perpendicular to the new N.A, pile distance, ri, of each pile:
2 45.3 (0.79) 49
3 45.3 (-0.62) 55
5 45.3 (-0.82) 47
In this section, considering pile/soil interaction, we learn to calculate the bearing capacity of single piles
subjected to compressive axial load. During pile design, the following factors should be taken into
consideration:
condition of the pile at the top and the end of the pile
soil characteristics
Learning outcome
understand the theoretical back ground of the formulae used in pile design
carry out calculation and be able to predict design bearing capacity of single piles
appreciate results calculated by means of different formulae
Piles are designed that calculations and prediction of carrying capacity is based on the application of ultimate
axial load in the particular soil conditions at the site at relatively short time after installation.
the use of empirical formula to predict capacity from soil properties determined by testing, or
load test on piles at the site
Fig.4-1, When pile is subjected to gradually increasing compressive load in maintained load stages, initially
the pile-soil system behaves in a linear-elastic manner up to point A on the settlement-load diagram and if the
load is realised at any stage up to this point the pile head rebound to its original level. When the load is
increase beyond point A there is yielding at, or close to, the pile-soil interface and slippage occurs until point
B is reached, when the maximum skin friction on the pile shaft will have been mobilised. If the load is realised
at this stage the pile head will rebound to point C , the amount of permanent settlement being the distance
OC. When the stage of full mobilisation of the base resistance is reached ( point D), the pile plunges
downwards with out any farther increase of load, or small increases in load producing large settlements.
No end-bearing is mobilised up to this point. The whole of the load is carried by the skin friction on the pile shaft see
figure 4-1 I)
The pile shaft is carrying its maximum skin friction and the pile toe will be carrying some load
At this point there is no further increase in the load transferred in skin friction but the base load will have reached its
maximum value.
Figure -1 axial compression of pile
In order to separate their behavioural responses to applied pile load, soils are classified as
either granular/noncohesive or clays/cohesive. The generic formulae used to predict soil
resistance to pile load include empirical modifying factors which can be adjusted according
to previous engineering experience of the influence on the accuracy of predictions of
changes in soil type and other factors such as the time delay before load testing.
(Fig 4-1II) the load settlement response is composed of two separate components, the
linear elastic shaft friction Rs and non-linear base resistance Rb. The concept of the
separate evaluation of shaft friction and base resistance forms the bases of "static or soil
mechanics" calculation of pile carrying capacity. The basic equations to be used for this are
written as:
Q = Qb + Qs - Wp or
Rc = Rb + Rs - Wp
Rt = Rs + Wp
Qb = Rb = base resistance
Qs = Rs = shaft resistance
In terms of soil mechanics theory, the ultimate skin friction on the pile shaft is related to the
horizontal effective stress acting on the shaft and the effective remoulded angle of friction
between the pile and the clay and the ultimate shaft resistance Rs can be evaluated by
integration of the pile-soil shear strength a over the surface area of the shaft:
a = Ca + n tan a
a = Ca + KS v tan a
and
L = pile length
the ultimate bearing capacity, Rb, of the base is evaluated from the bearing capacity theory:
4.1
Nevertheless, in practise, for a given pile at a given site, the undrained shear strength Ca varies considerably
with many factors, including, pile type, soil type, and methods of installations.
Ideally, Ca should be determined from a pile-load test, but since this is not always possible, Ca is correlated
with the undrained cohesion Cu by empirical adhesion factor so that the general expression in e.q. (4-1)
could be simplified to the following expression:
4.2
For piles in clay, the undrained load capacity is generally taken to be the critical value unless the clay is highly
over consolidated. If the undrained or short-term ultimate load capacity is to be computed, the soil parameters
C, , , should be appropriate to undrained conditions and v and vb should be the total stresses. If the
clay is saturated , the undrained angle of friction u is zero, and a (angle of friction between pile and soil)
may also be taken as zero. In addition, Nq = 1, N = 1, so that the eq in(4-1) reduces to:
4.3
Where: Nc, Nq, N ,= bearing capacity factors and are functions of the internal angle of friction of the soil, the
relative compressibility of the soil and the pile geometry.
4.3.2 Drained load capacity (effective stress approach)
For piles installed in stiff, over consolidated clays, the drained load capacity is taken as design criterion. If the
simplified assumption is made that the drained pile-soil adhesion C? a is zero and that the term in eq (4-
1)involving Nc, N ignoring the drained ultimate bearing capacity of the pile may be expressed as :
4.4
f ? a,= effective angle of friction between pile/soil and implied can be taken as f ? ,
Nq which is dependant up on the values of f ? may be taken to be the same as for piles in sand, and can be
decided using table 10-5 & 10-6
If the pile soil adhesion Ca and term Nc are taken as zero in e.q (4-1) and the terms 0.5 d N is neglected
as being small in relation to the term involving N , the ultimate load capacity of a single pile in sand may be
expressed as follows:
4.5
Most frequently used method of estimating the load capacity of driven piles is to use a driving formula or
dynamic formula. All such formulae relate ultimate load capacity to pile set (the vertical movement per blow of
the driving hammer) and assume that the driving resistance is equal to the load capacity to the pile under
static loading they are based on an idealised representation of the action of the hammer on the pile in the last
stage of its embedment.
Usually, pile-driving formulae are used either to establish a safe working load or to determine the driving
requirements for a required working load.
The working load is usually determined by applying a suitable safety factor to the ultimate load calculated by
the formula. However, the use of dynamic formula is highly criticised in some pile-design literatures. Dynamic
methods do not take into account the physical characteristics of the soil. This can lead to dangerous miss-
interpretation of the results of dynamic formula calculation since they represent conditions at the time of
driving. They do not take in to account the soil conditions which affect the long- term carrying capacity,
reconsolidation, negative skin friction and group effects.
If a pile is installed in a soil with low bearing capacity but resting on soil beneath with high bearing
capacity, most of the load is carried by the end bearing.
In some cases where piles are driven in to the ground using hammer, pile capacity can be estimated
by calculating the transfer of potential energy into dynamic energy . When the hammer is lifted and
thrown down, with some energy lose while driving the pile, potential energy is transferred into
dynamic energy. In the final stage of the piles embedment,On the bases of rate of settlement, it is
able to calculate the design capacity of the pile.
For standard pile driving hammers and some standard piles with load capacity (FRsp,), the working
load for the pile can be determined using the relationship between bearing capacity of the pile, the
design load capacity of the pile described by: FRsp n FSd and table 5-1
The data is valid only if at the final stage, rate of settlement is 10 mm per ten blow. And pile length
not more than 20 m and geo-category 2 . for piles with length 20 - 30 m respective 30 - 50 m the
bearing capacity should be reduced by 10 res. 25%.
Table 5-1 Baring capacity of piles installed by hammering
Example 5.1
A concrete pile with length 26 m and cross-sectional area (235) (235) is subjected to a
vertical loading of 390 kN (ultimate) load. Determine appropriate condition to halt hammering. Type
of hammer Drop hammer activated by rope and friction winch. Class 2, GC 2, pile length 20 m
solution:
***For piles 20m - 30m length, the bearing capacity should be reduced by 10%
Table value (table 5-1): Hammer weight = 4 ton fall height 0.45m (interpolation)
Load on piles that are driven into friction material, for the most part the weight is carried by friction
between the soil and the pile shaft. However considerable additional support is obtained form the
bottom part.
In designing piles driven into friction material, the following formulas can be used
5.1
where: qci = consolidation resistance
Example 5.2
Pile length 22 m, steel pile, friction pile, external diameter 100 mm, GC2,
solution:
qc
MPa
Z m( depth measured from
ground level to bottom of pile)
0m - 5 m 5.4
5 - 11 6.4
11 - 18 7.0
18 - 22 7.5
22 m 8.0
The values are slightly scattered then the usual while the rest of the condition is
favourable.
n = 1.1
s = 0.5
m = 0.0025
Piles installed in clay: The load is carried by cohesion between the soil and the pile
shaft. Bearing capacity of the pile can be calculated using the following formula for
pile installed in clay.
5.2
Where:
The adhesion factor is taken as 0 for the firs three meters where it is expected
hole room and fill material or week strata. For piles with constant cross-sectional
area the value of can be taken as 1.0 and for piles with uniform cross-sectional
growth the value of can be taken as 1.2 .
Example 5.3
18 m wood pile is installed small end down in clay. Pile diameter is 125 mm at the
end and 10 mm/m increase in diameter. The undrained shear strength of the soil,
measured from the pile cut-off level is: 0-6 m = 12 kP 6-12 m = 16 kPa 12-18 m =
19 kPa. Determine the ultimate load capacity of the pile. Pile cut-off level is 1.5m
from the ground level. Rd = 1.7
Figure 5-3 Example 5-3
solution
Because of the relative strength of steel, steel piles withstand driving pressure well and are usually
very reliable end bearing members, although they are found in frequent use as friction piles as well.
The comment type of steel piles have rolled H, X or circular cross-section(pipe piles). Pipe piles are
normally, not necessarily filled with concrete after driving. Prior to driving the bottom end of the pipe
pile usually is capped with a flat or a cone-shaped point welded to the pipe.
Strength, relative ease of splicing and sometimes economy are some of the advantages cited in the
selection of steel piles.
The highest draw back of steel piles is corrosion. Corrosive agents such as salt, acid, moisture and
oxygen are common enemies of steel. Because of the corrosive effect salt water has on steel, steel
piles have restricted use for marine installations. If steel pile is supported by soil with shear strength
greater than 7kPa in its entire length then the design bearing capacity of the pile can be calculated
using the following formulas. Use both of them and select the lowest value of the two:
5.3
5.4
I = fibre moment
Example 5.4
Determine the design bearing capacity of a Steel pile of external diameter 100 mm, thickness of 10
mm. Treated against corrosion. pile. Consider failure in the pile material. Cc of the soil is 18 kPa,
favourable condition. S2
Steel BS 2172
solution :
n = 1.1
m = 0.9
==
The first formula gives us lower value, therefore, the design bearing capacity of the pile is 0.3 MN
==
Relatively, in comparable circumstances, concrete piles have much more resistance against
corrosive elements that can rust steel piles or to the effects that causes decay of wood piles,
furthermore concrete is available in most parts of the world than steel.
Concrete piles may be pre-cast or cast-in place. They may be are reinforced, pre-stressed or plain.
These are piles which are formed, cast to specified lengths and shapes and cured at pre casting
stations before driven in to the ground. Depending up on project type and specification, their shape
and length are regulated at the prefab site. Usually they came in square, octagonal or circular cross-
section. The diameter and the length of the piles are mostly governed by handling stresses. In most
cases they are limited to less than 25 m in length and 0.5 m in diameter. Some times it is required to
cut off and splice to adjust for different length. Where part of pile is above ground level, the pile may
serve as column.
If a concrete pile is supported by soil with undrained shear strength greater than 7 MPa in its entire
length, the following formula can be used in determining the bearing capacity of the pile :
5.5
5.6
Cuc = characteristic undrained shear strength of the soil in the loose part of the soil
within a layer of 4.0 m
Example 5.5
Solution:
ef = 1.3
lc /h = 20
FRd = m NU
Ecc = 34 GPa
Timber piles are frequently used as cohesion piles and for pilling under
embankments. Essentially timber piles are made from tree trunks with the branches
and bark removed. Normally wood piles are installed by driving. Typically the pile
has a natural taper with top cross-section of twice or more than that of the bottom.
To avoid splitting in the wood, wood piles are sometimes driven with steel bands
tied at the top or at the bottom end.
For wood piles installed in soil with undrained shear strength greater than 7kPa the
following formula can be used in predicting the bearing capacity of the pile:
5.7
If the wood is of sound timber, (e.g. pinewood or spruce wood with a diameter >
0.13m), then (reduced strength) of the pile can be taken as 11MPa.
Increase in load per section of pile is found to be proportional to the diameter of the
pile and shear strength of the soil and can be decided using the following formula:
5.8
where: Am, = area of pile at each 3.5 m section mid point of pile
Example 5.6
Determine the design bearing capacity of a pile 12m pile driven in to clay with
characteristic undrained shear strength 10KPa and 1.0kPa increase per metre
depth. Piling condition is assumed to be favourable and the safety class 2. The pile
is cut at 1.5m below the ground level. Top diameter of the pile is 180mm and growth
in diameter is 9mm/m.
*Often it is assumed that cohesive strength of the soil in the fires three meters is
half the values at the bottom.
solution:
First decide which part of the pile is heavily loaded. To do so, divide the pile which
is in contact with the soil in three parts or sections (see fig.4.1) in this example the
pile is divided into three 3.5m parts
Calculate and decide diameter of the pile at the mid point of each 3.5m section
(0.180+0.009(yi) ; yi growth per meter from the end point.
Calculate the shear strength of the soil at the mid point of each 3.5m section Cmi =
(22 - 1(yi) ). Shear strength at the end of the pile = (10MPa + 1MPa (12m))=22 MPa
Decide the values of the partial coefficients from table (10-1 - 10-4)
ymi(see dmi=
fig. 5.4) (0.180+0.009 Cmi = (22 -
Part
1
m
yti
Part m
m
T(top) 55.1 10.5 0.275 928 this part of the pile is highly loaded
Now using the equation in (6-7), we will check the pile for failure
n = 0.9
n = 1.1
In consideration of failure in the pile material, the pile can be loaded up to 9.0 MPa
5.9
Rd, = 1.7
= 1.2
Group action in piled foundation: Most of pile foundations consists not of a single pile, but of a
group of piles, which act in the double role of reinforcing the soil, and also of carrying the applied
load down to deeper, stronger soil strata. Failure of the group may occur either by failure of the
individual piles or as failure of the overall block of soil. The supporting capacity of a group of
vertically loaded piles can, in many cases, be considerably less than the sum of the capacities the
individual piles comprising the group. Grope action in piled foundation could result in failure or
excessive settlement, even though loading tests made on a single pile have indicated satisfactory
capacity. In all cases the elastic and consolidation settlements of the group are greater than those of
single pile carrying the same working load as that on each pile within the group. This is because the
zone of soil or rock which is stressed by the entire group extends to a much greater width and depth
than the zone beneath the single pile (fig.6-1)
o to calculate and predict design bearing capacity of pile group in different soil types
o to appreciate the governing factors in design of group of piles
o to design pile groups with appropriate pile spacing
Pile groups driven into sand may provide reinforcement to the soil. In some cases, the shaft capacity
of the pile driven into sand could increase by factor of 2 or more.
But in the case of piles driven into sensitive clays, the effective stress increase in the surrounding
soil may be less for piles in a group than for individual piles. this will result in lower shaft capacities.
Figure 6-2 Under axial or lateral load, In a group, instead of failure of individual piles in the group,
block failure (the group acting as a block) may arise.
In general ,the bearing capacity of pile group may be calculated in consideration to block failure in a
similar way to that of single pile, by means of equation 4-1,but hear As as the block surface area and
Ab as the base area of the block or by rewriting the general equation we get:
................................(6.1)
where:
Cb, Cs= average cohesion of clay around the group and beneath the group.
Nc = bearing capacity factor. For depths relevant for piles, the appropriate value of
Nc is 9
a free-standing group, in which the pile cap is not in contact with the underlying soil.
a "piled foundation," in which the pile cap is in contact with the underlying soil.
pile spacing
independent calculations, showing bearing capacity of the block and bearing capacity of
individual piles in the group should be made.
relate the ultimate load capacity of the block to the sum of load capacity of individual piles in
the group ( the ratio of block capacity to the sum of individual piles capacity) the higher the
better.
In the case of where the pile spacing in one direction is much greater than that in
perpendicular direction, the capacity of the group failing as shown in Figure 6-2 b) should be
assessed.
For pile groups in cohesive soil, the group bearing capacity as a block may be calculated by mans of
e.q. 4-5 with appropriate Nc value.
For pile groups in non-cohesive soil, the group bearing capacity as a block may be calculated by
means of e.q. 4-7
In the case of most pile groups installed in sand, the estimated capacity of the block will be well in
excess of the sum of the individual pile capacities. As a conservative approach in design, the axial
capacity of a pile group in sand is usually taken as the sum of individual pile capacities calculated
using formulae in 4-8.
Worked Example 6-1
Calculate the bearing capacity and group efficiency of pile foundation installed in uniform clay of bulk
unit weight, of 20kN/m3 and undrained shear strength of Cu of 50kN/m2. The foundation consists of
25 piles each 18m long ,0.4m in diameter and weight 60kN. The weight of the pile cap is 600kN and
founded 1m below the ground level. The adhesion factor for the soil/pile interface has a value of
0.8
SOLUTION
total load capacity of 25 piles = Ruc25 = (Rci = Rsi + Rbi) 25 - {(Wp +Wcap) - Ws} =
960 25 - 469 = 23531kN
surface area of pile group
It is vital importance that pile group in friction and cohesive soil arranged that even distribution of
load in greater area is achieved.
Large concentration of piles under the centre of the pile cap should be avoided. This could lead to
load concentration resulting in local settlement and failure in the pile cap. Varying length of piles in
the same pile group may have similar effect.
For pile load up to 300kN, the minimum distance to the pile cap should be 100 mm
for load higher than 300kN, this distance should be more than 150 mm.
where:
Example 7-1
A retaining wall imposing a weight of 120kN/m including self-weight of the pile cap
is to be constructed on pile foundation in clay. Timber piles of 250mm in diameter
and each 14m long with bearing capacity of 90kN/st has been proposed. Asses
suitable pile spacing and pile arrangement.
Solution:
= 1.33m
here because of the descending nature of the pile diameter a lesser value can be taken , say 1.10m
The installation process and method of installations are equally important factors as of the design
process of pile foundations. In this section we will discuss the two main types of pile installation
methods; installation by pile hammer and boring by mechanical auger.
In order to avoid damages to the piles, during design, installation Methods and installation
equipment should be carefully selected.
If installation is to be carried out using pile-hammer, then the following factors should be taken in to
consideration:
1. Dropping weight
2. Explosion
3. Vibration
4. Jacking (restricted to micro-pilling)
5. Jetting
A hammer with approximately the weight of the pile is raised a suitable height in a guide and
released to strike the pile head. This is a simple form of hammer used in conjunction with light
frames and test piling, where it may be uneconomical to bring a steam boiler or compressor on to a
site to drive very limited number of piles.
Also classified as single and double-acting, in operation, the diesel hammer employs a ram which is
raised by explosion at the base of a cylinder. Alternatively, in the case of double-acting diesel
hammer, a vacuum is created in a separate annular chamber as the ram moves upward, and assists
in the return of the ram, almost doubling the output of the hammer over the single-acting type. In
favourable ground conditions, the diesel hammer provide an efficient pile driving capacity, but they
are not effective for all types of ground.
Vibratory hammers are usually electrically powered or hydraulically powered and consists of contra-
rotating eccentric masses within a housing attaching to the pile head. The amplitude of the vibration
is sufficient to break down the skin friction on the sides of the pile. Vibratory methods are best suited
to sandy or gravelly soil.
Jetting: to aid the penetration of piles in to sand or sandy gravel, water jetting may be employed.
However, the method has very limited effect in firm to stiff clays or any soil containing much coarse
gravel, cobbles, or boulders.
An equipment comprises of a mobile base carrier fitted with a hollow-stemmed flight auger which is
rotated into the ground to required depth of pilling. To form the pile, concrete is placed through the
flight auger as it is withdrawn from the ground. The auger is fitted with protective cap on the outlet at
the base of the central tube and is rotated into the ground by the top mounted rotary hydraulic motor
which runs on a carrier attached to the mast. On reaching the required depth, highly workable
concrete is pumped through the hollow stem of the auger, and under the pressure of the concrete
the protective cap is detached. While rotating the auger in the same direction as during the boring
stage, the spoil is expelled vertically as the auger is withdrawn and the pile is formed by filling with
concrete. In this process, it is important that rotation of the auger and flow of concrete is matched
that collapse of sides of the hole above concrete on lower flight of auger is avoided. This may lead to
voids in filled with soil in concrete.
The method is especially effective on soft ground and enables to install a variety of bored piles of
various diameters that are able to penetrate a multitude of soil conditions. Still, for successful
operation of rotary auger the soil must be reasonably free of tree roots, cobbles, and boulders, and it
must be self-supporting.
During operation little soil is brought upwards by the auger that lateral stresses is maintained in the
soil and voiding or excessive loosening of the soil minimise. However, if the rotation of the auger and
the advance of the auger is not matched, resulting in removal of soil during drilling-possibly leading
to collapse of the side of the hole.
Figure 8-2 CFA Process
8.3.2 Underreaming
A special feature of auger bored piles which is sometimes used to enable to exploit the bearing
capacity of suitable strata by providing an enlarged base. The soil has to be capable of standing
open unsupported to employ this technique. Stiff and to hard clays, such as the London clay, are
ideal. In its closed position, the underreaming tool is fitted inside the straight section of a pile shaft,
and then expanded at the bottom of the pile to produce the underream shown in fig. 8-3.Normally,
after installation and before concrete is casted, a man carrying cage is lowered and the shaft and the
underream of the pile is inspected.
Figure 8 -3 a)hydraulic rotary drilling equipment b) C.F.A, c)undrreaming tool open
position
8.3.3 C.H.D.P
Figure 8-4, Continuous helical displacement piles: a short, hollow tapered steel former complete with
a larger diameter helical flange, the bullet head is fixed to a hallow drill pipe which is connected to a
high torque rotary head running up and down the mast of a special rig. A hollow cylindrical steel
shaft sealed at the lower end by a one-way valve and fitted with triangular steel fins is pressed into
the ground by a hydraulic ram. There are no vibrations.
Displaced soil is compacted in front and around the shaft. Once it reaches the a suitably resistant
stratum the shaft is rotated. The triangular fins either side of its leading edge carve out a conical
base cavity. At the same time concrete is pumped down the centre of the shat and through the one-
way valve. Rotation of the fins is calculated so that as soil is pushed away from the pile base it is
simultaneously replaced by in-flowing concrete. Rates of push, rotation and concrete injection are all
controlled by an onboard computer. Torque on the shaft is also measured by the computer. When
torque levels reach a constant low value the base in formed. The inventors claim that the system
can install a\ typical pile in 12 minute. A typical 6m long pile with an 800mm diameter base and
350mm shaft founded on moderately dense gravel beneath soft overlaying soils can achieve an
ultimate capacity of over 200t. The pile is suitable for embankments, hard standing supports and
floor slabs, where you have a soft silty layer over a gravel strata.
Figure 8 -4 C.H.D.P.
Back to Top
Pile load test are usually carried out that one or some of the following reasons are fulfilled:
To obtain back-figured soil data that will enable other piles to be designed.
To confirm pile lengths and hence contract costs before the client is committed to over all
job costs.
To counter-check results from geotechnical and pile driving formulae
To determine the load-settlement behaviour of a pile, especially in the region of the
anticipated working load that the data can be used in prediction of group settlement.
To verify structural soundness of the pile.
compression test
uplift test
lateral-load test
torsion-load test
the most common types of test loading procedures are Constant rate of penetration (CRP) test and
the maintained load test (MLT).
In the CRP (constant rate of penetration) method, test pile is jacked into the soil, the load being
adjusted to give constant rate of downward movement to the pile. This is maintained until point of
failure is reached.
Failure of the pile is defined in to two ways that as the load at which the pile continues to move
downward without further increase in load, or according to the BS, the load which the penetration
reaches a value equal to one-tenth of the diameter of the pile at the base.
Fig.9-2, In the cases of where compression tests are being carried out, the following methods are
usually employed to apply the load or downward force on the pile:
A platform is constructed on the head of the pile on which a mass of heavy material, termed
"kentledge" is placed. Or a bridge, carried on temporary supports, is constructed over the test pile
and loaded with kentledge. The ram of a hydraulic jack, placed on the pile head, bears on a cross-
head beneath the bridge beams, so that a total reaction equal to the weight of the bridge and its load
may be obtained.
Fig.9-1, the maintained increment load test, kentledge or adjacent tension piles or soil anchors are
used to provide a reaction for the test load applied by jacking(s) placed over the pile being tested.
The load is increased in definite steps, and is sustained at each level of loading until all settlements
has either stop or does not exceed a specified amount of in a certain given period of time.
This category includes structures or parts of structures which do not fall within the
limits of Geotechnical Categories 1and 2.
conventional type of :
spread foundations;
raft foundations;
piled foundations;
walls and other structures retaining for supporting soil or water;
excavations;
bridge piers and abutments;
embankment and earthworks;
ground anchors and other tie-back systems;
tunnels in hard, non-fractured rock and not subjected to special water
tightness or other requirement.
+ if large scale investigation was carried out and test results are reliable
+ the existence of well documented investigation carried out using reliable methods
which can give reproducible results
+ failure is plastic
-- if failure is brittle
Actions can vary spatially, e.g. self-weights are fixed (fixed actions), but imposed
loads can vary in position (free actions). The duration of actions affections affects
the response of the ground. It may cause strengthening such as the gain in strength
of a clay by long-term loading, or weakening as in the case of excavation slopes in
clay over the medium or long term. To allow for this Eurocode 7 introduces a
classification related to the soil response and refers to transient actions (e.g. wind
loads), short-term actions (e.g. construction loading) and long-term actions. In order
to allow for uncertainties in the calculation of he magnitude of actions or
combinations of actions and their duration and spatial distribution, Euorcode
requires the design values of actions Fd to be used for the geotechnical design
either to be assessed directly or to be derived from characteristic values Fk :
Fd = Fk
The partial factor m: this factor is applied as a safety factor that the characteristic
values of the material is divided by this factor. (m = material index) and covers :
The partial co-efficient n: in order to ensure stability and adequate strength in the
structure and in the ground, in the code, cases A, B, and C have been introduced.
Values of n is given in table 10-3
Table 10-2 partial factors on material properties for conventional design situations for service limit state
Material property Partial factor m
Normally the design values, d , Ed, tan , can be decided using the following formulae:
fd = fk/( n
Ed = Ek /( n
Where:
f = reaction force
E = elastic module
Class n
A 1.0
B 1.1
C 1.2
pile b s