New developments in conventional

hydrocarbon exploration with

electromagnetic methods
Martyn Unsworth
Department of Physics and Institute for Geophysical Research, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada

Introduction frequencies in the band 1000-0.0001 Hz and originate in

worldwide lightning activity and oscillations of the magne-
Over recent decades, electromagnetic methods have been tosphere (Vozoff, 1991). These electromagnetic signals travel
viewed with considerable suspicion by many in the hydro- through the atmosphere as radio waves but diffuse into the
carbon exploration industry. While highly effective in Earth and attenuate rapidly with depth. The penetration
mineral and environmental geophysics, electromagnetic depth is called the skin depth and surface measurement of
methods have played a minor role in hydrocarbon explo- electric and magnetic fields gives the average resistivity from
ration. Since electromagnetic (EM) methods use signals that the surface to a depth equivalent of the skin depth. The skin
diffuse in the Earth, they cannot provide the same vertical depth increases as frequency decreases, and thus a depth
resolution as modern seismic exploration. However, in the sounding of resistivity can be achieved by recording a range
last decade, electromagnetic methods in general, and magne- of frequencies as illustrated in Figure 1. At the highest
totellurics (MT) specifically, have become more widely used frequencies (1000-300 Hz), the apparent resistivity equals the
in hydrocarbon exploration. This change is clearly not due to true resistivity, since only the uppermost layer is sampled. At
any change in the underlying physics but is due to: intermediate frequencies, the apparent resistivity drops as
(a) The significant improvements that have taken place in EM signals penetrate the second layer. Finally, at the lowest
magnetotelluric data collection, processing and interpre- frequencies, the resistive basement is detected.
tation.
The best resolution is achieved in MT when determining the
(b) The application of MT in settings where other exploration depth of a low resistivity layer, as in Figure 1, and this depth
methods (seismic, gravity, magnetic) encounter problems, can generally be determined to within 10%. Unlike seismic
are cost prohibitive, or yield ambiguous results. reflection data, it is difficult to define formal resolution
(c) The realization that MT data can provide complementary criteria. Another factor that must be considered is that MT is
information to that derived from seismic exploration. For effective at defining the conductance (the product of thick-
example, the diffusive signal propagation used in MT can ness and electrical conductivity). However, the individual
be an advantage in a region of intense fracturing. While thickness and conductivity cannot be found, as illustrated by
seismic signals will be scattered, the MT signals diffuse the second model shown in Figure 1.
and give a reliable estimate of bulk properties such as
porosity. Studies of the shallow structure of the San
Andreas Fault illustrate the ability of MT to image rock
volume properties (Unsworth et al., 2004).

Just as in seismic exploration, electromagnetic geophysics

can contribute to effective hydrocarbon exploration in two
distinct ways. Most often, EM methods are used to image
structures that could host potential reservoirs and/or source
rocks. In certain cases, they may also give evidence for direct
indication of the presence of hydrocarbons.

In this article, the focus is on the magnetotelluric method as

being representative of the developments in EM techniques
in general. A review of the MT method is presented, recent
developments are highlighted, and typical applications are
discussed. Active source EM methods have seen a similar
advance in technology and they have been applied to explo-
ration for shallow gas and oil sand, or in a deep water setting.
Table 1 summarizes the most common EM methods used
in oil and gas exploration and outlines typical depths
of investigation.

Basics of magnetotellurics Figure 3. Comparison of resistivity derived from the MT data with well log
southwest of the Brazeau thrust fault. Note that the resistivity-depth profile
Magnetotellurics uses natural, low frequency electromagnetic derived with the MT data is smoother than that measured in the well because
(EM) waves to image the subsurface. These waves have MT uses long wavelength signals that average small scale features. The MT
model can be seen to be a smoothed version of the electrical log.

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The past provided the trees allow some view of the sky. Time series
processing has benefited from the development of algorithms
Through the 1970s and 1980s magnetotellurics was primarily that use robust statistics to average the many estimates of
used as a reconnaissance tool that could map variations in the apparent resistivity that are produced by a long time series.
thickness of major sedimentary basins (Vozoff, 1972; Orange, These methods effectively remove bad data segments in an auto-
1989). Data analysis was largely confined to 1-D forward model- mated fashion, resulting in a massive reduction in the effort asso-
ling and inversion, an approach that could not be applied with ciated with MT time series processing (Egbert, 1997; Larsen et
confidence to areas of complex geology. Early efforts realized al., 1996)
that MT was a potential tool for imaging conductive sedimentary
rocks beneath thrust sheets of more resistive rocks such as The advances listed above have allowed larger volumes of MT
carbonates, volcanics, and basement cored overthru s t s data to be collected and most interpretation is now made with 2-
(Anderson and Pelton, 1985; Berkman and Orange, 1985; Orange, D and 3-D modelling and inversion algorithms. With a dense grid
1989). In contrast to the small amount of MT work conducted in of stations, MT data can be fitted more closely since there is addi-
the west, hydrocarbon exploration in the former Soviet Union tional spatial redundancy in the data and model features are
made more extensive use of all electromagnetic methods (see the required by more than a single station. This allows data interpre-
review by Spies, 1983). tation to proceed with greater confidence. Another major benefit
from moving into 2-D and 3-D is that problems arising from static
shifts and electric field distortion can be addressed. Static shift in
Modern magnetotellurics
MT data is similar to seismic statics and has the effect of intro-
The ability of modern MT to image subsurface structure has ducing an unknown depth factor at each station (Jones, 1988).
improved dramatically in recent years. This has been driven by Many geophysicists who worked with MT data in the 1970s were
developments in both instrumentation and interpretation. left with the impression that this was a fundamental limitation of
the MT method. However, static shifts are now routinely removed
Early MT systems were mounted in vehicles and required gener- in several ways. One approach is to independently measure the
ators for power and an operator to be present for all data near surface resistivity with near-surface EM or DC resistivity
recording. This limited both access and the number of stations surveys (Sternberg et al., 1988). An alternative approach is to allow
that could be collected per day by each field crew. These factors the inversion algorithms to estimate the static shift
have been largely resolved with new MT systems, such as the coefficients and incorporate it in the model (deGroot-Hedlin,
Phoenix Geophysics V5-2000 and Metronix systems (see 1991). A debate continues regarding the various merits of these
websites listed below). Modern MT systems are now very techniques and their philosophical legitimacy.
compact and generally fully automated. They can be carried by
backpack to remote locations and left unattended to record time
series data overnight. The dramatic reduction in equipment size
Overthrust exploration with MT
is illustrated on the Phoenix Geophysics website listed below. In many overthrust belts, major contrasts in velocity and/or resis-
tivity can develop when different lithologies are placed above one
Another area in which major advances have been made is in the
another. If a high velocity thrust sheet is emplaced above lower
signal processing algorithms used to convert data from the time
velocity units, this contrast can present imaging problems for
to frequency domain. Effective noise suppression through the
seismic reflection surveys. In addition, extreme topography and
remote reference technique requires synchronous recording at
variations in weathering layer thickness in the overthrust terrain
multiple stations (Gamble et al., 1979). In older MT systems this
can cause large statics that make it impossible to acquire high
was usually achieved with very accurate clocks that were
quality seismic data. However, this geometry usually corresponds
synchronized periodically. The problem of timing has been
to high electrical resistivity over low resistivity, which is favourable
simplified with the use of timing signals from GPS satellites,
for structural imaging with magnetotellurics. Christophersen
(1991) describes a case study in Papau
New Guinea that illustrates the
effectiveness of MT in this context.
A thick layer of clastic sedimentary rocks
is located beneath 1-2 km of heavily
karsted limestone. Seismic exploration in
the region was complicated by statics
and difficult access. In this type
of survey, MT exploration requires a
m e a s u rement site every 1-2 km, in
contrast to the continuous profile needed
for seismic reflection surveys. Watts and
Pince (1998) describe a similar study in
southeast Turkey, where near-surface
structure again gives poor quality
Figure 1. The apparent resistivity that would be observed at the surface of a simple layered model. The EM signals
penetrate the Earth to a depth termed the skin depth. As frequency decreases, the skin depth increases. The apparent
seismic data. In this study, the reservoir
resistivity can be considered an average resistivity from the surface to the depth of the skin depth. Both models shown rocks were relatively resistive carbon-
have a middle layer with the same conductance. Note that this produces essentially the same response (right), and this ates with sufficient resistivity contrast
factor must be considered during interpretation.

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to be distinguished from the overlying assemblages of interca- achieved through a combination of forward modelling and auto-
lated clastic sedimentary rocks and ophiolites. DellAversana mated inversions in 2-D and 3-D (Rodi and Mackie, 2001). When
(2001) reports a study in the Appenines of Southern Italy and these techniques were applied to the Foothills MT data, the
shows that low resistivity, underthrust sedimentary rocks are model in Figure 2 was obtained.
well imaged with a relatively broad station spacing (2-3 km).
This study also shows that these data sets can benefit from a joint Interpretation of the resistivity model is possible using available
analysis of MT, gravity and seismic reflection data. The previous well log information and comparison with coincident seismic
studies were able to derive useful structural information with data. The main features observed in the model are:
just 2-D MT modelling and inversion. However, in some cases, A thick sequence of low resistivity units in the Alberta Basin
more subtle contrasts can be masked by 3-D effects and a full 3- (A). The pervasive low resistivities are primarily due to saline
D analysis must be used (Ravaut et al, 2002). These case studies aquifers.
have shown that MT is an effective method of defining subsur- The crystalline basement is resistive and dips gently to the
face structure in overthrust belts and one contractor has reported southwest.
collecting upwards of several hundreds of kilometers of profiles
per year for these types of targets. A prominent low resistivity layer is located in the Cretaceous
section. This unit rises in the triangle zone and is close to the
Seismic exploration in the Rocky Mountain Foothills has been surface northeast of the Brazeau Thrust Fault.
very successful in defining detailed structure in many complex Underthrust low resistivity units in the footwall of the Brazeau
regions over the last 40 years. However, to date, significant use Thrust Fault, that can be traced a significant distance to the
of electromagnetic methods has not been made. Early electrical west (features B and C).
and EM studies by Densmore (1970) showed that major resis-
tivity contrasts were present, suggesting that structures could be Figure 3, taken from Xiao and Unsworth (2004), shows the agree-
imaged with electromagnetic data. Further tests of MT occurred ment between the MT derived resistivity and the resistivity log
in the early 1980s in Montana and Southern Alberta but these at a station southwest of the Brazeau Thrust fault. The MT resis-
projects were not followed up with more modern processing. tivity model is spatially smooth, since it was derived with low
frequency, diffusive electromagnetic signals with relatively long
In 2002, the University of Alberta ran an MT profile in the Rocky wavelengths. Note that the resistivity in the underthrust rocks is
Mountain Foothills to determine if useful structural information quite variable, with a pronounced zone of higher resistivities at
could be obtained in this geological setting. The profile began in 22 km (B) and lower resistivities at 18-20 km (C). These variations
the Alberta Basin and extended southwest from Rocky Mountain likely represent variations in the porosity of the underthrust
House, across the triangle zone and Brazeau Thrust Fault to the sedimentary units, possibly related to a variable amount of frac-
Front Ranges. MT data were collected using the University of turing. Archies Law can be used to estimate porosity from in situ
Alberta Phoenix V5-2000 systems, supplemented by units loaned resistivity and salinity data. Low resistivities are also observed in
by Phoenix Geophysics in Toronto. MT data were recorded at anticline A2 east of the Brazeau Thrust Fault and may delineate
stations located 2-3 km apart, typically placed at the roadside or zones with fracture enhanced porosity.
in seismic cut lines. A recording interval of 18-24 hours per
station was used and this gave estimates of apparent resistivity
over the frequency band 100-0.001 Hz. MT data were simultane-
Sub-basalt, sub-salt,
ously recorded at several locations to allow for noise cancellation and carbonate reef exploration
through the remote reference method. Noise encountered in the Determining the depth of sedimentary rocks beneath a cover of
survey came from cathodic protection on major gas lines and basalt is a similar problem to the overthrust case and success has
ground vibration from wind and traffic and was effectively been achieved with MT surveys. A number of studies were
suppressed with a combination of quiet recording at a remote conducted in the Columbia Basin of Washington and Oregon
station and robust time series processing algorithms. (Prieto et al., 1985; Withers et al., 1994) and ongoing exploration in
The most important step in the subsequent processing is to the area continues to use MT. Magnetotelluric exploration in the
convert the MT data from frequency to true depth. This is analo- sub-basalt environment is also pursued in India (Deccan Traps),
gous to depth migration in seismic processing. In MT it is Russia (Siberian flood basalts) and Ireland (Tertiary Volcanic
Province). Thick sequences of salt can mask seismic exploration
efforts both onshore and offshore.
Like basalt, salt is electrically
resistive so EM methods are
being used to image the base and
sometimes the top of the salt.
Examples from the Gulf of
Mexico have been published by
Hoversten et al. (2000). Tests of
controlled source EM surveys for
sub-salt imaging have been
undertaken in the Colville Hills
Figure 2. Resistivity model from Xiao and Unsworth (2004) derived by 2-D inversion of the University of Alberta MT profile area of the NWT. Resistive
using the algorithm of Rodi and Mackie (2001). BTF = Brazeau Thrust fault. A1 and A2 are prominent anticlines. W3 is the pinnacle reefs in Southern
well shown in Figure 3. Black triangles show locations where MT data was recorded.

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Ontario have been mapped using several types of controlled source detecting discrete resistive layers. The recent development in this
EM methods but the depth of investigation is small and resolution field builds on decades of university, government and commer-
is poor (Phoenix Geophysics and University of Toronto). cial research on seafloor electromagnetics involving groups in
Canada, USA, UK, Japan, Australia and France.
Direct detection of hydrocarbons with MT
The future
The results reviewed above have shown that MT can image struc-
tures that could host potential hydrocarbon reservoirs. The study Despite the limitations of MT in the early days of its application
in the Foothills has shown that it may also allow variations in to hydrocarbon exploration, the method has matured into a tool
porosity and pore fluid salinity to be mapped. Can MT directly that works effectively in certain niche environments. Since the
image the hydrocarbon reservoirs? Outside of the Russian litera- limitations were understood, it has proved to be a valuable
ture, there are very few published studies that definitively show complement to other exploration methods. Today large amounts
success in this area. The most common problem encountered by of MT data can be collected rapidly and cost effectively to
MT is the possible masking of a response from an oil/gas saturated provide the density of measurements required to image complex
reservoir by changes in lithology. Another factor that reduces reso- geology. The next innovation in EM may come from data
lution is that the electric currents used in MT flow in an essentially processing, interpretation and the integration of surface and
horizontal direction. Thus horizontal, high resistivity layers are borehole methods to improve vertical resolution.
essentially invisible since they have little effect on the horizontal
electric currents. However, controlled source EM methods generate References
electric currents that flow in both the horizontal and vertical direc- Anderson, R. and Pelton, W. H., Magnetotelluric exploration in volcanic cover, over -
tions and have better resolution to allow direct detection of hydro- thrust belts, and rift zones, 55th Ann. Internat. Mtg., SEG, Session MT7, 1985.
carbons. Case studies include the seafloor examples listed below Berkman, E. and Orange, A., Interesting aspects of magnetotelluric data in northwestern
and apparent changes in subsurface resistivity over time as gas was Montana, 55th Ann. Internat. Mtg., SEG, Session MT6, 1985.
added and removed from a shallow reservoir (Ziolkowski et al., Christopherson, K. R., Applications of magnetotellurics to petroleum exploration in
Papua New Guinea: A model for frontier areas, Geophysics, 56, 21-27, April 1991.
2002).
Constable, S. C., Orange, A. S., Hoversten, M. G. and Morrison, H. F., Marine magne -
totellurics for petroleum exploration Part 1: A sea-floor system. Geophysics, 63, 816-
Marine magnetotellurics 825, 1998.

and controlled source EM De Groot-Hedlin, C., Removal of static shift in two dimensions by regularized inversion,

methods Continued on Page 38

The last decade has also seen the rapid

development of EM methods that are
useful for hydrocarbon exploration in the
marine environment. Marine magnetotel-
lurics was developed in the 1980s and
initially applied to studies of the litho-
sphere and mid-ocean ridges (Evans et al.,
1999). The seawater in deep oceans, a
major conductor, screens out the high
frequency signals (above 0.01 Hz) needed
to image structure in the upper few kilo-
meters of the seafloor. However, with
modern re c o rding equipment in low
noise environments, higher fre q u e n c y
signals can be detected in moderate water
depths (Constable et al., 1998). Controlled
source EM methods were also initially
developed for mid-ocean ridge explo-
ration (Unsworth, 1994) and have subse-
quently been applied to shallow
hydrocarbon exploration. These methods
use a ship to tow a transmitter over an
array of seafloor instruments providing
coverage of an exploration area (Eidesmo
et al., 2002). The presence of the conduc-
tive seawater reduces natural noise and
allows weak signals from the subsurface
to be detected. A combination of low reso-
lution MT and higher re s o l u t i o n
controlled source EM is becoming the
preferred method for mapping the back-
ground sedimentary section and

April 2005 CSEG RECORDER 37

Focus Article Contd
New developments in conventional hydrocarbon exploration...
Continued from Page 37
Geophysics, 56, 2102-2106, 1991. Unsworth, M. J., Exploration of mid-ocean ridges with a frequency domain electromagnetic
system, Geophys. J. Int., 116, 447-467, 1994.
DellAversana, P., Integration of seismic, MT and gravity data in a thrust belt interpreta -
tion, First Break, 19, 335-341, 2001. Unsworth, M. J. and Bedrosian, P. A., Electrical resistivity at the SAFOD site from magne -
totelluric exploration, Geophys. Res. Lett., 31, L12S05, doiL10.1029/2003GL019405, 2004.
Densmore, A. A., An interpretation of some magnetotelluric data recorded in Northeast
British Columbia during 1969, J. Can. Soc. Exploration Geophysicists, 6, 34-38, 1970. Vozoff, K., The Magnetotelluric Method in the Exploration of Sedimentary Basins,
Geophysics, 37, 98-141, 1972.
Eidesmo, T., Ellingsrud, S., MacGregor, L. M., Constable, S., Sinha, M. C., Johansen,
S., Kong, F. N. and Westerdahl, H., Sea Bed Logging (SBL), a new method for remote Vozoff, K., The Magnetotelluric Method, in Electromagnetic Methods in Applied
and direct identification of hydrocarbon filled layers in deepwater areas, First Geophysics, M. N. Nabighian, Ed. (SEG, Tulsa), vol. 2, chapter 8, 1991.
Break, 20, 144-152, 2002.
Watts, M. D. and Pince, A., Petroleum exploration in overthrust areas using MT and
Egbert, G. D., Robust multiple-station magnetotelluric data processing, Geophys. J. Int., seismic data, SEG Expanded Abstracts, 1998.
130, 475-496, 1997.
Withers, R., Eggers, D., Fox, T. and. Crebs, T., A case study of integrated hydrocarbon
Evans, R. L., Tarits P., Chave, A. D., White, A, Heinson, G., Filloux, J. H., Toh, H., exploration through basalt, Geophysics, 59, 1666-1679, 1994.
Seama, N., Utada, H., Booker, J. R. and Unsworth, M. J., Asymmetric electrical struc -
Xiao, W. and Unsworth M. J., Magnetotelluric exploration in the Rocky Mountain
ture in the mantle beneath the East Pacific Rise at 17S, Science, 286, 752-756, 1999.
Foothills, expanded abstract, CSEG Annual Convention, Calgary, 2004.
Gamble, T. B., Goubau, W. M. and Clarke, J., Magnetotellurics with a remote reference,
Ziolkowski, A., Hobbs, B. and. Wright, D., First direct hydrocarbon detection and reser -
Geophysics, 44, 53-68, 1979.
voir monitoring using transient electromagnetics, First Break, 20, 224-225, 2002.
Hoversten, M. G., Constable S.C. and Morrison H. F., Marine magnetotellurics for
URLs
base-of-salt mapping: Gulf of Mexico field test at the Gemini Structure, Geophysics,
65, 1476-1488, 2000. http://www.phoenix-geophysics.com/Home/Technology/Evolution/
Jones, A., Static shift of MT data and its removal in a sedimentary basin environment, http://www.metronix.de/mtx/products/geo/page_geo_eng.html
Geophysics, 53, 967-978, 1988.
Larsen, J. C., Mackie, R. L., Manzella, A., Fiordelisi, A. and Rieven, S., Robust smooth
magnetotelluric transfer functions, Geophys. J. Int., 124, 801819, 1996. Acknowledgements
Orange, A. S., Magnetotelluric exploration for hydrocarbons, Proc. IEEE, 77, February, MT data collection in the Rocky Mountain Foothills was funded
1989.
by re s e a rch grants to Martyn Unsworth from NSERC, the
Prieto, C., Perkins, C. and Berkman, E., Columbia River Basalt Plateau-An integrated
approach to interpretation of basalt-covered areas, Geophysics, 50, 2709-2719, 1985. Canadian Foundation for Innovation, Alberta Ingenuity Fund,
Ravaut, P., Russell, S., Mallard, P., Ballard, J., Watts, D., Mackie, R. and Hallinan, S., ISRIP and the University of Alberta. Fieldwork was also
Three-dimensional magnetotellurics for imaging a Devonian reservoir (Huamampampa) in the supported through technical help and equipment loan from
southern Sub-Andean Basin of Bolivia, 72nd Ann. Internat. Mtg., SEG, 2417-2421, 2002. Phoenix Geophysics. Discussions with Don Watts and Richard
Rodi, W. and Mackie, R. L., Nonlinear conjugate gradients algorithm for 2-D magne - Kellett over recent years are gratefully acknowledged. R
totelluric inversion, Geophysics, 66, 174-187, 2001.
Spies, B., Recent development in the use of surface electrical methods for oil and gas explo -
ration in the Soviet Union, Geophysics, 48, 1102-1112, 1983.
Sternberg, B. K., Washburne, J. and Pellerin, L., Correction for the static shift in magne -
totellurics using transient electromagnetic soundings, Geophysics, 53, 1459-1468, 1988.

Signal Type Measured Fields Depth of investigation

(Frequency (Electric or in a sedimentary Land
Method Source Or time domain) Magnetic) basin or Marine
MT (Magnetotellurics) Natural Frequency E and H 1 10 km Both
AMT (Audio-magnetotellurics) Natural Frequency E and H 100 1000 m Land
CSAMT (Controlled source
audio- magnetotellurics) Grounded Dipole Frequency E and H 100 2000 m Both
UTEM
(University of Toronto EM) Large Loop Time H 50 -500 m Land
LOTEM/MTEM Grounded Dipole Time E and H 100 1000 m Land
Land TEM Loop Time H 50 200 m Airborne

Table 1: Typical EM systems that have been applied to hydrocarbon exploration

Martyn Unsworth is a professor in the Department of Physics at the University of

Alberta. He received his BA in Natural Sciences from Cambridge University in 1986
and his PhD in Earth Sciences from Cambridge University in 1991. Before moving to
the University of Alberta in 2000, he worked as a post-doc at the University of British
Columbia and as Research Assistant Professor and Research Associate Professor at
the University of Washington. His primary research interest is in the application of
magnetotellurics to tectonic studies, exploration geophysics and environmental pro b-
lems. In recent years he has worked in several areas of Canada, California, Mexico,
Tibet and the Aleutian Islands of Alaska".

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