As Revision Book Physics

AS Physics - Unit 1
Section 1.1 - Basic Physics
Systeme Internationale or SI units

All quantities in physics have an unit which has been agreed on internationally. For example :
charge - coulombs, C force - newtons, N energy - joule, J
In addition, there are about 6 fundamental quantities that can be used to define or derive any
other quantity. These are known as base quantities, and their units are therefore base SI
units. Here are 6 base quantities :
mass (kg) length (m) time (s) temperature (K) current (A) amount (mol)
Since all derived quantities, like energy or force are based upon base quantities, it must be
possible to express their units in terms of base quantity units ( kg , m , s , K , A or mol).
To change SI units into base SI units, you simply need to think of an equation containing base
quantities, e.g. changing the newton, N into base SI units :
In this section the square brackets
Simple equation for force F = m x a around a quantity are used to denote
the units of that quantity, e.g.
Hence the units of force , [F] = kg x ms-2 [m] denotes the units of mass.
If the SI unit for force is the newton, the equivalent unit in terms of base SI units is kgms-2
Example
Electrical current, I is defined by the equation, I = Q where Q = charge, t = time.
t
The SI unit for charge is the coulomb, C. Express this unit in terms of base SI units.
Re-arranging the equation to make Q the subject :

Q=Ixt [Q] = [I] x [t] = A x s Answer = As (Amps seconds)
Quantity SI units BASE SI units You are NOT expected to

remember these BASE SI
Spring constant, k = F / x Nm-1 kg s-2 units, but you may be
expected to derive them as
Pressure ( = Force/Area) Pa or N/m2 kg m-1 s-2 shown in the example box
above.
Energy or Work done
J kg m2 s-2
( Work = Force x distance) Why not try to use the
Voltage 2 -1 -3 equations given in the first
V kg m A s column to see if you can
(V=Energy/charge)
derive the BASE SI units
shown in the last column ?
www.bangor.ac.uk/ASrevision 1
This information can be used to check equations for homogeneity. An equation is said to be
homogenous if both sides have identical base SI units.
( Note : This does not check whether any constants in an equation have the correct values).
Example
Show that the following equation is homogenous : E = Y A e2
2L
where , E = energy stored in a stretched wire (unit = joule = kg m2 s-2 )

Y = modulus of elasticity (Pascal = unit of pressure, P = F/A)
A = Area
e = extension
L = original length of wire
Answer
First, we must find the SI units for each expression in the equation :
LHS
[E] = kg m2s-2 (given)
RHS
[Y] = [ Pressure ] = [ F / A ] = [ m a / A ] = kg ms-2 / m2 = kg m-1s-2
[A] = m2
[e] = m
[ e2 ] = m2
[L] = m
[2] = No units
Y A e2 = kg s-2 . m2 . m2 = kg m2 s-2
2 L m . m
Since the units are identical on both sides of the equation, this equation is homogenous.
Scalars & Vectors
Scalar = A scalar is a quantity that has magnitude only.
Vector = A vector quantity has magnitude and direction.
Examples of scalars are : mass , distance , volume , density , time , speed , pressure
Examples of vectors are : displacement , velocity , acceleration , momentum , force , current
Displacement
Displacement is the vector equivalent of distance. However, displacement is measured in a
different way to distance displacement is akin to the distance as the crow flies. See the
example below :
A cyclist travels from Bangor (North Wales) to Betws-y-Coed.

A device attached to the wheel measures the distance travelled as
the wheel turns. The reading by the end of the journey was 80km.
However, the displacement is shown by the dotted (red) line.

The displacement was 27km at a bearing of S 50 E.
Note : Since displacement is a vector it requires a direction too.
Speed & Velocity
Velocity is the vector equivalent of speed. However, we must be careful! Velocity is defined as
displacement per unit time, and so displacement values must be used to calculate velocity,
whereas distance values are used to calculate speed.
Adding vectors
When adding vectors we must take their direction into consideration. If the vectors are in
line, then it is a simple calculation (as seen at GCSE level). See the example below.
Example
A woman is rowing against the flow in a slow moving river and wants to estimate how long
the journey will take. To do this she needs an idea of her speed relative to the river bank.
She knows her usual rowing speed is 3.2 m/s. The speed of the water in the river is
approximately 0.8 m/s in the opposite direction. Calculate her resultant velocity (relative
to the river bank).
Answer :
3.2m/s + 0.8m/s Resultant velocity, v = 3.2 0.8 = 2.4 m/s
We can also add vectors that are not in line, i.e. are at an angle to each other. This can be
done by scale drawing, but a more accurate method is by using trigonometry. You will only be
expected to do calculations with vectors that are at 90 to each other.
Example 400N
Imagine a heavy block being pulled by two
people simultaneously. Person A pulls with a
force of 300N due East; person B pulls with
a force of 400N due North. What is the
resultant force on the block ?
300N
400N
The forces are added by placing them "tip to tail", RESULTANT
as shown, or alternatively by the parallelogram rule.
The resultant is then the line that joins the tail of one
to the tip of the other.
The magnitude of the resultant, R can be found using pythagoras, where , 300N
R2 = 3002 + 4002 R = 3002 + 4002
R = 500 N
The direction of the resultant is given by Soh, Cah and Toa :
tan = 400 / 300 = tan-1 ( 400 / 300 )

= 53.1
Subtracting vectors
Sometimes it is necessary to calculate the change in a certain quantity. A change in a quantity
is always the final value minus the initial value, and hence this requires vector subtraction.
For example, when calculating acceleration, we need to find the change in velocity.
u
If a particle is initially travelling to the right with a velocity, u, of 25 m/s,
but that some time later, has a final velocity, v, of 10m/s downwards,
v
we would calculate the change in velocity like this :
v This is: v = v - (+ u) = v - u
v
u
v This is: v = v + (- u) = v u
v
Alternatively :
Either way the resultant is v u
-u
Resolving vectors
When a vector is resolved it is split up into vectors that have the same effect as the original.
The two new vectors, called components, are chosen to be at 90 to each other so that the two
components can be treated independently.
Consider a force, F, acting at 30 to the horizontal : 30

F
This force vector can be resolved into two perpendicular
components :
Fx = F cos (30)
30 The components are found by simply
applying Soh, Cah, Toa !
F Fy = F sin (30)
Fx = F cos (30)
30 Alternatively, we can set all the tails
together, and just remember that the
F component linked to the original by the
angle is always the cos component.
Fy = F sin (30)
Example WD
A box is placed on a (rough) slope.
The weight of the box is 30N.
25
Calculate WP
(i) the component perpendicular to the slope, WP,
(ii) the downslope component of the weight, WD. Weight = 30N
Firstly, we identify the angle, , as 25. (Look at any right-angled triangle in the diagram).
We now see that the WP component is linked to the original via the angle, and hence,
(i) WP = W cos (25) = 30 x cos (25) = 27.2 N

(ii) WD = W sin (25) = 30 x sin (25) = 12.7 N
Remember : The original vector always forms the hypotenuse of the

new triangle formed with the 2 components.
Moment (turning effect/torque)
Moment is defined as the product of force and the perpendicular distance between the
line of action of the force and the pivot. Heres the equation :
Moment = Force x distance M = F d
Pivot
In many cases the forces will

naturally act in a direction
thats perpendicular to the
pivot direction, e.g. a toy Both forces lines of
action are at 90 to the
mobile. direction of the pivot
Weight
of ted Weight
of star
However, in some cases, you may need to use

some trigonometry to find the perpendicular
Tension in the cable, T
distance before you attempt to take
moments, e.g. a trap door in the attic
Pivot (at the hinge)
There are two ways to do this :
1) Look along the line of action of the

tension force put a dot at the point
along this line that is closest to the pivot. d
. Tension, T
The line joining this dot to the pivot

(hinge) is now the perpendicular distance, d,
and can be found by basic geometry.
( sin = d / a , d = a sin a
hence, Moment = T x asin
T sin
2) Resolve the tension.
The horizontal component acts towards
the pivot, and hence creates no moment.
The vertical component is at 90 to the
direction of the pivot, and hence , moment,
M = T sin x a
a
Notice that the final equation used to calculate moment is identical in both cases !
The Conditions needed for equilibrium
There are two conditions
that must be satisfied if an 1. The resultant force (in any given line) is zero.
object can be said to be in
equilibrium : 2. The net moment (about any pivot) is zero.
The second condition is also known as the Principle of moments :
If an object is in equilibrium, then the resultant (or net) moment about

any pivot is zero.
This is in effect like stating that if an object is balanced on a pivot, then the total
clockwise moment must equal the total anticlockwise moment. This idea is used to
calculate unknown distances or forces.
Example
By taking moments about a suitable pivot,
find the tension in both chains, A and B.
The horizontal bars length is 3.0m;
assume its weight is negligible.
Strategy
1. Choose a pivot (In this case weve chosen
the base of chain B, thus eliminating the
tension here, TB from the moments equation).
1.75 + 0.60 = 2.35m
2. Find the perpendicular distance from each force to the chosen pivot.
3. Take moments : M = M
Taking TA as the tension in chain A, TA x 3 = (40 x 2.35) + (30 x 1.75) + (25 x 0.85)
TA x 3 = 167.75 Nm
TA = 167.75 / 3 = 55.9 N
To find the tension in chain B, we could repeat the above with a pivot chosen at the base of chain A, however, we can now
apply the 1st condition of equilibrium ( no net force) :
TA + TB = 40 + 30 + 25
TB = 95 - TA = 95 - 55.9 = 39.1 N
Centre of gravity
This is the point at which all the weight of the object is considered to act, and makes
calculations like those seen above much easier. You should memorise the following 3
examples :
Centre of gravity and toppling angles
One example of the usefulness of the idea of a centre of gravity is when trying to evaluate
the stability of an object, i.e. its toppling angle.
A tilted object will topple over when its weight (acting from the centre of gravity) acts just
outside the corner of the object. This is explained in terms of moments.
Force, F
Normal reaction NR
(or contact force) NR
. C . C
A A
W W
Normal reaction, R
Once a force is applied, the object starts tilting. If it is held in the position shown, and then
the force is removed, the object will fall back to its upright position. Why ?
Once tilted, the normal reaction then acts from the pivot (at A), and hence creates no
moment. The weight now creates an anticlockwise moment about point A, and hence the
object rotates back upright.
The toppling angle is shown (). At a slightly

higher value of the angle, , the weight would
then act outside the corner, and start creating
a clockwise moment, which would cause the
object to topple over.
W
h
Taking a closer look at a small triangle
inside the cone, we get this diagram :
b
= tan-1 ( b / h )
Density
Density = Mass
Density is defined as the mass per unit volume :
Volume
So, if mass, m, is measured in kg, and volume, V, is measured in m3,
then density, , is measured in kgm-3.
In general, solids have high density values

whereas gases have very low values:
Section 1.2 - Kinematics
First, some basic definitions that youll need to learn :
Quantity Definition Symbol Unit Equation

The displacement of a particle is defined as
Displacement the (straight line) distance it travels in a given x m
direction.
Velocity Rate of change of displacement. v ms-1 v=x/t
Speed Distance travelled per unit time. v ms-1 v=x/t
Acceleration Rate of change of velocity. a ms-2 a = v/t
In addition, the words mean and instantaneous are applied to both speed and velocity.
Mean is obviously the average measured over a significant amount of time. If calculated over
a whole journey, then velocity = total displacement / total time.
Instantaneous is the speed or velocity at any one instant, and is calculated by taking a very
small time interval (or by taking a tangent to the curve on a displacement-time graph see
later).
displacement, x (m)
Displacement-time graphs
6
The graph opposite shows how the
0 C
displacement of a particle travelling
in a straight line changes with time. B
4
This curve is a complete description 0 A
of the motion of the particle. D
2
0
time, t (s)
O
1 2 3 4
0 0 0 0
Theres just one rule that applies to this type of graph :
The gradient of the graph at any point gives a value for the velocity
at that point.
Hence, to calculate the instantaneous velocity at a point in time, we need to find the
gradient of the tangent to the graph at that point.
To calculate the average velocity between two points, we divide the change in displacement
between those two points by the time between them, e.g.
The average velocity between points A and C is vAC = x / t = 5.1 3.5 / 1.3 = 1.23 ms-1
The instantaneous velocity at point B is vB = gradient = (6 2) / 2.3 = 1.74 ms-1
For a situation where the velocity is changing ( i.e. a curve ), it is very difficult to judge just by
looking whether or not the acceleration/deceleration is constant.
An examination question may ask you to calculate the gradient several times in order for you to
make a judgment if the velocity is changing in regular increments, i.e. constant acceleration.
It may be useful to remember that if the acceleration is constant, then the curve on a
displacement-time graph would be parabolic, i.e., it will look like a graph of y = x2
(or y = -x2), as follows :
Velocity-time graphs
There are two rules for this type of graph :
1) The gradient of the velocitytime graph represents the acceleration.
If the line is curved, then to find the instantaneous acceleration find the gradient of the
tangent to the line at that point.
2 ) The AREA under the velocitytime graph represents the displacement travelled.
The graph () shows an object accelerating

from rest.
In section OA, it accelerates up to a velocity of Velocity (m/s)
25 m/s. Since the gradient is constant, the 30
acceleration must be constant also (rule 1, A B
above). 20
The gradient in section AB is zero, hence the 10
acceleration is zero, i.e. constant velocity.
C Time (s)
From B to C the object has constant O 12
5 10
deceleration (constant negative gradient).
The displacement in any section (or the whole journey) can be found by applying rule 2 :
Area under section OA = 62.5m
Area under section AB = 125m Total = 212.5m
Area under section OA = 25m
Uniformly accelerated motion kinematic equations
This whole section relies upon the fact that we can assume the acceleration is constant. So,
for example, when considering the motion of an object we must assume air-resistance is
negligible. This approximation applies for many practical cases.
Think about a particle moving along a straight line with constant acceleration, a. Suppose that its initial
velocity, at time t = 0, is u. After a further time t, its velocity has increased to v. From the definition of
acceleration as (change in velocity) / (time taken), we have :
a = (v u) or, re-arranging v = u + at -------------- 1

t
Since the change in velocity is UNIFORM, we can define the average velocity as, vav = v + u
2
The correct symbol for displacement is, x, and the equation for displacement is , x = vav t
( re-arrange velocity = displacement / time )
So, substituting for vav we get : x = v+u t -------------- 2

2
We can get a third equation by substituting for the v in this equation from eq. 1 like this :
x = v+u t = ( u + at +u) t = (2u + at ) t = ( 2 u t + at2 )

2 2 2 2
x = u t + a t2 -------------- 3
Finally , the fourth equation is obtained by substituting for t in eq. 2 ( from eq. 1 )
x = v+u t = v+u . v-u = ( v2 - u2 )

2 2 a 2a
2 a x = v2 - u 2 v2 = u2 + 2 a x -------------- 4
Equations 2 & 3 can also be derived by using a velocity-time graph, as follows :

The displacement is calculated from a v-t graph by the area
between the line/curve and the t axis, therefore, using the
b
formula for the area of a trapezium, a
v
Area = (a + b) x width
2 width u
x = (v + u) x t ( = Equation 2 !!)
2 t
If we split the trapezium into a rectangle and a triangle

then the displacement is now given by the sum of the area
of these two sections:
v
x = ut + vu xt
triangle
2 u
rectangle
Area of rectangle Area of triangle
t
This equation then becomes equation 3 if we substitute for
v u with at (equation 1).
Therefore, the four equations for the motion of the particle in uniformly accelerated motion are:
v = u + at x = v+u t x = u t + a t2 v 2 = u2 + 2 a x
2
Example
A car in a land speed record attempt can maintain an acceleration
of 7.2 m/s2. The cars speed at the start of the run is 5 m/s.
If the target speed at the end of the run needs to be 340 m/s,
how much distance is needed to attain this speed ?
We need to find x but are not given t, therefore, we need to choose an equation that
does not contain t. Hence, we must use v2 = u2 + 2 a x
Re-arranging x = v2 - u2 = 3402 - 52 = 8026 m

2a (2 x 7.2)
Two dimensional motion

In most cases, the situation given is for an object moving in a gravitational field, where it is
assumed that the air resistance is negligible, or where there is no air, e.g. the Moons surface.
In such situations there is a resultant force, and hence acceleration, in the vertical direction
only, although the objects velocity may have both vertical and horizontal components. The
kinematic equations can be applied to the vertical component, but the horizontal component
has no acceleration, and hence we can only apply v = x / t .
Example
A snowball is launched at a velocity 11.8 m/s
of 11.8 ms-1 as shown in the
diagram . Calculate, 40
(a) the time it takes to hit its target,
(b) the maximum height of the wall,
if it is 7m from the man (1/2 way).
distance = 14m
Strategy a good setup !
Taking up as positive,
xx = 14m xy = (a) Using, v = x /t, t = xx = 14 = 1.55 s
ux = 9.04 ms-1 uy = 7.58 ms-1 ux 9.04
t= vy =
ay = - 9.81 ms-2 (b) Now that we also have the time in the y
t = direction, we have the necessary minimum
of 3 quantities in order to calculate the others.
We must remember that the time to reach the wall will be half of the time calculated in
part (a), since we assume theres no air-resistance, hence, t = 0.775 s :
xy = uyt + ayt2 = (7.58 x 0.775) + (0.5 x 9.81 x 0.7752) = 5.875 - 2.946
xy = 2.93 m (above the height at which it is launched !)
Note that in the data book, the symbol for displacement is x not s !!
Note that some quantities given are not immediately obvious. Heres an example.
A rock is thrown horizontally from the top of a cliff at a speed of 8 m/s. If it takes 4.2 s to hit
the sea below, how high is the cliff above sea level ?
Strategy a good setup ! At 1st glance, it seems that only xx can be calculated,
Choosing down as positive. however, we know the acceleration is g = 9.81 ms-2.
xx = xy = Also, if the stone is launched horizontally, then the

ux = 8.0 ms-1 uy = initial vertical velocity must be zero, i.e. uy = 0.
t = 4.2 s vy = So, in fact, we already have 3 quantities out of the 5
ay = in the vertical direction, and hence we can calculate
t = 4.2 s any of the remaining quantities with one of the
relevant equations. ( BTW : xy = 86.5m)
Other similar quantities :

An object dropped from rest : ux = 0 and/or uy = 0
For projectiles starting and ending at the same height,xy = 0
For an object thrown up, and at its greatest height, vy = 0
However, for an object ending up at rest on the ground vy 0 !!!!
This is because the kinematic equations only work if the acceleration is constant. The
acceleration changes as soon as a falling object makes contact with the ground, and hence we
can only apply the equations to the point just before it hits the ground.
Terminal velocity
All the work above on kinematic equations is done under the assumption that the
acceleration is constant. Strictly, this is only true where there is no air resistance. When
we take air resistance into account, the acceleration is non-uniform, and reduces to zero as
the object gains speed.
Air resistance, AR
For an object moving vertically downwards,
there are usually just two forces, as shown.
At the beginning, the sky divers vertical speed is

zero (or very close to zero), and hence theres no
air resistance. Weight, W
Theres therefore a downward resultant force created by
the weight. This causes the skydiver to accelerate downwards.
As the skydivers speed increases, he/she pushes downwards on the air molecules with an
increasing force, since the airs momentum is changing at a greater rate.
Hence the air molecules, by newtons 3rd law, are creating an upward force on the skydiver
(air resistance) that increases with speed. RF or acceleration
Eventually, the air resistance becomes equal to the

weight, and terminal velocity is reached. A graph
of resultant force or acceleration would look like this
time (s)
Section 1.3 - Dynamics
Newtons 3 Laws of Motion
The first law states that if the resultant force on an object is zero then the
object will either remain stationary, or if it was already moving, then it will
continue to move with uniform motion.
Newtons 2nd law states that the rate of change of momentum (= mass x velocity)
is directly proportional to the applied (resultant) force and occurs in the same
direction as the force :
F = change in ( mv ) = d (mv)
Change in ( t ) d (t)
The 3rd law states that if body A exerts a force on body B, then body B exerts an
equal but opposite force on body A. (To every action there is an equal and
opposite reaction).
Newtons 2nd Law can be simplified in the case where the mass is constant :
F = m d(v) = m(v-u) but v - u = acceleration

d(t) t t

F = m a F is measured in
m is measured in
NEWTONS , N.
kilograms , kg.
a is measured in m /s 2.
Note : F in this equation is ALWAYS the RESULTANT force.
Since weight is a type of force, we can apply the force equation to calculate it :
F = m x a hence
W = m g
where W = weight, m = mass, g = acceleration due to gravity / gravitational field strength.

The value of g is given in the data book as: g=9.81 ms-2 , which is the value close to the
Earths surface.
Its important to remember the distinction between mass and weight.
Mass is a measure of how much Weight is a measure of how large

matter or material an object has. the force of gravity is on an object.
Its measured in kg. It is measured in N.
Newtons 3rd law
In order to accelerate at the start of a race a formula one cars engine must create a large force.
This force is transmitted to the back wheels.
The wheel pushes backward The road pushes with an equal but
onto the road. opposite force onto the wheel.
The effect of the force of the road on the wheel is of course to accelerate the car forwards.
The effect of the wheel on the road is to accelerate the Earth backwards !
Although the two forces are always equal and always opposite, they never
cancel out since they always act on DIFFERENT OBJECTS.
Situations in real life can therefore get very complicated ! Look at this relatively simple
situation where a block is being pulled along the surface of a table, assuming theres no air-
resistance (!) :
Normal reaction/Contact force
Friction Pulling force

(on block)
Friction
(on table) Contact force (on table)
Weight of block
Reaction to weight of block, i.e.
the blocks gravitational pull on the Earth !
Note : The (newtons 3rd law) reaction to the pulling force, acting on the object thats doing the pulling, has not been shown !
Some of the forces shown above are acting on the block, some on the Earth, and some on the
table. In order to calculate the effect on the motion of the block, we must consider only
those forces acting on the block itself.
Thus we draw a free body diagram, i.e. a diagram that shows only one object, and any
forces acting on it. Heres the free body diagram for the block :
Normal reaction/Contact force
Friction Pulling force

(on block)
Weight of block
This makes the situation must simpler. It can be further simplified by grouping the left and
right forces together, the up and down forces together, and then considering the vertical and
horizontal motions separately.
Momentum
Momentum is the product of mass and velocity. p = mv
The units for momentum are kg ms-1

When interactions and collisions between 2 or more objects are studied it is seen that the total
momentum before the interaction/collision and after is the same (even if some energy is lost
from the system of colliding objects). This is known as the conservation of momentum :
The Principle of Conservation of Momentum
The total momentum of a system of interacting bodies will remain constant if

there are no external forces acting.
Momentum is a vector, and hence we must remember to state its direction, especially when
applying the conservation of momentum as shown by the following example.
Example
A bumper car in a fairground of mass 95kg is travelling at a speed of 2.8 ms-1 when it
collides with another car (initially not moving) of mass 140kg. If the speed of the 1st car
after collision is 0.4ms-1 in the opposite direction, calculate the velocity of the 2nd car.
m1u1 + m2u2 = m1v1 + m2v2 Always a good way to start !!
(95x2.8) + 0 = (95 x -0.4) + (140 x v2)

266 = - 38 + 140v2 Notice the negative sign before the
0.4 the forwards direction of the 1st
266 + 38 = 140 v2 car is taken as positive, hence the
v2 = 2.17 ms-1 backwards motion is negative.
Elastic and inelastic collisions

If you calculate the kinetic energy (Ek = 0.5mv2) in the example If you try to calculate the
above you will see that the Ek before is 372.4 J, but that after kinetic energy, remember that
the collision, the total Ek of both cars is 337.7 J. This is an energy is a scalar, and hence
the direction of the car is
example of an inelastic collision, where some of the kinetic
irrelevant !
energy of the system is lost to the surroundings.
In an elastic collision, no kinetic energy is lost.
Elastic collisions can only realistically occur when individual particles are interacting, e.g. an
alpha particle approaching another alpha particle most everyday collisions incur a significant
kinetic energy loss, but remember that we can still apply the conservation of momentum !
Also remember that newtons 2nd law refers to momentum : F = Rate of change of momentum
This means that if we plot a graph of momentum p

against time, then,
y
t
Force is equal to the gradient of the momentum-time graph.
x
Section 1.4 - Energy concepts
Work done
If a body moves as a result of a force being applied to it, the force W = Fx
is said to be doing work on the body. The work done is given by
where x = distance moved in the direction of the force.
Remember that : Work done is always equal to the energy transferred.
Hence the unit for work done is the joule, J.
If the force on an object, F, causes it to move in a direction other than its own, as shown below,
then we take only the component of the force that acts in the direction of movement :
F
F Direction of motion So, work done ,
W = F. cos xF x cos
F cos
Force distance graphs (Also seen in next section)

If a graph is plotted of the applied force against distance, then the area under the graph is
equal to the work done by the force on the object. This is true whether the force is
constant or not.
Hookes law states that the force exerted on a material is directly proportional to the
extension. Thus, F = k x , where k = the spring constant (see next section for more details).
Therefore, a graph of force against extension for a material obeying Hookes law looks like
this : F
Hence, the energy stored in this material (in the form

of elastic potential energy, EPE) is :
x
EPE = Work = area of triangle = F x
since F = kx (Hookes law), EPE = kx2
Kinetic and potential energy
These equations are given in the data book in the examination :
Ek = mv2 Ep = mgh Eelastic = kx2
where Ek = kinetic energy, Ep = change in gravitational potential energy, and

Eelastic = elastic potential energy
Work-energy theorem
From page 11, we have the kinematic equation, v2 = u2 + 2 ax .
If we substitute for a from F = ma, the kinematic equation above becomes :
F x = mv2 - mu2
So, a force pushing an object horizontally does work on the object equal to F x, and in
the absence of friction etc, this work translates to a gain in kinetic energy. This relates
directly to the 4th line on the previous page (Work = energy transferred).
Conservation of energy
The work-energy theorem above assumes there are no dissipative/resistive forces involved,
i.e. that the work done on an object transfers perfectly to kinetic energy. In most real
situations here on earth, theres always some friction, and usually air-resistance too. These
forces transfer some of the energy into wasted forms of energy like heat and sound.
Even if some energy is lost from the system of objects were looking at, the total energy is
always conserved this is the conservation of energy :
Energy cannot be created or destroyed, only transferred from one form to

another.
Look at the example below :

Small card to
pass through Toy car
Light gate that the light gate
measures the speed
of the toy car
Board with rough surface
If we assume that no friction or air-resistance are acting on

the toy car, the gravitational potential energy, Ep , would
transfer perfectly into kinetic energy, Ek. The speed
Ep = Ek gain
calculated would be the theoretical maximum.
However, when we also consider frictional forces,

we then write Ep = Ek gain + W
where W is the work done by the frictional forces ( W = F x).
The speed measured would be significantly less than the theoretical maximum calculated
with no frictional forces.
Power
Power is defined as the rate of doing work. It is therefore also the rate of transferring
energy, and hence the equation for power is either or
P = W P = E
t t
Another useful expression is given by substituting for W as force x distance or Fx :
P = Fx but since x / t = speed, this becomes P = Fv

t
P = F v applies to situation where an object has a force exerted on it that is trying to

accelerated it, but is being balanced by another force, e.g. friction, which means that the
resultant force is zero, and hence the object is moving at a constant speed.
Efficiency
Efficiency is a quantity used to describe how much useful energy a device or machine
produces as compared to the amount of input energy, and is usually expressed as a
percentage. Thus,
Efficiency (%) = Useful energy transfer x 100 (% )

Total input energy
Example rope 800N

A rock of mass 150kg is being pulled up a rough incline 2.0m
60 m
at a steady speed of 0.8 m/s by applying a steady force
of 800N to a rope attached to it, as shown . Calculate,
(a)the gravitational potential energy acquired by the rock at the top of the slope,
(b) the efficiency of this pulling system,
(c)the friction acting on the rock,
(d) the power developed by the person pulling the rope.
(a) Ep = mg h = 150 x 9.81 x 2 = 2943 J

(b) Total input energy = W = F x = 800 x 60 = 48 000 J
Efficiency = Useful out x100 = 2943 x100 = 6.1%
Total input 48 000
(c) Work done by friction, WFR = 48 000 2943 = 45 057 J

Hence, friction, FR = WFR / x = 45 057 / 60 = 751N
(d) P = F v = 800 x 0.8 = 640 W
Section 1.5 - Solids under stress
3 types of solid
1) Crystalline : These solids have short and long-range order i.e. there is a
regular pattern of atoms (or sometimes molecules) over a distance of at
least 100 atomic diameters. Almost all metals are examples of polycrystalline
solids, as well as many minerals e.g. salt, where there are many small
crystals called grains. Each grain has a different orientation. This makes the
structure very strong. The line between each grain is known as the grain boundary.
2) Amorphous : The term amorphous (meaning without shape or form) is used to describe solid
substances in which there is little or no long-range order in the arrangement of the particles.
It can be likened to an instantaneous or frozen picture of the internal structure of a liquid.
In practice there are few examples of solids with such totally random structures, however,
glass or brick are given as examples in which there may be ordered clusters of atoms (much
smaller than the small crystals found in polycrystalline materials like metals).
3) Polymeric : Polymers consist of very long chains of

carbon atoms (commonly in excess of 1000 atoms ! )
bonded to hydrogen and other atoms. Polymers can
be natural (e.g. cellulose, protein, rubber, etc.) or
synthetic (e.g. polyethane [shown ] , polythene,
polystyrene, nylon, etc.).
The effect of external forces on solids

Many materials that are crystalline or amorphous will extend under tension in a linear way, at
least for a limited range of force. They are said to follow Hookes law :
Provided, the elastic limit is not exceeded, the extension F = kx

of a body is proportional to the applied load.
Where, F = force (N) ; k = spring constant (Nm-1) ; x = extension (m)
F (N)
This leads to force-extension graphs like this . 20 A B
Material A would feel stiffer than material C,

since with the same force, A extends much less. 10
A would have a higher value for k as seen in the C
equation representing Hookes law, above. x (m)
In fact k is equal to the gradient of this graph. 0.10 0.20 0.30 0.40 0.50
Remember !!! The area under the graph is equal to the work done by the force on the object.
Hence, the energy stored in a material (in the form of elastic potential energy,
EPE) is :
EPE = Work done = area of triangle = F x
since F = kx (Hookes law), E = kx2
Stress & Strain
The problem with using the elastic constant is that its value is different for each specimen of a
material that has a different shape or size. A more useful quantity is the Youngs Modulus,
which is independent of the materials length and width. This enables a fair comparison of the
stiffness of different materials. The Youngs Modulus is defined as follows :
Youngs Modulus, E = Stress

E =
Strain
stress, = Force / Area = F/A units : Nm-2 or Pascal, Pa

strain, = extension / original length = l / l units : None !
Hence the unit for Youngs Modulus is Nm-2 (or Pascal, Pa) the same as the unit for stress.
So, substituting these two definitions for stress and strain into the youngs modulus equation
(not given in data booklet):
F/A F l
E = or, if you prefer E =
l / l l A
Stress & Strain graphs for different materials

1) Crystalline
Analysis
OP - extension proportional to load,
i.e. follows Hookes law.
Point P limit of proportionality.
Point E elastic limit; up to this point
the material will return to
original shape and size after
force is removed.
Y1 - yield point; large extension occurs
with little or no extra stress as
planes of atoms start to slip past each other.
Y2 - material stretches so much in some materials, e.g. copper, that the stress is actually reduced
for a while.
EX - plastic region; material will not return to original size once its entered this region.
X - material breaks; signifies the UTS (ultimate tensile strength) for most materials.
X2 - Some very ductile metals like copper become narrower and extend rapidly just before breaking
( known as necking).
Explaining the behaviour of the material in different parts of the graph
Metals (and minerals like salt) have a regular atomic pattern. Any force exerted on a crystalline
material will therefore be transmitted equally to each bond because of the long range order.
So, for small extensions, the behaviour of the material as a whole is very similar to the
behaviour of a single bond, where, F x, and hence the graph is straight from O to P.
Plastic behaviour occurs when a solid is extended beyond its elastic limit. The atoms in one
plane can slip over the atoms in the other plane, if the forces are great enough.
A more detailed look at the slipping of planes brings in the idea of dislocations to explain the
relative ease with which a ductile material extends in the plastic region.
Sometimes, as molten metal cools down when it is smelted, mistakes happen as the metal ions
join the crystal. A frequent mistake one every million atomic planes or so is that half a
plane of atoms is missed out. This is known as an edge dislocation.
Edge dislocations are the key to plastic deformation.

The secret is in the bonds around the ion X.
These bonds are all under strain (theyre longer than usual),
so they are places of weakness.
Suppose the structure to the right is put under tension.

If the forces, F, are small, the horizontal bonds are stretched
reversibly (if the force is removed, they contract again) and the material behaves elastically.
If the forces become larger, the already strained

bonds below and to the right of X [shown in red]
are stretched even more and at some point, the
Yield Point of the material, they snap making
the dislocation migrate to the right.
If the same force that causes this movement

continues to be applied, the dislocation carries
on moving, through the snapping and reformation
of bonds, until it reaches the edge of the crystal.
In this way, the dislocation has moved from left

to right through the crystal. It appears as if
plane A and plane B have slipped over each other.
However, it has been achieved more easily since
only one (short) line of bonds, rather than a whole plane, has been broken at a time.
Metals can therefore be strengthened (by making plastic deformation less likely) by :
1) Having smaller grains this restricts the movement of dislocations.
2) Introducing foreign atoms. In effect this creates a point dislocation that inhibits the
movement of dislocations as described above.
2) Amorphous
Stress (M Pa)
Glass is categorised as an amorphous material,
and is very brittle. Cast Iron is also a brittle
material. Shown right is the stress-strain curve
for cast iron, and added in red, the curve for
glass.
Neither curve has a plastic region

since both are for brittle materials.
Notice that although glass has a similar value

for its Youngs Modulus to that of cast iron
(similar gradient), i.e. similar stiffness, it has a
significantly lower value for its ultimate breaking
stress of about 70 M Pa, meaning it has less strength
than iron.
Analysis and explanation
Glasses have the stiffness and brittleness of crystal without their large-scale regularity of
structure or planes of weakness. They have an amorphous structure, with no regularity in the
way that their molecules are locked together in the solid.
The lack of crystalline structure makes dislocation slip impossible there isnt enough long or
short range order for dislocations to move. This means that stress which builds up on a surface
crack is not relieved by the movement of dislocations, as would happen in a ductile material.
This means that the material will not have a plastic region. Hence, glass may be stiff, but it
certainly isnt strong.
Cracks
Glasses are brittle because cracks can travel through

them easily. A relatively small stress can make a
microscopic crack on the surface grow uncontrollably
through the solid until it snaps in two.
This is used to shape sheets of glass, and for cutting tiles, as shown in the diagram above.
Firstly, a small crack is scored on the surface of the glass with a sharp instrument. Then a
modest stress is applied to the glass in such a way as to force the crack open. The result is
(usually) a clean fracture along the line of weakness defined by the original crack.
The initial crack does not have to be very deep, simply sharp. A short but narrow crack can
result in a large local increase in stress. So the material at the crack tip will reach its ultimate
tensile stress well before the rest of the material does. The crack will therefore be able to grow
even though the average stress on the sample is well below the materials tensile strength. Of
course, once the crack has started to grow, the crack becomes sharper : the stress increase as
the tip becomes larger, etc. The crack tip propagates through the sample at roughly the speed
of sound until it reaches the other side!
3) Polymeric
Analysis and explanation
The main factor that dictates the behaviour

of a polymer is the cross-links. These are
strong (covalent) bonds that form between
adjacent / overlapping molecules, or even
between different parts of the same
molecule. If the molecules dont have many
cross-links then they can slide over each
other quite easily i.e. the polymer is stretchy,
like rubber (latex). If you increase the number
of cross-links by adding impurities like sulphur to the latex, the polymer then becomes more
rigid. The latex is then given a different name vulcanite.
We need to take a closer look at a typical stress-strain
curve for rubber. You must be able to explain, on the
molecular level, why it has three distinct sections :
The curve can be related easily to party balloons :

first blow hard (OA), then much easier (AB), then harder
again (BC) finally BANG (C).
Rubber molecules are long and thin, resembling rods with swivel joints
at periodic intervals (one molecule is shown ).
The cross-links are strong covalent bonds (in addition to the strong
covalent bonds in between each molecule) but as already mentioned,
are quite scarce in natural rubber (latex). Hence, there arent enough
cross-links to keep the molecules in a tangled, knotted mess.
Weaker bonds are formed in the tangled mess of molecules known as a van der Waals forces.
Every time one part of a molecule comes very close to another molecule (or a different part of
the same molecule) a van der Waals force can occur think of it as a weak bond that acts only
over very short distances. Many of these are produced between the rubber molecules, that tend
to keep the molecules stuck together. This explains the section OA of the graph i.e. the initial
stiffness of the rubber material.
The strength of these van der Waal deceases very rapidly

with distance, and hence suddenly, at point A, the
molecules begin untangling from themselves and from
each other.This is why section AB of the graph is quite
flat i.e. there is a large extension of the rubber material without much extra effort. In this
way, quite modest stresses can achieve strains of up to 5.
Once the molecule has been straightened out (point B), stretching the rubber any further
requires that the strong covalent bonds in between each molecule are lengthened, as well as
lengthening or breaking the strong covalent cross-links. This is much more difficult than simply
unravelling the molecules, and so the graph becomes much steeper from this point on. The
rubber behaves much like any other covalently bonded solid in section B to C, i.e. it is stiff and
strong.
Hysteresis Tension / N
The curve for the extension of a material 3
is often different to the curve for the
contraction. This is especially true for a
polymeric material, again because of 2
those cross-links.
1
Looking at the force-extension graph ()
for a rubber band, the extension curve has 0
little extension at the start. This is because 0 10 20 30 40
all those cross-links between the molecules extension / mm
are making it difficult to stretch.
Once fully stretched, these cross-links have re-attached at new positions, and when the tension
is now slowly decreased, they again make it harder for the molecules to (initially) pass over
each other, i.e. rubber band doesnt contract as easily as expected.
The net effect is that theres work done internally, a bit like friction. This work done over one
extension-contraction cycle is released as heat, and its value is equal to the area between the
two curves.
This is an example of hysteresis, and is the reason an elastic band will become hot if it is
repeatedly stretched and released several times in quick succession.
Section 1.6 - Using radiation to investigate the stars
ate stars
Stellar spectra
Stars dont have a definite surface; the light
we see from a star comes from a layer of gas
several hundreds of km thick, known as the
photosphere.
When light is emitted by a hot object like a star,

we expect the light to have a wide range of
wavelengths similar to the spectrum of a black
body ! A black body is defined like this :
A black body is a body (or surface) which absorbs all the electromagnetic radiation that
falls upon it. Nothing is a better emitter of radiation at any wavelength than a black
body at the same temperature.
Although stars are obviously not black, they are almost perfect emitters, and so when we look
at the light emitted by a star, we should get a
continuous spectrum as shown opposite (i.e.
all colours, all wavelengths).
However, some specific colours/wavelengths can be absorbed by the atoms in a stars

atmosphere (and upper photosphere !), and
so what arrives at our telescopes is an
absorption spectrum, as shown .
When the intensity of each small section of this is studied carefully, it is found to follow Wiens
law :
max = W
Spectral intensity
where, max = the peak wavelength (m)

W = Wiens constant = 2.90x10-3 mK
T = the surface temperature of the star (K)
Notice how closely the

black body curve agrees Actual
with the actual spectrum Perfect

black body
for our sun .
The downward dips are

the absorption lines.
The inverse square law of light and Stefans law
P
As you go further from a light source the amount of light P
energy striking each square metre each second decreases.
This is because the light initially emitted is spread out
over a larger and larger surface area as it travels away
from the source.
The amount of light energy striking each metre square per second
is known as the spectral intensity, I, sometimes known as
flux density or just flux. It is given by the equation opposite , = P
where, I = intensity (Wm-2) , 4x2
P = total power (luminosity) produced by the star (W),
x = distance from the source (m).
T
Note that 4x2 is the surface area of an imaginary sphere of radius x; units = m2.
It is found that the intensity of the light (that is, the power per metre square), at the surface of
a star, is directly proportional to the fourth power of the surface temperature. This is known as
Stefans law :
The P/A is the intensity again (I=P/A), except this time,
P = T4 A = surface area of the star = 4 R2 , where R = radius of star.
= Stefans constant = 5.67x10-8 Wm-2K-4

T = surface temperature of the star (K)
So, Stefans law is the application of the intensity equation at a specific distance (the radius of
the star), where x = R.
Multiwavelength astronomy
We can learn different things about an object in space, e.g. a galaxy or nebula, by studying it
with different telescopes (sensitive to different wavelengths of the EM spectrum). Heres an
example :
The visible light image (c) is the

familiar image seen of a galaxy
known as M81, and shows much
detail, e.g. the spiral arms can
be seen clearly.
(a) X-ray (b) UV (c) Visible (d) IR (e) 21.2cm
Conversely, the UV image picks out hotter regions and it shows knots of young giant stars well
away from the galactic centre.
The x-ray image only displays very high temperature regions. The bright spot in the centre is
matter heated up as it spirals in towards the black hole at the galactic centre.
The Image (e) shows neutral hydrogen by its 21.1cm signature emission. It is clearly missing from
the galactic centre region !
Section 1.7 - Particles and Nuclear Structure
Scientists have found that there are two groups of elementary particles : quarks and leptons.
They are splits into two groups based on which force (strong or weak) they interact with.
NOTE : Only 1st generation particles are dealt with here.
Quarks are relatively high mass particles, are either up type or down type, and have never
been directly seen on their own. These particles are affected by the strong force. (Protons and
neutrons are made of three quarks each).
Leptons are lightweight particles, and have two types the electron and the electron
neutrino. These are affected by the weak force.
Quarks (u, d) Leptons
Baryons 3 quarks Mesons Electron, e Electron

quark-antiquark pair neutrino,e
Hadrons
In addition, it has been found that for each particle, there exists an antiparticle. Antiparticles
have the same mass but the opposite charge to their counterpart.
The rules for quarks !

Quarks have only been detected in a group. By considering the charge on particles like protons
and neutrons, it is believed that quarks have the following charge values :
Quark up down anti-up anti-down
Charge / e +2/3 -1/3 -2/3 +1/3
When quarks form in a group of 3, they are known as Baryons.

There are only four possible ways to combine up and down quarks to form a group of 3 :
uud proton p charge = +2/3 +2/3 -1/3 = +1

udd neutron n charge = +2/3 -1/3 -1/3 = 0
uuu delta plus plus ++ charge = +2/3 +2/3 +2/3 = +2
ddd delta minus - charge = -1/3 -1/3 -1/3 = -1
There are also excited versions of the uud and udd baryons (protons and neutrons) that are
also classed as delta particles : the excited proton (uud) is + and the excited neutron (udd) is
0.
There are also anti-particles for these baryons, e.g. the anti-proton, p which is
Antiparticles are
made from the following anti-quarks : uud. (It doesnt seem that there are any represented by a
baryons that have a mixture of particles and antiparticles). small bar above
the symbol.
Quarks can also form in pairs. Mesons must be a quark and an antiquark. For 1st generation
particles, they are known as pi mesons, or pions. Again, there are only 4 combinations that can
exist :
ud pi plus charge = +2/3 +1/3 = +1
ud pi minus charge = -2/3 -1/3 = -1

uu pi zero 0 charge = +2/3 -2/3 = 0
dd pi zero 0
charge = -1/3 +1/3 = 0
The rules for leptons !

Since leptons can exist on their own, there are none of the rules seen for combining baryons.
However, each lepton is given a lepton number :
electron electron anti-electron electron anti-

neutrino (positron) neutrino
symbol e- e e+ e
lepton number 1 1 -1 -1
charge / e -1 0 +1 0
Note : The anti-electron or positron has its own symbol, e+ , i.e. no bar above the symbol
Any particles that are not leptons have a lepton number of zero !
Conservation laws
The following conservation laws apply to any decay reactions or collision-type interactions :
(1) Conservation of momentum : In any interaction between particles

in a system, the total momentum You have seen
must stay constant. these three
several times
before in Physics
(2) Conservation of mass-energy : In any interaction between particles GCSE !
in a system, mass-energy must neither
be created nor destroyed. Cons. of charge is
used to calculate
the current in
series and
(3) Conservation of charge : In any interaction between particles in a parallel circuits.
system, the total charge in the system must
not change.
(4) Conservation of baryon number :
In any interaction between particles in a system, the total baryon number in the
system must not change.
Example
The following interaction has been observed :
2 +
+ + 1H p + p
Which conservation laws are being illustrated by this reaction ?
Firstly, we can see that conservation of charge is being observed there is a charge of 2+ on the
left, and since each proton has a charge of 1+, there is also a charge of 2+ on the right.
Secondly, the baryon number is being conserved. There are two baryons on the left ( the deuterium
nucleus contains one proton and one neutron), and obviously the two protons are the two baryons
on the right.
However, we can take this a step further, down to the level of quarks :
2 +
+ + 1H p + p
ud + (uud + udd) uud + uud
So, there are 4 up quarks on the left, and four on the right. There are 3 down quarks and one
anti-down quark on the left, which means, overall, just 2 down quarks. There are also 2 down
quarks on the right.
Note : If the weak force is involved (see next page), one up quark can change to one down
quark, or vice versa. (The baryon number is unchanged).
(5) Conservation of lepton number
In any interaction between particles in a system, the total lepton number in the
system must not change.
This is just what is observed when studying sub-nucleonic interactions there is as yet
Example
no Inunderlying understanding
a special laboratory ofneutrinos
in Canada why it works out
from the Sunthis
are way !! by looking for electrons
detected
released in the interaction :
+ e-
2
e + 1H p + p
Explain whether lepton number is conserved in this interaction.

The electron neutrino (left) and the electron (right) both have a lepton number of +1; all the other
particles are baryons, and so have a lepton number of zero. Hence, lepton number is conserved.
e + + -
2
The following interaction is suggested : 1H p + p
Is this possible ?
No ! Although charge is conserved (as before), the lepton number is no longer conserved, as the
pion on the right has a lepton number of zero (its a meson). Hence, this reaction would not be
possible.
Which forces are involved in interactions ?
All the forces in the Universe and all particle interactions are the result of just 4 fundamental
forces. A key to identifying the differences between particles are the way they are affected by
different forces.
The force of gravity acts between any two masses, no matter how small, or how far apart they
are (!), however, it is only significant for large masses like planets and stars and hence is not
applicable to interactions between subatomic particles. The other 3 forces are summarized
below :
Experienced
Interaction Range by Notes
Only experienced by quarks and particles
The strong composed of quarks. (i.e. hadrons). Doesnt
Short range Quarks act on leptons. Associated with the re-
force
grouping of quarks.
Much stronger (and therefore more
likely/shorter lifetime) than the weak force.
The Charged Governs interactions composed entirely of
electromagnetic Infinite
particles charged particles and photons. Also
force experienced by neutral hadrons because
they are composed of quarks.
Only significant in cases where the
electromagnetic and strong interactions do
not operate. Interaction governed by this
The weak Very short All are of low probability (in the case of
force range particles collisions), or of long lifetime (in the case
of decays). Governs any interactions that
include both hadrons and leptons e.g.
decay. Neutrino usually involved.
Which interaction (fundamental force)?
Is there a neutrino Suggests weak

Yes
involved? nuclear
No
Is there a change Suggests weak

Yes
in quark flavour? nuclear
No
Does it only involve

hadrons? (i.e. no Suggests
Yes
leptons or other strong nuclear
particles, e.g. )
No
Do all the particles

have charge? Suggests
Yes
(Include neutrons as they electromagnetic
include charged quarks.)
No
Look for other clues:

Includes any photons electromagnetic.
Very short lifetime strong nuclear.
Long lifetime (i.e. more than a second) weak nuclear.
UNIT 2
1.Conduction of electricity
Charge on an electron: The unit of charge is the Coulomb (C). It enables us measure the amount of electrical
charge an object has (e.g. an electron).
1 C Coulomb = charge on 6,240,000,000,000,000,000 (6.24 billion-billion) electrons.
Charge on each electron e = -1.6 x 10-19C

Electric Current is the flow of electrons in an electric circuit. Flowing water is a good analogy of electricity.
When water flows through a pipe, or down a stream, there is current.
Conventional Current: We say that the current flows from positive to negative (+ -). This is due to
conventions established a long time ago.
Electron Flow: this occurs in the opposite direction. From to +
Definition of ELECTRIC CURRENT: The rate of flow of charge
I = Q
t
Units of electrical current Ampere A which is equivalent to Cs-1.
Current-time graphs. - If the current is constant as it is for a bulb in a DC circuit then

the current-time graph looks like the graph below.
The area under the graph gives you the total charge Q.
This is because Q= It.
e.g. So if a current of 3A flows for a time of 30s
then the total charge which flowed in this time.
Q = It = 3 x 30 = 90 C
Mechanism of conduction Drift velocity
All metals have a lattice structure of atoms. Some of the outer electrons are only loosely bound and are not
required for bonding. On average about one electron in each atom is not required for bonding. This electron is
free to move around the lattice and is called the FREE ELECTRON.
If no current is flowing then these free electrons will move randomly throughout the structure
(1 x 106ms-1). This is known as the THERMAL VELOCITY of the free electrons. The magnitude of the thermal
velocity depends on the temperature of the metal.
When a potential difference (voltage) is applied
across the ends of a metal an electric field is produced
in the metal. The electric field exerts a force on the free
electrons, causing them to accelerate towards the
highest potential (voltage). However, before they get
very far they collide with an atom and lose some of their
kinetic energy. As a result they tend to drift towards
the positive end, bouncing around from atom to atom on
the way.
The mean DRIFT VELOCITY is proportional to the
applied electric field. Hence the current we get is
proportional to the applied voltage. It also explains why
we have to supply energy to maintain the current. We
have to give the electrons kinetic energy to move them
along. This keeps being lost every time they collide with the metal ions. It is given to the atoms, making them
jiggle around more furiously i.e. it warms up the resistor. As a result, electrical energy is turned into internal
energy (thermal energy) of the ions.
For example, in a copper conductor of radius 1 mm, carrying 1 Amp, the electron drift velocity 0.0001ms -1. This
opposition to electron movement results in resistance and heat.
Derivation of I = nAve
We need to be able to calculate a
value for the drift velocity of the
electrons relating it to the current
flowing.
The wire has; Cross sectional area = A, Length = l, Number of free electrons per m3 = n
The electrons are moving through the wire with a drift velocity v .If they travel the length l
in a time, t then we can write:
Volume of the length of wire = A l (Volume of a cylinder)
Number of free electrons (in cylinder) = nAl
Total charge on electrons in wire - Q = nAle
Distance moved by free electrons - l = vt so, Q = nAvte
Current I = Q
t
substitute I = nAvte the ts cancel to give I = nAve

t
Units of: I (A), n - (m-3) v - ms-1 e 1.6x10-19C
Using I = nAve
Worked example.
A wire of radius 2 mm, can carry a current of up to 20 A. Given that n = 4.8 x 10 29 m-3, what is
the maximum value for the drift velocity in this wire?
First you must calculate the cross sectional area A = r2 = x (2x10-3)2

= 1.26 x10-5 m2
rearrange to give; v = _I_ = 20______________ = 2.07x10-5 ms-1

nAe 4.81x1029 x 1.26 x10-5 x 1.6x10-19
What effect does doubling the drift velocity have on the current?
If the drift velocity doubles then the current also doubles.
What can be said about the value of n and e for a certain metal/material?
These are constants and so do not change (for a specific material)
If the radius of a wire doubles what effect does this have on the current?
Since area is calculated using A = r2, then doubling the radius means the area increases by
a factor of 4 (quadruples). So the drift velocity decreases by a factor of 4.
Potential difference
Definition
The p.d. between two points is the
amount of electrical energy transferred to
other forms of energy when 1 Coulomb of
charge flows between the points.
Unit of p.d. is the Volt, V.
The p.d. between 2 points is 6V, what does this mean? 6J of electrical energy is transferred
to other forms of energy when 1 Coulomb of charge flows between the two points.
How much electrical energy is transferred to other forms of energy in each case?
Answers = 1J 6J 12J
The Volt
So 1 Volt is 1 Joule per coulomb of charge. In equation form:
Energy transferred W or E = V Q
Remember
(not given V= W
in exam) Q
V = Volt (V) or JC-1 W= electrical energy (work done) (J) Q = charge passed (C)
We know that Q= It
So we can substitute this into the equation to give
Electrical energy transferred W = VIt
Resistance
The resistance of a conductor is the p.d. (V) placed across it divided by the resulting current
(I) through it.
Resistance = potential difference R=V

Current I
The units of resistance are : Ohms, or VA-1
What causes electrical resistance?

Collisions between free electrons which are moving through a
metal conductor and positive ions of the metal lattice
(structure) give rise to electrical resistance. In the collision
energy is transferred from the electrons to the ions. This
increases the random vibrational energy of the ions leading
to an increase in the temperature of the metal.
In Summary
Free electrons
collide with atoms / ions of metal
in the conductor / lattice
If the current is constant then so the drift velocity will be constant since I = nAve
So the drift velocity will remain steady under a given p.d.
Remember if the resistance increases the drift velocity of the electrons decreases.
I-V, Voltage and Current Investigations
1. Resistor/wire at constant temperature.

The circuit below can be used to see how p.d. and current change for a wire at constant
temperature.
LOW Volts!!
Variable resistor
It is important to keep the current to a low value so any heating effect in the wire is kept to a
minimum. Take recordings of both voltage and current at regular intervals.
2. Filament lamp/bulb. The same experiment can be replicated for a filament lamp. Just
replace the wire with a filament lamp.
A graph is plotted of current and voltage.
Metal wire at constant temperature Filament of lamp

Directly proportional Curved line.
Initially the resistance is constant [or V/I
The Straight line shows that resistance is constant] as since the line is straight
constant throughout [or V/I constant] Then the temperature increases so resistance
because the temperature is constant increases.
throughout. Collisions between free electrons and ions in
metals increase the random vibration
energy of the ions, so the temperature of the
metal increases.
OHMs LAW
Definition. The current flowing through a metal wire at constant

temperature is proportional to the p.d. across it.
I V V = constant
I
So the filament bulb is a non-linear or NON-OHMIC device. The reason being that as the p.d.
increases the filament becomes much hotter and so the resistance will increase i.e.
temperature does not remain constant. So a metallic conductor is called a linear device or an
OHMIC device.
Resistivity
The resistance of a wire depends upon 3 factors
the length - l; double the length, the resistance doubles.

the area - A; double the area, the resistance halves.
the material that the wire is made of.
Resistivity is a property of the material. It is defined as

the resistance of a wire of the material of unit length.
Resistivity remains unchanged (constant) for a specific

material regardless of changing length or area. e.g. it is
constant for copper at a certain temp.
Resistivity is defined by the equation.
R=l or = RA
A l
Units R- Ohms, (), A - (m2), l (m), (m)
What effect does doubling the radius or diameter have on the resistance of the material
if the length and material remain constant?
Since area is calculated using A = r2, then doubling the radius means the area increases by
a factor of 4 (quadruples). So the resistance decreases by a factor of 4.
Resistivity
Values for resistivity for some common materials.
Material Resistivity at 20C (m)
Copper 1.7 x 10-8
Aluminium 2.8 x 10-8
Constantan 4.9 x 10-7
Germanium 4.2 x 10-1
Silicon 2.6 x 103
Polythene 2.0 x 1011
Glass 10 x 1011
Very good conductors such as copper and aluminium have very small values of resistivity
whereas very good insulator such as polythene have a very high value. Semiconductors such as
germanium have values in between.
Worked example
Calculate the length of constantan wire radius 5.0 x 10-2cm needed to make a 3ohm resistor.
1st step: = RA rearrange l =RA
l Change from cm to m.
2nd step: Calculate the cross sectional area, A = r2 = x (5.0x10-4)2 = 7.85x10-7 m2
3rd step: l= 3 x 7.85x10-7

4.9x10-7 Answer = 4.81m
Investigation Calculating Resistivity
Diagram of the apparatus.
1. Using a micrometer screw gauge measure the diameter of the wire at 3 different places along the length
of the wire. Determine the average diameter of the wire. You must ensure that there are no kinks in the
wire. Use the formula (A= r2) to calculate the cross sectional area.
2. The sliding contact is then touched at several points along the wire. At each point the distance from A to
the sliding contact is measured (l) by means of the ruler and the resistance R is measured by means of
the ohmmeter (resistance of the leads is subtracted). Repeat to measure the resistance as the length is
decreasing.
Plot a graph of your results (length on x-axis) (Resistance on y-axis)
Calculate the gradient of the graph = R/l
Resistivity, = RA = gradient of graph x A

l
Variation of resistance of a metal with temperature
The greater the temperature the greater the vibrational energy of the lattice /
metal ions producing a greater chance [or rate] of collisions/ collisions more
often between free electrons and metal ions.
Investigation to determine the variation of resistance with temperature of a metal wire.

The ohmmeter is used to measure the resistance of the coil. The
thermometer is used to measure the temperature of the liquid
surrounding the coil. The leads can be very thick wires so that their
resistance is very small compared to the resistance of the copper
wire. Measure the resistance of the copper wire at 10C intervals
from 20C to 100C. The value of resistance can also be determined
as the liquid is cooled.
The resistance of metals varies almost linearly with the

temperature over a wide range of temperatures.
When the temperature of the metal increases the amplitude

of vibrations of the positive ions increases. This means that
the electrons collide more often, leading to a drop in drift
velocity which results in a decrease in the current for the
same p.d.
Since resistance = p.d./current, resistance will increase.
Superconductivity
When metals are cooled down to extremely low temperatures approaching absolute zero 0 K
(-273.15C) their resistance disappears. The temperature at which resistance disappears is
called the critical temperature Tc.
Transition temperatures (critical temperature): The temperature at which a material,

when cooled, loses all its electrical resistance, and becomes super-conducting.
We cool down these metals to these low temperatures using liquid Nitrogen or Helium
In a superconducting circuit a p.d. is

needed to start the current flowing but
then no p.d. is needed to keep the current
flowing since there is no resistance.This
is the region AB of the graph.
Transition temperature = -190C
Uses of Superconductivity
Many metals/materials exhibit superconductivity e.g. Zinc Tc = 0.87 K, Lead Tc = 7.19 K,

Mercury Tc = 4.15 K
High temperature superconductors.

Certain materials (high temperature
superconductors) having transition temperatures above the boiling point of
nitrogen (196 C) (clearly this is still very cold). They are developing more
and more high temperature superconductors e.g. YBa2Cu3O7 which has a
transition temperature of 92K or -181 C.
The advantage of superconductivity is that there is no resistance so no heat loss which means
that large currents can be maintained from zero p.d. (no power dissipated)
Applicatons/uses:
Nuclear fusion / tokamaks, Large Hadron Collider CERN/
Particle accelerators, MRI (magnetic resonance imaging)
scanners, large motors or generators.
Electric generators made with superconducting wire are

far more efficient, and about half the size, than
conventional generators wound with copper wire.
Disadvantages: The limitations of superconductors include the technical difficulties of

achieving and reliably sustaining the extremely low temperatures required to achieve
superconductivity. The materials, of which they are made, are often brittle, are hard to
manufacture and they are difficult to make into wire.
Electrical Power
Power is defined as the energy transferred per second. We need an expression for the
amount of electrical energy transferred to other forms of energy in a certain time.
Power = Energy transferred P= W

Time t
Unit of power Watt, W or Js-1
The p.d. (V) between 2 points is the work done in moving a charge of 1C between the 2
points so if a charge Q moves between the 2 points the work done or energy transferred is VQ
W = VQ which can be combined with the above equation to give

P = VQ
t
However, Q = It so we can substitute for Q in this equation giving,
P = VIt the ts cancel to give P =VI

t
continued.
If the component is ohmic it can be useful to substitute for the voltage as V = I R which gives
P =VI so, P = IRI which becomes P = I2R
Use this for any questions that ask you to calculate the energy or power dissipated as heat in
a resistor.
Or/
P=VI, and since I = V/R then we can write, P = VV which becomes P = V2
R R
You need to know how to derive the 2 equations above.
3. D.C. Circuits
Device Symbol Device Symbol
Cell /
Wire
Battery
Power
Bulb
Supply
Open Closed
switch switch
(Off) (On)
Diode Resistor
Variable
Motor
resistor
Current
Current is measured in Amperes, A
It is measured using an Ammeter in series.
To avoid the ammeter affecting the current it must be connected in series and have
negligible (almost no) resistance.
Current in series circuits: ammeters must be connected in series i.e. in the circuit.
The value of the current is the same at all points (I1 = I2 = I3) in the circuit since there is only
one path for the current to flow.
Current in parallel circuits: the ammeter in this parallel circuit is connected in series.
The value of the current in the two branches adds up to the total current flowing,
i.e. (I1 = I2 + I3) or (2.4 = 1.0 + 1.4).
The amount of electrons/charge leaving the battery and entering the battery at the
positive terminal are equal. This is due to the fact that you dont destroy the electrons
and so gives rise to the conservation of charge.
The sum of the currents entering a junction is equal to the
currents leaving the junction. This is due to the conservation of
charge.
Potential difference p.d.
Potential difference is measured in Volts, V.
It is measured using a Voltmeter connected in parallel.
Potential difference in series circuit: the voltmeters are connected across the component
e.g. bulb or battery.
The p.d. across both components/bulbs here adds up to the p.d. across the supply/battery
i.e. (V1 = V2 + V3) or (12 = 4 + 8). Since energy cannot be created nor destroyed the same
reasoning can be applied to potential difference which is defined in terms of work or energy.
The sum of the p.ds across components in a series circuit is equal

to the p.d. across the supply. This is a consequence of the
conservation of energy.
Potential difference in parallel circuit: the p.d. across all components in parallel is the
same.
i.e. (V1 = V2 = V3)
The p.d.s across components in a parallel circuit are equal.
Resistors in series and parallel.
Series. Since the resistors are connected in series, they must all have the same current
flowing through each one I (conservation of charge). The sum of the pd.s across the
individual resistors must be equal to the total p.d. across all resistors.
Total resistance, RT = R1 + R2 + R3 (Must Remember)
Parallel. In this case all of the resistors are in parallel and they must have the same
potential difference V across them. By the conservation of charge the main current I is
equal to the sum of the currents in each resistor. The total resistance of all components in
parallel must always be smaller than the smallest individual component resistance. Why?
Adding more components draws more current so a smaller resistance.
Total resistance,
1 = 1 + 1 + 1
RT R1 R2 R3 (Must Remember)
e.g. A 5, 3 and a 10 are connected in

parallel. Calculate the total resistance.
1 =1+ 1 +1
RT 5 3 10
1 =1+ 1 +1
RT 5 3 10
1 = 19 so RT = 30 = 1.58
RT 30 19
Potential Divider
It is often useful to be able to control the p.d. precisely. For example, a car radio may
need exactly 9.6V D.C. However, the only source available is the cars own battery, V = 12 V.
The easiest way to control the voltage is by simply using two resistors in series. Each resistor
takes some fraction of the total voltage. If the first resistor is twice the size of the second,
the voltage across the first resistor will be twice that of the second resistor.
What is the total resistance, RT? 18
What is the current in/out of the battery, IT? I = V/R = 12/18 = 0.67A
Use V=IR to calculate, V1 = 0.67 x 3.6 =2.4V What is the value on V2 =0.67 x 14.4 = 9.6V
Therefore, we can divide the voltage into any values we choose by changing the ratio of R1 to
R2.
Adding any components in parallel to a resistor will alter the overall resistance.
The equation for a potential divider is:
V = R or VOUT = R
Vtotal Rtotal VIN Rtotal
Worked Example
The value of R1 is given as 225.
You should be able to see that the p.d. across

R2 is 2.4V since the p.d. across both must add up
to 6V.
To calculate the value of R2 using the potential
divider equation. Considering R1 is easier
V = R
Vtotal Rtotal
3.6 = 225 3.6 (225+R2) = 225 x 6

6 225+R2
225+R2 = 1350 225+R2 = 375 R2 = 375-225 = 150

3.6
There is an easier way using V= IR!!! I = V/R = 3.6/225 = 0.016A

Since this is a series circuit the current is the same and we know the p.d. across R2,
so R=V/I = 2.4/0.016 = 150
Potential Divider with LDR and Thermistor.
Light dependent resistor, or LDR
The LDR is a component that has a resistance

that changes when light falls on it. As the
intensity of the light is increased so the
resistance of the LDR falls.
If the LDR is connected as part of a potential

divider as shown in the diagram then as the light
level is increased its resistance falls and the
proportion of the input voltage dropped across it
will also fall.
So in the light V2 is low and in the dark V2 is high.
Temperature sensors
A temperature-sensitive resistor is called a thermistor. There

are several different types:
The resistance of most common types of thermistor decreases as the temperature rises. As
the temperature rises, more charge carriers become available and the resistance falls.
How could you make a sensor circuit for use in

a fire alarm? You want a circuit which will
deliver a HIGH voltage when hot conditions are
detected. You need a voltage divider with the
ntc thermistor in the Rtop position:
You will be expected to calculate VOUT using the potential divider equation.
Electro Motive Force - emf
The cell has to use up part of its energy to drive
the current through its own internal resistance
since some is converted into non-useful forms
e.g. heat. This resistance is called the internal
resistance (very low but typically around 0.01)
of the cell. This is called the lost volts.
Lost Volts = I r
A cell can be thought of as a source of e.m.f. with a resistor connected in series.
EMF Definition The emf of a source is the energy converted from

some other form (e.g. chemical) to electrical potential energy per
coulomb of charge flowing through the source.
e.m.f of the source = Energy transferred by the supply

charge
e.m.f. = W/Q
units of e.m.f. Volt, V
Emf is the total energy supplied to the circuit per unit charge, while p.d. is the electrical
energy per unit charge converted to other energies by the components.
By the conservation of energy
V = E Ir
or E = V + Ir
or E = IR + Ir since V= IR
or E = I (R + r)
E is emf Units(V) V is the terminal p.d. Units (V) Ir is the lost volts Units (V)
The greater the difference between the emf and the terminal p.d the greater the lost volts.
Investigation to determine the internal resistance
The following circuit is set up to determine the emf and internal resistance of a cell. The
following readings are recorded.
A graph is plotted of the results. p.d. on the y-axis and current on the x-axis.
Using the equation:

V = E Ir and comparing with y = mx + c,
y is V, I is x, m(gradient) is r (internal resistance) and c (intercept) is the emf.
So the intercept is 1.6V which is the emf.
Make a triangle as large as possible. Gradient of the graph is y/x = 1.2/3.6 = 0.33, which
is the internal resistance (r).
4. The nature of waves.
Progressive wave: A pattern of disturbances travelling through a medium and carrying
energy with it, involving the particles of the medium oscillating about their equilibrium
position. It does not involve the transfer matter.
There are two main groups of waves. These are transverse waves and progressive longitudinal
Transverse
The oscillations of the particles are at right angles to the direction of travel of
the wave. Diagram of transverse wave.
Examples of transverse waves: Light (all e-m waves, s-seismic waves)
Longitudinal waves
The oscillations of the particles are in line with (or parallel) to the
direction of travel of the wave.
oscillations of coils
movement of energy
Examples of longitudinal waves: sound waves and p-seismic waves.
Graphical representation of waves. Displacement is a vector quantity, and can be positive

or negative. A transverse wave may be represented by plotting displacement y on the y-axis
against distance x along the wave, on the x-axis. I can be seen from the diagram below that
the graph is a snapshot (basically, a picture or snapshot of the wave at a particular time) of
what is actually observed to be a transverse wave.
1.5 y
1
0.5
0
-0.5 x
-1
-1.5
Characteristics of waves.
Another way to represent both waves is to plot a graph of displacement y of any one
particle or part of the wave, against time t. This is shown in the diagram below.
1.5 y
1
0.5
0
-0.5 t
-1
-1.5
Characteristics What is it? Units
The wavelength of a progressive wave is the minimum

1.Wavelength distance (measured along the direction of propagation)
Metres, m
between two points on the wave oscillating in phase.
If there are 10 waves in 5 metres then the wavelength is
0.5m
The frequency of a wave is the number of cycles of a wave
2. Frequency that pass a given point in one second. Hertz, Hz
1 Hz is 1waves per second. If there are 40 waves in 10 or s-1
f seconds then the frequency is 4 Hz.
Distance from the middle of the wave to the crest/top. The

3. Amplitude greater the amplitude the more energy the wave is Metres, m
carrying.
The distance travelled by the wave in 1 second.

4. Speed Or/ Metres per
Velocity of a wave is the distance that the wave profile second,
c moves per unit time. ms-1
Relationship between time period and

frequency.
T=1 f=1
f T
e.g. 10 waves in 50 seconds. Calculate

f and hence T.
f= 10/50 = 0.2 Hz so T=1/0.2 = 5s
Phase
Phase is the term used to describe the relationship between the pattern of vibration of
two points on a wave. Phase difference is the difference in position of 2 points within a
cycle of oscillation. It is given as a fraction of the cycle or as an angle, where one whole cycle
is 2 or 360], together with a statement of which point is ahead in the cycle.
Points which are oscillating in phase will be multiples of 360or 2 radians e.g. A and E
Points which are oscillating in antiphase are 180 or radians out of phase e.g. A and C
All points on wavefronts oscillate in phase, and that

wave propagation directions (rays) are at right angles
to wavefronts.
Wave equation
If a wave moves a distance, x, in a time, t,
Speed = distance/time
However if we consider the specific case when the distance moved by the wave is exactly
equal to one wavelength, , then the time elapsed must be equal to the period, T.
Speed = wavelength/Time period but we know that T=1/f
So we can substitute c=f

Where c wave speed (ms-1) f frequency (Hz) and wavelength (m)
If we are talking about any region of e-m radiation then c = 3x108 ms-1 in a vacuum.
The speed of light is 3.0 x 108 ms-1. Calculate the frequency of red light when it has a
wavelength 6.5 x 10-7 m.
f = c/ 3.0x108/ 6.5x10-7 = 4.61x1014 Hz
Polarisation
A polarised wave is a transverse wave in

which particle oscillations occur in only
one of the directions at right angles to the
direction of wave propagation.
It is not possible to polarise longitudinal waves. The

Sun and domestic light bulbs emit unpolarised light,
that is the vibrations take place in many directions
at once, instead of in the single plane associated with plane-polarised radiation.
The Polaroid sheet acts

as a polariser, producing
plane polarised light
from light which was
originally unpolarised.
If you try to view plane-polarised light through a second sheet of Polaroid that is placed so
that its polarising direction is at right angles to the polarising direction of the first sheet, it
will be found that no light is transmitted. In this arrangement, the Polaroids are said to be
crossed. The second Polaroid sheet is acting as an analyser. If the two Polaroids have their
polarising directions parallel, then plane-polarised light from the first Polaroid can pass
through the second. So rotating the analyser through 180, we move from light (0) to dark
(90), to light again (180)
Wave properties
Reflection. As the waves strike a plane (flat) barrier they are reflected. This is very similar
for a beam of light reflecting on a plane mirror. If a curved (concave) barrier such as a
satellite dish is used, the waves can be made to converge (concentrate) at a point. The angle
of incidence and reflection will be equal.
Reflection on a satellite dish.
Refraction: Refraction is the change in direction of a wave at the boundary between two
materials. This is caused by a change in speed.
Water. This occurs when water

waves pass between deep and
shallow water. The waves move
more slowly in shallow water. The
frequency of the waves remain
constant and so the wavelength
decreases. When the waves move
from shallow to deeper water,
their speed increase and they
change direction away from the
normal
Diffraction
Diffraction is defined as the spreading of a wave when it meets an obstacle
into regions where it would not be seen if it moved only in straight lines.
There is little diffraction when is much

smaller than the dimensions of the obstacle or
slit. If is equal to or greater than the width
of a slit, waves spread as roughly semicircular
wavefronts, but if is less than the slit width
the main beam spreads. The wavelength
remains unchanged.
Principle of Superposition.
The principle of superposition states if the waves from two sources occupy
the same region then the total displacement at a point is the vector sum of
the displacements of the individual waves at that point.
Interference
There are two types of interference. Constructive and destructive.
The diagram below shows two waves arriving together. If they arrive at a point in phase, that
is if their crests arrive at exactly the same time, they will interfere constructively. If the
two incoming waves have the same frequency and equal amplitude A, the resultant wave
produced by constructive interference has an amplitude 2A. The frequency of the resultant
wave is the same as that as the incoming waves.
If the two waves are out of phase that is, if the peaks of one wave arrive at the same time as
the troughs from the other, they will interfere destructively. The resultant wave will have
smaller amplitude. This is shown in the diagram below, where the incoming waves have equal
amplitude, the resultant wave has zero amplitude.
Coherence
To observe interference then the two wave sources must be coherent and get a
meaningful resultant wave by using the principle of superposition.
Coherent: means that there is a constant phase

difference. (They must therefore have the same
frequency)
A laser is an example of a coherent light source. Examples of

incoherent light source are car headlights, normal light bulb.
Coherent sources are monochromatic with wavefronts continuous
across the width of the beam and, (when comparing more than
one source) with a constant phase relationship.
Path difference and Youngs double slit experiment.
The path difference is a measure of the distance between two waves arriving at a point in
terms of their wavelength. If we consider the effect of superposition at a number of points
in space, we can build up an interference pattern - a pattern showing some areas where
there is constructive interference, and hence a large wave disturbance, and other areas
where the interference is destructive, and there is little or no wave disturbance.
If the path S1P is equal in length to the path S2P (in the centre), this means that the two
waves arrive at P in phase. So we get constructive interference.
If the path difference S2P- S1P = n

Then the waves arrive in Phase at P which means constructive interference.
If the path difference S2P- S1P = /2 or multiples of this.

Then the waves arrive at P in antiphase which destructive interference.
This two source interference can be demonstrated using sound waves, microwaves or using a
laser. The sources must have a zero or constant phase difference and have oscillations in
the same direction.
Youngs double slit experiment.
Two light sources at the double slits are

produced. Because these two light sources
originate from the same primary source,
they are coherent and create a sustained
and observable interference pattern as
seen in the photograph of the dark and
bright interference fringes. With a laser a
single slit is not required.
Bright fringes = constructive interference.

Dark fringes = destructive interference.
Youngs double slit experiment.
The double slit experiment can be used to determine the wavelength of light.
Wavelength (m)
y- fringe separation (m)
a -distance between the centre of the slits (m)
D- distance from double slit to screen
Although Youngs original double-slit experiment was carried out with light, the conditions for
constructive and destructive interference apply for any two-source situation. The same
formula applies for all types of wave e.g. microwaves, provided that the fringes are detected
at a distance of many wavelengths from the two sources.
Worked example.
Calculate the wavelength of light that produces fringes of width 0.50 mm on a screen 60 cm
from two slits 0.75 mm apart.
= 0.75x10-3 x 0.50x10-3 = 6.25x10-7 m
0.60
Historical importance of Youngs double slit experiment (1801).
Newton believed that light was particle like in nature but this experiment demonstrated that
light had wave like properties.
The diffraction grating
A diffraction grating is a plate on which there is a very large number of parallel, identical, very
closely spaced slits. If monochromatic light is incident on this plate, a pattern of narrow bright
fringes is produced, as shown in the diagram below. It works on the same principle as the double slit
experiment.
Because there are so many slits, the bright fringes (or bands) are extremely narrow, and usually
much further apart (large y since slit separation, d is very small).
d slit width (m) n order number wavelength (m) - angle ()

Maximum value of < 90
For a diffraction grating a very small d makes beams (orders) much further apart than in
Youngs experiment, and that the large number of slits makes the bright beams much
sharper.
The diffraction grating with white light
If white light is incident on a diffraction grating, each wavelength , making up the white
light is diffracted by a different amount. Red light, because it has the longest wavelength in
the spectrum, is diffracted through the largest angle. Violet light has the lowest wavelength,
and is diffracted the least.
Depending on the grating spacing, there may be some overlapping of different orders. For
example, the red component of the first-order image may overlap with the blue end of the
second-order spectrum.
R
2nd
V
order
R
V 1st order
White zero order

light (white)
1st order
2nd
order
Stationary waves
A stationary wave is a pattern of disturbances in a medium, in which energy is not

propagated. The amplitude of particle oscillations is zero at equally-spaced nodes, rising to
maxima at antinodes, midway between the nodes.
Internodal distance (distance between nodes) = /2
Stationary waves are produced from the superposition of two progressive

waves of equal amplitude and frequency, travelling in opposite directions.
The amplitude of a progressive wave remains constant. The amplitude of a stationary

wave varies from zero at the nodes to a maximum at the antinodes. Between adjacent nodes,
all points of the standing wave vibrate in phase. That is, all particles of the string are at their
maximum displacement at the same instant, in a progressive wave, phase varies continuously
along the wave.
Refraction of light - Snells law.
Reflection
When any type of wave encounters a barrier that it reflects from it always follows this simple
rule :
incident angle, i = reflected angle, r
Reflecting off a plane mirror :
i r
Snells law.
Experiments have shown us that there is a direct link between the incident and
refracted angles for any one particular material or medium. This relationship is known as:
sin i = a constant value

sin r
Snells Law: At the boundary between any two given materials, the ratio of the sine of the
angle of incidence to the sine of the angle of refraction is a constant.
All media through which light travels have what is called REFRACTIVE INDEX denoted by n.
Defined
n = speed of light in a vacuum (free space) = c

speed of light in the medium v
n - refractive index of medium c speed of light 3x108 ms-1
e.g. for glass ng = speed of light in vacuum = c 3x108 = 1.5

speed of light in glass vg 2x108
When light passes between 2 mediums as shown below then we can use two equations.
n1v1 = n2v2 or n1 sin1 = n2 sin2
Refraction of light - Snells law.
Here are the refractive index of different mediums.

Medium Refractive Index
Vacuum 1.000
Air 1.003
Water 1.33
Glass 1.50
Diamond 2.42
Diamond has a high refractive index which explains why it sparkles.
How Snells law related to the wave model of light propagation.
n1 < n2 v1 > v2
Waves travel a distance BB in time

So, distance BB = v1 x t
During this time the light travels a distance AA in medium 2

So distance AA = v2 x t
In triangle ABB sin 1 = BB/AB In traingle AAB sin 2 = AA/ AB
So, sin 1 = BB/AB = BB = v1 x t

sin 2 AA/ AB AA v2 x t
sin 1 = v1
sin 2 v2
we know that v1n1 = v2n2 v1 = n2 substitute sin 1 = n2 n1 sin1 = n2 sin2

v2 n1 sin 2 n1
Total internal reflection
(1) (2) (3)
This phenomenon occurs when light moves from a more optically dense material (e.g. water)
to a less optically dense material (e.g. air) causing a change in speed.
1. The incident angle 1 is less than the critical angle and so the light ray refracts/
bends away from the normal as it emerges from the water. 2 is the angle of refraction.
2. The incident angle 1 equal to the critical angle and so the light ray passes along the
surface of the boundary.
3. The incident angle is greater than the critical angle and so the light ray is
reflected back into the water. This phenomenon is known as total internal reflection.
1 = 2
Using Snells law to determine the critical angle.
n1 sin 1 = n2 sin 2
since 2 = 90 and sin 90 = 1
then we can write: n1 sin c = n2
Consider a glass-air boundary
n1 sin c = n2
sin c = n2/ n1
c = sin-1 (n2/ n1)
c = sin-1 (1/ 1.5)
c = 41.8
Optical fibres
Optical fibres use total internal reflection to work. The refractive index of the cladding is
less than the core and so the rays of infra-red light are reflected back into the core as long as
the angle is greater than the critical angle.
Monomode (Single mode) Fibres. Fibres where the core diameter is so small that the only
path possible through the fibre, is along its axis i.e. parallel to axis.
Multimode fibres. These fibres results in the transmitted signal being subjected to very little
distortion, even after several hundred km of propagation. This preservation of the shape of
the signal means that very rapidly changing and complicated waves that carry lots of data
can be sent along and accurately received. Monomode fibres are thus better suited to long
distance communication than multimode fibres (approx 50 times further). The infra-red light
in multimode fibres travels in zig-zag paths and some paths involve reflections.
The advantages of monomode optical fibres over multimode optical fibres.
Paths at different angles to the axis are of different lengths so data doesnt travels on
different paths which would arrive at different times so data is not muddled /
smeared out or overlapping.
Using angles close to critical angle minimises multimode dispersion by:

cuts down range of path lengths
less pulse broadening or less likelihood of overlapping or more rapid data sequence
possible
Photons
We have discussed and observed properties about the wave nature

of light. Light can also behave as a stream of particles. This can be
seen using a weak light source for studying the interference
pattern. The observed pattern is built up or emerges over a period
of time as a series of spots is gradually increased.
This behaviour suggests that the energy in a light wave is
not a continuous stream but rather is quantised into a little bundles of energy known as QUANTA or
PHOTONS.
Max Planck: Introduced the concept of quantisation energy in 1900. This means that energy of a
photon is a fixed amount/quantity.
Einstein: In 1905 Einstein recognised that this quantisation of energy was a fundamental property of
light. Einstein concluded from experimental work that the energy of a photon is proportional to the
frequency of the radiation.
Energy of a photon, E = hf or E = hc REMEMBER NOT GIVEN on DATA SHEET

E- photon energy (J), h Planck constant 6.63x10-34 Js, f- frequency (Hz),

c speed of light in a vacuum (3.0x108 ms-1)
A photon is a discrete packets of energy
Worked example.
An LED emits red light of wavelength 620nm. (a) calculate the energy in J of each photon of
the emitted light. (b) The LED radiates a power of 0.5mW. How many photons are emitted
each second?
(a) E = hc/ = 6.63x10-34 x 3.0x108 = 3.21x10-19 J
620x10-9
(b) 0.5mW is 0.5x10-3 W, which is equivalent to 0.5x10-3 Joules per second

By dividing the total energy per second by the energy of 1 photon (a) then we will
get the total number of photons = 0.5x10-3/ 3.21x10-19 = 1.56x1015 photons
The electronvolt.
The joule is a very large quantity of energy when used to describe the
energy of a single photon. We therefore require a much smaller quantity of energy.
Definition: One electronvolt (eV) is the energy of an electron accelerated by a potential

difference of 1 volt.
Converting between eV and J. 1 eV = 1.6x10-19 J
50eV x 1.6x10-19 8.0x10-18 J
900,000 eV 1.44x10-13 J
1.6x10-19
The electromagnetic spectrum.
A family of waves that travel at the same speed in a vacuum and have similar properties.
You need to remember the typical wavelength of different regions of the spectrum and then
be able to calculate the typical photon energy using E=hc/.
Region/Part of spectrum Typical Wavelength (m) Typical Photon energy (eV)
Gamma 10-12 106
X-ray 10-10 104
UV 10-7 or10-8 101
Visible 4x10-7 7x10-7 3.1 1.8
Infra red 10-5 10-1
Microwave 10-2 10-4
Radio 102 10-8
The photoelectric effect
Using a zinc plate with a gold leaf electroscope
Clean a zinc plate with fine emery paper or steel wool.

Attach the plate to the top disc on a gold leaf electroscope, so there is
good electrical contact.
Charge the zinc plate and inner assembly of the electroscope
negatively, e.g. by rubbing the zinc plate with a polythene rod which has
been rubbed with a duster. The gold leaf should now be raised, because
the leaf and the back plate are both charged negatively and repel each
other.
Place an ultraviolet lamp near the zinc plate. Switch it on. The leaf
should be seen to fall. Clearly the plate is losing charge.
Repeat the procedure, but charging the zinc plate and inner assembly of
the electroscope positively, e.g. by rubbing the plate with a charged
perspex rod.
This time the ultraviolet does not affect the leaf. Charge is not lost.
Explanation: The ultraviolet causes electrons to be emitted from the zinc plate. If the plate
is charged positively, the electrons are attracted back again. If the plate is charged
negatively the emitted electrons are repelled and lost from the plate for ever.
The photoelectric effect Vaccum photocell
Photoelectric effect: when light or ultraviolet

radiation of short enough wavelength falls on a
surface, electrons are emitted from the surface.
The electrons in each different metal needs a

certain amount of energy to leave the surface, this
is known as the work function.
The work function - () of a surface is the minimum energy needed to remove an
electron from the surface. Unit: J or eV.
Any energy left over/remaining will be seen as the kinetic energy of the ejected
photoelectron. This is known as Ek max.
The photons of light need to give enough energy for it to leave the metal surface.
Threshold frequency- (f0) this is the minimum frequency of a photon that will cause the
emission of an electron from a particular metal surface.
The experiment. http://phet.colorado.edu/simulations/sims.php?sim=Photoelectric_Effect

When e-m radiation of enough energy (high enough frequency) strikes the
cathode surface electrons are ejected. The photoelectrons (ejected electrons) travel across
to the anode and a current flows in the circuit. A current is recorded on the ammeter. The
p.d. is increased until the photoelectrons are being repelled from the anode. At a certain
p.d. the electrons will not have enough energy to reach the anode. The cathode and anode
must be in a vacuum otherwise the ejected electrons could collide with molecules in the air.
Steps:
1. Shine light on cathode.
2. Increase / adjust pd until micro-
ammeter shows zero current.
3. Read voltmeter.
4. Plot a graph of current (I) on the y-
axis and p.d. (V) on the x-axis.
The graph is shown below.
If the intensity of light is increased then its the

number of photons of light that increases. This
increases the amount of ejected electrons and so a
larger current flows since. The stopping voltage
remains the same since this depends upon the Ek max of
the ejected photoelectron.
Ek max = eVs
where Vs is the stopping voltage.
Einsteins photoelectric equation.
This equation is based on the conservation of energy.
Ek max = hf minimum energy (J) an electron

Ek max the maximum
energy that a needs to leave the surface.
photoelectron can have hf is the energy (J )of
once it has used some the photon.
of the photon energy to
leave the metal
surface.
If the energy of the photon (threshold frequency f0) is just enough to cause an electron to
be ejected then the photoelectron will have no E k so we can write:
hf0 =
If the light is not of high enough frequency then it doesnt matter how long the light is shone
on the surface i.e. photons cannot combine/join together to give the electron sufficient
energy. This is evidence for the particle nature of light.
The same as experiment as on the previous page except that a graph is plotted of E k max and
frequency for a certain metal (B). Ek max is calculated from the stopping voltage (Vs).
Ek max = eVs.
Comparing with the equation for

a straight line graph.
Ek max = h f
y = mx+c
The intercept gives the work

function of the metal e.g.
Magnesium 5.9x10-19 J.
The gradient of the graph gives

you Plancks constant.
(6.63x10-34 Js).
If a graph is plotted for a

different metal (A) with a lower
work function (e.g. 3x10-19 J)
then the line has the same
gradient since it is a constant.
Photocells are used in light sensors for cameras and burglar alarms.
Atomic energy levels
Niels Bohr in 1913 (Danish) developed the idea that energy in an atoms was quantised and
that the electrons existed in specific energy levels. The electrons can move between the
energy levels as long as they are given the correct/precise quantity of energy usually in the
form of a photon.
The energy levels of the atom can

be given in eV or in Joules.
The electron in a hydrogen atom will in
the ground state (n=1).
If the atom is excited then the electron
can be promoted to a higher energy
level e.g. n=2.
If an electron wants to move up an

energy level then it must absorb a
photon. If the electrons want to move
down an energy level then it must emit
a photon of energy. The photon energy
must be equal to the energy gap.
Ionisation energy.
The ionisation energy of an atom is the minimum energy needed to
remove an electron from the atom in its ground state. To ionise the atom the electron
must escape from the ground state (n=1) and leave the atom (n=).
The energy gap = 0 (-13.6eV) = 13.6eV.
This energy must be changed to J and then the wavelength of light can be calculated.
13.6 x 1.6x10-19 = 2.176x10-18J = hc/E = 6.63x10-34 x 3x108 = 9.14x10-8m (UV)

2.176x10-18
Absorption spectra.
The light emitted from a source like a star
or an incandescent bulb gives a continuous
spectrum. When this light passes a cloud of
gas (e.g. in space) then certain
wavelengths of light are absorbed as
electrons are promoted to higher energy
levels. These wavelengths will be missing
and so we get an absorption line spectrum.
The light is later re-emitted but in all
directions. We observe a continuous
spectrum crossed with dark lines
(Fraunhofer lines).
Emission spectrum. We observe this with a gas at low pressure which has been excited. Electrons
collide with the atoms in the gas and cause electrons to be promoted to higher energy levels. This
time we get bright lines but at specific wavelengths (colours) which is characteristic of the elements.
present in the gas. The dark lines will appear as the bright colours if the same gas is used in an
Wave-particle duality
emission spectrum.
Electron diffraction: in 1927 when Davisson and Germer performed an experiment. They
accelerated a beam of electrons through a thin polycrystallite graphite film in an evacuated chamber
and used a fluorescent screen to see where the electrons came out on the other side.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DfPeprQ7oGc
Experiment to demonstrate wave-particle duality. Diffraction pattern for electrons.
Electromagnetic waves can behave both as waves (diffraction, reflection, refraction) and particles
(photoelectric effect, emission and absorption spectrum). Particles (electrons, protons etc.) can also
exhibit wave like properties as shown in the experiment above. The double slit experiment can be
performed using electrons which gives a pattern of bright and dark fringes. Even if the electrons are
passed through one at a time then an interference pattern is observed!!!
Momentum of light. Since light waves have no mass, and since p = m.v , it seems logical to
assume that plight = 0 x v = 0 !! However, deBroglie derived the equation, which suggests that all
particles have wave-like properties, but also that all waves have particle-like properties.
= h or p = hf
p c
p momentum (kgms-1) h Plancks constant wavelength (m)
If light has momentum then it can exert a Force on surface and

hence a pressure. If the light is reflected or absorbed then there will
be a change in the momentum (Newtons 2nd law) of light. The
change in momentum is double if the photons are reflected and
hence a greater force (momentum is a vector quantity). There will be
an equal but opposite force on the surface (Newtons 3rd law).
Calculating the radiation pressure when light falls on a surface.
Momentum of a photon p=h

Force on surface F=p
t
Number of photons = Power of light

photon Energy
Pressure of 1 photon P = F/A (A is surface area)
Total pressure = number of photons x pressure of 1 photon
Wave-particle duality
Wavelength of particles the same equation can be used to determine the wavelength of
particles e.g. electrons, protons etc.
de Broglie equation =h
p
where p = m x v , momentum = mass x velocity
This was quite radical and even today it may seem like science fiction. However, de Broglie
was proven correct by the experiment shown on the previous page.
Worked example.
Neutrons can be used for analysing the atomic/crystal structure of various materials. Their
mass is 1.67x1027kg. If their velocity 3000ms-1, determine their wavelength.
1st step, p =mv = 1.67x10-27 x 3000 = 5.01x10-24 kgms-1

2nd step = h/p = 6.63x10-34 x 5.01x10-24 = 1.32x10-10 m (wavelength similar to
distance between atoms)
____________________________________________________________________________________
Determination of h using LEDs

The Planck constant, h, can be determined by using a
light emitting diode (LED) and measuring the
minimum voltage, Vmin, at which light is just emitted
by the diode. The Planck constant can then be
determined from the equation =/ e where c is
8 -1
the speed of light 3.00 10 ms and e is the
-19
electronic charge, 1.60 10 C.
A graph of Vmin against 1/ should be a straight line
with the gradient equal to hc/e.
The voltage should be varied until light

is just emitted by the LED. Record the
voltage it corresponds to Vmin.The LED
should be replaced and the procedure

repeated for LEDs with different
wavelengths of light. Plot a graph of
Vmin (x-axis) against 1/ (y-axis) and use
it to determine a value for h.
Lasers
LASER - Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation
http://www.materials.ac.uk/elearning/matter/Electrons_in_Crystals/Lasers/index.html
Photon Absorption: an electron is excited to a higher Excited E2

energy level by absorbing the energy of an incoming photon. Electron state
The energy of the incoming photon must be equal to the excited to
difference between the two energy levels in order for it to higher energy
be absorbed. hf = Ephoton = E2-E1
Photon
absorbed Ground
state
E1
Photon Emission: The decay of an electron from one energy
state to lower energy state results in the creation of a photon. Excited state
Electron drops to E2
Spontaneous Emission: A photon is created spontaneously. Lower energy
Consider the diagram showing an excited electron at energy
level E2 it can lose some of its energy by emitting a photon. The Photon emitted
emitted photon will have energy Ephoton = E2-E1 The frequency of
the emitted light is also determined by the difference in energy
levels because hf = Ephoton = E2-E1.
Stimulated Emission: This is the emission of a photon from an excited atom, triggered by a
passing photon of energy equal to the energy gap between the excited state and a state of lower
energy in the atom. The emitted photon has the same frequency, phase, direction of
travel/propagation and polarisation direction as the passing photon i.e. coherent.
Excited state E2
Electron
stimulated to drop Incoming photon and emitted photon
by photon have same wavelength and exit in
phase and in the same direction
i.e. coherent
E1
Population Inversion: N2 > N1
A population inversion is a situation in which a higher energy state in an atomic system is more
heavily populated than a lower energy state (i.e. a less excited state or the ground state) of the
same system.
In order to get as much light out of a system as is possible we need more
electrons in an excited state so more will drop and emit photons.
However, there is one serious problem that arises when we produce a lot of
light the very photons that we produce are the actual photons that can be
absorbed (they have the correct energy to produce both effects). If we
have photons being absorbed all the time then our laser beam isnt getting
any stronger.
We need to arrive at a situation where stimulated emission is more likely than absorption so that the
laser beam increases in intensity. This is done by pumping. Pumping is feeding energy into the
amplifying medium of a laser to produce a population inversion. Since stimulated emission occurs if
the electrons are in the upper level and absorption occurs when electrons are in the lower level we
need to get more electrons into the upper, excited level.
Lasers
Population inversion is not usually possible if we only have two energy levels (if pumping is carried out by
light). As we start to pump our system we have the following situation:
Excited state (N2 = 0)
Ground state (N1 = 8)

Pumping
light
Many electrons will be promoted to the higher energy and all seems fine. Unfortunately, if we succeed in
exciting half the electrons we are now in the following situation:
Excited state (N2 = 4)
Ground state (N1 = 4)

Pumping light
In this situation the incoming flood of photons is just as likely to cause an electron to drop (stimulated emission)
as it is to cause an electron to rise (absorption). The best we can achieve here is N2 = N1 which is not quite good
enough.
The 3 Energy Level Laser System

1. Pumping. Electrons are promoted from the ground state (E1)
E3
to E3 usually by using an external light source or by electron
collisions.
2. Electrons drop quickly (because E3 is chosen to have a short 2
lifetime of the order of nanoseconds) to the metastable (E2).
Calling E2 metastable means that it has a long lifetime and E2
electrons stay there for a long time (not that long really
around a millisecond but thats a very long time for an 1
electron). 3
3. This is the transition that produces the laser photons so we
must have N2 > N1. Note that, although stimulated emission still
reduces our population inversion, the pumping is at a different
wavelength. We have to make sure that the pumping [1] E1
exceeds the stimulated emission [3] to maintain a population
inversion.
The 4 Energy Level Laser System

E4
1. Pumping again.
2. Fast drop to the metastable state E3. 2
3.This is the laser light producing transition so this time
N3 > N2. However, because E1 is the ground state, E2 is E3
practically empty initially so obtaining population
inversion is far, far easier.
3
1
4. Another fast transition so E2 has a short lifetime. This
is because we want E2 to be empty so that we have a
population inversion (if N2 is small its easier for N3 to be E2
larger than N2).
4
So this is where a 4-level laser is better, in that E2 is
as depopulated as possible, which means less pumping
E1
is required and the laser is more efficient.
Laser Construction
Light from a laser differs from normal light in that it has these properties:
Polarised
Coherent
Monochromatic (one wavelength)
Parallel beam
The photons are reflected backwards and forwards stimulating more photons and eventually the
photons can escape through the partially reflective mirror. As more photons escape, more photons are
produced by stimulated emission so and equilibrium is achieved. The amplifying medium is the region
where the population inversion exists.
Under these conditions one photon has the potential to produce two photons and these can
produce 4 photons, then 8 photons etc. Like a chain reaction, this process will lead to an exponential
increase in output energy. Because only 1% of the light exits each time it reflects back and forth
between the mirrors, on average, the beam will pass through the amplifying medium a hundred times
before it exits.
High intensity pumping combined with the high intensity of the laser beam means that the
amplifying medium will get very hot. So, there will be large heat losses. To make this matter worse,
we need to cool the amplifying medium usually so that it, or its container, doesnt melt.
Semiconductor Lasers.
Small, cheap, efficient. Approx 70% efficient.

Pumping voltage = 3V. The basic structure of a
standard edge emitting semiconductor laser
is shown.
The population inversion inside the
semiconductor sandwich area is millions of
times higher than in gas lasers.
The exponential increase in light intensity (i.e.
1 photon becoming two, becoming four etc.)
occurs far more quickly because of the higher
population inversion.
Advantages: Some Uses:

Inside DVD and CD players
Cheaper
Barcode readers
Smaller
Telecommunications (via optical fibres)
More efficient
Image scanning
Easy to mass produce
Laser surgery

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AS Physics - Unit 1

Section 1.1 - Basic Physics

Systeme Internationale or SI units

charge - coulombs, C force - newtons, N energy - joule, J

Re-arranging the equation to make Q the subject :

Quantity SI units BASE SI units You are NOT expected to

where , E = energy stored in a stretched wire (unit = joule = kg m2 s-2 )

Vector = A vector quantity has magnitude and direction.

Examples of vectors are : displacement , velocity , acceleration , momentum , force , current

A cyclist travels from Bangor (North Wales) to Betws-y-Coed.

However, the displacement is shown by the dotted (red) line.

Note : Since displacement is a vector it requires a direction too.

Speed & Velocity

R2 = 3002 + 4002 R = 3002 + 4002

The direction of the resultant is given by Soh, Cah and Toa :

tan = 400 / 300 = tan-1 ( 400 / 300 )

Consider a force, F, acting at 30 to the horizontal : 30

(i) WP = W cos (25) = 30 x cos (25) = 27.2 N

Remember : The original vector always forms the hypotenuse of the

Moment = Force x distance M = F d

In many cases the forces will

However, in some cases, you may need to use

There are two ways to do this :

1) Look along the line of action of the

The line joining this dot to the pivot

The second condition is also known as the Principle of moments :

If an object is in equilibrium, then the resultant (or net) moment about

The toppling angle is shown (). At a slightly

In general, solids have high density values

First, some basic definitions that youll need to learn :

Quantity Definition Symbol Unit Equation

Speed Distance travelled per unit time. v ms-1 v=x/t

Acceleration Rate of change of velocity. a ms-2 a = v/t

The instantaneous velocity at point B is vB = gradient = (6 2) / 2.3 = 1.74 ms-1

1) The gradient of the velocitytime graph represents the acceleration.

The graph () shows an object accelerating

a = (v u) or, re-arranging v = u + at -------------- 1

So, substituting for vav we get : x = v+u t -------------- 2

x = v+u t = ( u + at +u) t = (2u + at ) t = ( 2 u t + at2 )

x = v+u t = v+u . v-u = ( v2 - u2 )

Equations 2 & 3 can also be derived by using a velocity-time graph, as follows :

If we split the trapezium into a rectangle and a triangle

Re-arranging x = v2 - u2 = 3402 - 52 = 8026 m

Two dimensional motion

Strategy a good setup !

xx = xy = Also, if the stone is launched horizontally, then the

Other similar quantities :

However, for an object ending up at rest on the ground vy 0 !!!!

At the beginning, the sky divers vertical speed is

Eventually, the air resistance becomes equal to the

Newtons 3 Laws of Motion

F = m d(v) = m(v-u) but v - u = acceleration

Note : F in this equation is ALWAYS the RESULTANT force.

where W = weight, m = mass, g = acceleration due to gravity / gravitational field strength.

Mass is a measure of how much Weight is a measure of how large

Friction Pulling force

Normal reaction/Contact force

Friction Pulling force

The units for momentum are kg ms-1