Antony Cooke Auth. Astronomy and The Climate Crisis

Astronomers Universe
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Antony Cooke
Astronomy and
the Climate Crisis
Antony Cooke
Camino Capistrano
Capistrano Beach
92624 California, USA
ISSN 1614-659X
ISBN 978-1-4614-4607-1 ISBN 978-1-4614-4608-8 (eBook)
DOI 10.1007/978-1-4614-4608-8
Springer New York Heidelberg Dordrecht London
Library of Congress Control Number: 2012941866
Springer Science+Business Media New York 2012

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Dedicated to my nephew, Stuart, and niece,
Georgina, From their loving Uncle Tony,
with congratulations to both on attaining
their Ph.D.s in 2011.
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Foreword
In February1632 the mathematician and astronomer Galileo Galilei

published his Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems.
Written at a time when Copernicus Sun-centered theory of the
planets was still relatively newand highly controversialit
compared that model with the old Earth-centered Ptolemaic pic-
ture by means of an imagined conversation between philosophers.
The protagonists were Salviati (an erudite Copernican) and Sim-
plicio (a traditionalist, whose name says it all), together with an
enthusiastic bystander called Sagredo.
Through several hundred pages of fictional debate, these gentle-
men covered a broad swathe of ideas, ranging from the profound to
the absurd. While Galileos undeclared intention was that his readers
would make up their own minds whether or not Earth is in motion,
it had to be done in a manner that would not arouse the ire of the
Holy Roman Church. That all-powerful body was still uncompro-
misingly wedded to the idea of a stationary Earth, and dissent was
dangerousas had been discovered by the hapless Giordano Bruno
some three decades earlier, when he had been burned at the stake.
Although Galileo succeeded in gaining the imprimatur of
the Church for his book, he found this to be no guarantee against
shooting himself in the foot. Rather incautiously, he had not only
aligned Salviati with his own private view but had also associated
the clueless Simplicio with the Pope, Urban VIII. This did not go
down well in Rome, and Galileo soon found himself facing the
Inquisition. The rest is history. On June 22, 1633, he was con-
victed of vehement suspicion of heresy and, lucky to escape with
his life, was sentenced to lifelong house arrest.
While the same fate seems unlikely to overtake the author
of Astronomy and the Climate Crisis, the parallels with Galileos
Dialogue are clear. We live in an era of big questions about our
vii
planet. We know its climate is changing. But is that a consequence
of human activity? Or is it the result of natural processes that
are unrelated to our presence on Earth? It is already clear that the
answer to both questions is yes, but the extent to which each
contributes to global warming has remained a contentious issue.
Despite all attempts to ringfence the science, the arguments have
become highly politicized, with powerful vested interests seeking
to sway popular opinion.
Into this morass has stepped Antony Cooke with the remark-
able volume you now hold in your hands. And he has adopted a strik-
ingly Galilean approach in his investigation of the issues. Wisely,
perhaps, he has avoided the three-dudes-and-an-argument format
(which is pretty unfashionable these days), but he has followed
Galileo in presenting a broad range of ideas and opinions. By intro-
ducing an astronomical dimension into the discussion, Cooke has
set the climate debate against the widest possible backdropitself
a major contribution to the literature. And he has not been afraid
to tackle the political issues head-on. But, as he declares in the
book, it is not his purpose to render a verdict.
There is one other important way in which this book parallels
Galileos Dialogueand that is that they both present snapshots
of a rapidly evolving situation. Just as Keplers laws of planetary
motion quickly substantiated the Copernican model of the Solar
System, it will soon become abundantly clear which of the many
scientific views aired in Astronomy and the Climate Crisis come
closest to the underlying reality. In that regard, the book repre-
sents a valuable record not only of contemporary climate science
but of societys treatment of it. It is sure to find a place on the
bookshelves of anyone who cares deeply about the environment.
NSW, Australia Fred Watson

Preface
The science is in, the debate is over!
Rising global carbon dioxide levels (note slightly adjusted color gradient from
left to right in order to show detail better) (Image courtesy of NASA/JPL)
If only it were that simple; such a grandiose and dramatic pro-

nouncement about any issue would normally mean there is noth-
ing left to discuss. However, with the highly charged nature of the
subject of climate change, we will never know if this is so if we do
not examine the subject in its entirety, from all sides and perspec-
tives, and free from bias or predetermined conclusions.
There are many books about climate change. However, it is
hard to find a source where concise arguments from all sides are
presented under the canopy of one umbrella, and framed in the
context of the actual research behind the findings, much less those
that introduce the astronomical component. It is also easy to fall
into the trap of mixing science and politics, when, in fact, the two
have little in common and objectivity is easily lost. Bearing in
ix
x Preface
mind the late Senator Daniel Patrick Moynahans perceptive and

witty remark that One is entitled to ones opinion, but not to
ones own facts! let us try to air as many facts and well-founded
suppositions as possible. However, we must include at least a brief
description of the various agendas relative to the discussion if we
are to have a balanced perspective of the broader topic.
A finding by the Environmental Protection Agency to declare carbon di-

oxide and other greenhouse gases a danger to public health and welfare
and therefore subject to the Clean Air Act will officially end the era
of denial on global warming.
Rep. Ed Markey, D-Mass.,
U.S. Energy & Commerce subcommittee
The author seeks neither to take a position nor evaluate the

science itself, but merely to present an airing of largely unheralded,
usually highly legitimate research within the context of the larger
umbrella of climate science today. Every effort has been made to
present information without a specific agenda or stated conclu-
sions, and especially without the intent of manipulating or swaying
the reader to any particular viewpoint. Thus, we will allow the
evidence and findings to speak for themselves.
It is quite possible that much of what may be seen as radical
at first glance will turn out to be quite compatible with what is
already widely accepted. This could mean that perhaps no one will
have to reject all or even any previously held positions. Although
the basic theories of man-made climate change have wide inter-
national support, there is still much disagreement. So despite oft-
repeated claims that the issue is completely settled within the
scientific community, to the contrary, this is not yet the case.
However, we should be extremely wary of jumping on the band-
wagon of those who might perhaps be considered kooks.
The underlying cause of these climactic shifts is ultimately not well-

understood and is a matter of vigorous debate.
U.S. Senator Mike Crapo (R-ID),
Senate Committee on Environment and Public Works, October 2009
Preface xi
With the advent of climate change, aka global warming, tak-

ing center stage in the late twentieth century, a worldwide orga-
nization called the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
(better known as the IPCC) was established by the larger orga-
nization of the United Nations. It was structured to review and
assess ongoing independent research about the prospects for future
impacts on world climate, something that had increasingly come
under scrutiny with warmer annual temperatures being recorded.
To date, the IPCC has generated four reports: those of 1990, 1995,
2001, and 2007. Each has a designated acronym, i.e., FAR (First
Assessment Report), SAR (the Second), TAR (Third), and AR4
(Assessment Report #4). The panel, consisting of members of the
international scientific community from 130 countries, has made
recommendations with each report about recently changing cli-
mate conditions.
The IPCC is comprised of 2,500 expert reviewers, 800 contrib-
uting editors, and more than 450 lead authors. This must surely be
the largest single organization of its kind in the world. It should
be noted, however, that not all of these individuals write every-
thing in the reports, collectively. They each have their own areas
of expertise and contribute to the reports accordingly. Climate sci-
ence, being multi-dimensional, requires input from many of these
areas. Therefore, it is unlikely that most panelists are able to be
involved in many, if indeed any, of the other areas. This has led to
perhaps one of the more serious criticisms that the reports do not
speak with one voice. Certainly, no one voice has existed through-
out the process.
The panel has not escaped other challenges and resistance to
its findings. Critics charge that it has approached the task with
a presumption of human-induced recent climate changes. Cer-
tainly the IPCCs own mission descriptions do seem to imply this.
Critics also challenge its makeup, being merely a small fraction
of the worlds scientists and experts. We must assume, however,
that each country has put forward some of its best and brightest,
and there is obviously a limit as to how many people could be
involved. Additionally, critics maintain that because any errors it
has made over the years have tended to favor its position, this has
only added to questions of the validity of its findings.
xii Preface
Any developed and geographically well-situated nation that is not will-

ing to take action on climate change will have to be fully prepared to
assist environmental refugees displaced.
Australian Greens Senator Sarah Hanson-Young
A careful review of the documents prepared and presented by

the IPCC over the years is highly instructive. These reports set the
stage and describe in detail many facets of climate change science.
Some readers may be surprised to read a concession that many
components are still sufficiently uncertain to state definitively.
However, the panel has expressed increasing levels of confidence
that much of what we are experiencing is human-induced (anthro-
pogenic), and that it is exceedingly likely that most of it is not
natural.
Interestingly, in the most recent 2007 report (AR4), the
concluding remarks may seem surprisingly short of the kind of
definitive statements about anthropogenic factors that we have
been led to believe were at its core. In stark contrast, however, is
the Summary for Policy Makers that accompanied the report. This
states far more clear-cut conclusions than are found in the main
report. Whether this was the intent or the result of a less objec-
tive editor is not clear. One does not leave the summary with-
out a strong sense that the most likely or worst-case scenario has
been stated as a virtual certainty. Critics have been vocal about
the summary for this very reason, especially since the document
has been at the root of many decisions and actions taken by gov-
ernmental agencies.
The government has been captured by an extreme Green agendain-

complete and biased science.
Australian Liberal Party senator
Cory Bernardi
In light of a prevailing view (a consensus) that man-made

contributions have caused a large portion of the warming since
1980, it does seem reasonable to presume that a large percentage
of scientists do indeed accept much, if not all, within the IPCCs
findings. We have all heard those official-sounding ratios of scientists
in support of the IPCC position to be in the upper 90s percentile.
Indeed, many major scientific institutions of international standing
Preface xiii
have affirmed their support of the IPCC assessments. Apparently,

to date, none has gone on record opposing it, although this is not
quite the same thing as claiming all institutions actually have
embraced it, let alone having spoken for everyone working under
their collective umbrella. Without precise headcounts of individ-
ual scientists, it surely would be hard to gauge what any of them
think, individually, as there has been no census taken. However,
as we proceed, statements given in absolutes by advocates of any
position should be carefully appraised.
The legend surrounding the early English King Canute comes
to mind. Enthroned on the seashore, the king of legend (and of his-
tory) attempted to command back the tides. Needless to say, he
ended up with wet feet. However, just for the record, apparently
he was wiser than his legend has fared. It seems his intent was
to demonstrate that no person, no king, had such power. Thus,
Canute demonstrated to an unwitting peasant populace that it is
impossible to impose anything on the natural order of things.
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About the Author
It has been said that music and astronomy go hand in hand. Antony
Cookes passion for both fields was clear very early in his life, but
music ultimately would claim his career. A cellist of international
renown, Cooke has been one of the leading players in the Hollywood
recording industry for many years, having been associate professor
of cello at Northwestern University in Chicago until 1984. He is
a US citizen but was born in Australia and educated in London,
receiving numerous prizes and awards, including the Gold Medal
at the London Music Festival.
The dual nature of Cookes interests continued, astronomy
remaining the counterbalance in his life. Always looking for ways
to improve his experience at the eyepiece, he has constructed many
telescopes over the years, with increasing sizes being the hallmark
of his (often-quirky) designs. He has published four previous books
for Springer, Visual Astronomy in the Suburbs (2003), Visual Astron-
omy Under Dark Skies (2005), Make Time for the Stars (2009),
and, recently, Dark Nebulae, Dark Lanes and Dust Belts (2012).
xv
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Contents
Preface........................................................................................ v
1 The Astronomical Connection ......................................... 1
2 The Physics of a Crisis ..................................................... 19
3 Climate and Weather ........................................................ 53
4 The Variable Sun ............................................................... 77
5 Short-Term Climate Variation ......................................... 105
6 Gravitational Interactions of the Solar System ............... 127
7 The Possible Effects of Solar Cycles ................................ 145
8 Climate Models ................................................................. 159
9 Interpretations of the Data ............................................... 183
10 Global Warming on Other Worlds ................................... 205
11 Ice Ages and Long-Term Cycles ....................................... 235
12 Cosmic Crisis .................................................................... 251
Index .......................................................................................... 275
xvii
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1. The Astronomical Connection
Anyone who doubts that there is any point in discussing any

further the matter of climate change should take a look at NASAs
own website [1]. The section entitled Uncertainties: Unresolved
Questions about Earths Climate disavows any sense that we do
indeed know everything. While described almost casually as just
a few other important uncertainties about climate change, it is a
concise description of many hugely significant factors often cited
by some to be understood with certainty! It is not as if NASA has
minimized these issues, but they do point to a possible connection
to astronomical research. And because the space agency is heavily
involved in climate research, we should realize that astronomy is
a growing part of it.
Halting global warming requires urgent, unprecedented inter-

national cooperation, but the needed actions are feasible and
have additional benefits for human health, agriculture and the
environment.
James Hansen, 2003
Director, Goddard Institute of Space Sciences
We should always keep in mind that the focus of most main-

stream climate change research revolves around human-induced
causes of climate change (AGW, Anthropogenic Global Warming),
and the corresponding increased levels of atmospheric carbon
dioxide (CO2). Michael J. Dougherty, in an eloquently stated and
wide reaching opinion piece [2], noted that climate science is
a multidisciplinary field, which includes ecology, chemistry,
geology, glaciology, meteorology, atmospheric science, marine
biology, volcanology, computer modeling, as well as many other
disciplines. All in all quite a complex recipe, and one that has
seen its fair degree of heated dialog exchanges. However, Dough-
erty, clearly convinced of AGW theories, made great efforts to be
A. Cooke, Astronomy and the Climate Crisis, 1

Astronomers Universe, DOI 10.1007/978-1-4614-4608-8_1,
2 Astronomy and the Climate Crisis
conciliatory and fair to scientists of every view. In assessing and

stating his position, his article is not out of line with similarly fair-
minded proponents.
However, maybe Dougherty will allow us one little caveat.
Upon reading the various scientific fields that he lists, it is interest-
ing that one discipline has been omitted from the mix astronomy.
We can only presume this is not a deliberate slight. It is probably
not an oversight, either, but a genuine reflection of how he sees
the makeup of applicable fields in climate research. However, it
is striking that the one missing element is seen increasingly by a
growing number of researchers as a significant component of cli-
mate science. It will remain the focal point of this book.
All the evidence I see is that the current warming of the cli-
mate is just like past warmings. In fact, its not as much as
past warmings yet, and it probably has little to do with carbon
dioxide, just like past warmings had little to do with carbon
dioxide.
William Happer, 2009
Princeton University
Some serious scientists pursuing possible astronomical con-

nections to climate change effectively find themselves questioning
the IPCC position discussed in the preface of this book. Unfortu-
nately and by default, they remain tied to and somewhat unkindly
lumped in with all climate skeptics. Others have complained
that the IPCC has left astronomers and astronomy out of the equa-
tion, which does seem fair in light of the panels scant reference
to most studies that theorize astronomical links to climate. Still
more scientists believe their more recent studies have demon-
strated convincingly that astronomical links to climate are indis-
putable. Whether the IPCC ultimately deems them to be valid or
not, it seems they have barely been referenced at all.
As we proceed, we will examine the underlying fundamental
physics and mechanics known and projected of climate itself.
These are essential to our understanding of the greater picture. But
also we will look to the stars. A sizeable volume of serious climate
research has implicated forces beyond our local Earthly environ-
ment, information that generally has not been presented to the
public at large. Additionally, there are numerous peer-reviewed
The Astronomical Connection 3
astronomical/climate studies in many of the most important and

relevant of scientific journals that encompass often-startling con-
cepts. Even the IPCC acknowledges certain astronomical tenets
(albeit limited in scope).
Although not every researcher is looking to the skies for exter-
nal explanations for recent changes in the climate, certainly every
scientist understands how Earths place in the cosmos indeed does
impact the conditions in which we live. The question is whether
such external factors have any role in the observed warming in the
late twentieth century. It is a good question, even though many
have already concluded that such factors do not. However, because
the recent warming does not appear to fit normal patterns, it is
reasonable that it be investigated for any possible explanation or
factor.
Obviously, astronomical research into climate includes the
variable output of the Sun, what may be behind it, and what this
may or may not imply for Earths climate. Additionally and more
interestingly, there are the Suns possible indirect effects on climate,
other than the direct heating processes we already know about.
Further research has been done concerning other possible local fac-
tors and possible secondary responses from influences far outside
our environment, ultimately affecting the climate (and producing
tangible effects on water vapor concentrations, cloud cover, melt-
ing icepacks, changes to ocean movements, heat storage, etc.).
Within the Solar System, studies have included the potential
influences of cyclic, orbital and precessional effects, not only of
the Sun/Earth/Moon system but all of the planets together and
separately. This includes possible forces and events we do not yet
understand. Further, there are solar magnetic flux variations that
may control certain complex mechanisms, and their theorized but
yet unproven effects on Earth.
Beyond these, we cannot blindly ignore without investigation
even what may seem to be truly farfetched the effects of cosmic
rays from deep in the Milky Way Galaxy, possible consequences of
the Solar Systems place in the galaxy, or movement through regions
of meteorite debris, dust, or dense interstellar matter. Could there
be other yet undetermined galactic forces, or the interactions of
these with any other factor(s) previously mentioned? Most of these
have been subjects of numerous research papers.
How did Earth, Venus and Mars wind up so radically different

from similar origins? How could Mars have once been warm
enough to be wet, but be frozen solid now?
These questions revolve around climate and the intersec-
tion of climate, atmospheric chemistry and, on Earth, life.
NASA
We can speculate, too, on the possible result of a galactic

merger, whereby we might find ourselves in the midst of starburst
activity, with the accelerated, super-heated star cycles that are
known to result. At least in regard to recent climate warming, such
starburst theories can readily be set aside, as the research paper by
Brian. A. Keeney et al. aptly demonstrates [3], although it makes for
fascinating reading. We will explore whether any of the remainder
can be tied to the observations of recent climate change on Earth or
if they remain just fanciful ideas in search of legitimacy.
Most of these scenarios presently suffer less from being
unproven than to being considered as even remotely possible ties
to recent warming trends. Remarkably, the body of astronomical
climate research outside the mainstream still seems barely known
to the public, if at all. Those searching for connections to the stars
include scientists of various descriptions, even scientists of every
discipline, who have found their original areas of expertise increas-
ingly tied to the field of climatology. Many have questioned the
degree of influence of human-induced factors, resulting in ques-
tioning from a number of schools of thought:
Is AWG (anthropogenic global warming) all that is responsible?
Is AWG even responsible at all for what has been observed over
the past few decades?
Or is it a combination of factors, perhaps, of both human-
induced and natural processes, including even astronomical
factors?
Where to Start
Numbered references to all key research papers, other sources,
articles, or websites mentioned in the book (according to the
sequence presented in each chapter) are included at the end of each
chapter. It is strongly recommended that readers avail themselves
of these references as much as possible, because the kind of

in-depth attention they deserve cannot be included under the
cover of just one book. Most can be found online and have been
selected from as broad a perspective as possible. Wide as it is,
though, it represents a mere fraction of all that is available.
However, for those wishing for a more detailed background
on mainstream climate science than can be provided here, an
excellent source would be Climate Change: A Multidisciplinary
Approach by the late William James Burroughs [4]. A leading cli-
matologist and author, Burroughs brings a lifetime of expertise to
this well-written and documented text. Its balanced, wide-reaching
approach, with fine presentations of scientific principles, always
respectful in its analysis of the theories of others, especially con-
cepts unproven at the time of writing (2001) is still largely just
as valid today. It is also a far-reaching commentary that includes
touching on a few usually ignored astronomical possibilities.
It is worth mentioning that in 2003, since the writing of his
book, Burroughs the extreme moderate went on record with
the opinion that the IPCC had given insufficient credence to the
Suns role in recent climate warming trends. But now we start
by looking at Earths place over the course of far distant history
in order to have a proper perspective of the basic facts that frame
what has been experienced over the last 100 years.
Our Place in Time

The time in which we live is termed the Holocene Period, which
began about 11,700 years ago. (Holocene, from the Greek language,
means most recent.) It marks a period of warming associated
with the present interglacial period, extending through today. The
beginning of the period marked the point at which glaciers began
their retreat, releasing huge burdens of weight from the landmasses
below.
Now look at the climate statistics shown in Fig. 1.2, drawn
from multiple sources, most of them proxy sources indirect
methods of measurement, a system that is regularly used to remark-
ably good effect in reconstructing the past. Circumstances known
to accompany certain stimuli provide conditional reliability of
such projections, in this case, tree rings, ice cores, sediments, etc.
FIG. 1.1 Earth temperatures over the last 12,000 years (Graph by Robert
A. Rohde, courtesy global warming art project, prepared from multiple
sources)
Their value is because the historical record extends over a period

of time far greater than any known manmade records, although
for many reasons, there is seldom uniformity of results from the
different types of proxy record. This may be seen from Fig. 1.1,
but clearly an overall picture can be assessed with a fair degree of
confidence. The thick black line represents an average of all inputs,
since none, on its own, can be considered completely dependable.
Would you think on first glance it shows a scenario that implies
any kind of immediate problem?
However, note where the 2004 arrow is positioned relative
to the curve average. Suddenly the graph tells a different story.
Carelessly, one could thus easily draw an incorrect conclusion
(indeed, some less than honest individuals did so deliberately with
this very graph). Because it does not show incremental variations
of less than 300 years, dramatic temperature increases on short
time scales do not register. Therefore it is easy to see how graphs
such as these have been manipulated to show different things to
misrepresent what may really be happening.
Overall, during the course of the larger 12,000-year period,
evidence indicates temperatures today that are decidedly cooler
or warmer than they were many thousands of years ago, but
significantly over the last 4,000 years they have averaged below the
0C anomaly threshold. Be sure to look carefully at the amounts

of temperature increase, too (temperature anomaly readings to the
right) in assessing the present situation and the various records.
Reasons for these radical long-term changes in our climate have
been largely accepted to include far-reaching astronomical factors.
However, the time scale is what sets them apart from the recent
phenomena.
Visible Signs of Warming

We have all heard and read about the potential consequences of
ongoing climate change ever higher temperatures, glacial retreat,
sea level rise, inundation of coastline cities, water shortages,
increased storm intensities and frequencies, crop loss, food short-
ages and the spread of diseases, to name just some. Actually, most
of these are far from unprecedented, having taken place repeatedly
before (with one or two notable exceptions such as the inunda-
tion of cities of course) over a time frame of millions of years.
Meanwhile, the dialog is intensifying. As will be seen to be
the case, there are always some views contrary to those seemingly
securely established, and others that move the debate to new
places. At the present time, for example, there are some scientists
who believe we are entering a period of prolonged cooling!
We should not confuse weather with climate; one refers to
the near short-term, and the other to long-term prevalent condi-
tions. Forecasting the weather from day-to-day, or week-to-week,
is not subject to the same parameters, even though the two larger
fields are related. Climate change, though, is a far longer-term
affair. Determining precise measurements of the extent of cool-
ing in the upper atmosphere (considered integral and opposite to
that of climate warming in the lower atmosphere) might be a good
indicator, although there have been difficulties in doing this in the
past. Methods have improved over the past decade, though. Before
the advent of a new laser technology (the LIDAR system), these
measurements were limited to equipment on board scientific bal-
loons at an altitude of not more than 20 miles [5]. Here is one of
the indisputable benefits of NASA funding and research, and of
course, a direct benefit of space technology in looking outward.
FIG. 1.2 Glacial retreat; the Helheim Glacier in Greenland (Images cour-
tesy NASA/GSFC/METI/ERSDAC/JAROS, and the U.S./Japan ASTER sci-
ence team; created by Jesse Allen, using data from NASAs Terra Satellite)
First, though, we should look at some of those indicators that

are clearest these are iconic examples, indeed. We need to look
for any reason to implicate factors beyond Earths immediate envi-
ronment that could impact any of them. Compounding matters,
reversals of any observed climate trend or indicator may take a
while to register with any significance; Earth has quite a power-
ful natural buffer against sudden and radical change. Astronomical
studies have been able to compare Earth with other planets in this
regard, although the contrasts are stark indeed! Remarkably, even
if Earth did enter a prolonged period of cooling, natural repair to
some of these obvious indicators would not necessarily show up
for decades.
Perhaps the best-known symbol of a warming climate is gla-
cial retreat. Notwithstanding the notorious 2011 investigation of
a U.S. Interior Department scientist for potentially manipulat-
ing polar bear images in relation to melting glaciers [6], the image
(Fig. 1.2), dramatically illustrates what is occurring throughout
the world. With the exception of a few glaciers outside of Scandi-
navia, the rate of melting seems to be intensifying. Most striking
are the rapid glacial retreats in Greenland and the western regions
of South America.
Certain researchers have claimed that large soot particles
from incomplete combustion may, in fact, be more responsible
for the melting of glaciers than higher temperatures. Specula-
tion has emerged that this is due to the decreased reflectivity of
formerly clean snow and ice and the heat absorbing properties of
dark, non-reflective matter coating it. Regardless, the shrinking of
these frozen regions is a reality, and soot is certainly a by-product
FIG. 1.3 This chart illustrates not only changes in thickness of these
massive ice reserves but more importantly the significant increase in the
rate of retreat since the early 2000s (Graph by Robert A. Rohde, courtesy
global warming art project)
of some fossil fuels. However, this poses a new wrinkle previously

not taken into account. We have observed similarities in surface
ice and volcanic ash deposits on other Solar System members, and
such studies can aid those on Earth.
All may not be what it seems at first glance, however. Glaciers
have come and gone almost countless times before between past
ice ages. That the present retreat can be directly tied to increasing
temperatures is certainly not in general dispute. However, many
scientists have pointed out that glacial retreat was well under
way long before the recent warming period, commonly attributed
to human-induced warming. Their retreat began at a time when
the rise in carbon dioxide (CO2) levels was virtually insignificant,
(circa 1850), remaining so until well into the twentieth century.
These researchers have instead attributed such phenomena more
to our gradual emergence from a cold period in the recent Holo-
cene, better known as the Little Ice Age (see Chap. 3), than to
CO2, a factor that has astronomical ties.
Records seem to indicate that the average rate of glacial retreat
into the early 2000s was virtually the same as it had been since the
mid-1800s even reversing the trend slightly during mid-century
(Fig. 1.3). However, new studies have indicated an accelerated pace
has been taking place since 2003. It has been claimed this will
FIG. 1.4 Sea level increases, as reflected in numerous proxy records (Graph
by Robert A. Rohde courtesy global warming art project)
result in an increase to sea levels by 1.3 mm yearly [7]. Again,

human activity has been held to blame, but the statistics and pro-
jections remain confusing and controversial, nevertheless. Wrong
or right, some scientists are looking to the skies for answers.
The consequences of the melting of glaciers reaches far
beyond those that are obvious. Easy to see is the potential for sea
level rise, which indeed has been measured. Obviously, an increase
in sea level of just a meter or two would be a serious threat to
coastal cities and low-lying regions, so we ought not to dismiss the
potential dangers of such prospects. Entire countries, such as Hol-
land, could be threatened by sea level encroachments taking place
beyond their ability to defend against them.
The graph (Fig. 1.4) shows the steep increase in sea level that
has occurred over the past 24,000 years. It reaches back well before
the present Holocene Period, but we can trace where the Holocene
began on the graph (at about 11,700 years ago). Up to this time, con-
siderable land compression on the continents had been caused by
the massive weight of glacial ice. As it melted, the rapid rise of those
landmasses over the first few thousand years is clear on the graph,
mimicking a rubber block that has been compressed and released.
Thus the land was approximately 120 m lower, and coastlines were
often surprisingly well inland from todays coastal regions, explain-
ing why oceanic fossils are frequently found deep inland.
On the scale of the graph, which is admittedly coarse, any

recent or present increases seem slight, and do not look to be more
than a nominal trend. Most of the major changes already occurred
more than 5,000 years ago. However, one should not be easily
deceived by appearances, since the differences in present and possi-
ble future sea level rises and disaster for low-lying areas are only
a meter or two. Only time will tell what the final outcome turns
out to be for sea level increases in the twenty-first century. If we are
prepared at this stage to accept the recent projections of those who
have been wrong on so many occasions before (!), we should bear in
mind that estimates have been repeatedly revised downwards over
the course of successive previous IPCC assessments.
Despite ongoing disputes about how much or how little sea
levels are actually rising, it seems, regardless, that almost no seri-
ous scientist would dispute that it is occurring. We will explore
some theories that examine possible links to factors beyond our
immediate environment.
Another graphic from NASA reveals a projection for New York
City for 2050 and beyond (Fig. 1.5). NASA claims such increases
could amount to as much as 4065 cm by 2100, but critics continue
to claim this amount has been greatly exaggerated (see Chaps. 3
and 8). This demonstrates the difficulties of using projections of
chaotic factors in climate models and extends to knowing which
factors even to include (external or internal) in them.
On another front, deforestation has been occurring in vari-
ous parts of the world for a long time, but never has the trend
been taking place to the extent that it is now. This has been one
of the issues at the forefront of climate change discussions, not
only because of the reduced capacity of the land masses of Earth
to absorb carbon dioxide and heat (see Chap. 2) but also the huge
accompanying release of carbon compounds into the atmosphere
from the destruction of the forestry itself. Additionally, changes
to water vapor concentrations and to Earths albedo (see also
Chap. 2) are profound. Here, at least is one area that all scien-
tists can agree upon completely, especially since it is virtually
all caused by human activities. Although astronomical science
may not be directly related to human activity, indirectly certain
common climate variables on other planets can provide some
clues, since we can examine the atmospheric effects of different
atmospheric concentrations of CO2 on them.
FIG. 1.5 Projected sea level for New York City, 2050 (Graphic courtesy
NASA)
Earths Lungs
A common perception, frequently used to describe the Amazon
rainforest, is that it acts as the Lungs of our Planet, or pol-
lution filters. As one of the worlds greatest natural resources,
the Amazon rainforest continuously recycles carbon dioxide
into oxygen, providing about 20% of Earths oxygen.
Most of this is really not in dispute, but a common mis-
conception is that the rainforest can counteract our excess
CO2, something now being lost through deforestation. And
because CO2 is not a pollutant in the normal sense of the
term, we should not regard it as a filter. However, the mature
rainforest does store a considerable amount of carbon (in
full saturation as a carbon sink), and maintains a balance
between the CO2 it takes in and the resulting O2 it releases.
However, we should not regard the shrinking rainforest as a
lost panacea to counteract an excess production of CO2.
Earth, however, has the distinction in the Solar System of hav-

ing vegetation and continental forestry. This must be factored into
the total equation, and related observations of other planets can
help us understand the effects of varying albedos, despite their lack
of plant life. Although vegetation represents a substantial part of
the system that reflects or absorbs energy, it also converts carbon
dioxide back into breathable oxygen. Vegetation also recycles water
vapor; without this critical component in the atmosphere, regions
quickly become arid, since there is no existing air saturation to
stop the moisture loss. In contrast, the decreased heat absorption
caused by deforestation of tropical regions may increase reflective
properties of the regions, thus providing a net cooling effect! At
ever-higher latitudes, snow cover will increasingly reduce heat-
absorbing properties of forests; thus deforestation in these regions
actually has a lesser impact than it does at the tropics. Similarly,
desert regions expanding at the expense of forestry might have a
surprising net cooling influence on the climate as a whole! We can
see the complexities in trying to build appropriate factors into reli-
able climate models.
Although some regions have been able to claim net gains in
forestry during recent times, (especially the United States), there
is overall a large total loss worldwide to agriculture and timber
harvesting, even to land speculation and unplanned city sprawl.
Many less-developed countries exercise no control whatsoever on
any of these. The satellite images shown in Figs. 1.6 and 1.7 illus-
trate the problem well. Studies of other members of the Solar Sys-
tem also serve us well by showing us how landscapes are affected
by the lack of vegetation.
We can take this a little further by examining the NASA
graphic (Fig. 1.8), which shows the extent of remaining world tall
canopy forestry (in which trees are typically 3045 m in height).
These regions also contain the most prolific biodiversity the
greatest wealth of living organisms. We can see that there is a large
extent of such forestry remaining in South America (although it is
not the tallest), but at the current rate of loss it could soon resem-
ble Africa. Since only tall canopy forests are shown, wherever
the graph appears blank (white) the graphic should not be inter-
preted as showing a lack of any type of vegetation. However, it
should give rise to the question of how long it will be before there
FIG. 1.6 Mato Grosso State in Brazil, 1992 and 2006; Brazilian deforesta-
tion continues at a rate of 20,000 km2/year (Image NASA/USGS Landsat
Mission; Courtesy NASA/GSFC/METI/ERSDAC/JAROS, and the U.S./
Japan ASTER Science Team)
FIG. 1.7 Dry tropical forest region east of Santa Cruz de la Sierra, Bolivia
(Image courtesy NASA/USGS; Landsat mission)
FIG. 1.8 Earths remaining tall canopy forestry in 2010 (Image courtesy of
NASA earth observatory; map by Jesse Allen and Robert Simmon, based on
data provided by Michael Lefsky)
is no tall canopy forestry left anywhere at all, and much of Earths

dry land could end up looking like Mars.
Much of the decline in forestry came about during the twen-
tieth century. Additionally, one has to appreciate the huge release
of CO2 from burning all that was not harvested from the deforesta-
tion itself, in addition to that emanating from the remaining veg-
etation that has been allowed to decay on site. It has been reliably
estimated that the release of human-induced CO2 into the atmo-

sphere by deforestation and burning now might have reached as
much as possibly 30% of the total, versus just 18% in just the
recent past. Although this includes using wood as fuel, it does not
mitigate the result.
Complicating matters, the release of soot and other prod-
ucts of combustion (in the form of tiny droplets of sulfates,
nitrates, ammonium compounds, and even dust into the air as
aerosols) can produce a certain amount of cooling through their
reflective rather than absorptive properties! Volcanoes have also
played a part in ejecting sulfate aerosols into the stratosphere (at
altitudes up to 50 km), in contrast to the elevation of most other
aerosols reaching only the troposphere, (not more than 20 km
up). Release of these aerosols can also result in cooling trends
that last for a period of years because at higher (stratospheric)
altitudes these particulates stay aloft for far greater periods of
time. Obviously volcanic aerosols are an unpredictable factor in
climate change because of their relatively sporadic nature. They
must have figured far larger in ancient history, when volcanic
activity was greater than it is now. However, some recent, early
twenty-first century major volcanic events may herald effects
not yet tabulated. Again, this ties into certain space and astro-
nomical studies.
A Happy Ending?
The Gaia hypothesis (after James Lovelock [8]) may leave
what could seem a depressing subject with a note of optimism.
This hypothesis is truly the ultimate wild card. Simply stated,
it refers to a philosophic/scientific philosophy that proposes
that the cosmos, world and the life it shelters are all interre-
lated. Thus, no matter what occurs, it is always balanced by
another reactive mechanism that maintains the habitability of
the environment.
To some degree, we can witness such forces almost every day,
where nature seems to have a response for almost any calamity,
whether it be the oceans clean-up of oil spills or other types of

disaster, manmade, external or otherwise. However, before we
become too cheered by such rosy thoughts, in his later work [9],
Lovelock concedes that man could quite possibly overstep the
boundaries of Earths habitat beyond the point that nature can
protect against.
The Complexity of the Subject

Because it is not hard to find evidence of climate change, this is
not where the argument ought to be centered. Earth has definitely
warmed (by approximately 0.8 C, depending on which record
is used) over the past century. However, questions have emerged
about whether the upward curve of warming that was observed
in the 1990s will continue, or has even been sustained. Therein
lies the challenge, and especially as some scientists try to deter-
mine if astronomical factors have played any part in it, or might
be expected to do so.
Let us not underestimate the immense difficulties of study-
ing this subject. There are so many factors in play that even pre-
dicting the daily weather by todays meteorological computers
requires trillions of calculations. Additionally, difficulties remain
in identifying and measuring the effects of human/climate/astro-
nomical interactions, understanding the role and influences of
long-term climate cycles, as well as their compounded effects,
what is responsible for these cycles, separating those seemingly
random components usually regarded as noise in the signal, as
well as those markers that do not relate to any factor.
Because much of what we experience in the universe is cha-
otic in nature, it is impossible to predict total outcomes. This is
the opposite of linear systems, where clear cause and effect is
traceable and identifiable. Although we may have the answers to
all of these factors definitively established one day, there can be no
denying that the job seems daunting by any standards. However,
some exciting new research from the astronomical community is
at very least worthy of our attention.
References
1. Unresolved questions about Earths climate. Global Climate Change,
NASA. Online: http://climate.nasa.gov/uncertainties/
2. Michael JD (2009) Can science win over climate change skeptics?
ActionBioscience (July) Online: www.ActionBiosciene.org/educa-
tion/dougherty.html
3. Keeney BA, Danforth CW, Stocke JT, Penton SV, Shull JM (2005)
Does the Milky Way produce a starburst wind? In: Proceedings of the
International Astronomical Union, vol 1, pp 424426
4. Burroughs WJ (2001) Climate change: a multidisciplinary approach.
Cambridge University Press, Cambridge
5. Kloeppel JE (2001) Upper atmosphere temperatures hold some sur-
prises. Daily University Science News. http://www.unisci.com/
stories/20011/0320015.html
6. Siegel K (2011) Putting an Arctic scientist on ice. Huffington Post (11
Aug 2011). Online: http://www.canadaimmigrationblog.com/kassie-
siegal-putting-an-arctic/-scientist-on-ice?Iang=sk
7. Alan B, Janet W (2011) NASA warns ice melt speeding up. NASA
(9 Mar 2011). Online: http://www.jpl.nasa.gov/news/news.cfm?release
=2011-070
8. Lovelock J (1979) Gaia: a new look at life on Earth. Oxford University
Press, Oxford/New York
9. Lovelock J (2009) The revenge of Gaia: Earths climate crisis and the
fate of humanity. Basic Books, New York
2. The Physics of a Crisis
Earth and Space

In spite of the differences and controversies about recent warming
trends, there is one common denominator that ought not to garner
any disagreement from anyone. Despite often heard claims that
the Sun is not the cause of warming, in fact, just a little thought
soon makes clear that actually it is present in every scenario, no
matter how we look at things. It is indeed responsible for all but
the minutest energy from other distant sources in the galaxy, or
from the even remoter cosmic microwave background (Fig. 2.1).
Thus, one way or another the Sun is always part of any climate
scenario, whether directly, indirectly, or by any other less obvious
means. If it were not for its energy, life could not exist. And we
need to recognize that climate change can mean cooling instead,
depending on the larger principles governing it. Things do not
always have to get hotter.
Of the cosmic microwave background, precise measurements
of extremely slight radiant energy allows us to peer deep into the
farthest observable universe at the true remnants of the Big Bang
itself, akin in laymans terms to glowing embers in a long extin-
guished fire. From this, we can readily determine the fractional
energy spectrum remaining from any part; the colors of the illus-
tration here are not actually true to the temperatures themselves,
as the maximum shown represents a tropical 2.725 K, which is
close to absolute zero. So marshmallows would likely take a while
to toast
At these temperatures there is, of course, no visual light as it
appears here in this mapped image, but it helps to make the point.
Interesting, too, is the remarkable unevenness of the distribution
of energy, but that is a story for another book.

FIG. 2.1 The cosmic microwave background temperature fluctuations from

the 7-year Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe data seen over the full
sky (Image courtesy NASA/WMAP Science team)
Climate Mechanics
It will not be possible to proceed in any meaningful way unless we
have some background of the principles underlying the mechanics of
mainstream climate change. It is necessary to understand these the-
ories to understand how they align or contrast with the various astro-
nomical scenarios that are the focus of this book, and if presented in
isolation would be almost meaningless. This chapter also offers some
comparisons of different positions, since confusingly, there are often
numerous interpretations of the same components.
The foundations laid, later chapters can focus on matters that
some readers might not have been aware exist at all, perhaps having
already concluded that there was nothing left to discuss or examine in
broader detail. This involves substantial legitimate alternate, or dif-
ferently oriented research into all aspects of climate change science.
The Greenhouse Effect
A starting point is to understand how electromagnetic energy from

the Sun interacts with Earth and its surrounding atmosphere.
What is not reflected is absorbed, re-radiated and compounded in a
sequence of events known as the greenhouse effect. We should
first understand what this actually is, as it is much misunderstood
and usually only implies a negative phenomenon.
The Physics of a Crisis 21
Inviting a parallel with glass greenhouses, the analogy has

always been incorrect. Glass buildings derive their warming effect
from the elimination of convection, and thus the literal trapping
and heating of air confined to a small volume of space is responsi-
ble for the true greenhouse warming effect. Because this air is
warmed by heat radiated directly from the ground below, it cannot
re-radiate heat to the air all around it on the outside actually, an
entirely different process to that underlying that of the misnomer.
A common misconception is that the greenhouse effect is a

recent phenomenon, caused entirely by increasing concentra-
tions of carbon dioxide. In fact, we depend on it for our sur-
vival. Its largest constituent, water vapor, has ensured that
the temperature of our environment stays within a livable
range. The entire disagreement on climate change revolves
around whether humans are artificially increasing Earths
greenhouse temperatures to unlivable levels.
What is not directly reflected back into space is absorbed and

re-radiated by Planet Earth and its atmosphere. Only about 6% of
the total solar energy absorbed is re-radiated directly back into
space in the form of infrared wavelengths. The atmosphere absorbs
the majority of the re-radiated energy, adding to the basic warming
through a process of the subsequent continued re-radiation of infra-
red energy to molecules of surrounding atmospheric gases. Energy
is thus re-radiated back and forth between molecules in an almost
endless chain until all is eventually lost to space. However, more
solar radiation continues to enter the environment. A balance is
achieved when the lag between absorption and total loss keeps
Earth at a habitable temperature. Despite this circular process,
obviously, if further incoming radiation were to be blocked, all
existing energy eventually would be dissipated away from Earth.
Earths overall temperature is not a given constant and can
change as a result of a variety of factors. Some might well be
avoidable, and others not. The concern today is that warmth is being
absorbed faster than it can be re-radiated to maintain a livable
environment, because of additional greenhouse gas contributions.
Figure 2.2 illustrates the basic mechanisms of the greenhouse effect,
minus the influence of some variables, such as clouds and aerosols.
FIG. 2.2 The greenhouse effect (Image courtesy of UNEP/GRID-Arendal

Maps and Graphic Library (2002). Retrieved from http://maps.grida.no/go/
graphic/greenhouse-effect)
Forcings and Feedback
In climate change science some other specific terms come with

the turf. Forcings and feedback are perhaps the most common
of these. We can have both positive and negative forms of both,
depending on whether the net result is an addition or a loss of tem-
perature. Generally speaking, positive forcings are those primary
factors that initially add to the total energy equation, opposed to
the secondary effects of positive feedback as existing matter
re-radiates absorbed energy to other matter. Positive feedback is
thus a secondary process, whereby matter that has been warmed
via the primary forcing agent then radiates energy to other sur-
rounding matter, only to return it back to the original matter in a
circular fashion. This process compounds the warming effect.
The subject is somewhat diffusely defined, since many

feedback gases, such as water vapor, also have forcing properties.
Thus, gaining a precise understanding of the differences between
both types of effects may be confusing. The IPCC has defined a
forcing, technically, as:
a measure of the influence a factor has in altering the balance

of incoming and outgoing energy in the Earth-atmosphere sys-
tem and is an index of the importance of the factor as a poten-
tial climate change mechanism . Radiative forcing values
are for changes relative to pre-industrial conditions defined at
1750 and are expressed in watts per square meter (W/m2).
Additionally, the IPCCs definition of feedback is:
an interaction mechanism between processes in the climate

system when the result of an initial process triggers changes
in a second process that in turn influences the initial one. A
positive feedback intensifies the original process, and a nega-
tive feedback reduces it.
Thus, in the loosest and simplest terms, radiant responses

from water vapor, already part and parcel of the natural atmo-
spheric environment, are considered overall as feedback, even
when the primary effect may be partially that of a forcing. Depend-
ing on climatic conditions at the time, water vapor comes and
goes rapidly. Thus, it is a highly variable and volatile component,
unlike carbon dioxide (CO2), and this goes to the crux as to why it
is treated differently. Similarly, one might argue that although CO2
exists in a natural state throughout the world (most CO2 is, in fact,
natural) and has been warmed partly by water vapor, that it should
be considered feedback instead.
Water Vapor Not a Forcing Agent?
A German website, Allianz.com, declares that although water

vapor is not a forcing agent, it amplifies existing warming.
Regardless of this confusing description or how one cate-
gorizes it, water vapor is responsible for 21 K of the total (33 K)
natural greenhouse warming effect. Thus, Allianzs position
illustrates the difficulties of separating forcings from feedback.
One could also argue that many activities of modern humans,

such as the combustion of fossil fuels, lead to more water vapor in
the atmosphere, and thus, it should be more accurately categorized
as a forcing agent. It does absorb infrared radiation from Earth,
albeit at different frequencies to CO2, and subsequently re-radiates
it to other adjacent matter, which may result in the formation of
more water vapor! So perhaps the easiest way to consider the pri-
mary difference between them really is to consider just the time of
residence in the atmosphere. Since CO2 resides in the atmosphere
for a much longer period of time (more about this later), and mostly
is increased by manmade emissions and activities (as opposed to
by naturally occurring processes), it is considered a forcing agent.
Needless to say, the confusion may remain for many readers!
The distinction between them still remains a fine line. For anyone
wanting a more detailed description of these somewhat esoteric
distinctions, an excellent and very readable analysis may be found
online at RealClimate.org [1].
Beyond the warmth that we depend on for life itself, we need
to know, therefore, how the various natural and anthropogenic
forcings and feedbacks
Interact with each other.
Counteract each other.
May result from the presence of another, and to what degree.
Are counterbalanced, decreased or enhanced by aerosols (atmo-
spheric particulates, solid or droplet).
Are affected by varying degrees of Earths albedo (the diffuse
reflective properties of incident radiation by such a body of
matter).
We could expand this short list almost limitlessly. More to
the point, though, have we yet reached runaway status, whereby a
chain of unstoppable forcings and feedbacks will take place in a
cascade? Conversely, is there anything we can do or should do
to mitigate these effects? Perhaps most significantly, is it all our
fault, or at least partly so?
Black Bodies in Space
In addition to the fundamental mechanisms of Earths green-

house, we need also to understand something of the physical
process whereby matter absorbs electromagnetic energy and

re-radiates it at different wavelengths. This process is central to
the principles involved in maintaining Earths climate.
Let us consider first what is termed a black body (some-
thing existing only in the purest theoretical sense) a hypothetical
object that absorbs all electromagnetic radiation that falls upon it
and re-radiates all of it as thermal radiation. At low temperatures,
such objects, were they to exist, would appear perfectly black
invisible, in fact. Increasing temperatures of re-radiated thermal
energy would cause spectral emissions ranging from red to white,
with pure white objects (the hottest) emitting a substantial por-
tion of energy in the ultraviolet part of the spectrum, depending on
the level of extreme temperature at the upper end.
Let us imagine a black body of identical size, round shape and
spectral makeup to the Sun. If it were to re-radiate all of the energy
that it absorbs, what we would see would appear much the same as
the Sun, having virtually the identical radiant power and spectrum.
This scenario makes for an interesting and remarkably close com-
parison [2], also having a temperature of approximately 6,000C,
and would exhibit the pure white of the upper end of the spectrum,
including ultraviolet wavelengths. Although the Sun itself isnt a
black body, of course, since it generates its own radiation inter-
nally, the visual comparison is instructive, nevertheless.
For another example in the Solar System, let us look at Earth.
Since it re-radiates a good portion of the energy it receives from
the Sun in the form of low frequency invisible infrared waves,
Earth is acting like a partial black body at the lower, cool end of
the electromagnetic spectrum. It is partial because some of the
Suns radiation (in all wavelengths) is reflected back to space.
Initially, about 30% of incoming solar energy (including light
wavelengths) is reflected (as well as scattered) directly back to
space from the top of the atmosphere, by layers of clouds and Earth
itself, which is what renders our world visible! What remains is
absorbed by Earth and its atmosphere and re-radiated at low fre-
quency infrared wavelengths into the surrounding atmosphere,
land, oceans, and space.
Instinctively, even if the term is new to us, we already
know about the concept of black bodies, since we think regularly
in terms of red-hot and white-hot objects. Even if we have
never considered it, though, we realize instinctively that with
increasing temperatures objects re-emit absorbed energy at

higher wavelengths. We can envisage already how black bodies
at low temperatures would appear by thinking of familiar things
such as optical blacking, soot, black felt, velvet and the like,
even though the latter examples would hardly survive any radical
increasing temperature! The opposite, of course, to a black body
would be a mirror-like object and other very shiny (reflective)
surfaces that absorb very little energy.
Although electromagnetic energy cannot be destroyed, it can
be transformed into energies of different wavelengths. The portion
of solar energy that is intercepted by Earth must be accounted for
in an energy equation. The total incoming radiation is measured at
342 watts per square meter (abr. 342 W/m2). Whether absorbed and
retransmitted at lower wavelengths or reflected back into space, it
represents a simple concept, although it is very complex in prac-
tice. Regardless, it all must add up and be accounted for.
Continuing to look at Earth as a partial black body, approxi-
mately 16% of incoming radiation is absorbed by the atmosphere
and clouds, and the remaining 54% or so by the surface. Of the
remaining 30%, that which is reflected is dependent on the specific
planetary albedo, as well as the reflectivity and amount of cloud.
The fraction that is scattered is dependent on the molecules of the
atmosphere (a function of Raleigh scattering) and aerosols, which
may even include water droplets in the atmosphere (a function of
the anomalous diffraction theory).
The 1971 NASA study called Earth Albedo and Emitted
Radiation [3], summarized its conclusions with the following:
Reflectance tends to increase with increasing solar angle.
Continental areas have higher albedo values than ocean areas.
Albedo increases with latitude due in part to the decreasing
solar elevation angle, snow and ice near the poles, and increased
cloud cover associated with large scale weather activity.
Regions of dense cloud cover have higher albedo values.
Albedo values for any region vary seasonally, primarily because
of changes in cloudiness, vegetation and snow and ice cover
(Fig. 2.3).
All in all, it is daunting to produce any realistic computation
of the combined effect.
FIG. 2.3 Earths albedo, in percentages according to surface and atmospheric

conditions (Graphic by Hannes Grobe)
The albedos of different terrestrial surfaces, vegetation or

clouds vary greatly. More specifically, desert and arid surfaces are
reflective to some degree, but snow is almost entirely so; cold
water is moderately reflective, warm water much less. The dens-
est, lowest clouds tend to be the most reflective (by as much as
75% in some cases) and high cirrus clouds the least. However, the
continuing variability of clouds as a whole makes exact measure-
ments of their reflective properties among the most problematic
components in the entire study of climate change.
The forcing and feedback effects of such large and variable
amounts of potential cover and reflectivity are large, but the
process may be a lot more complex than previously realized, as
FIG. 2.4 The radiative properties of Earth. (Left) Heat given off by Earths
surface and atmosphere and radiated to space. (Right) Sunlight reflected
out into space by land, oceans, clouds and aerosols (Data provided by the
Atmospheric Sciences Data Center and CERES Science Team at NASA
Langley Research Center; Image courtesy of Todd Bridgman, NASA God-
dard Space Flight Center Scientific Visualization Studio)
shown in the study by Timothy Andrews and Piers M. Forster [4].

Although Earths albedo determines how incident radiation is
reflected, the remainder is absorbed, to be re-radiated at low fre-
quencies. This is clearly demonstrated in Fig. 2.4.
Theoretically, at least by calculation, the direct effects of the
Sun should warm Earth from absolute zero (0 K, or 273.15C) to
270 K. Because Earth does not absorb all the incident energy, its
actual direct warming is estimated to be only approximately 254 K.
Again, by calculation, scientists have deduced the total warming
due to greenhouse gases to be approximately 33 K, to give a total
average global temperature of approximately 287 K, or 13.85C.
The Atmosphere and Interactions

with Solar Radiation
During the forcing process, radiation absorbed by Earth and its
atmosphere is re-radiated in all directions to adjacent molecules.
In greenhouse warming, it is mostly the absorption by the con-
stituent gases of the atmosphere that creates the effect. In turn the
process continues as these molecules re-radiate to other molecules
during the feedback process.
CO2 would seem to be the only changing factor measured

with certainty over the past 40 years. Changing concentrations of,
say, water vapor have been much harder to determine. Depending
on the source for exact amounts, the total amount of CO2 in the
atmosphere today stands about 100 ppmv higher than it did before
industrial times, or approximately 32%. Different estimates shade
this amount up or down a little, but it is a good reference point for
our purposes.
Perhaps surprisingly, most of the minor constituents of the
atmosphere exist essentially in uniform concentrations through-
out its volume, regardless of altitude; carbon dioxide occupies sur-
prisingly little of it at 0.0388%, although next to water vapor it is
the leading greenhouse gas. Ozone concentrations and water vapor,
however, unlike all the trace greenhouse gases, are not evenly dis-
tributed throughout the atmosphere. They are both variable in
amount, producing a less predictable greenhouse effect.
Although water vapor is an invisible greenhouse gas, upon con-
densing into clouds it becomes more a reflective cooling compo-
nent than an absorptive one a negative feedback. Low atmospheric
ozone is produced as a result of solar photochemical reactions with
vehicle emissions, a direct byproduct of fossil fuel burning. It is
common in urban areas, acting as a forcing agent. However, ozone
is present higher in the stratosphere, where it acts reflectively as a
negative feedback! Thus, ozone depletion from chlorofluorocarbons
(CFCs) in this part of the atmosphere results in additional warming
potential. It is easy to see why the total effects of ozone and water
vapor remain something of a wildcard (Fig. 2.5).
We should be sure to note again the actual proportion of CO2 in
the atmosphere. Since its concentration is 380 ppmv (precise read-
ings depend on the source), or only 0.0380% of the total atmosphere,
we are certainly far from suffocating in this gas. Such popular mis-
conceptions should not, however, lead us to dismiss increasing con-
centrations lightly. In 1750 CO2 concentrations were approximately
0.0288 ppmv [5]. Despite what appears to be a minimal concentra-
tion in the atmosphere both in 1750 and today the effect of car-
bon dioxide must not be discounted, because regardless of the
amount of warming it causes, it has fairly strong forcing capabilities
compared to many other atmospheric gases. Increased concentra-
tions also persist in the atmosphere for a substantial amount of
time, and lie at the very heart of the present controversy.
FIG. 2.5 Proportions of gases of the atmosphere (not including water vapor)
(Graphic by Mysid)
More specifically, we can now analyze energy being re-radiated

from Earth over any time frame, and it is clear how events in the
climate can influence it. The NASA graph (Fig. 2.6) shows varia-
tions in Earths long-wave (infrared) radiation from tropical lati-
tudes averaged over more than two decades. Variations in its
amplitude can clearly be seen, caused by different events at or near
the surface. They are most readily apparent, due to atmospheric
aerosols, following volcanic eruptions, as well as during El Nino
years. The former may be identified by strong dips during volcanic
eruptions, and distinctive radiative spikes during the latter. Aero-
sols not only prevent a portion of solar radiation from reaching
Earth (contributing to an overall cooling effect) but also leaving it
(adding to warming). Overall, however, their effect is of a negative
forcing.
FIG. 2.6 Long-wave radiation leaving Earth (the horizontal dividing line
representing the mid-point between reductions in radiated infrared energy
below the line up to 0 W/m2), and increases in radiated energy (above the
line up to 10 W/m2) (Graph courtesy of NASA)
The sharp upwards spike of 1997/1998 is remarkable, not only

due to its strength but also because after this event there was a
marked step upwards in global average temperatures of 0.25C
that has persisted since in the baseline average global temperature
[6]. Thus, claims of gradual temperature increases in step with
CO2 increases over the period do not appear to be substantiated. It
will be interesting to see if the substantial Icelandic and Indone-
sian volcanic eruptions of 2010 can be tied to any decreases in
radiation or temperature. It has already been remarked by some,
however, that climate models projected far greater temperature
declines after sizeable volcanic eruptions over the past half-cen-
tury than actually were observed.
Although the IPCC has stated that the long cooling trend
from around 1940 into the 1970s can be largely attributed to the
total of aerosols from all origins (including volcanoes), this also
appears to be hard to reconcile with the volcanic record and assess-
ments of present warming trends. However, even if we accept that
in theory volcanic aerosols could cool the climate, it might be seen
FIG. 2.7 The rise in atmospheric CO2 since 1960 (Graph by Smhur)
as unlikely that any scientist would suggest the possible release of

aerosol particulates into the atmosphere as a means to offset pres-
ent day warming, even less to actually recommend such actions.
Remarkably, though, this is not the case at all.
A program in the United Kingdom with the acronym SPICE
(Stratospheric Particle Injection for Climate Engineering) has pro-
posed to do just that! Although recently placed on hold for some
months, it promises to test the concept with fine water-sprayed
droplets from a high altitude balloon, with the hope of graduating
to full-scale sulfur-type particle injection later. The researchers
believe that up to 2C cooling could be achieved artificially,
but naturally, many geopolitical and legal factors have yet to be
ironed out.
With the majority opinion within the IPCC that present-day
climate change is human induced, apparently it is no longer seek-
ing other underlying causes. However, its position regarding the
period between 1940 and 1970 remains a sticking point, even
though climate models have been adapted to reflect this scenario.
The gradual, virtually monotonic, upward curve in CO2 over the
past 100 years or so bears no resemblance to the wildly uneven
global temperature footprint at all, even proportionately. Other
than showing a total rise in both from the beginning of the century
to the end, there are few other visible parallels (Fig. 2.7).
Anthropogenic Greenhouse Gases

Despite the apparent clarity of the various AGW greenhouse gas
contributions shown in the next graphic (Fig. 2.8), greater under-
standing is needed of variables, including:
The enormous complexity of Earths changing albedo.
Changes in water vapor.
Possible yet unrecognized consequences.
Possible repercussions of changes in the output of any gas, or
its proportion.
The precise role that increasing concentrations of carbon diox-
ide and other greenhouse gases might play.
Such factors remain undetermined, especially since we
can only speculate on most of them. We can see in this chart
FIG. 2.8 Greenhouse gases due to humans (anthropogenic gases) (Image cour-
tesy of Emmanuelle Bournay, UNEP/GRID-Arendal; available at: http://
maps.grida.no/go/graphic/world-greenhouse-gas-emissions-by-sector)
the breakdown of things as they stand at the present time but

should be cognizant of the uncertainties dictated by evolving
circumstances.
On AGW CO2
From the NRDC (National Resources Defense Council):
Carbon dioxide and other air pollution that is collecting
in the atmosphere like a thickening blanket, trapping the
suns heat and causing the planet to warm up. Coal-burning
power plants are the largest U.S. source of carbon dioxide
pollution they produce 2.5 billion tons every year. Automo-
biles, the second largest source, create nearly 1.5 billion tons
of CO2 annually.
And:
How can we cut global warming pollution?
A: Its simple: By reducing pollution from vehicles and
power plants.
It is hard to forgive so many scientific misconceptions
and transgressions within just one sentence, since
Anthropogenic carbon dioxide is not a pollutant in the
normal sense of the term, despite the absence of the 14C
signature in naturally occurring CO2.
It does not collect in the atmosphere like a thickening
blanket, since it is essentially evenly distributed through-
out the atmosphere relative to volume.
CO2 does not trap the Suns heat.
CO2 has not yet been conclusively demonstrated to cause
the planet to warm up.
Automobiles are not the second largest source of CO2.
Look again, even at the IPCCs own analysis (Fig. 2.8), in
which all transportation accounts for just 13.5% of all
human-produced CO2, of which automobiles account for
just 9.9%.
It is clear that increasing temperatures will also result in

increasing water vapor. It is generally considered that the natural
water vapor balance, as well as its effect, can be rapidly affected by
its response to increases in the amounts of any other greenhouse
gas emissions. However, there is a continuing controversy about
exactly how much warming is caused by increased greenhouse
forcing gases, and thus how much water vapor results from them.
This is in addition to the measurement of extra forcing and feed-
back that might result from the increased water vapor itself in the
atmosphere.
We should also bear in mind that although these gases,
together with mans own additional contributions of CFCs may
be seen in Fig. 2.8, water vapor accounts for almost all of the atmo-
spheres greenhouse gas, as well as the warming, followed by other
gases, which trail far behind. By many calculations (see later), of
the 33C total natural greenhouse warming of Earth, that from
water vapor amounts to at least 95% of it. This is exclusive to the
present climate change discussion, since we are only referring to
Earths natural greenhouse. There is no universally accepted ratio,
however.
Thus we can readily see that CO2 and other trace component
gases fall into controversial territory. Of the group of remaining
greenhouse gases (not including water vapor), CO2, being a moder-
ately strong absorber and source of re-radiation, accounts for at
least 77% of the warming. Despite its relatively minute propor-
tion by mass compared to atmospheric water vapor, it is a more
significant greenhouse gas, and responsible for the higher ratio of
the warming itself than might be expected.
The degree that carbon dioxide versus water vapor is respon-
sible for warming the lower atmosphere has been the ongoing
subject of dispute throughout all of the present climate contro-
versy. Depending on the source, the numbers are surprisingly dif-
ferent. When one logically thinks through some of the higher
estimates for CO2 warming, they might seem unnecessarily
alarmist. Although they could be accurate, it is hard to find coher-
ent explanations for these conclusions at least in searches one
can readily conduct oneself. This does nothing to calm the con-
troversy.
Adding It Up: The CO2 Equation

T. J. Nelson, a research scientist with a Ph.D. in biophysics, works
in the field of biomedical research. He has found a passion for cli-
mate issues, although we should be aware that his self-published
views on climate, while solidly conceived, do not constitute peer-
reviewed study. However, they seem worthy of our attention, par-
ticularly with the dearth of readily available similar analyses. In his
online article Cold Facts on Global Warming [7], Nelson shows
how he calculated by formula the specific warming due to CO2 to be
between 4.2% and 8.4% of the total greenhouse warming effect.
On the face of it at least, this puts into perspective what we are
actually dealing with. Other sources, including the IPCC, put the
influence of CO2 at a much higher number; for example, Wikipedia
lists its warming influence at 926%, and water vapor at 3672%.
Thus we have possible total temperature increases from 1750 until
the present, and those caused by greenhouse gases, (excluding water
vapor) ranging from 1.39C (Nelson), to 6.4C (IPCC AR4), and to
8.6C (Wikipedia). All in all, this allows for quite a wide berth in
the margin of error. Of the trace gases, according to Nelson, carbon
dioxide warming counts for 84% of the total.
Most sources inform us that the total warming on Earth since
1900 is about 1C; some shade it up or down a little. Regardless, the
lack of agreement on the effects of CO2 on temperature causes us
considerable difficulties if we try to do the math. The answers pro-
duce seemingly irreconcilable conclusions based on previous atmo-
spheric concentrations. If we take the upper figure for the effect of
CO2 (i.e., that of Wikipedia), none of the natural ratios of warming
relative to those of recent times seems to make any sense at all.
Nelson does take issue with a pro-consensus website, www.
realclimate.org, and its estimate that actual CO2 warming is closer
to five times his final projection of ~5% of the total (a number based
on what he terms most credible sources). In the equation he pres-
ents, the IPCCs projection simply is not possible, given past history
and the makeup of existing atmospheric warming. He argues that if
we use the projected inputs and responses of IPCC models to retro-
actively calculate present-day temperatures, they should have
reached what he terms preposterous heights. Thus, in his view,
such models have been made to fit what has actually taken place.
Since we know how some of the variables in Earths complex

system affect climate, nothing can be taken at face value. How-
ever, perhaps the most interesting and provocative point made in
Nelsons paper is his analysis that shows that the atmosphere
already is sufficiently laden with CO2 (and is effectively transpar-
ent to incoming solar infrared radiation of higher wavelengths) to
have absorbed most of the low wavelength infrared radiation being
re-emitted from Earths surface. Accordingly, additional amounts
of the gas would generate differences from the added concentra-
tions only. Therefore, these would not compound the warming in
a multiplying manner. Any increases would follow a logarithmic
curve, whereby the amount of heating already produced by the
total would only be added to incrementally. Even if atmospheric
CO2 were doubled (to 760 ppmv!), the worst-case scenario he proj-
ects would be a temperature increase only of between 1.02C and
1.85C. Similar temperature increments would be the case with
each subsequent doubling.
At the present rate of increase, Nelson deduces it would take
a couple of centuries to reach those levels. Additionally, increases
or decreases in anthropogenic production CO2 would be immedi-
ately felt, since the atmosphere cannot store it for long (510 years).
This figure is in direct conflict with other claims (50200 years,
and more!) that we have heard.
Debate continues over the shelf life of CO2 and other green-
house gases in the atmosphere. Clearly, this is a significant part of
any argument, since projections of a lengthy existence of anthro-
pogenic greenhouse gases residing in the atmosphere color any dis-
cussion about their potential to affect climate. If we accept the low
estimate of only 510 years, a remedy for any proven ill effects of
the gases on climate ought to be the most straightforward to find.
CO2 Residence Time

The website skepticalscience.com has claimed that excess
human emissions of CO2 will remain resident in the atmo-
sphere for over 100 years.
Again, such approximations of fact do this website grave

injustice, not only in the simplistic and imprecise picture
painted but by implication that only human CO2 emissions
have a long residence time.
Of course, increased temperatures would increase water vapor,

which, being a greenhouse gas, would also add some amount to the
warming; Nelson does not appear to build this aspect into his math.
He does, however, take us through a projected scenario that includes
Earths responses to increased warming (its albedo from increasing
or decreasing clouds and snow cover, etc.) and once again demon-
strates, by his carefully laid-out logic, that total warming is still
well within the basic 1.85C range his maximum estimate. Even
with numerous other potential and actual factors, his logic seems
consistent, providing some very insightful food for thought,
whether or not one regards his view as being the last word.
In contrast, if we accept the IPCCs position, things look a lot
more serious. Should anthropogenic greenhouse gases be the root of
modern climate change, the IPCC maintains that, even if emissions
stopped completely: About 50% of a CO2 increase will be removed
from the atmosphere within 30 years, and a further 30% will be
removed within a few centuries. The remaining 20% may stay in the
atmosphere for many thousands of years, in which case, it is already
too late to remedy some damage that has already been done.
Also, the atmospheric lifetime of water vapor is quite transi-
tory at only about 10 days, something that is not disputed. Thus,
it is primarily CO2 that is our concern. Apparently, the fear exists
that this gas may tip the scales of compounding greenhouse warm-
ing conditions, leading to a runaway crisis. A study, by Arindam
Samanta et al. [8], concurred with the more pessimistic findings.
Considering the limited warming potential of these gases, as well
as far lesser concentrations, not everyone agrees with this line of
reasoning. It would probably be fair to state that most researchers
believe that the true warming potential of any gaseous compound
depends most critically upon its total ability to absorb and re-
radiate heat efficiently, as well as its residence time in the atmo-
sphere. Settling this argument would do much to resolve some
key disputes behind the AGW theories.
More typical of articles and papers in defense of the theory of

carbon dioxide driven warming is Atmospheric CO2: Principal
Control Knob Governing Earths Temperature, by Andrew A.
Lacis et al. [9]. Assessments easily drawn from articles such as
these only serve to keep the controversy alive. The article states
that CO2 accounts for 20% of the warming from greenhouse gases.
By that line of reasoning, most casual readers will deduce different
outcomes on a number of levels:
If the total warming prior to 1850 accounts for thus 20% of
33C (the calculated average natural global warming above
simple solar warming), it would equate with a total warming
effect from natural CO2 to have been 6.6C.
By the same line of reasoning, should not the 92 ppmv of CO2
that has been added since then have produced an additional
warming of 2.17C: 6.6 280 92 = 2.17C, and not just the
~0.8% recorded? However, the 0.8C temperature increase
since 1850, give or take a few fractions of degrees by various
authorities, is hardly in dispute.
Perhaps the implication meant was that 20% of the actual
measured warming is the result of the approximately 92 ppmv
of CO2 added since 1850. However, if this should be the case,
0.16 of warming would be all that the added CO2 is directly
responsible for! Since with such a result it could hardly be
claimed that there is an environmental problem, this cannot be
the authors meaning.
Or, are the authors possibly referring to the feedback warming
effect beyond the primary greenhouse foundation to be at a dif-
ferent ratio of 20%? If so, they certainly do nothing to dispel
the notion that radical warming of this magnitude could result
from just small CO2 increases.
We shouldnt have to guess what the article means, and ulti-
mately, whose facts to believe. Despite coming from such emi-
nent scientists, the article illustrates exactly the kind of confusing
positions that have become all too common in discussions about
climate. How could such wide disparities in estimates have
occurred? Even the IPCC itself seems to consider that a doubling
of CO2 by itself would only increase temperatures by 1C, despite
the different stated percentages they have provided of its warming
effect.
The IPCC also concedes that 0.12C of the total increase

since 1900 can be attributed to what is known as the Urban Heat
Island Effect, where zones of densely populated areas have been
theorized by some to produce misleadingly high readings. It
becomes ever clearer that the science of climate change is so com-
plicated, laden with theories, studies, projections, statistics,
findings, contradictions and disagreements, that any newcomer
to the topic will likely reach sensory overload very quickly.
Regardless, it further demonstrates how much remains to be set-
tled, and how unsupported or unexplained statistics continu-
ally lead us into trouble.
In contrast, the IPCC summed up this effect differently:

However, over the Northern Hemisphere land areas where
urban heat islands are most apparent, both the trends of
lower-tropospheric temperature and surface air temperature
show no significant differences. In fact, the lower-tropospheric
temperatures warm at a slightly greater rate over North America
(about 0.28C/decade using satellite data) than do the surface
temperatures (0.27C/decade), although again the difference is
not statistically significant.
TAR, 2001
It is interesting to note that statistician Thayer Watkins of

San Jos State University Department of Economics deduced vir-
tually the same degree of inaccuracies in IPCC projections of CO2
warming apparently by coincidence in his own independent and
carefully constructed study [10]. However, once again, as a repre-
sentation of his views only, it is not a peer-reviewed paper. His
conclusion that the IPCCs projection is ~2.5 times reality hits
about same note as we have just illustrated. More controversial,
though, will be his conclusion that the IPCC uses such projections
to generate scary projections, although he is not the first to
make such claims.
Among other scientists who have taken up the issue of car-
bon dioxide, Jeffrey A. Glassman (an applied physicist and engi-
neer), in another independent paper posted on his own website
[11], approaches the issue a little differently, although it is closely
related to that of Nelsons approach. Using the same basic princi-
ples of physics outlined by Nelson, Glassman compares them to
the record taken from the Vostok ice core. This core was found and
extracted in 1988 and was the deepest ice core ever found and
recovered (3,623 m), extending back through history some
400,000 years. This is an excellent proxy record, providing invalu-
able information on past climate cycles, along with the trace gas
composition of the atmosphere. In this case, especially, the record
of atmospheric carbon dioxide concentration appears clear.
Glassman also discusses oceanic respiration (outgassing) of
CO2, that is reabsorbed back into cold ocean waters and trans-
ported down into the deepest, most highly saturated regions.
Increases in atmospheric CO2 have always accompanied increas-
ing temperatures, but delayed in time. As Nelson similarly
observed, if global temperatures had followed the projected warm-
ing that would accompany such increased CO2 concentrations as
in the ice cores, the consequences already would have been disas-
trous. Glassmans final take, however, is a little different. He con-
cludes that increased CO2 must have always been reabsorbed into
the oceans before such events could take place, an interesting
hypothesis. He also considers increased CO2 quite likely to be the
result of warming by some yet undetermined process of outgas-
sing and not the other way around.
Greenhouse Gases as a Shield

The components of the atmosphere shield us from some of the
Suns rays, including those that are especially harmful. We can
also see (Fig. 2.9) that the specific wavelengths of solar radiation
absorbed by the various atmospheric components differ quite
significantly. Thus, the absorptive function of one does not neces-
sarily overlap, or necessarily enhance (or detract), that of another.
This is another reason that the equation is so complex. We can see
from this graph (averaged for different regions) how the various
atmospheric components determine the degree to which different
wavelengths of the solar spectrum are absorbed.
Different trace gases also absorb energy and re-radiate infrared
wavelengths most efficiently at specific temperatures. For exam-
ple, carbon dioxide absorbs and radiates heat to the maximum
extent at low temperatures in the region of 220 K. The altitude this
corresponds to is 4050 km. At lower altitudes, increasingly warm
FIG. 2.9 Atmospheric transmissions (Image courtesy of NASA)
temperatures make that part of the atmosphere less able to radiate

energy back to space. In order to maintain equilibrium of energy
absorbed versus energy lost, more infrared energy will be transmit-
ted back to space from the altitude where the temperature for re-
radiation is most efficient for that gas. Increasingly cold temperatures
at high altitudes will be the result, and warmer ones will be closer
to the surface a chain reaction of forcing and feedback. Because
the total incoming energy is effectively measurable, many research-
ers consider that confirmation of cooling temperatures in the upper
atmosphere would be significant in showing the influences of
anthropogenic gases. There is some evidence admittedly not
conclusive or overwhelming that this could indeed be taking
place (see Chap. 4, Fig. 3.19?).
Carbon Sinks
Closely related to this topic, and indeed part of it, are the natural
sinks of Earth, and their ability to mitigate the increased con-
centrations of heat and CO2 by absorption. By far the largest
reserves of carbon dioxide reside in the oceans and landmasses.

An interesting history by Richard Mackay about the work of
pioneer Rhodes Fairbridge raised the issue of CO2 outgassing from
the oceans the opposite action to absorption. He concluded that
increased outgassed CO2 from Earths sinks might have contrib-
uted a portion of the increased temperatures since 1850 [12]. How-
ever, Mackay did not speculate on how much of the increase can
be ascribed to this natural process, presumably feeling this was
beyond the realm of the paper, perhaps even his particular exper-
tise despite his considerable credentials.
The mechanics of outgassing are simple. Because increasing
temperatures reduce the solubility of CO2 in water especially (or
in soils), this causes increased natural reductions of CO2. How-
ever, even though the added CO2 in the atmosphere is very small,
it is again the increasing concentrations that have come under the
microscope, because most researchers do not believe they have
been induced naturally.
Although increased anthropogenic emissions may be respon-
sible for the majority of CO2 increases, there is an ongoing recy-
cling of CO2 by the oceans and land. Some have questioned whether
the observed changes in atmospheric concentrations are due to
some not yet understood processes [13] but many skeptics have
argued that increased temperatures are the sole cause of increased
carbon dioxide, especially in the last 100 years that greenhouse
gases are the outcome of natural warming variations. However,
this does not appear to be credible, at least according to the laws of
physics and chemistry Nelson outlined with such clarity. The
increased CO2 concentrations under discussion are far greater than
could have been released by the oceans following the recorded
temperature rise, in which the amount of outgassed CO2 would be
a mere 4.4 ppmv following an increase of 0.6C. For the actual
average temperature increases usually mentioned since 1900, this
would amount to about 5.9 ppmv, a far cry from the amount we
have actually seen.
However, it should be noted that Nelson says nothing about
the involvement of landmasses, which also have large reserves of
CO2, especially from ongoing or old decaying vegetation from
deforestation. The omission seems perhaps sound, since Earths
FIG. 2.10 Historic temperatures and CO2 correlation (Graphic by Leland

McInnes)
landmasses represent a far smaller CO2 sink than the oceans. How-
ever, the present day clearing of forests across large continental
landmasses, with the subsequent increased volumes of carbon
emissions, may play a larger role than Nelsons paper suggests.
This is even after we bear in mind that landmasses would still
encompass hugely less CO2 than the oceans.
Only in the last 100 years or so do we find no obvious correla-
tion between increasing concentrations of CO2 and the historic
record. Prior to this, the ratio of carbon dioxide relative to tem-
perature can be seen to be consistently predictable, where substan-
tial and proportional temperature increases apparently have always
followed elevated CO2 atmospheric concentrations (Fig. 2.10).
The ~12C swings in temperature that follow CO2 concentrations
are striking, but do not appear to correspond to:
Possible amounts of outgassing from such temperatures.
Any existing theory of comparable warming resulting from
CO2 increases.
FIG. 2.11 The carbon cycle (Graphic courtesy of NASA)
Therefore, it is reasonable to assume that both of these syn-

chronized swings must have been caused by one or more other
stimuli external to any direct relationship. Measurements from
hundreds of millions of years ago reveal CO2 concentrations 1020
times present-day levels, contrary to claims by some that they
have never been as high as they are now. Some might reference
this to suggest that similar undetermined forces might have pro-
duced the rise in CO2 seen during the last 100 years.
Regardless, some researchers have suggested that the
naturally occurring carbon sinks can more than absorb all of the
increasing greenhouse gases, as well as any increasing tempera-
tures. Thus, presumably these sinks could have always acted as
long-term regulators in some way.
A study by Joseph G. Canadell et al. [14] rated the amount of
natural absorption of anthropogenic CO2 into natural sinks at
57%, which is not inconsiderable. This seems to indicate that CO2
lifespan in the atmosphere could indeed be short, despite many
claims to the contrary. It also tells us that the maximum we would
need to reduce emissions by would be just 43% of the total. In
other words, according to the time at which the chart (Fig. 2.11)
was made, and using the most superficial estimate, less than
2.8 GT a year assuming this could finally be agreed upon by all

concerned as being a necessity and solution.
If such absorption does not produce serious changes to the
chemical composition of the oceans alone (a sink so large, at
38,000 GT, it is hard to conceive that in the short term an annual
increase of 2.8 GT could statistically alter it in a meaningful way),
the fact remains that, according to Canadell et al., just 2.8 GT
represents the probable total amount that CO2 levels are out of
balance. It is argued that the cumulative effect will build over
time, but with amounts such as these, perhaps there will yet be a
way found to equalize atmospheric conditions to pre-1750 levels,
again if that were to be determined as the remedy to additional
warming.
If we are looking to know the length of time it would take to
reach equilibrium again (of both CO2 levels and temperature), this
remains undetermined, so the conundrum continues. However,
we do know that the oceans, and biosphere, have been absorbing
large quantities of anthropogenic CO2 all along, and that levels of
the gas in the atmosphere would have been hugely greater than
they are at this time. It could be argued that the sinks have already
been tested under extreme conditions through history, and proven
an effective shield against climate change, but this is pure conjec-
ture at this stage.
A bigger question is whether corrective actions would produce
any effect at all, according to the so-called skeptical scientists,
since they do not accept the AGW theory in the first place. Regard-
less, if we do accept them, we know that without anthropogenic
contributions, at 1750 temperature levels apparently the balance
was reasonably stable.
The process of ocean CO2 storage is interesting. Acidic carbon
dioxide oxide gas (CO2) dissolves in seawater to form carbonate
and bicarbonate ions in reactions with calcium rock deposits on
the ocean floor, resulting in reduced alkalinity (of 0.1 units, per
the IPCC) and greater ocean acidity. Because the oceans are warm-
est near the surface, they are less able to hold as much CO2, which
is thus increasingly outgassed into the atmosphere, according to
the degree of ocean warmth.
The denser, more acidic waters drop to ever greater depths,
producing a very highly carbon saturated liquid of ever colder
temperatures. Of the total Earth reserves, anthropogenic annual

CO2 contributions amount to approximately 6.5 GT (see Fig. 2.11
[15]; GT is termed in the NASA graphic as Pg C). This is quite a
small percentage of the estimated total that is exchanged back and
forth in the biosphere. The total CO2 in play is close to 1,000 GT
per year.
A good guide to the amounts of carbon dioxide believed to
exist naturally in the environment may be seen in the previous
graphic. The proportion of anthropogenic CO2 needs to be weighed
into consideration relative to naturally occurring reservoirs. We
should take note that the general mood created in the media and
elsewhere relies on what may seem to be a tiny proportion of the
total CO2 residing in the atmosphere at any time that represent-
ing human activities carbon additions. According to this chart,
we should consider the following:
Earths landmasses absorb an average of 1.5 GT of excess CO2
per year.
The atmosphere absorbs approximately 3 GT excess CO2
per year.
Anthropogenic CO2 contributions total 6.5 GT per year.
Total CO2 exchange each year is 222 GT.
Anthropogenic CO2 represents 6.5 222 100 = 2.9%.
Actual net CO2: 6.5 1.5 3 = 2 GT.
Net annual total percent of added anthropogenic atmospheric
CO2 = 0.93%.
Despite the common impression by the populace that human
activity is responsible for most atmospheric carbon dioxide, in
fact, by our estimate above, only 2.9% of the total global CO2
exchange (see later in this chapter) is attributable to the combus-
tion of fossil fuels. In other words, it aligns fairly closely with the
findings of Canadell et al. Others shade this figure upwards a little;
for example David J. C. MacKay puts it at 3.27% [16], while some
place it beyond this, but generally we dont find estimates of fossil
fuel CO2 to far exceed 5% of the total amount exchanged.
However, because it is this portion that is being added on an
ongoing basis to the total that occurs naturally, it is this, therefore,
that is a source of concern. Thus, in essence, the basis for the
continuing disagreements about peoples influence on climate can
be further traced to this one statistic alone, and by what degree, if

any, changes at this level have on the climate.
Whether the annual addition of this much CO2 into the envi-
ronment can be curtailed to a realistic degree cuts to the heart of
the equation, if this should be required. Refer again to Fig. 2.8. It is
instructive to pay careful attention to those sectors of the total
that produce most of the CO2 and aerosols; are we paying too much
attention to some while largely ignoring others?
For example, if every form of fossil fuel transportation land,
air and sea were to disappear tomorrow, only 13.5% of all major
anthropogenic emissions would be eliminated! In a media some-
times out of touch with reality, you will not hear such a statistic;
but you might hear that the automobile is the primary culprit for
causing global warming.
Definitive positions to all such questions, so typical of almost
everything in climate science, is more likely to encounter multi-
ple answers than one single illuminating answer; they may depend
upon whose argument strikes the individual as the most persua-
sive. Perhaps a more important question is whether we can all
finally agree upon whether there are potential hazards awaiting us,
and if there is anything we can do to stop them.
Hydrogen Fuel Cells and Electric Cars

Hydrogen is high in energy, yet an engine that burns pure
hydrogen produces almost no pollution.
renewableenergyworld.com
The electric car finally seems to be on the verge of
breaking through, offering significant environmental benefits,
especially in urban areas. Innovative business models are on
the way which should boost consumer acceptance and over-
come the remaining barriers, such as high battery costs, green
electricity supply and charging infrastructure.
European environment Agency
Much touted as the solution to the automotive byprod-

uct of CO2, these currently fashionable technologies may not
be all that they might seem, since each still requires the gen-
eration of electricity. In the case of hydrogen, this gas is gen-
erated by electrolysis and thus requires a significant electrical
power supply; rechargeable batteries also require charging
from the power grid.
Similarly fashionable solar and wind power technolo-
gies are not yet realistic as major suppliers of electricity; as
significant sources they are severely limited. Hydroelectric
power is, however, a significant source of electricity, repre-
senting about 92% of the total green energy production, and
about 24% of the worlds total electricity, but only 8% of the
total in the US.
(Source: waterencyclopedia.com)
Nuclear electricity generation is still minimal in most
countries. Thus the production of electricity mostly requires
the burning of fossil fuels. Although at present loads it is pos-
sible to take advantage of off-peak hours when electricity
might otherwise be wasted, for any large-scale automotive
reliance on electric power, the problem brings us right back to
where we started. Thus, the dream of entire highways run-
ning on these alternate technologies is still far away. Perhaps
it never will be a reality.
Heat Sinks
The oceans and landmasses, in addition to being able to store large
quantities of carbon dioxide, also have the capacity to act as vast
heat sinks, and much of the excess warmth from the Sun and
greenhouse gases can be effectively buried. However, there are
consequences from such storage. Because the ocean has far greater
heat storage capability than the land, it has some of the most pro-
found influences on much of what happens in Earths climate.
What is buried in the oceans drives the deep ocean currents, with
significant consequences for the climate, all of which we will

examine in due course.
Carbon and heat sinks are often linked. One study by S. Sitch
et al. [17] proposed that carbon dioxide absorption by Earths natu-
ral carbon sink will be compromised by increased temperatures
beyond that which Earth can absorb, leading to greater influences
of anthropogenic ozone due to the damage it causes to plant
photosynthesis. The EPA (Environmental Protection Agency) has
published an extraordinarily detailed analysis of the absorptive
capacities of greenhouse emissions by Earths natural sinks [18].
However, other researchers have come to the opposite con-
clusion. William Happer, in his paper on greenhouse gases [19],
explained that the amount of atmospheric CO2 was at the low end
of what would be tolerable for life on Earth by a factor of at least
14 times the present levels. He also argued that the outgassing of
CO2 from the oceans had always followed temperature increases
in the distant past, rather than the other way around. Thus, regard-
less of the formulae he used, this is a simple acknowledgement
that Earths heat sinks cannot simply bury all excess heat, any
more than carbon sinks can soak up all excess concentrations
either.
Happers main argument was that variations of CO2 concen-
trations were a natural reaction to temperature increases and
decreases. During historical times, CO2 concentrations were far
greater than today, and, Happer argued, life flourished. Happer also
seemed to concur with Nelsons findings on CO2 warming effects,
allowing only a 1C increase with a doubling of present CO2 levels
(as have other scientists, including Richard Lindzen; see Chap. 6),
although his proposed theory of reactive release of CO2 seems
incompatible with what we know.
Nelson had also mentioned the potential of Earth to absorb
much of the increased heat in a process termed masking. How-
ever, if he did not seem to take possible unseen detrimental long-
term side effects of such processes into consideration, that may
not be the correct assessment of his position. Also he did not dis-
cuss how much additional CO2 might be released by the resulting
increased ocean temperatures. Nevertheless, perhaps we would
need to imagine a considerable absorption, over perhaps hundreds
or thousands of years, before the accumulation might appear
significant in comparison to the immense potential reserve of the

oceans. The issue remains, in the IPCCs own term, undocu-
mented, and thus highly controversial at best. However, we must
first consider in the next chapter two areas of study, clearly related
though often confused with one another. Ultimately they are very
different species.
References
1. Water vapor: feedback or forcing? Real Climate. Online: http://www.
realclimate.org/index.php/archives/2005/04/water-vapour-feedback-
or-forcing/
2. Graphic: effective temperature and comparison of the Sun to a black
body. 2006. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:EffectiveTemperature_
300dpi_e.png
3. NASA (1971) Earth albedo and emitted radiation. ntrs.NASA.gov/
archive/nasa/casi.ntrs/19710023628_1971023628.pdf
4. Andrews T, Forster PM (2008) CO2 forcing induces semi-direct effects
with consequences for climate feedback interpretations. School of
Earth and Environment, University of Leeds, UK
5. Data Source: Keeling CD, Whorf TP (1998) Atmospheric CO2 concen-
trations (ppmv) derived from in situ air samples collected at Mauna
Loa Observatory. Scripps Institute of Oceanography, Hawaii; Neftel
A et al (1994) Historical CO2 record from the Siple Station Ice Core,
Physics Institute, University of Bern, Switzerland
6. Global temperatures, from resource of graphs based of numerous sat-
ellite measurements. Climate 4 You. 2010. http://climate4you.com/
GlobalTemperatures.html, http://climate4you.com/GlobalTempera-
tures.htm#Outgounglongwave radiation global
7. Nelson TJ (2011) Cold facts on global warming. Sci Notes. Online:
http://www.randombio.com/co2.html
8. Samanta A, Anderson B, Ganguly S, Knyazikhin Y, Nemani RR,
Myneni RB (2010) Physical climate response to a reduction of anthro-
pogenic climate forcing. Earth Interact 14(7):111
9. Lacis AA, Schmidt GA, Rind D, Ruedy RA (2010) Atmospheric CO2:
principal control knob governing Earths temperature. Sci Mag.
http://www.sciencemag.org/content/330/6002/356.abstract
10. Watkins T. Global warming on Venus. Department of Economics,
San Jose State University. Webpage: http://www.applet-magic.com/
GWvenus.htm
11. Glassman JA (2009) The acquittal of carbon dioxide. Online: http://

www.rocketscientistsjournal.com/2006/10/co2_acquittal.html
12. Mackay R (2007) Rhodes Fairbridge, the solar system and climate.
J Coast Res 50
13. Robinson AB, Robinson NE, Soon W (2007) Environmental effects of
increased atmospheric carbon dioxide. J Am Phys Surg
14. Canadell JG, Le Quere C, Raupach MR, Field CB, Buitenhuis ET,
Ciais P, Conway TJ, Gillett NP, Houghton RA, Marland G (2007)
Contributions to accelerating atmospheric CO2 growth from
economic activity, carbon intensity, and efficiency of natural sinks.
Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 104(47):1886618870. http://www.pnas.org/
content/104/47/18866.abstract
15. Global flows of carbon. NASA graphic. Online: http://science.nasa.gov/
earth-science/oceanography/ocean-earth-system/ocean-carbon-cycle/
16. Source: Prof. MacKay DJC, FRS, University of Cambridge, and chief
scientific adviser to the UK Department of Energy and Climate
Change
17. Sitch S, Cox PM, Collins WJ, Huntingford C (2007) Indirect radiative
forcing of climate change through ozone effects on the land carbon-
sink. Nature 448(7155):791794
18. 2011 U.S. Greenhouse gas inventory report. Environmental Protec-
tion Agency. epa.gov/climatechange/emissions/usinventoryreport.
html
19. Happer W (2011) The truth about greenhouse gases. Global Warming
Policy Forum, briefing paper #3, 17 Aug 2011
3. Climate and Weather
Because many people confuse climate and weather, this has resulted
in misconceptions about cause and effect between two phenomena
that are actually pretty much unrelated. It is possible to have local
cooling during times of global warming, and vice versa. Although
the two are indeed related on some levels, ultimately, long-term
climate patterns are established by entirely different factors than
what we experience as short-term regional weather.
Earths Energy Budget

The energy from the Sun that warms planet Earth is not distrib-
uted equally across the globe; regional temperature is determined
primarily by latitude. Towards the poles, where the planet pres-
ents its most oblique face, the same amount of sunlight is spread
out over relatively much wider areas than it is at the equator. Here,
the face-on incidence of the incoming solar energy is closest to
maximum concentration per square meter. As a consequence, the
warming of the land and oceans is far greater here than at the poles,
where at times no sunlight falls at all.
Through the angle of incidence, absorbed solar radiation is
approximately 330 W/m2 at the equator versus 150 W/m2 at the
poles. However, the rate of heat lost back to space is consistent
from all points over the globe, creating zones. This also affects the
circulation of seawater, as colder water displaces warmer.
The laws of physics dictate that a balance of incoming ver-
sus outgoing energy must be maintained. What has become
termed Earths energy budget sums up that process. It is impos-
sible for one part of the planet not to share the consequences of
energy absorption or loss by another. In this respect, ultimately
what is one of the great drivers of climate arguably the greatest

byproduct of the warming effects of the Sun comes about first

in the atmosphere and eventually from energy stored deep within
the sea.
Weather and Climate

Part of the problem in understanding climate relates to the regional
nature of weather patterns within the larger realm of climate. The
public typically confuses the two. (Its been a really cold winter
here in Kentucky so much for global warming .). It is quite
possible to experience extreme conditions for the short term when
the overall global trend is exactly the opposite. And global climate
conditions can vary substantially between the hemispheres,
let alone the continents.
The atmospheric component of that driver comes about in
two different ways, although the resulting winds will be felt in the
same way and are both the result of air pressure differences. The
simpler of the two to understand is what takes place when uneven
localized solar heating over landmasses exposed to the greatest
amount of sunshine initially creates pressure differences within
the air above. Heated air being less dense than cold air has a cor-
respondingly lower pressure. Subsequent wind currents are the
result of the Pressure Gradient Force (PGF), where zones of high
pressure rush to normalize pressure in those of correspondingly
lower pressure.
Because clouds reflect some energy back into space, cloudy
regions will obviously be less warmed than those in full sunlight
(such as deserts and other arid landscapes), and thus less likely to
produce wind. Anyone who lives in a more temperate region close
to deserts is familiar with the power of this phenomenon; the
author knows well those hot early fall and cold winter desert
Santa Ana Winds always moving westwards off-shore from the
desert, in contrast to normal eastward on-shore conditions, keep-
ing frequent low marine layer (low clouds and fog) out at sea.
Obviously, the most pronounced pressure differences over the
smallest areas directly affect wind speed (Fig. 3.1).
The second and more complex process forms other larger low-
pressure systems. In the hot equatorial regions wide air masses
surrounding the globe are swept upwards, in a region termed the
Climate and Weather 55
FIG. 3.1 Global atmospheric circulation (Graphic courtesy of NASA)
Intertropical Convergence Zone, or ITCZ. This behaves effectively

like a giant evaporator, extracting moisture during the airs ascent.
During the height of summer, the ITCZ can erupt into monsoon
conditions around equatorial regions, as well as being the birth-
place of hurricanes/cyclones. As the hot columns of air reach alti-
tudes averaging 6 miles (~13 km), they begin to dissipate into
ever-wider air masses that descend northwards and southwards in
bands, most notably nearest the equator as Hadley cells, but also
as lesser mid-latitude and polar cells. Here, either they are heated
again across southern deserts (spawning the easterly lower tropo-
sphere trade winds that return hot air back to equatorial regions),
or cooled over northern deserts and tundra.
From the poles the air is cooled and heads back towards the
equator in streams at low altitudes (see later in this chapter). The
placement and altitudes of adjacent landmasses ultimately deter-
mine the patterns of motion and energy of these winds, as well as
profoundly affecting their speed and direction. As the air twists
and turns, it forms into low-pressure regions moving away from
regions of high pressure. Familiar weather patterns emerge as low

moist air masses spiral upwards, which may become laden with
clouds and water droplets that often lead to rain; by contrast, high-
pressure systems produce dry conditions.
It is easy to understand how different pressure gradients can
be set up by the different responses of heat absorption on land and
at sea. Landmasses respond by rapidly warming near the surface;
the oceans absorb the heat at a significantly deeper level allowing
the upper layers to remain cooler than the land. High and low pres-
sure weather systems are the result. The upper water of the oceans
is influenced by these air circulation patterns, especially in the
formation of currents near the surface, as well as the forms that
land dictates the open water take; in many ways, these ocean cur-
rent mirror the winds above.
Coupled to Earths rotation, major wind directions tend to
move with that of the planet, rather than against it, through the
process known as the Coriolis force. Interestingly, this force is at
its maximum strength at the poles, and forms a counterbalance to
the pressure gradient forces (PGF). This force is also connected to
those pinwheel effects of cyclonic low pressure areas, the direc-
tion of rotation being determined by the hemisphere each occu-
pies. Thus, weather systems take an easterly movement across
most of the globe, corresponding to the rotation of Earth, and
which we experience as approaching storm fronts or periods of
stable fine weather. These ongoing evolving atmospheric condi-
tions produce familiar day-to-day weather, the primary systems
appearing as those large eddying pinwheel cloud formations we
see in satellite images. Their spiral rotations take place because
Earths equatorial regions rotate faster than nearer the poles.
The Coriolis effect (after the nineteenth-century engineer

Gustav-Gaspard Coriolis) might best be considered in the
context of the Newtonian laws of motion regarding rotating
bodies. In such a body, the rightward inertial force causes a
deflection leftward relative the reference frame, and vice
versa, and accordingly must be included in the total analysis
of its motion.
FIG. 3.2 Global temperature trend from 1979 to 2010: Sea level 3,000 m
(Image courtesy of Remote Sensing Systems. MSU data are produced by
Remote Sensing Systems and sponsored by the NOAA Climate and Global
Change Program. Data are available at www.remss.com)
Much has been made of the potential of the changing climate

to increase the number and severity of storms, particularly hurri-
canes and cyclones. As with almost everything in climate science,
disagreements are the norm. Various studies [1] have various con-
clusions. These range from positive, neutral and negative connec-
tions to warming temperatures, which further indicates the
fractured discourse. On the surface of it, logically it would seem
that since measured temperature increases have been greatest at
increasingly northern latitudes, and less so toward the tropics, and
even slightly lower towards Antarctica (Fig. 3.2), the reduced
extremes between the two should result in smaller atmospheric
pressure differences and thus fewer storms! But as is so often the
case in this field of research, theory and actuality do not necessar-
ily coincide.
One of the most significant fields of climate study, still far
from settled, relates to clouds. The formation, types and quantity
of clouds (along with rain and snow) have profound effects on
atmospheric temperature zones, together with the resulting pres-
sures and motions. Being endlessly variable, determining their
precise effect is a moving target, something that has hampered
definitive conclusions on their relative contributions to climate.
They act as a reflective blanket and are considered to contribute a

negative feedback overall, despite the opposite blanketing effect
below.
On average, covering approximately 50% of Earths surface at
any one time, it is easy to see how small variations in the total
amount or placement of clouds could impact the weather or even
the climate and remain one of the most undetermined aspects of
the entire subject. (We will return to the subject of clouds, especially
in regard to the study of theorized influences of cosmic rays upon
their formation in Chap. 12).
Meanwhile, the movement of deep lying ocean movements is
a separate matter again, working in many ways independently of
the visible weather conditions we see in the atmosphere and at the
ocean surfaces. However, certain attributes of each are intercon-
nected and work in tandem, causing some dramatic larger periodic
weather conditions.
Ocean Currents, Temperatures,

and Oscillations
Ocean temperature and density are also tied up intimately with
deep ocean currents. Density is primarily dependent on the quan-
tity of salt dissolved in it, becoming less so as it releases salt com-
pounds to form ice sheets and icebergs. As the increasingly dense
saltwater descends in depth it is replaced by less salty water above.
This, in turn, by the same repetitive process, initiates a deepwater
current motion that forces deep lying cold water from the poles
towards the equator, and most especially from the north.
Density is further connected with temperature, since water
becomes less dense as it warms. Following the natural channel-
like formation leading to the Atlantic Ocean, the cold salty water
begins its journey southward in a circulation pattern termed ther-
mohaline circulation. It is because of the formations of the conti-
nental landmasses surrounding the North Pole, and the consequent
feeding of freshwater from the accumulations of snow and ice, that
this deepwater motion is driven from the north instead of the
south. The entire system, which will ultimately work its way
around the globe, is known as the great global conveyor. Over a
period of about 1,000 years, much of Earths deep seawaters will

have completed just one circulation:
As it passes continental landmasses, the cold water is partially
warmed (and loses some density), reaching past the equator and
far into the Southern Hemisphere, eventually passing Antarc-
tica to be cooled once again.
Traveling north again, it splits and flows into two branches on
each side of Australia one east of Africa and the other up
towards Japan via the Pacific Ocean.
Once again, as the water flows great distances from these frigid
regions, it gains warmth, and in doing so loses salt, which
causes it to rise slowly nearer to the surface.
In what may appear to be a kind of aquatic somersault, this
warmer water doubles back on its tracks and rejoins into one
stream traveling past the Americas and the continent of Africa
on its way back to the North Pole, where it will start the jour-
ney all over again (Fig. 3.3).
Beyond this sequence of events, some significant variations
can occur that are dependent on the degree that warm or cold
waters predominate. Specifically, the warm and cold waters do not
gradually mix with depth but rather co-exist in semi-separate
states, the relatively shallow division between them known as the
thermocline. Although the behavior of these is distinctly separate,
variations in the placement and slope of the thermocline can pro-
duce large-scale oscillations in the oceans, the most significant
being the El Nino Southern Oscillation (ENSO).
El Nino events (the product of ENSO conditions) are accom-
panied by low atmospheric pressure in the Pacific (with corre-
spondingly milder trade winds) and high pressure in the Indian
Ocean (coincidentally, corresponding to the double Great Ocean
Conveyor streams after it splits into two parts). ENSO events
usually trigger heavy rains from the eastern Pacific (western
Americas) and drought on the western side in places such as Aus-
tralia. Typically, ENSO events are cyclical in nature, occurring
on average every 57 years.
To understand the fundamentals of how ENSO events come
about, the diagrams (Fig. 3.4ad), should make it more clear; it may
be seen that atmospheric pressure has a direct correlation with the
FIG. 3.3 (ae) The great global conveyor (Graphic images courtesy of NOAA)
position of the thermocline. When it is low, warm water, normally

kept west of the Americas, moves to the east much closer, bring-
ing warmer winter conditions and more storms to the western
American coasts (especially in South America), along with drier,
warmer conditions to the mid-North American continent. Con-
trolling factors of the cycle are not yet positively determined,
although it has been linked to the 11-year solar cycle in a 2011
study appearing in Science [2] (also see Chap. 4 and 7).
FIG. 3.4 (ad) El Nino conditions. (a) Normal situation; winds keep warm
water toward west Pacific. (b) El Nino developing; warm water moves east
La Nina conditions: Warm waters further west. (d) Classic pattern of large
El Nino event (Images (ac) courtesy of NASA/PMEL/TAO; (d) NASA)
It is not known if or how present changes in the climate might

(or might not) be linked to ENSO events. This is still being inves-
tigated; researchers have mixed positions at this time. Regardless,
their cyclic nature appears independent to climate overall, with
many factors driving it. Kevin Trenberth, however, of the National
Center for Atmospheric Research, believes there is a significant
connection between the two, theorizing that El Nino events are
the natural mechanics of Earths tropical regions eliminating
excess heat. However, many uncertainties and questions remain,
and the link has not yet been isolated and confirmed.
The opposite of El Nino conditions are termed La Nina
events, where the thermocline becomes steeply angled and warm
waters are thus pushed westwards; the mechanics of these are

plain to see in Fig. 3.4c. Under these circumstances, the situation
is basically the reverse of El Nino conditions, whereby the Ameri-
cas experience colder, drier conditions, and many locations on the
opposite side of the Pacific experience warmer, wetter seasons.
It has been reasoned that the ongoing melting of glaciers in
higher northern latitudes will result in a change to the salinity of
the upper seawater relative to that forming the deep waters of the
conveyor. In turn this would effectively blanket it and push
warmer waters southward. It is argued this would bring unfore-
seen consequences, including radically colder temperatures in
Europe, as well as changes to El Nino and La Nina events, because
these would be more likely to result in climatic changes, as opposed
to shorter-term variety of weather. Exact scenarios remain
unknown, as are the multitudes of possibly altered factors and
their combinations. However, these do illustrate the degree to
which the oceans affect Earth as a habitat for life.
Nearly as significant is the North Atlantic Oscillation (NAO),
which is related to the Arctic Oscillation. Unlike ENSO events,
those of the NAO occur entirely from complex pressure differ-
ences within the atmosphere, and thus, being primarily wind
driven do not involve changes to the thermocline. Although it has
no periodicity, if it should occur simultaneously with an El Nino
event, the combination can produce extremely cold winters in
Europe, accompanied by extreme weather conditions (Fig. 3.5).
Other Unseen Solar Connections

to Earths Biosphere?
Some researchers have recently proposed a very different vision
of climate change, based on indirect solar amplification of thermo-
cline circulation, with the possibility that relatively small direct
changes in solar irradiation acting as a catalyst to changes in
the circulation may be responsible. This was according to a 2010
study (Swingedouw et al.), that used new techniques of analysis of
historical solar and climate patterns in relation to the North Atlan-
tic Oscillation [3]. If this proposal seems a radical step, it is not the
first time such a link has been suggested, especially since slight
FIG. 3.5 The Sun with huge prominences (Image courtesy NASA/SOHO)
differences in solar irradiation from year to year have long been

discounted by the IPCC in affecting climate significantly. In this
new theory, it was suggested that changes to the wind patterns are
directly linked to small changes in solar forcing, and ultimately to
climate change itself.
However, such connections remain speculative, undeter-
mined and not yet proven, although it is conceivable that they
exist. Certainly, a proven link between ENSO and NAO oscilla-
tions to minor solar variations would cause a major shift in cli-
mate science. (Also refer again to Ref. [2].)
Additional resources on all aspects of this and related matters
are plentiful. In one example [4], climate was linked to the Pacific
and Atlantic ITCZ climate variability, including rainfall in the
semi-arid northern parts of Brazil. In another example [5], extended
possibilities along these lines is a rather startling summation that
the warming of the later twentieth century was caused by a
response to warming of the oceans and not directly to increased
atmospheric anthropogenic gases over land masses. Although the
authors of this study do allow for greenhouse gases to be partly
responsible, they believe that increases and warming of atmospheric

water vapor has led to greater penetration and subsequent absorp-
tion of long-wave radiation into the oceans.
Interactions of the Atmosphere and Sea

Earths atmosphere is considered to be a chaotic system, which is
why wild swings in weather patterns of small pockets and eddies
do not conform to any sequence that can be computed for more
than a few days ahead. Climate, which is a longer-term phenome-
non, is in many ways, at least to some degree, more predictable
and linear.
Because the NAO is considered a wind-driven oscillation, we
should examine how large-scale zones of pressure deviate from
even distribution, ultimately determining long-term weather pat-
terns. However, ENSO events are also connected to the atmosphere
through pressure interactions with the thermocline. And we
already know that at the lowest altitudes, the disruptive effects of
landmasses, especially mountainous regions, cause air to form into
eddies of various shapes, sizes and descriptions; these affect local-
ized, relatively small-scale and short-lived weather conditions.
At higher elevations, however, the effects of the terrain on the
atmosphere are far less pronounced, in contrast to the atmo-
spheric conditions below. What takes place higher in the atmosphere
significantly controls the longer-term weather periods we recog-
nize, including entire seasons, such as hot summers, wet and cold
winters, and so forth. These are features of so-called Rossby waves
(Fig. 3.6), which constitute the defined regions of pressure in the
atmosphere at these altitudes. Complex patterns of friction (termed
shear) cause variations in inertia of upper air masses to form
unpredictably from smaller weather systems below. These, in turn,
cause significant irregularities of pressure, as in Fig. 3.6c.
Many factors affect the formation of Rossby waves, large irreg-
ularities in what would otherwise be evenly distributed pressure
zones by latitude. On Earth, rotating air masses have a predomi-
nantly westerly motion, due to the Coriolis force, which, according
to latitude, correspond with different inertia to form waves. The
speed of these air masses is also partly driven by temperature
(and thus, pressure) differences between the poles and equator.
FIG. 3.6 The formation of Rossby waves, (a), minimal circulation irregularities,
(b) increasing circulation regularities (c) Rossby wave formations (Courtesy of
Wikipedia (de:User:W))
These speeds might be considerable, often reaching several hun-

dreds of kilometers per hour - a swirling global upper wind current
better known as the jet stream.
It has been theorized that increasing heat in the upper atmo-
sphere causes the strength of the jet stream to increase. Though
this may be to a relatively small degree, it protects northern lati-
tudes from extremely cold arctic air masses that would otherwise
descend southwards. As the jet stream weakens from decreased
solar activity it fragments, thus allowing the frigid arctic air to
flood into more southern regions. The resulting complex condi-
tions are a good example of non-linear response, completely unpre-
dictable in normal climate forecasting. If these effects could
reliably be demonstrated, the scientific value would be profound.
Could this possibly be, in fact, what could have occurred repeat-
edly over many decades to contribute to the period known as the
Little Ice Age, from approximately 15501850? (see Chap. 5).
Although the path of the jet stream tends to fluctuate accord-
ing to the Rossby wave formations, it corresponds with variations
in the displacement of the thermocline, which ultimately drives
El Nino and La Nina events. The position of the jet stream is also
affected by the transport of heat within the oceans and very high
mountainous regions. It is also here that large loops of spinning air
(as in Fig. 3.6c) separate from the whole and move towards the
equator to create larger weather patterns, including hurricanes and
tropical cyclones. Differences in seasonal weather at locations of
similar latitudes seem to be related to these waves and their inter-
action with warm waters [6].
We can observe similar, although not quite parallel, condi-
tions on other planets, notably Jupiter (Fig. 3.7), where its parallel
FIG. 3.7 Jupiter (Voyager 1, 1979) (Image courtesy of NASA)
stripes, diagonal streaks and rotating spots actually Jovian storms

(the most famous being the Great Red Spot) echo what is occurring
in our own atmosphere, at least superficially. However, in the
absence of Earthlike protruding terrestrial landmasses, similari-
ties to the wide variations of Rossby waves in atmospheric zones
of pressure are far less pronounced.
Tracking Sea Surface Temperatures

Rising sea surface temperatures (SST) represent another conse-
quence of global warming, as might be expected. A casual inspec-
tion of available reference materials can be misleading, as it is
common to include average land temperatures with those of the
oceans. However, an accurate assessment of ocean surface tem-
peratures alone is important for our full understanding, since both
have entirely different base temperatures and mechanisms of
warming and cooling. Water, a moving mass, is also subject to
changes in volume relative to temperature.
Unfortunately, graphs readily available from NASA and
NOAA (the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration)
FIG. 3.8 Global temperature anomalies (Graphics courtesy of Columbia

University, from data provided by NOAA)
do not show separate long-term ocean temperature changes. The

custom is to provide month-to-month temperatures (with com-
mentary), a practice that allows many claims on independent cli-
mate sites, dubious or otherwise. Fortunately, graphs and graphics
for every conceivable point of curiosity may be found online at
NOAAs affiliate organization at Columbia University [7].
Careful analysis of SSTs quickly reveals that their average
readings fluctuate much less than those of land. From Fig. 3.8, we
can also see that there has not been much more than a 0.2C
increase since the early 1950s. From this graph, we can also see
that SSTs have appeared to decline overall from their high point
around the time of the El Nino of 1997/1998, up until around 2008.
Certainly there was a significant upward spike in 2010, as this
graph shows. Whether or not it is an anomaly or a trend remains
to be seen, since many dips and peaks can accompany overall
temperature increases just as easily as they do declines.
We should also consider the thermal expansion of water, since

this is often cited as a leading cause of sea level rise. When water
freezes, its density decreases just before it does so (916.8 kg/m3 vs.
1,000.0 kg/m3), so it expands to take up more space than in its liq-
uid form. On melting, the density returns to maximum (1.00 m3/
kg), at 4C. However, water density then decreases again with
increasing temperatures, meaning its volume again increases,
although in order to register an increase in volume of just 1%
(1.01 m3/kg), water temperatures would need to heat to an average
of 35C bathwater temperatures!
SST readings currently average 16.1C and are considered to
be presently 0.47C above normal. Thus, it would take a rise of
almost 20C to increase total volume by 1%. Of course, this does
not take into account any differences between seawater and fresh
water, or the ways in which the oceans are spread throughout the
total area around the globe, those large shallow depths surround-
ing coastal regions, or the prior displacement of water by the ice.
But one could certainly be forgiven for wondering if an increase in
temperature of a fraction of a degree would cause significantly
measurable differences in sea level. However, with the average
depth of all of the oceans being 14,000 feet (4,267 m), according to
NOAA, this translates, superficially at least, to a rise in sea level
of some 5 feet. We can calculate this once we know that present
average SST is 16.1C, its specific density is 999.2 kg/m3, and at
1C higher it is 998.3 kg/m3, by the simple formula:
992.2 998.3 = 998.84 (specific density decrease of 0.36).
Thus:
999.2 14,000 = 14,005 feet
998.84
What we are looking at is a rise large enough to cause major
harm to coastal communities. This is just a basic reference point
for estimating sea level rise based on a constant ocean depth of
14,000 feet. Therefore, based on any of the contributing factors,
the actual rise could be less, or even more, depending on any num-
ber of unknowns. Luckily, there are more sophisticated means to
look into this.
The JASON Satellite Radar Program

Future sea level projections have been constantly revised down-
wards as new information emerges. In fact, luckily it happens that
the hypothetical amount of 5 feet resulting from a 1C increase
actually is hugely more than has been estimated in recent NASA
projections. These have been stated as a recent maximum of
3.27 mm per year, over a period representing increases in tempera-
ture no greater than 1C (19002000), including a controversial
and arbitrarily added 0.3 mm per year. That was an entirely new
topic for controversy.
When it was reported that NASA and researchers of the U.S.
Sea Level Group at Colorado University had agreed to the addition
of that 0.3C arbitrary adjustment to sea level readings [8], critics
immediately seized upon the directive, accusing NASA of perpet-
uating a trick. It was said that it would enable government funds
to continue to be channeled into a failing climate change theory,
specifically, that of human-induced warming. However, sea level
researchers claimed it was necessary to compensate for the verti-
cal upward shift of continental landmasses. Critics argued that
this had been occurring for thousands of years (and referenced ear-
lier), but never counted before.
Curiously, also, the measured rise in sea level increases
appeared suddenly almost to double after initiation of the JASON
satellite program in 1993. Measured calculations showed a change
from an average of 1.8 mm per year (measured ground data up until
year 2000), to the new JASON readings, averaging 3.27 mm per
year from 1993 to the present. If we subtract 0.3 mm per year, the
annual additional increase in sea level still turns out to be less
than 3 mm, so it all depends on what amount we consider to be
problematic. More importantly, it begs the question of what has
been human induced, as well as what the addition means. The
recent uptrend has been attributed to more rapid melting of glacial
and polar ice, as well as expanding water masses due to increasing
temperatures. However, recent satellite measurements indicate
there may have been no increases in sea level since 2006; climate
change controversy seems to be the gift that keeps on giving.
Excerpted from NASA, August 2011

Like mercury in a thermometer, ocean waters expand
as they warm. This, along with melting glaciers and ice sheets
in Greenland and Antarctica, drives sea levels higher over the
long term.
while the rise of the global ocean has been remark-
ably steady for most of this time, every once in a while, sea
level rise hits a speed bump. This past year, its been more
like a pothole: between last summer and this one, global sea
level actually fell by about a quarter of an inch, or half a cen-
timeter.
What does it mean? while 2010 began with a sizable
El Nio, by years end, it was replaced by one of the strongest
La Nias in recent memory. This sudden shift in the Pacific
changed rainfall patterns all across the globe, bringing mas-
sive floods to places like Australia and the Amazon basin, and
drought to the southern United States.
each year, huge amounts of water are evaporated
from the ocean. While most of it falls right back into the ocean
as rain, some of it falls over land.
Unsurprisingly (as we will continue to see is the norm in cli-

mate studies), other researchers can be found who contradict most,
if not all, of the above! A group of European researchers was directly
critical of the JASON conclusions (Ablain et al.), and challenged
these findings [9]. Claiming the rise had been overestimated by as
much as 60%, the study stated that projections should be revised
downwards by 2 mm per year, not an inconsiderable amount. As
such, it would change everything if confirmed.
As always, mixed statistics such as these provide more for
continuing the ongoing debate than for clear resolution, although
providing a rather different perspective of what really ought to be
regarded only as an illusion of long-term stability. When it comes
to the worlds oceans and their influence on recent changes in the
climate, it seems we may have previously taken them for granted.
Couple this with the fact that the oceans account for 71% of the
total area of the globe, and it emphasizes that we need to be careful
in processing all temperature statistics in the same breath.
In regard to warming trends, the oceans do not mirror the

land. Rhodes Fairbridge [10], as early as 1958, discussed three prin-
ciple factors controlling sea levels: basin shape, volume of water in
them, and variations in the adjacent landmasses. Apparently he
did not deal with the effects of temperature, but was aware of a
gradual overall sea level rise during the Holocene, occurring in
repeated cycles of surprisingly short intervals of as little as a few
decades, as evidenced by rapid changes in levels shown in tube-
worm deposits on rock formations. The huge amounts he believed
could be supported by evidence would be enough to swamp any
low-lying regions, so we should be grateful that his studies showed
decreasing regularity and level! However, according to his studies,
we should always consider sea levels prone to change drastically at
any time.
One last interesting possibility was raised (long ago), in 1974
by Nigel Calder [11], who proposed that the northern polar ice cap
is constantly being fed by the Atlantic Ocean. The increasing size
of reflective ice sheet causes more solar energy to return to space,
which in turn freezes that part of the Atlantic that supported the
polar cap growth. Because there is less liquid water to evaporate
and become snow, the cap will slowly shrink, and the waters
warm. Ultimately that same warmth produces a thaw in the Atlan-
tic source of water for the polar cap, and thus its growth can
resume, reversing the warming trend! Although an interesting,
if far-fetched, proposition, it still surfaces today now and then.
Robert H. Essenhigh, writing in the May 2001 Journal of the Amer-
ican Chemical Society, included this scenario quite firmly in his
concluding remarks [12]. His credentials are impressive, although
he is clearly a scientist who takes a skeptical view of AGW. How-
ever, his opinion similarly does not appear to have been echoed in
wider circles. This concept has generally faded from view, but it
remains interesting, nonetheless.
Trying to Make Sense of Everything

It may be becoming increasingly clear that many of the factors
of forcing and feedback involved in climate change are anything
but predictably linear. Together, they interact and modify the
characteristics of the collective group of factors, resulting in some
becoming stronger, others weaker, or even canceling many

altogether. Since numerous additional factors are chaotic in
essence unpredictable in the mix and still others follow linear
patterns, it is not difficult to imagine how a change to any one
of the linear or chaotic factors could trigger unforeseen conse-
quences. It seems, in essence, that we depend on a fragile state of
near balance.
To understand how the interactions of all contributing forc-
ing and feedback factors are considered by scientists, let us, for any
one of these factors, imagine a graph with high and low points con-
nected by a curving line. This is termed a time series. Figure 3.9
illustrates a time series of the North Atlantic Oscillation over
62-year period.
Now imagine similar graphs created for every other factor in
the mix, such as precipitation, wind, temperature, etc. Smoothed
graphs representing each can be studied for their separate charac-
teristics. The key to all time series is the measurement of prede-
termined values for a specified period of time. However, as applied
to climate research, a time series does not tell us much about the
characteristics of energies within the signal itself. For this, we will
need to extract such data by what is termed a Fourier Transform.
Fourier (17681830), a French mathematician and scientist, real-
ized that it was possible to express virtually everything on any
kind of timeline as an expression of interacting different harmonic
amplitudes of sine and cosine waves. He realized that even saw
tooth and square tooth waves could be broken down into a multi-
ple of such waveforms.
A time series, such as in Fig. 3.9, can be seen as a series of
points of amplitude at regular intervals in this case determined
on an overall annual cycle. The 62 different annual cycles can be
broken down into a total of 31 harmonics, commencing at 62, then
31, 20.66, 15.5, 12.4, and so on, down to the final harmonic, which
will be 2 by default, as in every time series. By applying Fouriers
mathematical formula, the element of time is removed, and these
harmonics can be represented as high and low points, revealing
where the strongest inputs are located as factors of amplitude.
Thus a new graph of amplitude versus frequency is produced,
revealing the key characteristics of the whole, regardless of time.
It is usual to go further in extracting the primary information
in a time series by forming a power spectrum. By taking a Fourier
FIG. 3.9 NAO time series (Image courtesy of NOAA)
transform and squaring the amplitude of each harmonic, a power

spectrum is produced. The amplitude of each harmonic frequency
of a Fourier transform is squared to produce an exaggerated but
clear outline of the strongest harmonic influences of the series.
The individual squared harmonics may be shown as simple lines
or columns, or the tops of each may be joined into a continuous
series of spikes instead in a graph representation. Still other fac-
tors, random (chaotic) parts of the whole, register as noise of one
kind or another (referenced as white through red, as in a color
spectrum, red referring to low frequency factors), and as such, if
not accounted for it can confuse the outcome and interpretations
of these findings.
A good, comprehensive description by Melissa Ray Weimer
about the underlying principles of Fourier transforms and power
spectra may be found online (although a commercial page about
FIG. 3.10 Angular power spectrum of the fluctuations in the WMAP full-
sky map the relative brightness of the spots versus the size of the spots
(Graph courtesy of NASA/WMAP Science team)
software needs, written for DATAQ Instruments, Inc.) [13] for

those interested in knowing more. For many readers, this article
will be welcome indeed in relaying the essential functions in terms
that are accessible, among the many that approach the subject as
if every reader is a math major. In fitting conclusion to the chap-
ter, Fig. 3.10 is a power spectrum of the cosmic microwave back-
ground discussed at the beginning of Chapter 2.
Power spectra represent a standard mechanism throughout
science, as well as in numerous fields unrelated to science. For
compressing and interpreting complex inputs into a coherent and
compact format, they are of considerable value in climate studies.
Here, so many factors exist to begin with, with many more vari-
able in nature and others still not fully understood, and may be
included as the research proceeds. Such mathematical coding
remains related to climate modeling, a system of determining
future directions of change. Should any factor change, potentially
it is hoped to project its effect on the others. However, the prob-
lem is recognizing and understanding all of the factors involved,
and this remains at the heart of the dispute of the accuracy of
existing climate models. More about this in Chap. 8.
References
1. Henderson-Sellers A et al (1998) Tropical cyclones and global climate
change: a post IPCC assessment. Bull Am Meteorol Soc 79(1):19;
Sugi M et al (2002) Influence of the global warming on tropical
cyclone climatology: an experiment with the JMA model. J Meteorol
Soc Jpn 80:249272; Emanuel KA (1999) The power of a hurricane:
an example of reckless driving on the information superhighway.
Weather 54(4):107
2. Meehl G, Arblaster J, Matthes K, Sassi F, van Loon H (2011) Amplify-
ing the Pacific climate system response to a small 11 year solar cycle
forcing. Science 325(5944):11141118
3. Swingedouw D, Laurent T, Christophe C, Aurore V, David S-M,
Jerome S (European Geophysical Union, General Assembly) (2010)
Natural forcing of climate during the last millennium: fingerprint of
variability. Springer, New York
4. Kaspi Y, Schneider T (2011) Winter cold eastern continental bound-
aries induced by warm ocean waters. Nature 471(7340):621624
5. Chiang JCH, Kushnir Y, Zebiak SE (2000) Interdecadal changes in
Eastern Pacific ITCZ variability. Geophys Res Lett 27(22)
6. Compo GP, Sardeshmukh PD (2009) Oceanic influences on recent
continental warming. Springer, New York
7. Columbia University ocean temperature graphs, 2012. http://columbia.
edu/mhs119/Temperature/T_moreFigs/
8. Colorado University Sea Level Research Group, statement, 2012.
http://sealevel.colorado.edu/content/global-mean-sea-level-time-
series-seasonal-signals-removed
9. Ablain M, Cazenave A, Valladeau G, Guinehut S (2009) A new assess-
ment of the error budget of global mean seal level rate estimated by
satellite altimetry over 19932008. European Geosciences Union
10. Calder N (1974) The weather machine. Viking Press, New York
11. Mackay R (2007) Rhodes Fairbridge, the Solar System and Climate.
J Coast Res 50
12. Essenhigh RH (2001) Does CO2 really drive global warming? Chem
Innov (a Journal of the American Chemical Society) 31:4445
13. Weimer MR. Waveform analysis using the Fourier transform.
DATAQ Instruments, Inc. 1989. http://www.dataq.com/applicat/
articles/an11.htm
4. The Variable Sun
The Sun is central to everything in our existence; it is also central

to our potential demise, for many reasons. It is a relatively stable
main sequence star, but proxy records from antiquity indicate that
its output has varied often over past millennia (Fig. 4.1).
Early in the twentieth century, scientific inquiry had already
begun into potential links of the Suns activity to Earths climate.
This was at a time when climate change was far from the publics
even scientists consciousness, and intimate knowledge of the
workings of the Solar System, let alone the greater universe, was
still remarkably limited.
Of course, long before in prehistory, ancient man was well
aware of regular periodic cycles experienced on Earth: the length
of a day, the lunar month, tides, seasons, etc. Indeed, from their
perspectives, they were central in a universe they believed they
could comprehend. They did not know, of course that Earth cir-
cumnavigates the Sun, and that we are part of a Solar System of
other planets orbiting the core of a galaxy made up of billions of
other suns. Even more, that our Sun periodically compresses
together into wavelike formations of other star populations to cre-
ate galactic arms, or that periodically it moves through clouds of
interstellar matter and even lesser densities of suns between those
galactic arms. Primitive man also had no awareness, of course,
that the Sun was merely another star, just like the countless tiny
points of light they looked up towards in the dark night sky, and
certainly no awareness at all of the larger portions of an invisible
electromagnetic spectrum: that part of it that they experienced as
light and dark, warmth and cold.
We know now, of course, that we are part of a vast galactic
system among a universe full of billions of other such galactic sys-
tems. It is only reasonable, therefore, that educated individuals
might contemplate that some of the countless external astronomi-
cal forces might possibly be reflected in Earths habitat and climate.

FIG. 4.1 The Sun with coronal mass ejection (Image courtesy of NASA.
Although this image shows remarkable detail, the exposure has been
reduced to a degree that it is obvious the color is not true to life)
As might be expected, controversies galore exist around all such

types of research, much of which is routinely dismissed without
even so much as fair consideration from some biased individuals.
Naturally, some imitations of research masquerading as science are
nothing but pure sorcery, unfortunately reflecting badly on other
real science that could be legitimate. Although not all recent theo-
ries will stand the test of time, or the closer scrutiny that comes
with that, we need to look into them if we are to sort the wheat
from the chaff. At the very least, they provide thought-provoking
concepts.
Without some knowledge of the behavior of the Sun itself, it
would be hard to understand those aspects of it that have been
implicated in recent studies on climate change. In 2007, Henrik
The Variable Sun 79
FIG. 4.2 Life cycle of the Sun (Graphic courtesy of Oliver Beatson)
Svensmark, director of the Center for Sun-Climate Research at the

Danish National Space Center, commented that solar activity had
been exceptionally high during the twentieth century, compared
to the previous 400 years [1]. He also mentioned his joint discov-
ery in 1996 of an apparent direct link with cosmic ray intensity
and cloud formation, the latter having decreased by 2% at the
height of each sunspot cycle [2]. Other researchers also have tried
to show this link with cosmic rays and solar activity. (We will
return to this in Chap. 12.) Svensmark has also expressed the opin-
ion that climate models do a poor job in not including such pos-
sible factors in their input.
At about 25,000 light years from the Milky Ways center, the
Sun is situated in the Orion-Cygnus Arm. Somewhat misnamed,
this arm is really a spur, more akin to a isolated fragment between
the main Perseus and Scutum-Centaurus arms. Historically, dur-
ing the twentieth century, the Sun was considered to be more or
less an average star, but has now been determined to be anything
but ordinary. Apparently it outshines the majority of stars in the
galaxy. Because of the abundance of some fairly exotic elements in
the Solar System, it can be said with a fair degree of certainty that
a supernova explosion must have occurred nearby, since only
supernovae are capable of forming those elements. Presumably it
was this explosion, close enough to a condensing cloud of inter-
stellar matter, that triggered its final collapse. Thus began another
cycle of star creation whether singly or in a cluster and this is
likely how our Sun came into being.
Presently, about 4 billion years later, the Sun finds itself a
middle-aged star, on the cusp of beginning its long journey to red
giant, senior status. We can see in the graphic (Fig. 4.2) that the
Sun does not have too many billions of years to go before its demise
arrives, but suffice it to say, we have a little time left before having
to worry about this particular form of climate change. When it
happens, it will end life on Earth as we know it.
Although the surface (photosphere) temperature of the Sun is
around 6,000C, within its outer corona it is another matter
entirely, with temperatures ranging from an astounding average
1.5 million degrees Centigrade to at least ten times that in places.
The total energy emitted from the Sun has been calculated to be
3.8478 1026 W, an almost inconceivable amount. However, con-
stant variations in its output shade this figure slightly, but through
recent millennia they are of the order of about 0.1%.
Therefore, if solar activity were to be implicated in recent
warming, it would not be by direct warming effects alone, a piv-
otal factor in many scientists views. In other ways it is this small
amount that some researchers believe may hold at least some of
the keys to climate variations. Stuart Clark, in a 2010 article, dis-
cussed the current dearth of sunspots, and its significance relative
to the ways such activity might affect the climate [3]. Clark
stressed that ultraviolet radiation in the Suns spectrum may be at
the heart of changes to Earths climate and weather.
Sunspots
From quite early astronomical times, keen-eyed observers noticed
from time to time that dark spots could be detected moving across
the face of the Sun. Identified as true solar phenomena, they appear
dark in comparison to the brilliant surfaces that surround them.
As merely much less brilliant regions, their temperatures are still
in excess of 3,000C, even 4,000C. Lying at the heart of research
into solar variability, sunspots are major indicators of solar activ-
ity. Formed deep inside the Sun, they manifest themselves as the
familiar dark blotches when they rupture on the surface.
With diameters of up to 40,000 km, their general appearance,
as shown in Fig. 4.3, is quite typical, although this image captured
a particularly prominent high point during a strong cycle. These
irregular speckled blotches are each bordered by faculae, elon-
gated horizontal tube-like features. Grouped together, they form
The Variable Sun 81
FIG. 4.3 Sunspots (Image courtesy of NASA)
the wide penumbrae around the dark spots themselves, their struc-
ture determined by the strong magnetic fields of the Sun. These
surrounding regions are brighter than the sunspots but still less
than the brilliant surrounding solar disc. Typically, the spots are
short-lived features, most of them lasting much less than a week.
They often hunt in pairs, or even in multiples, typically gaining
in size at the expense of their opposites.
When it was discovered that there are periods of greater, as
well as minimal, sunspot activity, it was thought that because
these regions must be cooler (indeed they are), this would signify
slightly reduced solar output. However, the opposite is true,
because of the increased irradiance of the surrounding faculae.
Now known to directly affect the total solar output, faculae are
more transparent to extremely intense radiation emerging from
deep within the photosphere. Apparently this explains the
increases in solar irradiance when many sunspots are present,
when otherwise one would have expected the cooler inner regions
of sunspots to reduce it. It turns out that radiation is greatest when
FIG. 4.4 Sunspot close up, 2006 (Image courtesy of NASA Hinode JAXA)
solar activity is at its height, and not necessarily when only more
sunspots are visible.
In the next view, a close up of a pair of sunspots (Fig. 4.4), we
can see not only the highly granulated surface of the Sun itself in
stark relief but finally into a sunspot itself. Apparently, this sur-
rounding granulation represents convective cells rising from the
Suns interior into the photosphere (the overall surface). Faculae
also may be clearly seen, their more linear structure obviously dif-
ferent from the surrounding granulated surface. The Suns surpris-
ingly rapid rotation of 27 days (similar to that of Earths Moon but
shorter by just a day) is sufficient to show the apparent paths of
sunspots from day to day.
Unsurprisingly, considering the degree of contrast required in
order to effectively register detail in solar imagery, beneath the
surface (photosphere) we cannot make out anything inside the
spots themselves. However, there is another, far more profound
reason they appear so dark. The Sun is composed primarily of
molecular hydrogen; you may recall this is the primary ingredient
of the interstellar medium from which it formed. We can only see
on or near the surface of the Suns photosphere due to the creation
of negative hydrogen ions. Because at ever-increasing depths below
The Variable Sun 83
the surface negative hydrogen ions are created in fewer quantities,

light cannot escape much below it. Therefore sunspots, quite aside
from being relatively dark compared to the even more brilliant
photosphere that surrounds them, cannot reveal anything from
deep within the Sun, regardless!
The temperature at the center of sunspots is about two thirds
that of the photosphere (surrounding surface). The faculae certainly
are still hot enough to be dazzlingly luminous if we did not need to
reduce exposures radically in order to see the spots themselves. The
surrounding solar photosphere would normally register as exceed-
ingly brilliant white, despite the Suns categorization as a yellow
dwarf. This is a term that really neither describes its color as would
be seen in space, nor its true status outside astrophysical protocol
not to be confused with brown dwarf or white dwarf stars that
represent the last vestiges of most stars life cycles and are truly
diminutive in stellar terms. This is because yellow is its dominant
wavelength in visible radiation, and dwarf refers to all such main
sequence stars that have not yet become red giants in old age.
Superficially, at least, sea surface records would seem to
reflect the sunspot record with the least complication, since the
oceans do not have such compounding factors as urban areas,
mountainous regions or desert regions, for example. Certainly,
NOAA records from the mid-1800s until 1980 do seem to confirm
a direct connection of sunspot activity to global sea surface tem-
peratures (see Fig. 4.5). Regrettably, this graph does not take us to
the present the period since 1980 where the real controversy
began. Regardless, a link to temperature and solar activity seems
possible to draw within the time frame of the graph.
Solar Cycles, Minimums and Maximums

Because sunspot activity directly affects solar output, it readily
can be argued that this link to climate underlies all other issues
that divide those who maintain that modern climate change is
human-induced (the position of the IPCC), from those who deny it
just as staunchly, maintaining that it is primarily solar-induced
the believers and the non-believers. Indeed, certain recent
measurements imply that we may have entered a cooling trend
FIG. 4.5 Correlation between sunspots and sea surface temperature (Graph
courtesy of NOAA)
due to reduced solar activity, but only more time will tell if that is
so. Climate does not follow simple outlines, as there are usually
spikes in all directions, regardless. One paper by David C. Archi-
bald steps out on a solar limb with the prediction that tempera-
tures will actually decline 1.5C by 2020 [4].
It has been determined that there is approximately an 11-year
period separating one cycle of sunspot maximums to the next.
These cycles usually overlap by a year or two. At maximum activ-
ity in these cycles, sunspot formation gradually migrates towards
the solar equator. There have been 23 complete cycles since record
keeping began, and we have now entered the 24th cycle.
The late Timo Niroma, an independent Finnish researcher,
climatologist and student of the Sun, made a detailed study of the
historic record. In the absence of any readily available peer-re-
viewed studies by him, it is difficult to assess his work, although
he assembled some of the most detailed writings on sunspot cycles
still available online on his personal website [5]. Going on record
with much the same idea, he predicted that a new sunspot super
minimum was on the way, which would result in a delay to the
The Variable Sun 85
start of the new (present) cycle 24. He stated that activity would be
extremely low, even to the extent that a new Maunder Minimum
(an historic time of greatly diminished solar activity) might be
approaching. To date, the cycle does appear to be less active than
normal, and appears it will be the smallest sunspot cycle in the
past 100 years, according to the Marshall Space Flight Center
(September 2011).
For those who wish to delve into the topic more deeply, Niro-
mas unabridged discussions about the workings of the Sun may be
found on his website. Additionally, the website includes material
that references peer-reviewed research. Only time will tell if any
of his long-range predictions become reality, however, together
with those of so many others who theorize low sunspot activity
means lower temperatures. Niroma remains a somewhat mysteri-
ous figure, although he was respected enough to see his article,
Solar behavior, and its influence on Earths climate, included in
the Viewpoints and Technical Communications section in Energy
and Environment, Vol. 20, 2009.
Additionally, in 2004, Habibullo I. Abdussamatov, head of
space research at Pulkovo Observatory, investigated the 11-year
cycle, as well as variations in solar radius, irradiance and activity
correlations, concluding they are caused from deep within the Sun.
Because of historic solar behavior patterns, he, too, concluded that
the Sun has entered a cooling phase that will counteract any effects
of anthropogenic warming [6] (see also Chap. 9, [7, 8]). However,
Abdussamatov is no stranger to the contrarian view.
We are perhaps fortunate that we live in a time when soon we
will see whether the hypothesis by some, that a marked cooler
climate period is taking place through reduced solar activity
during the next few decades, is correct. Thus, we can test the the-
ories in real time. We are only perhaps fortunate because, if it is
correct, much of the world could experience the consequences of
significantly colder conditions, with all that this entails. If incor-
rect, however, the warming continues. Thus, climate change can
be a double-edged sword.
On the NOAA website, January 2011 was listed as the 17th
warmest January on record, compared to some others that have
been increasingly warm since the year 2000. However, it is far
from the warmest of recent years. Therefore, only time will tell if
this could actually represent a step away from the warming trend.
Since 2010 showed quite an alarming spike in upward tempera-
tures we cannot read too much into any short-term statistic, but
must wait instead for the longer-term scenario to evolve.
Each side of the debate has much invested in proving that the
Sun either does, or does not, have a direct bearing on the warming
of the last 3040 years. Many research papers and studies have
been undertaken in search of an answer, the answer. Although
much has been learned and determined, not enough has been
convincingly shown to those taking the IPCC position that an
alternative explanation might have been found. However, some
researchers are increasingly confident that a larger solar-climate
connection may be in the process of being uncovered. Regardless,
judging from the breadth of recent papers, statements and articles
on the topic, it is clear that a unanimous voice among researchers
is still far from close to being a reality.
The Heart of the Controversy

The IPCCs present position is that all effective forcing factors
prior to 1970 warming were natural, and the Sun was the primary
driver. Critics of that position point to the large increases of anthro-
pogenic carbon dioxide that occurred between 1940 and 1970,
when, in fact the climate showed a decided cooling trend. The
IPCC has attributed this to volcanic aerosols, however. Before,
during, and since that time, CO2 continued to increase almost in a
uniform upward slope (EPA) [9]. However, although the IPCC has
strenuously maintained its position, critics have challenged this
assessment, maintaining that although the same average increase
in anthropogenic CO2 has been in play all along (at least, since
1900), only now has the IPCC found it necessary to implicate it!
They claim this is simply because they have no other explanation
for recent warming, despite what appears to be an inconsistent
position.
The controversy regarding whether natural or manmade
causes are responsible for recent climate change, then, lies at the
heart of the entire debate. Meanwhile, although the Sun indeed
might slowly have grown in irradiance between 1970 almost to
The Variable Sun 87
the present (albeit with some leaner years), this still remains a
subject of controversy. However, since 2001, most researchers
seem to agree that overall solar activity has not increased at all,
and the Sun actually might have entered a significant period of
lesser activity, not only in sunspots (Fig. 4.6a) but also in the
strength of its magnetic field (Fig. 4.6b).
Although readings of total solar irradiance and magnetic
activity during the period do bear this out, the range of increases
and decreases nevertheless is too small, say some, to have any
direct warming effect [10]. This is, perhaps, the second key, how-
ever. If the Sun were to be, in fact, somehow responsible, then the
warming has to be occurring from some indirect mechanism trig-
gered by it. (Let us ignore cosmic ray scenarios for now.) Since the
IPCC has only allowed for the direct warming effects of the Sun
in their models, this gets to the core of the argument. Some
researchers point to one possible explanation: extreme ultravio-
let radiation (EUV) that might energize reactions in the high
atmosphere, creating amplification of the warming. More about
this later.
A curious position was taken by Alan. S. Brown in an other-
wise extremely good article on the climate controversy [11]. In it
he stated that IPCC models which by and large he supported
did not allow for the direct effect on the climate by the variations
of sunspot activity! It sounded a bit like Canute again, and cer-
tainly seems to be a case of putting the cart before the horse, since
it is not the models that determine things.
The article is doubly curious, though, because Brown is partly
critical of skeptics, who he summed up as engineers and scien-
tists, of whom only some have climate-related degrees. This might
be true only in part, but maybe it is not true just of skeptics.
Although he is apparently a well-educated individual in related
fields, Brown, like many of the other skeptics he targets for criti-
cism, also appears to have no credentials in climate science.
Not that he should have to in order to have a thoroughly informed
opinion, but he created a contradiction of sorts by his own valida-
tion of the IPCC. Regardless, he concluded with a very reasonable
and perceptive remark that it is not only modelers but the true
skeptics who will be those to advance our understanding of the
climate.
FIG. 4.6 (a) Sunspot activity, with projected cycle activity. (b) Solar Mag-
netic Planetary Index, Ap (solar activity at a planetary scale)
The Variable Sun 89
A Solar Driver?
Although some scientists today believe that the Sun may indeed
be the primary driver of present-day climate change (see Gusev
et al. and Hoyt and Schatten [7] this is in direct contradiction to
todays predominant anthropogenic theories. Certainly, such alter-
nate concepts are controversial within the mainstream, to say the
least. However, those scientists engaged in researching these theo-
ries maintain there has been a virtual disregard of looking beyond
the status quo. Regardless, there has been a wide variety of findings,
ranging from confirmations of significant solar involvement to
virtually none at all. Contradictions seem to be the norm in all
areas of climate change studies.
The Suns intense magnetic field (Fig. 4.7) is directly linked to
many aspects of its activity. When the Sun is in an active phase we
can expect consequences on Earth, especially with communications
and transmissions of all kinds. This is because of the compression
it causes to Earths magnetosphere, as well as changes to the iono-
sphere the tenuous atmospheric component termed near-Earth
space. With energized ions, increased radiation is able to penetrate
normally protected regions and cause damage to satellite commu-
nication.
FIG. 4.7 The Suns magnetic field and solar wind (Graphic image courtesy
of NASA)
Solar flares are more likely to occur near irregular spots.

Plasma loops are frequently precursors to flares; usually when sun-
spots exist in pairs or multiples, being magnetic opposites, plasma
loops form bridges to their opposite counterpart. Figure 4.8a shows
how this strong force is actually made up of multiple strands of
plasma material bridging one sunspot to another; these strands
together make up the more familiar loops. Figure 4.8b presents the
more general appearance of loops at greater distances.
A Larger Solar Influence?
Recently, National Geographic made reference to research

that had determined that the effects of solar variation were
negligible. However, it was added that other more complex
mechanisms from increased solar irradiance might possibly
play a role.
Such an acknowledgement of any other possibilities is rare

to find in most similar mainstream sources.
Burroughs (see Chap. 2) pointed out that although sunspot

cycles also hunt in pairs, they do so with alternate polarity from
positive to negative, or vice versa. Although each spot will tend to
have a companion of the opposite polarity, as a group, they alter-
nate from leading to trailing each successive year. Sunspots also
take opposite polarities on each side of the solar equator. Thus,
with the annual alternations of polarity, we have a double cycle,
which is better known as the 22-year Hale Cycle. It is significant
that this double cycle is usually more pronounced in climatic
records than is the single 11-year cycle. The solar magnetic
polarity controls the direction of the interplanetary magnetic
field, which, in turn, reacts with the solar wind in Earths magne-
tosphere. It has been argued that this could create the mechanism
that amplifies the effect of any increases in solar irradiance, and
therefore indirectly the climate.
Once it had been determined that sunspots appeared to fol-
low an almost uniformly regular ~11-year cycle of growth and
The Variable Sun 91
FIG. 4.8 Solar plasma loops ((a) Image courtesy of Hinode JAXA/NASA
2007. (b) Image courtesy of NASA)
decline (with the end of one cycle overlapping the beginning of the
next), it was also noted that the number of sunspots within these
sequences followed a pattern of especially fast growth and slower
decline.
FIG. 4.9 Solar butterfly and relative sunspot surface area (Graphs courtesy
of NASA)
Figure 4.9 consists of two paired graphs. The top graph is of a

classic solar butterfly, whereby the progressive growth of the
sunspot appearances toward the solar equator can be seen in both
hemispheres through each 11-year cycle; they echo each other
almost perfectly. Although both graphs reference the same statis-
tics, each one adds understanding to the other. On the lower graph,
note the small amounts of sunspot cover relative to the total solar
disc, despite the appearance of huge swings on the graph below.
These phenomena cover no more than 0.5% of the entire solar
surface at any time. However, far from decreasing solar output by
that much, we can see that the potential net increase of 0.1% indi-
cates that the cooler sunspots can account for as much as 0.6% of
the activity.
In a 2003 NASA study it was estimated that solar irradiance
had been increasing with each 11-year sunspot cycle at a rate of
0.5% since the nineteenth century [12]. Furthermore, one of its
authors, Dr. Richard Willson (Principal Investigator of NASAs
ACRIM solar satellite program), ventured the not insignificant
opinion that if such a trend had indeed persisted throughout the
twentieth century, it would have accounted for a significant
The Variable Sun 93
FIG. 4.10 Periodic variation in sunspot number (Graph based on data from Hoyt
and Schatten [14])
FIG. 4.11 Variable output of the Sun (Graphic by Robert A. Rohde, courtesy
of Global Warming Art project)
component of the warming of the past 100 years that had been
featured in the IPCC reports.
Indeed, a gradually increasing trend of solar activity, as
recorded through sunspots until the end of the twentieth century,
can be noted on the 1997 graph in Fig. 4.10 (earlier, less reliable
proxy readings are in red). The graph shows the sunspot minimum
(Maunder Minimum) and seems to correspond clearly with the
Little Ice Age period. It should be noted that sunspot activity has
had some mild downturns in the intervening years since that time
(see paragraph following Fig. 4.11), but overall it climbed in inten-
sity through the duration of the graph sampling.
Figure 4.11 illustrates some contrasting, but similar, evidence

corresponding to such positions; regardless of the interpretations
of these findings, it does indicate overall measurable increasing
solar activity since the period of the Maunder Minimum and today.
The blue portion of the graph references deposits of beryllium-10
in ice core samples. These deposits are directly related to solar
magnetic activity (data from Beer et al. [13]). The red portion is
based on historical observational records of sunspot activity
(according to Hoyt and Schatten [14]).
The close correspondence of the upper points of activity in
10
the Be (beryllium isotope) proxy records and solar activity rela-
tive to sunspot numbers is striking. So, too, is the 11-year sunspot
cycle, in shape, marching almost in lockstep from one set of data
points to the other, but more specifically from century to century.
Measurements since 1980 do appear to show some correlation to
increased temperatures, in contrast to the fundamental position of
IPCC positions that the warming of the last 3040 years is almost
entirely due to anthropogenic causes.
It is interesting to note that traces of other cycles may be
glimpsed on these graphs. The so-called Gleissberg 70- to 100-
year cycle is one; however, more detailed graphs are needed to
show that cycle definitively. It should be noted that the Gleissberg
cycle encompasses more than just the number of sunspots, and
includes cycle length and sunspot structure. In his 2000 paper,
Shahinaz M. Yousef provided dates for the most recent activity of
these cycles [15]. Minimums were indicated at 17971823, 1877
1913 and projected 19972032. Maximums were shown in 1778,
1860 and 1981. Although minimum periods of the cycle can be
seen with a little effort in these graphs, not all aspects are com-
pletely clear, once again revealing how convoluted the statistics of
climate change truly are. The last maximum in the series is also
considerably longer than the norm, so it may be easy to miss on
casual inspection of any graph.
The graph (Fig. 4.12) shows the degree that sunspot activity
has varied over an 11,000-year time frame. The Sun shows itself as
anything but monotonously constant, in spite of its stability com-
pared to other stars. In an historical context of thousands of years,
present day values do not appear remarkable.
In slight contrast, Solanki et al. had already come to the opin-
ion that solar output in the last 70 years had been exceptional, the
The Variable Sun 95
FIG. 4.12 Sunspot activity over the past 11,000 years (Graph by Conscious,
based on data from Solanki et al. [16], 11,000-year sunspot reconstruction
IGBP Pages/World Data Center for Paleoclimatology Data Contribution Series
#2005-015. NOAA/NGDC)
present time corresponding only to the period 8,000 years ago [16].
They also found that solar activity of a similar level to that experi-
enced since 1940 registered to the same degree for only 10% of the
entire previous 11,000-year period. Proxy records, although impre-
cise, give us a better indication of what has occurred in the past,
and what may be in store in the future. More accurate data of recent
times will undoubtedly provide measurements by which theories
of possible solar interactions with climate will be tested, especially
with regard to the present rates of CO2 increase. Should tempera-
tures fall, in step with solar activity, or even soon thereafter, it
would cause quite a stir in the climate research community.
Further reinforcement of the contention that there is an indi-
rect link with solar variation and climate may be found in an arti-
cle in Science [17]. It was remarked that a link of radiative forcing
to the El Nino ocean thermostat could be demonstrated and
confirmed by proxy records over the course of the Holocene. This
does correspond with the findings of Kevin Trenberth, as discussed
in Chap. 3, but the link to ENSO events is still not considered by
all researchers to have been proven.
If the results of small changes to the Suns radiant output are
not immediately reflected on Earth with each cycle, a time delay
between contributing solar activity and reaction of Earths climate is
a possible explanation. This has prompted several theories about
such a possible phenomenon, termed Long Term Persistence, and its
potential causes (see Chap. 6, [11, 17]). If the phenomenon exists, the
present sunspot Cycle 24 might be slow to oblige in supplying evi-
dence of a cooling trend, effectively allowing continued assertions
on both sides about what is actually occurring in Earths climate.
Opposing the notion of majority opinion of those favoring
the IPCC position, some researchers believe that failures in exist-
ing climate models have resulted from not including all possible
inputs, but actually from discounting some possible key factors.
Only as recently as in the 2007 TAR would the IPCC make direct
reference and acknowledgement of the 11-year solar cycle, as well
as its effects on atmospheric ozone, the various hypotheses of the
Suns influence on cloud formation (including through direct inter-
actions with cosmic rays), possible tropospheric changes associ-
ated with the cycle, and warmer, wetter periods at solar maximum,
including winds in the upper atmosphere. It also referenced the
difficulties of determining certainties in creating projections.
K. Georgieva, in his paper, Why the Sunspot Cycle is Double

Peaked, Astronomy & Astrophysics, Vol. 2011, Article ID
437838, remarked that many sunspot cycles show a double
peak. As early as 1967, it had been thought that all cycles
might have two peaks brought about by other processes, but
the time between them often being too small to distinguish
from measurements of the total sunspot activity.
More telling still was the remark commenting on substan-

tial uncertainty in the identification of climate response to solar
cycle variations, because the satellite period is short relative to
the solar cycle, and because the response is difficult to separate
from internal climate variations and the response to volcanic
eruptions. This certainly sounds like something of a partial
concession to the hailstorms of critics who had maintained that
some of these factors were being ignored. However, there does not
appear to have been any mitigation to their overall position or
models, in spite of the acknowledgment of so many uncertainties.
But it does at least appear to be a beginning of a search for middle
ground, uniformity and (hopefully) agreement.
The Variable Sun 97
Solar Radiation, Ultraviolet Light,

Ozone and the Atmosphere
In 1980, new solar satellite surveillance provided consistent mea-
surements of solar irradiance, including ultraviolet light transmis-
sions at the high end of the spectrum. Because the solar flares
(related to sunspot activity) were thought likely to be implicated
in increased ultraviolet emissions, it was important to determine
what effect they had on Earths environment. In 1990, a carefully
crafted model by noted researchers Judith Lean and Peter Foukal
detailed how ultraviolet radiation measurements now could be
calculated back to the beginning of the twentieth century, and
even earlier [18].
The Effect of Solar Variation on Climate
In the Stanford Solar Center (online), it was stated that a

recent review paper by both solar and climate scientists
had concluded that although the Sun might be implicated in
climate change to a small degree, its effect was much smaller
than estimates of forcing from anthropogenic contributions.
In other words human activities were held to blame as the
primary factor in global climate change.
Here we have another example of a blanket statement
made in the absence of citing the actual study referenced, and
from a major institution, no less. Whenever we become aware
of such positions stated in a vacuum, we should always sus-
pect that there might be other arguments from the opposite
side of the coin.
Ultraviolet radiations relationship with Earths atmosphere

is complex and also varies disproportionately with solar activity,
with small increases in activity producing large increases in high-
frequency UV. Cornelius de Jager ventured the opinion that inter-
actions between solar plasma ejections with cosmic rays, together
with UV irradiance due to variations during the 11-year cycle, are
among the prime suspects in climate change. An exhaustive
analysis of the research into his position may be found in his 2008
paper [8]. In another paper dating from 2006, he and Ilya Usoskin
concluded that variations in solar UV flux are likely to affect tem-
peratures more than variations in cloud cover from cosmic rays
(for more on cosmic rays and Earths atmosphere, see also Chap.
12) [19]. Burroughs also dealt comprehensively with the topic of
UV, cosmic rays and climate in his book.
Photochemical processes also affect the composition of the
atmosphere. Oxygen (O2) absorbs solar radiation under 240 nm,
but UV produces more energetic auroral and proton particles that
break apart O2 into atomic oxygen (O), a free radical. Other free
radicals are created, too, including nitric oxide (NO), hydroxyl
(OH). Ozone (O3) is produced as a consequence of ultraviolet radia-
tion photochemical/catalytic reactions with other free radicals,
while this double ionization of oxygen (O2) and atomic oxygen (O)
also warms the surrounding air. Ozone also absorbs solar radia-
tion. UV is readily absorbed by ozone from 240 nm up to 310 nm
in the upper stratosphere, providing protection below on Earth
against electromagnetic radiation.
Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) are organic compounds that

contain carbon, chlorine, and fluorine, volatile derivatives of
methane and ethane. Commonly related subclasses are
hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs) with hydrogen partly
comprising them. The refrigerant dichlorodifluoromethane
(R-12 or Freon-12) is one of the most common examples. Oth-
ers may be found as aerosol propellants and solvents.
However, like atomic oxygen (O), ozone (O3) is a very unsta-

ble gas, soon to be stripped of an atom by the absorption of solar
radiation (!) to become once again oxygen and atomic oxygen,
repeating the cycle in a seemingly endless loop. Additionally, man-
made chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) have been implicated in playing
a role. Because there is a natural balance of ozone depletion and
production high in the stratosphere, the addition of chlorine (Cl)
from the photochemical reactions with CFCs, along with atomic
oxygen (O) can also act as a catalyst in destroying ozone.
The Variable Sun 99
Some researchers seized upon this concept as possibly the

Holy Grail. Krikova et al. concluded that although solar irradiance
is the main external driver of climate, it drives it through the effect
of the UV component on the chemical and physical processes of
the upper atmosphere [20]. They argued that this factor was espe-
cially significant, since solar irradiance had increased overall dur-
ing the past four centuries.
A characteristic of increased ozone is incrementally lower
transmission to Earths surface of the solar spectrum at increasing
latitudes, because of the greater diffraction relative to lower con-
centrations. The effect of this on climate becomes most significant
during wintertime during cycles of increased solar activity. It has
been theorized that increased relative warming of layers of the
middle atmospheric, in turn, creates significantly wider tempera-
ture differentials between the poles and equator, with resulting
greater Hadley cell convection processes. Thus, such altered air
circulation currents may be responsible for more unstable condi-
tions incrementally towards the poles, and with that, the greater
the likelihood of colder, more inclement winters in the higher
latitudes during these times.
It should not be surprising, however, that we find reduced
ozone towards the poles (the so-called ozone holes), because it is
here that UV is less prevalent due the increasing angles of the inci-
dence of solar radiation, and CFCs destructive role is undimin-
ished. We can also see how Earths seasons may play a role in ozone
concentrations through changes in the amount of UV reaching the
upper atmosphere. It is not clear, however, that anyone at this
time is able to determine clear specifics of such complex processes,
let alone predict their effect adequately for any given climate
model or scenario to be stated with precision.
U. Langematz et al. presented an analysis of these processes in
detail, as well as the complex resulting effects of atmospheric inter-
actions [21]. Significantly, her groups concluding remarks stressed
that climate models needed to reflect the input of solar variations,
together with better observational data, in order to attain accurate
assessments of the Suns influence. (The extensive volume of stud-
ies featuring her co-author, K. Matthes, and those related to the
11-year cycle, atmosphere, ocean currents, ozone, geomagnetic
forcing, etc., is also a highly interesting resource [22]).
Leans and Foukals names remain permanently associated

with solar research and its relationship with Earths climate. Leans
follow-up study in 1997 to her 1990 landmark paper with Foukal
continued to stress the importance of solar activity on Earths cli-
mate, although she was not prepared to state that definite links
had been established [23]. She found the link to depletion and con-
tributions of anthropogenic CFC gases within the 11-year sunspot
cycle to be striking, and determined that the effects of EUV
(extreme ultraviolet) radiation on the upper atmosphere were
undisputed.
Extreme ultraviolet radiation (EUV) is a high-energy ultravio-

let radiation, spanning wavelengths from 120 nm down to
10 nm. EUV is naturally generated by the solar corona and
artificially by plasma and synchrotron light sources (radially
accelerated to higher frequencies, such as magnetically).
We should also bear in mind that since the Suns energy spec-
trum is not evenly distributed, and increased radiation is dispro-
portionately skewed towards the higher frequencies (i.e., UV and
EUV), this may be another key. Lean also confirmed that solar
activity was at an historically elevated level. Stressing the uncer-
tainty of determining the degree that the Suns influence is affected
by fractions of a percent of forcing changes, Lean further remarked
that the many unknown and likely factors in the twenty-first
century would complicate peoples abilities to determine the total
natural and anthropogenic forcings and feedbacks (positive or neg-
ative) of future climate projections.
Interestingly, Lean acknowledged that there was cautious
confidence that the 11-year solar cycles do indeed affect varia-
tions in temperature, ozone, and winds. This was a striking posi-
tion compared to some of the heated debate that has occurred in
the interim. There were also interesting comments about the
problems facing climate modelers, instead of just insisting that
they had included all presently known factors.
The Variable Sun 101
All in all, this report makes an impressive and balanced

assessment of as many factors as could be accounted for at the
time that could be realistically theorized or demonstrated. How-
ever, in a 1996 article (The Sun and Climate) located on the web-
site of the U.S. Global Change Research Information Office, Leans
curious and repeated use of the terminology burning in describ-
ing the workings of the Sun is hard to reconcile with a scientist of
her reputation, or indeed, the U.S. Global Change Research Infor-
mation Office where the article may be found! [24].
Looking for Common Ground

If looking for common ground sounds political and not what we
should be contemplating, at least it speaks to reason and calm
debate. Noted Israeli researcher Nir J. Shaviv provides just such a
demonstration of reason in his discussion on his website Science-
Bits, where he contemplates that the truth may lie somewhere in
the middle natural forcings being the dominant driver in the
twentieth century, and anthropogenic forcing assuming increasing
significance in the twenty-first [25]. However, he does state that
there is no evidence for the link of greenhouse gases to the observed
increasing temperatures, only that they are a possible factor and a
theoretical forcing agent. Furthermore, he states that carbon diox-
ide has only been implicated because of the lack of another expla-
nation, something we have heard before. It is also interesting that
he blames the media for the simplistic picture painted of the
mechanisms involved in climate change, as well as many climate
scientists. Strong words indeed.
Ultimately, Shaviv looks to indirect solar forcing, whereby
climate warming results from secondary responses to the initial
solar forcing, while he maintains that we still have no way to mea-
sure the extent of anthropogenic forcing. We will return later in
this book to some of Shavivs own hypotheses, which look to astro-
nomical causes for some of the explanations. A 2001 paper by Pl
Brekke, effectively drew a similar conclusion, that both anthropo-
genic and natural causes could play equal or dominant roles in
climate change [26]. Significantly, he pointed to the weakness of

existing climate models, because of the input of direct forcing
effects of solar irradiance, a sentiment that also has been expressed
frequently and repeatedly by others.
Other research also seems to have its feet firmly planted in
both camps. The authors Natalia G. Andronova and Michael E.
Schlesinger saw truth in all viewpoints, although they concluded
anthropogenic forcings were the present primary drivers [27]. How-
ever, they entertained the possibility, presented in 1997 by no less
a figure than James Hansen himself (director of the Goddard Insti-
tute for Space Studies, and perhaps the most renowned of all AGW
proponents), that unknown forcings might also be responsible.
Apparently Hansen no longer believes this, arriving at a place
where he and others have parted ways.
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gcrio.org/CONSEQUENCES/winter96/sunclimate.html
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sciencebits.com/CO2orSolar
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5. Short-Term Climate Variation
Climate Change in the Past Thousand Years

Much has been made of possible variations in the climate over the
past 1,000 years, with strong arguments presented on both sides.
Such variations in climate have been indicated in many types of
historical (proxy) records, and to some degree reported in litera-
ture, with extended periods theorized as substantially warmer and
colder than those of today. However, some researchers continue to
question exactly what took place, if indeed, anything did at all.
This is simply because of the lack of consistent and reliable records;
proxy data is all we have.
Proxy Evidence for the Warm

and Cool Periods
Proxy evidence indirect indicators of the historic record is deduced
from many sources. These records are wide in scope, ranging from
extrapolating power spectra relative to solar activity, or the state of
human development from known factors including carbon-14 and
oxygen-16/18 dating of ice cores, geologic evidence of climate varia-
tions, sea level records, sea ice variations over the past 9,000 years
with new sediment analyses of its effects on deep ocean currents,
utilizing argon and nitrogen isotope records, even research in the
Sargasso Sea. By such means many researchers believe they have
confirmed climate variations of at least 1C in both directions [1].
Proxy evidence from the past 1,000 years points to a warm
period in northern Europe, based on indirect dating techniques.
Although many supporters of the IPCC position have sought
to question the reality of the warm period (because it lacks the
drivers of warming utilized in present-day climate models), proxy
evidence includes glaciers that show traces of vegetation at their

extremities dating from after that time a sure sign of recent

renewed glacial expansion. There are numerous proxy indicators of
the cold period at many locations worldwide, too, although they do
not seem to have occurred necessarily at precisely parallel times.
The evidentiary trail has been sufficient for some researchers
to believe there is nothing out of the ordinary in conditions at the
present time of writing. However, this trail, though not conclusive,
points to significant periods within the past 1,000 years that do not
equate with what we would consider the predominant climate of
the Holocene, especially to the most notoriously controversial sup-
posedly warm and cold periods (the Medieval Climate Opti-
mum and the Little Ice Age). It is hard to determine if the Medieval
Climate Optimum might have been comparable to the warming
experienced during the course of the twentieth century. If, as some
have proposed, the Suns small variations are sufficient to affect
climate noticeably, such a finding would be significant indeed.
What is clearly significant now, however, is that some of the
more recent proxy research stands in direct contradiction to some
of the older studies, which in the meantime have become staples
of IPCC protocol [2]. Following measured acceptance of both phe-
nomena by the IPCC in its first assessment in 1990, the panel
gradually moved towards rejection and discredit of the Medieval
Climate Optimum and the Little Ice Age due to much of the older
research. Thus, in just over 10 years, the IPCC moved from its
original position to the opposite (1990 FAR to 2001 TAR). In doing
so, the phenomena, clearly present in 1990, somehow had van-
ished without a trace by 2001. These changes of direction did not
go unnoticed, as critics of the IPCC were quick to pounce and
accuse the organization and those who supported it of changing
their views to suit the official stance.
The Medieval Climate Optimum

The concept of warm and cold periods is hardly new. Most notably,
it had been raised by other earlier twentieth century researchers in
1965 by H. H. Lamb, the iconic climatologist. His writing, The
early medieval warm epoch and its sequel, remains monumental
to this day, although not without controversy [3]. Researching
proxy evidence from the Southern Hemisphere to the arctic north,
Short-Term Climate Variation 107
Lamb believed that approximately 1,000 years ago temperatures

were as much as 2C higher than those of the cooler mid twentieth
century decades prior to the 1960s, even up to twice that in higher
latitudes. Interestingly, phases of human development seem to
have coincided with such proposed periods, in that warmer periods
brought about prosperity and advancement of civilizations, whereas
cold times effectively stalled it [4].
During the other period in which it has been theorized the
climate was warmer than any time up to the present the Medi-
eval Climate Optimum some have claimed temperatures rose
well in excess of anything we have experienced in recent times.
Certainly there are no eyewitness records of sunspot activity dur-
ing medieval times, so it is not possible to show increased solar
output by direct records. Many researchers have questioned the
reliability of the only indicators we have proxy records.
The Medieval Climate Optimum
Far from accepting the premise of the Medieval Climate Opti-

mum, many commentators claim that other regions of the
world became cooler when Greenland warmed in medieval
times, and also that the average global temperature today is
higher than it was during that period.
Regardless, any commentary that states as a matter of
fact things that remain controversial, or unclear at best, are
not helpful. In truth, we really do not know exactly what
occurred during medieval times and can only hope that one
day it will be possible to end the debate; meanwhile, a lot
depends on whom ones faith rests.
Some scientists have proposed that the mechanisms respon-

sible for present-day warming are no different from those that
occurred during medieval times, and that such climate variations
are natural and recurring. Those who have claimed that the occur-
rence of these warm and cold periods is questionable have found it
more difficult to justify how some of the artifacts from medieval
times came into being. Without a warmer climate playing a role,
what could have caused the conditions necessary to enable their
existence is still undetermined.
The Little Ice Age

Historically, if we accept the premise of proxy records, in the past
1,000 years we can see that a period of minimal sunspot activity
(the Maunder Minimum) appears to correspond with the reported
coldest portion in the middle of an apparently larger cold period in
the climate (15501850), a time better known as the Little Ice Age;
the later Dalton Minimum also seems to fit the latter part of that
overall period. (The Maunder and Dalton Minimum may be seen
on the graph in Chap. 4, Fig. 4.11; on the graph, the unnamed Dal-
ton Minimum is the next significant dip in solar activity that
occurred after the named Maunder Minimum.)
The Maunder Minimum and the Little Ice Age
The period of solar inactivity (the Maunder Minimum)

also corresponds to a climatic period called the Little Ice
Age when rivers that are normally ice-free froze and snow
fields remained year-round at lower altitudes. There is
evidence that the Sun has had similar periods of inac-
tivity in the more distant past. The connection between
solar activity and terrestrial climate is an area of ongoing
research.
NASA
NASA does seem to have taken the position that the Little Ice
Age did, in fact, exist, remarking on its website, During the
Little Ice Age from the early 1400s to late 1800s, the vegeta-
tion changed again to plants that favored cooler and wetter
climates. The core records revealed increases in spruce and
hemlock that prefer cooler and wetter climates.
Although not a true ice age according to precise definitions,

the Little Ice Age nevertheless appears to have been an extended
period of decidedly cold conditions, especially significant to the
advancing civilizations of northern Europe. A chilly impression
of these times seems to be maintained throughout literature (i.e.,
in Charles Dickens England) as well as in art (see Fig. 5.1), right
FIG. 5.1 Winter landscape with iceskaters, c. 1608; Skating on a frozen

river during the little ice age (Oil painting by Hendrick Avercamp)
up to the end of the first half of the nineteenth century. Life

would have been very challenging even more so than usual if
a true cold period was something the populace of the time had to
deal with.
However, changing patterns in the way of life of the time, the
varying dates of the apparent occurrence of the cold period around
the world, as well as the state of early technology, are among the
difficulties in determining exactly what took place. Because dis-
putes still rage about solar activity, or more precisely, the lack of
it, knowing exactly how much colder (if at all) the Little Ice Age
actually might have been could be pivotal. Research has included
even the study of small changes of Earths atmospheric transpar-
ency to solar radiation that might have proved sufficient to trigger
cold periods or ice ages [5]. Certainly the indications are there:
contemporary depictions of skating on frozen rivers, winter ice
fairs and ice carnivals, etc. However, simpler explanations
might provide at least some of the answers. For example, different
uses of waterways may have contributed sufficiently to water stag-
nation to allow it to freeze; it has been argued quite reasonably
that later dredging of riverbeds could have greatly retarded ice for-
mation.
Trying to Explain Both Periods

As recently as 2009, while agreeing that parts of the world experi-
enced warmer times that corresponded to the Medieval Climate
Optimum, the prominent climatologist Michael Mann was still
clinging to his conviction that the warm period was not a global
phenomenon at all, but strictly localized in relation to attributes
other than true drivers of climate. In two 2002 encyclopedia arti-
cles, although conceding that the cold period had existed in north-
ern Europe, Mann raised the possibility that volcanic activity or
the North Atlantic Oscillation could have resulted in cooling tak-
ing place in that location, but not globally [6]. In his parallel entry,
Mann related similar views, while acknowledging that indeed the
climate in high latitudes of Europe appeared to have been warmer
during earlier times than several centuries later. He indicated that
in some regions of the Northern Hemisphere the range of tem-
peratures might have been more pronounced than in others,
although in general they remained largely constant.
Overall, Mann remained guarded about pronouncing any-
thing out of the ordinary for either period, citing lack of support-
ing evidence, viewing, for instance, the demise of the oft-quoted
settlements in Greenland as being due more to declining socioeco-
nomic factors than a cooling climate. Proxy evidence in Green-
land (even more revealed by its name) shows Viking occupation
and agriculture, and much of the landmass they occupied (includ-
ing gravesites) apparently remained deeply frozen for centuries
since. Although Mann agreed with the view that Norse setters had
inhabited the southernmost coastal portion of the country in
medieval times, this was as far as he was prepared to go. Interest-
ingly, also in the second of the two articles, Mann raised the pos-
sibility of astronomical factors coming into play and contributing
to the Little Ice Age.
General estimates for potential warming since the Maunder
Minimum has been widely studied; two examples out of many
might provide some insights about some of the conclusions and
methodologies used in their determinations [7]. Regardless of the
cause, the warming during the past 100 years seems not to have
followed the same pattern over the 1,000 years relative to histori-
cally projected solar variation.
Manns Hockey Stick

In 1998/1999 Michael Mann headed the group that famously pro-
duced the original climate model for the past 1,000 years, better
known today as the iconic Manns Hockey Stick (Fig. 5.2) [8]. This
showed no significant periods of early warming at all but did lead
to a radical spike upwards into the new century beyond anything
experienced during the entire sample period. Certainly 1,000 years
ago, there was no evidence for elevated levels of CO2 in the atmo-
sphere.
Manns graph caused an immediate outcry, because to many
other researchers at the time, the numerous types of proxy records
seemed to show things differently. However, the graph was a star
feature in the 2001 IPCC Third Assessment Report (TAR), and
thus became unwittingly perhaps the best-known climate change
symbol for those who challenged anthropogenic global warming
(AGW) theories.
Mann would concede that proxy records do contain error
bars, especially the further back in time from which they are uti-
lized. Overall, however, most other independent research papers
essentially came out in agreement. Perhaps Mann goosed the
FIG. 5.2 Manns Hockey Stick (Graph courtesy of IPCC TAR 2001)
argument by declaring that anthropogenic greenhouse gases were

entirely responsible for the warming of recent past decades. Though
clearly something he believed, Mann may not have realized it
would set off a firestorm. He later admitted to regretting the way
the IPCC had used his graph at the outset of their assessment to
create the most sensational impact possible, because he consid-
ered it to be a work in progress.
Perhaps the most obvious shortcoming of the graph is its use
by other researchers to prove the Hockey Sticks relationship
of CO2 to temperature. Some argued that if the situation were as
dire as some made it appear, one might have expected global tem-
peratures to already be far greater than at any time since the end of
the last major ice age. Regardless, in 2006, the National Academy
of Sciences concurred with the findings of Mann, which would be
sure to keep the Hockey Stick firmly in view. Interestingly,
unexplained discrepancies have been found to exist between the
lag of observed temperatures in recent decades and changes in
solar irradiance [9].
An Infamous Challenge
to the Hockey Stick
One of the best-known and similarly hot-button studies of climate
over the past millennia was that headed by Willie Soon, which
examined the entire period from medieval times to the present
[10]. It also has the dubious distinction for having stirred heated
accusations of questionable peer-reviewing practices in the jour-
nal that published its first version (Climate Change). In the paper,
which was expanded, rewritten and later published in Energy and
Environment, the researchers maintained that present-day warm-
ing was not exceptional. The authors examined a wide field of evi-
dence, which was, by default, all proxy. A degree of confidence in
each type of evidence was accorded, depending on the climate
measurements deduced.
Soon believed the methods used by Mann were out of step with
proxy climate evaluations, and that the use of empirical orthogonal
functions (EOFs) to evaluate proxy readings had introduced a
weighting towards the incorrect conclusions. Thus it was stated
that Manns study was biased too greatly on a worldwide model

instead of factors that would apply to individual local situations.
One does not leave the findings without the conviction that they
were aimed primarily at trying to refute the Hockey Stick an
effort to head it off at the pass. Mann rejected the study outright,
saying its authors got just about everything wrong.
But did Soon indeed get everything wrong? Certainly there is
sufficient tree-ring evidence, for example, to justify claims of the
medieval warm period from as far away even as New Zealand, cer-
tainly a great distance from northern European regions, and in a
different hemisphere at that [11]. Soon had already proposed that
such conditions were not limited to northern regions, but were in
fact a far wider-reaching phenomenon. Interestingly, Soon also
tied recent climate warming to ENSO events; with extensive
worldwide evidence of the Little Ice Age, the hypothesis was that
twentieth-century warming might be the late and final resolution
of it. In essence he claimed to have produced an empirically based
study versus a mathematical one. Significantly, he did not deny
the possible influence of humankind on the climate historically,
either, resting his case to a large degree on the recent strong warm-
ing trends not in any way synchronized to the near monotonic
increases in CO2 concentrations during the twentieth century.
This is an observation we have already seen made by others, of
course.
However, for those who claim that Soon was biased against
theories of anthropogenic causes of warming, this is indeed mostly
true, mostly because their position has been that the possible
warming effects of carbon dioxide are possible but not proven.
Regrettably, though, Soons study has remained so controversial
that it is hard to accept it without some recognition of its some-
what shaky position within the larger scientific community.
Compromise?
In 2005, a new ray of hope appeared, bridging the gap between the
extremes of Mann and Soon. Better known as Moberg et al., it
seemed to blend possibilities from both extremes into something
likely to be a more accurate picture of the past 1,000 years [12].
FIG. 5.3 Moberg et al. reconstruction (Courtesy of NOAA)
Still showing something of the hockey stick upward ramp at the

end, it appeared less extreme, while the Medieval Warm Period
and Little Ice Age became clearly discernable (Fig. 5.3). The authors,
significantly, allowed for natural causes as significant contributors
to the changing climate, including solar variation and aerosols.
They did not consider present warming was due exclusively to
natural or manmade causes, a significant departure from Manns
position.
The Question of the Suns Involvement

The Sun has featured large in much of this recent research, often
with conclusions that possible periods of climate change were
most likely closely tied to variations of solar irradiance. Some
studies have tied as much as two thirds of climate temperature
fluctuations possibly to solar forcing and volcanic aerosols. This
would seem to be in partial agreement both with Soon and Mann.
Others have concluded, too, that these anomalies have caused too
many problems to justify current climate models.
Studies of the Suns possible role in climate are far from new.
Although examples exist from the mid-twentieth century, there
had always remained an inability to measure accurately the Suns
output, simply because of the limited history of solar observations
and the technical means to measure it. Thus it has been difficult
to compare the active and quiet Sun over the greater histori-
cal record.
It is very unlikely that the twentieth-century warming can be

explained by natural causes. The late twentieth century has
been unusually warm. Palaeoclimatic reconstructions show
that the second half of the twentieth century was likely the
warmest 50-year period in the Northern Hemisphere in the
last 1,300 years.
IPCC, TAR 2007
Some dramatic theories have emerged recently, in which the

quietest area on the present Sun was compared against the
minimum state of the historic Sun (according to isotope proxy
data) [13]. One claimed that on time scales of 501,000 years the
Sun had been the principal driver of climate throughout the past
7,000 years [14]. Unfortunately, any conclusions based on the
recent past (from 1980) could not be applied, because newly avail-
able satellite data confirmed that the Sun was already in a maxi-
mum phase of output during this time. Even more regrettably,
the focus of the climate debate today concerns the very years
since then!
That the research providing this conclusion was not accepted
for publication immediately upon completion made it the target of
claims of irrelevance by many on the opposite side of the argu-
ment, even though it would appear soon after in Astronomy and
Astrophysics. Some other well-written and well-researched papers
similarly have had to wait many months for acceptance and publi-
cation. Again, this illustrates that not all members of the larger
scientific community necessarily are benevolent to each other,
especially on this hot-button issue.
Other solar research does indicate that we might be at the
early stages of the downside of a recurring climate cycle, and that
we can expect overall cooling until later this century [15]. A cool-
ing of as much as 1.5C by 2020 has been theorized, based on weak
upcoming Solar Cycles 24 and 25. These cycles are regarded by
some as similar to the Dalton Minimum, a period of weak activity
that occurred between 1790 and 1830. However, it is too soon to
know what is actually going to happen; hopefully we will have
greater certainty over the next 10 or 20 years.
On the opposite side of the coin, some also have claimed the
Sun is not guilty of involvement in recent changes to the climate,
but for different reasons. In 2009, Science Daily led with a blanket
headline about new findings that had concluded that solar changes
were not responsible for global warming [16]. However, it turned out
to be mostly centered on the potential of cosmic rays to trigger cloud
formation via solar modifications to the rays (see Chap. 12) rather
than the more immediate links we have been discussing. It seems
that not everyone is talking about the same things! Thus it is possi-
ble to see that the range of concepts, from the hypothetical to the
less esoteric, is wide indeed, though the Sun continues to be a prime
focus of investigation.
The ACRIM Controversy

This infamous controversy best sums up all that has been at the
heart of many of the arguments aired in this chapter that is, the
variability of the Suns output and the potential effects of it. To get
to the crux of it, we need to look at the satellite record from 1980,
because it is only since then that we have had the advantage of
accurate solar irradiance measurements beyond the atmosphere.
Not only has it provided the specific measurements lacking before,
but it is highly illustrative to realize that even with such tools,
many of the more significant disputes from within the scientific
community have not been quelled at all.
A NASA satellite program known as ACRIM is an ongoing
space-based study to measure solar irradiance and its variations.
Because earlier measurements (from balloons) had never been of
sufficient reliability to make definitive judgments in the past, here
at last was an opportunity to have the answers all climatologists
had long been looking for. There have been five satellites to date
involved in this program, the intent being to provide a consistent
and continually monitored source of total solar irradiance (TSI),
and thus finally to remove all guesswork. In essence, ACRIM
promised to provide potentially a large part of if not the entire
smoking gun that some climatologists had long been looking
for. Perhaps unsurprisingly, it was only a matter of time until a
major rift emerged over the findings.
First we should know something of the program. ACRIM-1,
ACRIM-2, Nimbus-7/ERB and ERBS, and now ACRIM-3 were
names given to Earth orbit solar satellite programs. It was consid-

ered that, out of them, the ACRIM satellites were the most sophis-
ticated. However, a most unfortunate incident resulted in a period
of 2 years elapsing between the operational status of two of these
key satellites ACRIM-2 having been delayed due to the failure of
the space shuttle Challenger.
Critically, thus came about the now infamous ACRIM Gap,
the 2-year period coinciding with a time when the NIMBUS-7/
ERB/ERBS programs were expected to become less reliable as they
were reaching the ends of their operational life expectancy.
Specifically, the better of the two earlier satellites (ACRIM-1) was
out of action by the late 1980s, leaving the aging and slowly failing
NIMBUS-7 to perform sole monitoring for a time. The ACRIM
team therefore had to take into consideration a less than ideal sce-
nario in arriving at its findings, an approach excerpted from an
article on NASAs website, dated March 20, 2003:
Richard Willson, Principal Investigator of NASAs ACRIM

experiments, compiled a TSI record of over 24 years by care-
fully piecing together the overlapping records. In order to con-
struct a long-term dataset, he needed to bridge a two-year gap
(1989 to 1991) between ACRIM-1 and ACRIM-2.
Both the Nimbus-7/ERB and ERBS measurements over-
lapped the ACRIM gap. Using Nimbus-7/ERB results pro-
duced a 0.05 percent per decade upward trend between solar
minima, while ERBS results produced no trend. Willson has
identified specific errors in the ERBS data responsible for the
difference.
The accurate long-term dataset, therefore, shows a
significant positive trend (.05 percent per decade) in TSI be-
tween the solar minima of solar cycles 2123 (1978 to present).
This major finding may help climatologists to distinguish
between solar and man-made influences on climate.
However, this did not satisfy everyone. The ACRIM Gap

would thus become the subject of such a hugely disputed compo-
nent of the program that it almost derailed it. Another climate
team (PMOD in Switzerland), led by researchers Claus Frhlich
and Judith Lean, questioned these findings and claimed that the
TSI (Total Solar Irradiance) needed instead correction downwards
because of the ACRIM Gap.
It is significant that the small adjustment by the PMOD

researchers of the NIMBUS-7/ERB/ERBS data in question cre-
ated an entirely different outcome from the conclusions of the
ACRIM team. In two separate assessments (1998 and updated in
2006) Frhlich demonstrated that solar irradiance had, in fact,
decreased rather than increased. This resulted in a scientific
feud that has become notorious, with Frhlichs most recent
response coming as late as 2008 [17]. Thus we have a relative
minutia of the total data that resulted in two entirely opposite
conclusions. The most sophisticated measuring system of all
was unable to settle the argument, and thus, the potential silver
bullet of the climate change debate had become the subject of
the debate itself!
In response, Willson protested [18]:
The unauthorized and incorrect adjustments made by PMOD
researchers, without any detailed knowledge of ACRIM-1
instrument or on-orbit performance, original analysis or any
consultation with the ACRIM team.
PMODs inferior and less accurate measuring systems.
That PMOD had pandered to those who support anthropogenic
causes of warming, a clear shot across the bow of the IPCC.
Meanwhile, an independent assessment of the controversial
satellite readings was carried out at the National Solar Observatory
in Kitt Peak, Arizona; records of the full solar disk taken at the
observatory did, in fact, precisely confirm the ACRIM records. Since
then, other more sophisticated satellites have been performing the
monitoring, typically with considerable overlap, so their results are
not in question. In fact they are quite compatible, and not the sub-
ject of any dispute. Thus it comes down to two critical years!
Solar Activity
In efforts to support the AGW position, we frequently hear

claims that recent global warming and solar activity have
been moving in opposite directions.
Although this position is indeed supported by the PMOD

position, attempts to take it preemptively, in lieu of any
acknowledgement of the alternate conclusions of the ACRIM
team (responsible for the satellite program itself that has mea-
sured solar activity since 1980) may not be noticed by most
people. The ACRIM conclusions, polar-opposite in virtually
every way, indicated an increased level of solar activity until
the beginning of the twenty-first century. In any fair and unbi-
ased presentation of information, readers are entitled to full
disclosure. They will not necessarily receive it from all
sources, and ought thus to remain wary.
We can examine the ACRIM researchers findings from the

graphs themselves, having become some of the most widely known
of all. To make sense of what may appear to be complex, first we
must recognize, overall, the 11-year solar cycles, shown here in
various segments (according to the satellite that had provided the
data) as waveforms representing peak and minimum output, up
and down, like hills and dales. The five satellites in use for the
program had different and varying life spans, none of them cover-
ing the entire period represented over the entire graph.
The period of each solar cycle can be referenced along the top
of the graph, showing Cycles 2124. These correspond to the dates
along the bottom of the graph. If we attempt in our minds to merge
all the satellite solar output waveforms (each one named) into one
horizontal level (i.e., raising the red and black waves all to that of
the blue level), it will result in a single up and down curved hori-
zontal waveform). This is the continuous map of all the covered
cycles in the program. The ACRIM Gap can be seen as a straight
line (named on the graph) between 1979 and 1981.
From these findings, the ACRIM scientists performed what
they considered to be the exact adjustments necessary to the
findings, resulting in a uniform average waveform being estab-
lished for the entire period, much along the lines just suggested
(Fig. 5.4). However, the readings from the ailing NIMBUS-7 satel-
lite required adjustment to offset the increasing error appearing in
its record. Note in Fig. 5.5 that the red dots at the bottom of each
FIG. 5.4 The complete satellite record from 1980 to 2011 (Graph courtesy
of NASA/ACRIM)
cycle show a lower point for Cycle 23 than Cycle 22. The upshot
is that the period when warming trends were significant in the
1990s coincided with increased solar irradiance, according to the
ACRIM researchers.
Next, compare the results of the adjustment made by the
PMOD team in Switzerland, subtly different but quite the oppo-
site to that of the ACRIM team. Their claim, thus, was that
significant warming occurred during a time of decreased solar
irradiance! Note how just a small difference of measurement
produces a dramatically different result. This led to the PMOD
teams entirely different conclusions about the larger issue of solar
output (Fig. 5.6).
Although his theories of cosmic rays, and our journey through
the galactic arms, led him to a new view of the ice ages, the leading
FIG. 5.5 The findings of the ACRIM team 19802011, with a continuous
slope gradient of solar irradiance up to 2011. Note also the first indication
of decrease during the present century, still higher than the first 11-year
solar cycle on the graph but lower than the second. This coincides with
many solar scientists claims that the Sun has now entered a cooling trend
since Cycle 23 (Graph courtesy of ACRIM/NASA)
researcher, Nir Shaviv, a long-time critic of the IPCC, was an

unlikely supporter of the PMOD findings, illustrating disagree-
ment even among those who oppose these views! [19]
Thus, with some still claiming that the PMOD interpretation
is more likely to be accurate, the controversy still remains at the
forefront of climate science to this day, and one of the most hotly
debated topics. Remarkably, members of the public seem com-
pletely unaware of it. For those who are aware, the perception of a
gap of credibility between researchers of different stripes must
only have reinforced the uncertainties of climate science in gen-
eral. It also reveals the degree of acrimony that has entered the
dialog between colleagues, regretfully, becoming personal for
FIG. 5.6 The solar irradiance gradient according to the PMOD researchers
(Graph courtesy of ACRIM/NASA)
some. For the rest of us, we have to build our own sense of where
reality may really lie.
Recent NASA Climate Data

We cannot leave this part of the discussion without looking at
some overall information from NASA Sun/climate research of
recent years. Some have stated that there is little correlation
between climate and solar activity, or that trends indicative of
recent climate warming have not been detected in the atmosphere.
The latter, at least, does seem contrary to NASAs graphs that
show temperature change at various altitudes in the atmosphere
since 1980 (Fig. 5.7). (Refer again to Chap. 2.)
FIG. 5.7 NASA records from 1979 to 2010 (Graphs courtesy of NASA)
An international panel of experts led by NOAA and sponsored

by NASA has released a new prediction for the next solar
cycle. Solar Cycle 24 will peak, they say, in May 2013 with a
below-average number of sunspots.
If our prediction is correct, Solar Cycle 24 will have a
peak sunspot number of 90, the lowest of any cycle since 1928
when Solar Cycle 16 peaked at 78, says panel chairman Doug
Biesecker of the NOAA Space Weather Prediction Center.
We can see that the upper layers (stratosphere shown in red)

have cooled significantly, which should indicate a warming trend
in the lower layers (troposphere yellow and blue). Indeed, the
graph does show this. Accounting for the infamous El Nino spike of
the 1990s and solar peak in 2001, as well as the effects of volcanic
aerosols, an overall warming trend seems clear. The temperature
readings of the upper and lower atmosphere expected with green-
house gases do indeed seem right in step with conventional warm-
ing theories. Whether the result here is due to increased CO2, water
vapor, other greenhouse forcing or feedback factors, or yet unex-

plained anomalies is, however, hard to determine, but thought pro-
voking nonetheless.
Just before 2010, according to this graph, the troposphere did
seem to have warmed to a greater degree than the stratosphere
cooled, and before that the stratosphere cooled to a slightly lesser
degree overall than did the troposphere. Thus, conclusions are not
clear-cut. Readers must, of course, decide for themselves what all
of this means, but it seems hard to doubt that the lower atmo-
sphere is warmer today and the upper atmosphere cooler than it
was in 1980.
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6. Gravitational Interactions
of the Solar System
We now have examined some elements of the Suns output and

behavior, as well as its variability. These are merely a taste of the
immensely complex and tangled interactions of what makes up
the mechanics of entire Solar System. More significant are possi-
bilities some researchers have raised that this mighty machine
may directly and indirectly affect the Suns output and Earths cli-
mate in ways that are usually not considered, or presently possible
to factor into projections (Fig. 6.1).
Do the Suns Travels in Space Affect

Its Output?
Since the Sun is not fixed in space, it is affected, to a small but not
insignificant degree, by the orbital masses of the planets (and espe-
cially Jupiter and Saturn). These giant planets cause the Sun to
orbit around what is termed its barycentric center (Fig. 6.2), in a
motion forming an epitrochoid. An epitrochoid is a strange geo-
metric animal; although superficially mimicking a circle (a closed
system), it is actually an endlessly open-ended series of smaller
loops subscribed inside larger loops. Ultimately it is a breed apart.
An epitrochoid also comes with its own unique parade of
visual stunts, and to an observer in a fixed location it will cause
the effect of retrograde motion from time to time. Imagine com-
pass points north, south, east and west on the graphic (Fig. 6.2). In
this instance the inner loops slowly work their way around the
circumference until they approach the opposite side relative to our
vantage point. If we are situated due southwest (where the Sun is
pictured on the graphic), looking at the Sun when it is due northeast,
the action of the inner looping will cause us to see the Suns motion

FIG. 6.1 The Suns domain: keys to climate? (Graphic image courtesy of
NASA)
FIG. 6.2 Motion of the Sun around the barycenter of the Solar System
(Graphic by Carl Smith)
Gravitational Interactions of the Solar System 129
as moving backwards relative to its constant clockwise movement

around the barycenter.
The solar orbital path (over two solar diameters) may seem
small relative to the Sun itself, but when we realize its diameter is
over 1,392,000 km, this is not an inconsiderable distance for it to
move in relation to the sizes and distances of the planets. Although
a link between solar activity and its orbital mechanics has yet to
be proven beyond a doubt, given that the Suns core is far denser
than its outer layers, the gravitational pull from the giant planets
should cause the core and fluid-like interior to gyrate within the
whole. Thus the varying distribution of the Suns mass as well as
its symmetry is directly affected, which, in turn, also affects plan-
etary orbits. It seems only reasonable that it could also affect the
inner processes of the Sun itself, and even perhaps produce mea-
surable effects we might experience in Earths climate.
Look at Fig. 6.2 again. Could it be more than a coincidence
that approximately 11 years elapses between outer points of any
imaginary complete double cycle of outer and inner loops, and the
reversing polarities of each 11-year cycle? The concept behind
such thoughts is not too far out of line with some ongoing research.
Some scientists have directly tied the familiar sunspots with plan-
etary interactions and the resulting internal solar upheaval, their
manifestations becoming most prominent at those times of maxi-
mum tidal stress. If the solar cycle can be thus tied to the planets,
we would expect to see a similar reflection in the movements of
the Sun as they influence it.
In the 1980s, the pioneer Rhodes Fairbridge speculated on
small changes to Earths orbit of up to 1% and its impact on the
climate [1]. According to his scenario, projected differences in dis-
tance to the Sun are the result of its barycentric orbit. However,
common to all of these studies, one of the potential results seems
eerily similar: significantly hotter or colder conditions, the orbital
changes being perhaps one of the mechanisms triggering ice ages.
As an early arrival (in the 1960s) to the study of the direct and vari-
able influences of the Sun on the Earth/Moon system through grav-
itational and electromagnetic energies, Fairbridge was a pioneer.
His work heralded investigations that would become central to the
research of many others in looking for celestial links to climate.
In 2003, D. Juckett theorized that all of the Suns activity
could be explained by the link of its barycentric motion to the
FIG. 6.3 The Sun and nearby planets (Image courtesy of NASA)
mechanics of angular momentum of the entire Solar System and

its spin-orbit coupling [2]. We already know that even the domi-
nant body also has its own orbital mechanics as barycentric
motion. Thus, for every given orbiting mass around another, there
are appropriate orbital and axial turning speeds for both. It has
been proposed that times of imperfect balance between the planets
and Sun could be the trigger for solar activity as the Sun compen-
sates for it by changing its rotational speed.
Spin-Orbit Coupling
This is the interactive gravitational process that controls

orbiting and rotating bodies in space in achieving a balance of
orbital and spin momentum. For any given distance and mass
of such orbital bodies, there will be a balance between them
whereby their individual orbital speeds and rotations are
locked into a total synchronicity reflecting those factors.
In 2004, Habibullo I. Abdussamatov also trod increasingly

familiar ground regarding potential external influences upon
climate, thus speaking volumes about the scientific potential of

new areas of research [3]. However, the reasons for greater atten-
tion not being paid to the concept of influences from beyond our
own world in general are less clear.
The planets probably having the greatest gravitational
influence on the Sun (and vice versa) are Mercury, Venus, Earth,
Jupiter and Saturn, simply because of their proximity and/or mass.
Figure 6.3 shows all of these planets but Earth, imaged in space by
NASAs Heliospheric Observatory. The far-reaching energy of the
Sun (flares and coronal mass ejections) is apparent despite the
blocking of its disc; it still dominates the view, along with activ-
ity in its corona and beyond.
Solar Variations
We can project from Fig. 6.2 approximately where the Sun may
presently be located in relation to previous years. According to the
chart, it has just entered a phase of greatly reduced output and is
considered to be in the second solar orbit within the larger nine-
orbit solar cycle. At this time early in Cycle 24, there has been a
noticeable decrease in sunspots, solar wind, and in radiant output
in the amount of 0.02% in the visible portion of its spectrum, and
about 300 times as much in the extreme ultraviolet portion. (See
again the discussion in Chap. 4 referencing disproportionate
increases in UV during active years).
During cold periods solar output reductions may seem small
in relation to the total. However, we have already seen that some
researchers believe that effects of this level of change on Earths
climate may be more significant than they might appear. They
have theorized the possible lowering of temperatures indirectly by
yet to be defined mechanisms, and not necessarily by just the
reduced influence of the disproportionately reduced high frequency
UV radiation. Additionally, a downside of a less active Sun is a
greatly reduced solar magnetic heliosphere, generally considered
to be a protection against cosmic radiation reaching Earth. Cosmic
rays have been implicated in cloud formation by other research,
and the possible mechanics of this process will be discussed in
Chap. 12. As would be expected, this related sub-topic has gener-
ated its own field of controversy.
A Cooling Period?
In definitive positions, such as can be found on the website

skepticalscience.com it is stated that there is no scientific basis
to claims that the planet (Earth) will enter a cooling phase in
the near term. Whether or not Earth is actually entering such a
phase, it can be shown that there is indeed a valid scientific
basis at the very least behind proposing such a scenario.
A Delicate Balance
Meanwhile, other researchers have continued to explore the pos-
sibilities of an Earth/astronomical connection. In a presentation at
the 2007 American Geophysical Union fall meeting, Ingo H. Leu-
bner demonstrated a quantitative model to reflect the degree that
planetary orbits can be affected by even slight changes to the Suns
radius [4]. Leubner spelled out some grisly specifics. Because the
Sun has been shown to vary by up to 1% in radius, his model
showed a directly linear, and remarkably sensitive, correlation
with radically altered planetary orbits.
Planetary Orbital Mechanics
A curious eighteenth-century theory named Bodes Law pro-

posed that the orbital radii of the planets in the Solar System
should correspond to a precise formula related to the standard
astronomical unit (AU). Discovery of a new planet was
considered imminent at the distance from the Sun of 2.8 AU,
and the name Ceres was selected in advance. Although Bodes
theory ultimately was rejected, it was not before one of the
largest objects in the Asteroid Belt had been wrongly assigned
as the discovery and given the preselected name.
His scenario for Earth was anything but rosy. With increased
solar radii corresponding to wider orbits and cooler climates and
vice versa amazingly small increases and decreases of the solar

radius were shown for Earth to move potentially close enough to
the Sun to destroy all life, or at the other extreme (of only 0.47%
solar radius increase) to release it from Solar System orbit (also
destroying all life)! Leubner also linked lesser variations to past ice
ages, but it was interesting that he did not dismiss AGW theories,
instead seeing their value in combination with others.
Leubner estimated margins for such disasters. They are far
less than most people might ever realize. Per 0.001% solar radius
change, a temperature variance of 0.29C, plus 0.90C per 0.67%
of orbital change could be expected in either direction depend-
ing upon whether the change is positive or negative. It would also
add or subtract more than a day from the calendar year. Further-
more, a 10% solar radius decrease would be sufficient to bring
Earth almost to the Suns surface! That serious and respected
figures have actually proposed linking to climate anything remotely
connected to external influences from deep space may come as a
surprise to those who have only contemplated the human role in
the equation. Even more clear is that the most microscopic change
in the Suns radius could affect the length of day (LOD) by as little
as a few seconds or minutes.
The 179-Year Cycle

Although the chaotic (the exact opposite of linear) nature of the
planets own orbital motions ensures that the path the Sun takes
will never quite duplicate itself, an overall period of about 179 years
elapses before all the planets are in approximately the same posi-
tions again. In this time, the Sun will have completed about 9
epitrochoidal circuits around the Solar Systems barycenter. Also,
once during this period the planets will have all aligned on one
side of the Sun, producing a tidal pull of potential significance.
Ching-Cheh Hung, of the NASA Glenn Research Center and
whose research we will return to in greater depth in Chap. 7,
attempted in 2007, with some success, to demonstrate that the
tidal effects of the planets are likely primary forces behind solar
activity [5].
Some believe it is possible to identify four such 179-year

cycles in the last eight centuries, when there have been periods of
cold on Earth at their minima. It has been speculated that these
historical periods may parallel the beginning of the present cycle
(including the Dalton and Maunder Minimums) and that similar
climatic consequences might be in store.
Curiously, Burroughs (see Chap. 1) pointed out that there is
another recognizable period of tidal resonance between Earth
and the Moon of almost exactly the same amount of time as this
179-year period at high latitudes. Whether this is more than a
coincidence, Burroughs also identified the 179-year solar align-
ment cycle (along with many more), but seemed to miss a poten-
tial connection with the almost identical period of the 179-year
lunar tide and perhaps some further possible connection to that of
the Sun. Stating that the Moon has a more profound influence on
Earth than other external cyclical influences (and therefore possi-
bly on its climate), if this was an oversight it seems surprising,
although the 179-year number may be just a coincidence he was
well aware of.
However, Burroughs was not the first to speculate on that
link. As early as 1965, Paul. D. Jose addressed the 179-year Solar
System cycle, in addition to its interaction of the 11-year sunspot
cycle [6]. In 1974, another research paper, by Cohen and Lintz,
examined the larger cycle and found that it has a regular frequency
that might be seen in the power spectra of solar activity [7]. How-
ever, over the years all of this early groundwork research regretta-
bly seemed to disappear from view.
The 60-Year Cycle

Regardless of ones sentiments about the causes of climate change
in general, there is more than enough reason to look further
at what has been loosely termed the 60-year cycle. Although the
precise number of years regarding its length is more of an average
than a precise figure, one can continue to find almost endless
references to the pattern in scientific literature.
If the 60-year cycle has continued to occupy attention amongst
those looking for larger connections to the sun, it is because it
appears to be the most prominently shown among temperature
FIG. 6.4 The 60-year cycle (Image courtesy @ British Crown copyright 2010,
the Met Office)
and proxy records, and thus is the most potentially significant.

Some believe that, due to the current theorized waning of the
cycle, this one external driver alone could largely counteract any
warming trends over the next few decades, and that temperatures
might be expected to increase by the end of the century by not
very much at all. Compared to the temperature increases indicated
by most climate models, this is in line with the projections
obtained by entirely different means (!) by T. J. Nelson, referenced
in Chap. 2. These more modest climate scenarios exist in stark
contrast to many scarier versions projected in most conventional
AGW theories.
We can detect the cycle when examining many graphics, even
when they are not specifically constructed to show the phenome-
non. One example is the temperature graph (Fig. 6.4) from the
Hadley Climate Research Unit in England, showing historical
readings from 1850 to the present. Although its purpose was merely
to show the record, it has been used frequently in articles and web-
sites to illustrate the possible existence of the cycle.
There are limitations to what we can infer, of course, imposed
on us by the relatively short time scale of accurate record keeping.
However, the 60-year cycle does seem clearly evident on the Had-
ley chart (approximately 18801940 and 19402000) and contained
within an overall upward temperature trend. It is not always so
clearly revealed on many other graphs. The El Nino spike of
1997/1998 is quite clear and draws our attention to similar spikes
at near comparable times in previous 60-year patterns. Histori-
cally, a strong El Nino event was registered in 1946, right in line
with the highest such spike. Similarly, as if right on cue with the
previous high mark, there was a notable increase of El Nino events
in the late 1870s, corresponding with a period of extreme drought
and famine in Asia at the time.
If we accept the possibility of a 60-year or so cycle, it would
appear that in 2011 we are occupying the downside of the last such
cycle, and might thus be seeing possibly the first clear stages of a
decline in warming. The full down and up cycle will bring us to
about 2060. Although the overall approximate 1C climate warm-
ing throughout most of the preceding twentieth century is not an
item of controversy, we can see that this is also clearly shown on
the graph by its continual upward trend.
Researchers and their theories concerning the 60-year cycle
are numerous, but among those who have inferred its existence
include the following:
Timo Niroma made explicit mention of such links in publi-
cations on his personal website [8]. He paralleled the larger
historical periods of sunspot activity (or lack thereof) that coin-
cide with the 60-year cycles of temperature. As he saw it, the
60-year timings are dead on, although they do not necessarily
alternate in sequence. There often can be more than one cold
or warming cycle in a row. He even listed the dates through the
past 400 years that correspond to solar cycles; certainly these
do seem to approximate the known record.
Craig Loehle, in his 2009 paper about the solar satellite record,
referenced many studies; 50- to 70-year cycles featured promi-
nently in his discussions and analyses [9]. Loehle concluded and
demonstrated that once the warming from cycles is removed
from trends shown in climate models, the upward curve bears
no resemblance to the warming and cooling periods under
examination.
Biondi et al. (2001) were able to tie proxy data to the historic
Pacific Decadal Oscillations and the El Nino Southern Oscilla-
tion, not only confirming historical periods of climate change
but reconciling these findings with an approximate 50- to
70-year cycle [10].
Klyashtorin and Lyubushin (2003) went even further [11]. They
first showed 60-year cycles, consisting of alternate periods of
warming for 30 years, followed by 30 years of cooling. In relat-
ing these statistics to the consumption of fossil fuels during
each 30-year span, they found little correlation, while noting
an overall warming trend from 1861. Utilizing data from ice
cores and their power spectra, they calculated it was possible to
accurately deduce a 64.13-year cycle from it. By this they were
able to produce a model of sorts that implied cooling from 2005
for the next 32 years (half of the cycle). We may soon see over
the next decade or two if their estimations resemble reality
in any way.
Michael E. Schlesinger and Navin Ramankutty similarly recog-
nized this cycle, but as a 65- to 70-year period, maintaining that
a broader cycle in the northern Atlantic Ocean of 5088 years is
responsible [12]. By applying what they term as singular spec-
trum analysis they believed that this phenomenon has made
the degree and effect of any anthropogenic warming difficult to
measure.
Nevertheless, in a follow up 2000 paper, Schlesinger and his co-
author concluded, seemingly in contradiction to the 1994 posi-
tion, that despite these oscillations, anthropogenic greenhouse
gases are the primary mechanism behind present-day warming
trends [13].
In another interesting parallel, another study showed that Earth
also reflects a 60-year cycle in its small length of day (LOD)
fluctuations [14].
Taking the Hadley graph and others, some interested parties

have overlaid successive 60-year cycles upon one another, elimi-
nating the warming trend in order to represent the same base level
temperature, and found remarkable similarities between the cycles.
However, decisive conclusions remain elusive. Ongoing disagree-
ments continue about the accuracies of temperature records on
FIG. 6.5 Global temperatures (Courtesy of NASA GISS)
which these graphs are based, the reliability of contemporary ter-

restrial measurements versus satellite readings, the urban heat
island effect (more on this in Chap. 8), different warming trends in
the oceans, influences on varying cloud cover, the reality of the
cycle itself, and so on. Such is the hard-to-define nature of climate
studies.
Let us look further to records from the Goddard Institute
(GISS), with the global temperature graph from a 2001 study [15]
covering essentially the same period (although stopping at year
2000), but updated to reflect their revised methodology (Fig. 6.5). It
should be pointed out that the official position of the Goddard
Institute on climate change is closely aligned with that of the
IPCC. The resulting graph does not draw attention to the supposed
60-year cycle that shows so well on the Hadley chart, and we come
away with a rather different impression. Indeed, taking this graph
in isolation we would probably be unaware of any cyclical
elements at all. And the ongoing rising pattern without cyclical
elements is more strongly accentuated on the GISS graph by the
selection of a taller vertical scale.
However, it is worth noting that although the IPCC has yet to

acknowledge any possible indirect warming effects of the Sun,
similarly they are yet to acknowledge most of the repetitive cycles
that many researchers believe show fairly clearly on the record. At
least they have recognized the 11-year sunspot cycle, and in the
2007 report (AR4) they have now included another possible cycle
at 100 years, and still another at 140 years in their analyses.
Thus, there seems to be some late recognition that cycles
may be evident in climate; even so, these long-term cycles have
not been significant in their assessments about present climate
change issues. It is these very phenomena that some contend could
be important keys to understanding climate on Earth. But there
are other considerations in making conclusions from any particu-
lar record. On the previous graph (Fig. 6.5), the first peak has
already occurred before the timeline begins; the second at 1940 is
certainly evident. But that of the late 1990s is less so; indeed it
appears that the peak has not yet been reached. However, look
closely. The high spike of 1998 is there, but there is no record
much beyond that, other than a couple of years of temperatures
similar to the approach to 1998.
Taken in isolation, the GISS graph does not suggest the 60-year
cycle, unless we are looking for it, having seen the Hadley chart.
The temperature peaks around 2000 and suggests an overall ongo-
ing and radical ascent into the present time, one that seems to be
on a relentless upswing, albeit with a few bumps along the way.
The impression is thus quite different, largely because of the
absence of the key starting and ending dates shown on the Hadley
graph. It is worth noting, too, that GISS researchers have continu-
ally modified their methods over the years in ways that increas-
ingly seem only to reflect their evolving model! Increases
culminating around 1940 have been gradually lowered, while more
recent temperatures have been increased. This has not played well
with their critics, despite the justifications given.
In another NASA graph (Fig. 6.6), taken from four records
from around the world (including the Hadley Climate Research
Unit), the 60-year cycle perhaps may be more evident. Of course,
this may only be so to those who accept the existence of the
cycle, while not necessarily being convincing to everyone else.
However, in separating the various records shown on the graph,
FIG. 6.6 Multiple temperature records (Courtesy of NASA GISS)
compare that of the Japanese Meteorological Society and the Met

Office Hadley Center with that of NASA Goddard. That record
seems more closely aligned to the original Hadley graph of Fig. 6.4
than do the others, in regard to the low point around 1910 and
the high point after 1998. Both of these records make the high
point of 1949 register more in accord with the outline of the
60-year cycle.
Should the 60-year trend be a reality, the peak of the most
recent cycle ought to have occurred by now. However, some mixed
readings have made that difficult to determine, together with the
need for more time to elapse for it to become clear in its descent.
If the event has indeed peaked and does show up clearly over the
next few years in readings, it would certainly be evidence of the
60-year cycle being a component in present climate conditions. In
2009, Craig Loehle discussed satellite readings of the period from
the late 90s until 2009 that showed cooling trends during that time
[9]. A modeled projection by Klyashtorin and Lyubushin that
appeared in their 2003 paper and extending to 2009 does indeed
align quite accurately to observed satellite data [11]. This, of course,

still is too narrow a period to determine anything with certainty.
If a cooling trend during the second decade of the twenty-first
century is not born out over time, some researchers have suggested
that Long-Term Persistence (LTP) may be responsible. Loehle did
point this out in comments about the study by Easterling and Weh-
ner [16]. Here, these authors postulated that should a cooling trend
be occurring during a time when greenhouse warming is set in a
pattern, perhaps LTP might take place. This would keep the tem-
peratures in a basic warming mode that could effectively mask the
cooling trend. It was stated that any such trend might be inciden-
tal to natural cycles (at least this is an acknowledgement of such
phenomena) and not necessarily a refutation of AGW. Many would
argue that if the climate fails to cool, those who use the LTP argu-
ment are merely finding their way out of an ideological jam. How-
ever, Easterling, who proposed it, and is a colleague of Hansen, is
firmly in the camp of those who support the theories of AGW!
Clearly, although it has been problematic to establish to
everyones satisfaction that AGW really has taken hold, it seems
clear that Loehle is among those unconvinced of its validity.
With his remarks referring to cycles approximating the 60-year
cycle, he concluded his paper with the observation that the
largely non-linear warming observed since 1880 is out of step
with the much more uniform rise in CO2 levels. This last point
certainly can be seen from the records, regardless of any explana-
tion. It is also central to the case against existing climate models
and AGW. In challenging these models, Loehle stated it is likely
that we have now entered a several decade-long period of cooling
or at least of stable temperatures.
Loehle also pointed to satellite temperature records that show
a cooling trend starting during the first decade of the new twenty-
first century. It is significant that satellite records differ in many
ways to other means of measuring temperature. Thus, again he
brought the accuracy of existing climate models into question,
which have varying predictions of ongoing substantial increases in
temperature. Perhaps an even more provocative position was his
view that what had been experienced as more rapid warming dur-
ing the last few decades of the twentieth century could have been
caused by a combination of external cycle forcings. These would
have exaggerated any possible influence of AGW.
However, perhaps the single most fascinating attributes

common to so many research papers and articles, not all necessar-
ily to do with climate, are the repeated references to a recurring
60-year cycle. Craig Idso and Fred Singer, in their enormous 868-
page report for the counter-IPCC group, considered that the Suns
influence consists of complex feedbacks not yet understood but
real nonetheless [17]. Using the Hadley temperature graph shown
in Fig. 6.4, they superimposed the projections of the IPCC climate
model of 2007 (see Chap. 8). Only recent projections of warming
seemed to correspond with actual observed temperatures, and Idso
and Singer commented that the 60-year cycle was missing.
From the homepage of the website of the counter-IPCC group:
The Nongovernmental International Panel on Climate
Change (NIPCC) is what its name suggests: an internation-
al panel of nongovernment scientists and scholars who have
come together to understand the causes and consequences of
climate change. Because we are not predisposed to believe cli-
mate change is caused by human greenhouse gas emissions,
we are able to look at evidence the Intergovernmental Panel
on Climate Change (IPCC) ignores.
The 60-year periodicity shows in many additional guises: an

assortment of records shows it in meteorites in China [18], or in
beryllium and carbon isotopes [19], among others [19]. In these
papers, all of the proxy records are compelling and indicative of
such a cycle, though perhaps not conclusive to every researcher as
being a controlling influence on climate.
Perhaps most notable among other researchers findings,
although not necessarily related to the 60-year cycle, per se, is that
of Ching-Cheh Hung, in which he drew direct links with the effects
on the Sun by some of the planets [5]. We will look closer at that
special corner of astronomical research in Chap. 7.
References
1. Mackey R (2007) Rhodes Fairbridge and the idea that the sun regu-
lates the earths climate. J Coast Res (Special Issue) SISO 955968
2. Juckett D (2003) Temporal variations of low-order spherical har-
monic representations of sunspot group patterns: evidence of solar
spin-orbit coupling. Astron Astrophys 399(2):731741
3. Abdussamatov HI (2004) About the long-term coordinated variations

of the activity, radius, total irradiance of the Sun and the earths cli-
mate. International Astronomical Union (IAUS) 223:541542
4. Leubner IH (2007) Variability of stellar and solar radii and effect on
planetary orbits and temperatures. American Geophysical Union
Fall Meeting 2007
5. Ching-Cheh Hung (2007) Apparent relations between solar activ-
ity and solar tides caused by the planets. Report NASA/TM-2007-
214817. Glenn Research Center, Cleveland
6. Jose PD (1965) Suns motion and sunspots. Astron J 70:193200
7. Cohen T, Lintz P (1974) Long term periodicities in the sunspot cycle.
Nature 250(5465):398399
8. Niroma T. The effects of solar variability on climate. 2001. http://
www.tilmari.pp.fi/tilmari5.htm
9. Loehle C (2009) Trend analysis of satellite global temperature data.
Energy Environ 20(7):10871098
10. Biondi F, Gershunov A, Cayan DR (2001) North Pacific decadal cli-
mate variability since 1661. J Climate 14(1):510
11. Klyashtorin LB, Lyubushkin AA (2003) On the coherence between
dynamics of the world fuel consumption and global temperature
anomaly. Energy Environ 14(6):773782
12. Schlesinger ME, Ramankutty N (1994) An oscillation in the global
climate system of period 6570 years. Lett Nat 367:723726
13. Andronova NG, Schlesinger ME (2000) Causes of global tempera-
ture changes during the 19th and 20th centuries. Geophys Res Lett
27:21372140
14. Yu Z, Roberts P, Russell CT (2004) Correlated changes in the length
of a day and the magnetic field with a period of 60 years. American
Geophysics Union, Fall Meeting
15. Hansen J, Reudy R, Sato M, Imhoff M, Lawrence W, Easterling D,
Peterson T, Karl T (2001) A closer look at United States and global
surface temperature change. J Geophys Res 106:2394723963
16. Easterling DR, Wehner MF (2009) Is the climate warming or cooling?
Geophys Res Lett 36:L08706
17. Idso C, Singer SF (2009) Climate change reconsidered. The report of
the nongovernmental international panel on climate change. Heart-
land Institute, Chicago
18. Yu Z, Chang S, Kumazawa M, Furumoto M, Yamamoto A (1983)
Presence of periodicity in meteorite falls. Mem Natl Inst Polar Res
30 (Special issue):362366
19. Ogurtsov MG, Nagovitsyn YA, Kocharov GE, Jungner H (2002) Long
period cycles of the suns activity recorded in direct solar data and
proxies. Solar Phys 211:371
7. The Possible Effects
of Solar Cycles
The search for hidden links to the Suns activity has continued in
spite of denials of that possibility by some. Although the potential
for planetary interactions with the Sun has featured in some of
these searches, to date, their effects on Earths climate have been
problematic to prove. However, in due fairness, it must be pointed
out that many scientists do not consider that the IPCC position
has been proven either. Even the IPCC itself refers to various lev-
els of confidence in their positions rather than expressions of abso-
lutes. The contention by Duffy et al. [1]. that twentieth-century
warming can all be explained with established causes will not sat-
isfy many critics of the IPCC stance either, since all of those
known forcing influences are strikingly out of step with the rate of
warming itself.
Other researchers also have suggested, indeed strongly
implied, that the warming effects of the Sun more likely are pro-
duced indirectly rather than directly. If this sounds familiar, you
may recall similar hypotheses from earlier in this book. Even as
early as 2001, in his book Burroughs speculated about the possi-
bilities of still undefined processes in the atmosphere amplifying
small increases in solar irradiance into more significant warming
effects. However, at that time, scientific consideration of any
influences beyond just the 11-year solar cycle was still largely new
and revolutionary.
Accusations of failure to include all factors such as these in
climate models have been among the continuing objections to
these projections ever since they first appeared. It has been pointed
out repeatedly that modeling of changing climate conditions and
temperatures over the past 40 years has only been possible after
assumed contributing factors (i.e., anthropogenic additions) had

been accommodated into the models, and applied only from 1970
onwards. Critics claim the precise effect of anthropogenic green-
house gases has therefore been deduced, rather than observed or
proven through empirical data. Thus, they maintain that the
underlying cause of the most recent temperature increases is far
from established. We will continue this discussion in Chap. 8.
However, in the absence of definitive proof of conventional
AGW, its proponents have only been able to go so far as to consider
their own positions likely. If proposed alternative theories are
considered unlikely, climate skeptics maintain that such a posi-
tion does not translate into proof of it either, but only an opinion
about as good as theirs. It is easy to see why controversies con-
tinue unabated. Seen from the outside, the stakes appear more in
the realm of winner-take-all than in solving the riddle. But first,
everyone has to concede the existence of the riddle itself.
Now that the 11-year solar cycle has met with general accep-
tance, at least, we will look into those larger solar cycles discussed
in the previous chapter. The gravitational interactions of any indi-
vidual planet on the Sun would seem insufficient to cause such
cycles. Besides, their orbits do not directly correspond to them, so
we have to look further. Indeed, some have theorized that the
cycles could result from the combined effects of the larger planets
on the Sun, gravitational and/or otherwise. This has resulted in
speculation and even theories that the 60-year cycle, in particular,
could be linked to the Suns extended relationship to climate, and
that we should not only continue to investigate these phenomena
thoroughly but probably include them in future projections of
Earths climate.
Thus, in addition to the 60-year solar cycle, other cycles involv-
ing the Sun include the 179-year cycle (see Chap. 6), the 70100-
year Gleissberg cycle (see Chap. 4), the 11-year cycle and 22-year
Hale cycle (again, see Chap. 4), together with the possible existence
and effects of still more; these all compound the situation. Even the
9.1-year lunar cycle is yet one more to consider. The exact mecha-
nisms by which any of them might interact are not yet determined,
let alone understood. Regardless, these cycles do not seem in evi-
dence within most climate models, even absent entirely an
increasingly familiar-sounding comment. However, it is also fair to
ask how they could possibly have been expected to be included,
given the present state of knowledge.
The Possible Effects of Solar Cycles 147
The 9.1-year lunar cycle poses some interesting questions, too,

although none yet seems to lead us directly to climate. Like the
Sun and planets, the interactions of Earth and the Moon also result
in a barycentric orbiting pattern between them, with subsequent
variations of stresses. This produces direct affects beyond the obvi-
ous daily tides of the oceans. Sea levels also undergo substantial
rises and falls, and as such, lunisolar tides can be seen in the phe-
nomena of spring tides that often result in coastal flooding.
It remains hard to know, however, what, if any, effect the
lunar cycle might play in the larger climate picture. Certainly its
effects appear strictly localized to the vicinity around Earth, but
speculation has long existed of other possible lunar influences,
from tectonic activity to contributing to the mixing of the deep
ocean currents; we already know changes in the thermocline alter
the weather on a regular basis in the Pacific, by altering warm and
cold water distributions. Bearing in mind that we still do not fully
understand what drives the oceans, could the Moons interactions
with them possibly have presently unseen effects and alter the
climate, too? Again, at this time, such unknowns cannot be
expected to be included in climate models.
Meanwhile, other forces are in play, too. Earths fractured
tectonic plate structure, the lithosphere the outer shell that
shifts twists and rotates around Earths two concentric inner
cores. Outside forces, including the magnetic field of Earth and its
interactions with the magnetic field of the Sun, even the Moon,
might be linked to secondary effects on Earth, quite separately to
those known consequences of tidal forces. Could it be that earth-
quakes might also follow this path? With the fragility of Earths
crust, the questions are endless, beyond climate itself, when one
thinks it through (Fig. 7.1).
The Trigger Behind Sunspots

and Solar Flares?
Many researchers long ago rejected the idea that large solar cycles
could govern or influence the climate and chose long ago to exclude
them from further consideration. Ching-Cheh Hung is among
some noted scientists who have taken the opposite position, having
stated that it is highly unfortunate that recent advances in solar
FIG. 7.1 Tectonic plate boundaries and activity along them (Courtesy of the
U.S. geological survey)
output measurements (notably from now available satellite

research such as the ACRIM program) have not been incorporated
into climate modeling [2].
Hung approached his topic by attempting to understand
specifically how the planets might interact with the Sun to create
measurable variability of its output through flare activity. His
detailed and complex findings seem significant indeed, opening
with the observation that most of the largest known solar flares can
be shown to have occurred under clearly observable circumstances.
Almost predictably, it seemed, flares took place when one or more
of the four most likely planets to have strong gravitational interac-
tions were within a linearity of 10 of the flare or, interestingly,
on the opposite side of the Sun. Hung calculated the likelihood of
the many solar flare events being merely coincidence to be near
0%. With the statement that the 11-year alignment of these planets
correlates with the sunspot cycle, it was sure to attract attention
(Fig. 7.2).
Since his main interest was the relationship of solar flares to
disruptions of electronic systems on Earth and in space, researched
through an effort to better protect our growing dependencies on
FIG. 7.2 Solar flare with relative size of Earth for comparison (Image courtesy
NASA)
them, Ching-Cheh Hung did not bring a predetermination to prove

or disprove any existing climate change theories. This in itself would
seem to add considerable credibility to his findings. However, they
form a link by default through their related areas of study.
Solar Flares
Solar flares are sudden fiery projections from the Suns sur-
face, representing enormous releases of energy of as much as
a sixth of the total solar output each second! Plasma loops
between spots are frequently precursors to flares, and are
responsible for vast concentrations of electrons, ions and
atoms flooding into space.
Further, Hung was able to implicate large variations in the

solar magnetic field, extreme concentrations of which may be
observed as sunspots. He referenced the connection between solar
flare activity and solar variations previously studied in the twenti-
eth century, expressing deep regret that they had largely been put
aside since that time. In citing such studies going back to 1942, he
indicated that his work was undertaken to advance the earlier
research, with modern satellite monitoring becoming available after
1981. Accordingly, his unequivocal statement that a direct correla-
tion can be made between solar flares and solar tides induced by the
planets is highly significant. Such an uncompromising sentiment is
strong stuff. By first illuminating the reasons why there are small
variations in the combined tides of Mercury, Venus, Earth, Jupiter
and that of the regularly occurring solar tide cycles, Hung was able
to tie the 11-year and 22-year Hale cycles directly to them.
Unfortunately, Hung found that numerous other earlier stud-
ies had failed to note such relationships. This had led to existing
conclusions that planetary tidal pull is too insignificant to have
any measurable effect. Specifically, it was thought to be too regu-
lar, not closely enough aligned to the sunspot cycle, and too out of
step with larger periods of cooling when the same planetary
motions were also in play (such as the Maunder Minimum and
others that occurred within the last 400 years). Hung believed the
reason for that was due to some of the research being misinter-
preted. By applying the wrong criteria, he believed that Jupiters
influence, in particular, largely had been missed by researchers.
By analyzing solar flares over 30 years and their relationship
to known planetary positions, Hung was able to calculate the prob-
abilities of predictability versus random events. His final conclu-
sions about solar flares and sunspots, in essence, were:
Almost all flares occurred when a planet was directly aligned
within 10 of the Sun or on its opposite side. Accordingly, he
considered the likelihood of flares occurring by pure chance
not to be credible, and indicated that it should be possible to
develop a system to predict solar activity.
Flares typically occurred before alignment, although some-
times the greatest examples occurred when the planet in ques-
tion was up to 30 from optimal position. In fact, the largest
known flare took place when Venus and Jupiter, the planets of
greatest gravitational influence on the Sun, were both at such
(30) positions from the event plane, implying some process(es)
not yet understood. This 30 figure, in regard to positioning of
any of the four planets of most influence, cropped up several
times with many of the largest flare explosions. Hung specu-
lated that at these times, vertical and horizontal gravitational
forces became significant enough to cause the events.
In most instances, he noticed, the largest sunspots appeared to
generate the greatest flares when they rotated into a place on
the solar surface most directly affected by planetary position,
whereas smaller flares did not seem to be necessarily influenced
by tidal forces of the planets.
Interestingly, in 2009, the maverick researcher, Timo Niroma,
made related but not exactly parallel comments regarding Jupiters
eccentric orbit, its magnetic/gravitational influence and effect on
sunspot cycles [3]. Knowingly or otherwise, he seemed to concur
more or less exactly (with Hungs conclusions) on the direct con-
nection between them, maintaining at the closest point of approach
that sunspot numbers are at a minimum, only to increase as a
result of magnetic interactions before and after the approach. This
seems to tie in with the 30 orbital placements reported in Hungs
paper. Niromas study, however, though again only his personal
webpage and not constituting peer-reviewed research, is remark-
able in its complexity and depth of analysis, especially where it
apparently coincides with the more recognized research of others.
However, his independently produced theories are far from agreed
upon, let alone accepted. They might not even be widely known,
though they are worth at least a cursory inspection.
Meanwhile, Ching-Cheh Hung continued to explore the pos-
sibilities of planetary influences on the Sun occurring in cycles,
where the combined effects of more than one exerts its greatest
pull as in the case of the 11-year solar cycles. Thus, perhaps mul-
tiple compounded cyclical gravitational effects were perhaps the
key, and not those caused by the most obvious of them. Careful
analysis, therefore was how Hung able to prove virtually a direct
correlation with the combined cycles of Venus, Earth and Jupiter
and the 11-year cycle. When the influence of Mercury was included,
the clear correlation disappeared, so he determined that it did not

affect the cycle.
Despite the near exact parallels between the sunspot cycles
and those of these three planets, small irregularities remained. We
can presume again that the absence of exact predictability (the
chaotic nature) of the Solar System is responsible. Hung was able
to demonstrate that maximum sunspot activity seemed to occur
with the most precise alignments and was thus able to explain the
many periods of alternately low and high solar activity.
In that he further seemed resolute in asserting the likelihood
that his determinations were correct, versus the opposite position
that no such influences take place, in this respect, Hungs research
would appear to be almost, if not entirely, unique, and his opin-
ions worthy of note. On the strength of it, there seems sufficient
reason to look closely at the possibilities beyond standard explana-
tions of the Suns influence in most climate models; it should have
provided sufficient encouragement to recommend continued
development of his thesis. Like many others, Hung was not alone
in predicting that the present sunspot cycle (Cycle 24) will be very
low in activity. Could it be that the possible, but still elusive,
60-year cycle is directly related to Hungs research?
From NASA:
An international panel of experts led by NOAA and spon-

sored by NASA has released a new prediction for the next
solar cycle. Solar Cycle 24 will peak, they say, in May 2013
with a below-average number of sunspots.
If our prediction is correct, Solar Cycle 24 will have a
peak sunspot number of 90, the lowest of any cycle since
1928 when Solar Cycle 16 peaked at 78, says panel chair-
man Doug Biesecker of the NOAA Space Weather Prediction
Center.
Hung left US with one more interesting prospect to mull over.

Should the Suns present low activity not be prolonged, the slight
lack of synchronization of the three dominant planets would be
canceled. Higher activity would be the likely result instead,
through increased combined planetary interaction. Again, regret-

fully this allows for the potential to continue for many interpreta-
tions and positions.
Further Possible Interactions with Earth

and Its Climate
At this stage, we might well be asking for more insights about how
other orbital oscillations of the Solar System might interact with
Earths climate. Possibilities include potential forcing and feed-
back effects from the tidal influences of other planets on the Suns
sunspot activity and even output, including the effects of the solar
magnetosphere, as well as its interaction with cosmic rays (see
Chap. 12), the changing length of day (LOD see again Leubner
[4]), and even unknown or anticipated lunar tidal effects on the
oceans, among many. Regardless, the fact that no link has yet been
definitively proven does not mean varieties of larger combined
influences could not exist. It is the prospect of these, perhaps in
sum or working together to amplify their individual influences to
produce a greater whole, that is behind these ideas.
Furthermore, the effects of what may seem to be minor
influences might be determined also by their combinations, not
only by the amount. If this is so, the total equation could be a
subtle synchronicity between known forcings, feedbacks, together
with yet to be determined and multiple celestial oscillations act-
ing together in concert. There is an illuminating demonstration of
the effect of synchronicity between otherwise separate entities
that of bringing the beat of multiple independently metronomes
together inspired by the demonstration of astronomer-mathema-
tician Christiaan Huygens (16291695), of synchronizing two pen-
dulum clocks on a common support. It is a simple experiment
well known to physicists (Fig. 7.3).
We can readily perform this for ourselves or witness this effect
among numerous examples on YouTube, for example:
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Aaxw4zbULMs
In this instance, five clockwork metronomes, set to the same
number of beats per minute, are put in motion on a flat platform.
Then the entire group is placed on a fluid base two cylindrical
FIG. 7.3 Huygens pendulum clock and horologii oscillatorii on display

at the Museum Boerhaave in Leiden, Netherlands (Image courtesy Rob
Koopman)
cans that act effectively as wheels. Mechanically, the beat of met-

ronomes cannot be identical; as analog mechanisms, they are sim-
ple devices, imperfectly calibrated and regulated. However, once
in place on the cans, soon they all lock together in perfect synchro-
nization!
The combined motion of the group is increasingly reflected in
one stronger motion of rocking back and forth of the platform, as
the pulses of those metronomes closest to the final synchroniza-
tion begin to dominate, enabled by that fluid coupling of the
moving platform. The action of the singular back-and-forth motion
of the platform lengthens and shortens the weaker individual
strokes of respective metronomes, gradually bringing all of them
into compliance, when a strong, increasingly combined single
cycle regulates the entire group into perfect synchronization, and
a strengthened force of motion. Effectively, if not precisely, there
has been an amplification of five times the forcing effect of a
single metronome acting alone. Once taken off the platform, the
beats of the metronomes rapidly move apart, quickly ticking out
of synchronization again.
When one takes into account the reported increasing irradi-

ance of the Sun since 1970 (according to the ACRIM research and
others), it seems not so difficult to imagine, at least, some addi-
tional amplification of solar output occurring through combined
planetary gravitational interactions occurring in concert along
the lines that Ching-Cheh Hung proposed. Is it entirely incon-
ceivable that this might have resulted in temperatures on Earth
being higher than just the expected fluctuations in solar radiance
alone would suggest? Perhaps this is why certain periods of solar
activity (such as has been theorized for the Medieval Climate
Optimum, or the Maunder Minimum) have been more or less
active than others. If it could be shown that they occurred when
there was a convergence or divergence of planetary tidal forces,
and most strongly compounded one way or the other when all
forces act together, this could open up entirely new areas of
research.
Interestingly Burroughs, as early as 2001, seemed to be lean-
ing in this direction, even if not, perhaps, having become a fully-
fledged advocate of such a driver of climate. He did, however,
seriously entertain the prospect of such influences on climate in
his comments about a number of well-known long-term cycles.
Striking was Burroughs discussion of the possible combined tidal
influences of the larger planets, especially, again, with reference to
the 179-year alignment on one side of the Sun (see again the sec-
tion on the Suns barycentric orbit), so he was already looking at
much the same argument. In this regard he mentioned such
planetary positioning showing a clear correspondence with the
Chinese climate record. If we bear in mind that his book was orig-
inally written more than a decade ago, the inclusion of such rea-
soning is remarkable and is surely a great testament to his open
mindedness in looking at all possibilities.
The astronomical component remains, thus, one of the most
fascinating and compelling propositions we are likely to find.
However, to make any case conclusively depends on the range of
inputs and perspectives one brings to the analysis. If there is any-
thing to the possible existence or influence of any of these cycles,
surely some will try to prove the possibility and determine their
influence.
The Search Widens

Another area of research, somewhat more radical, resulted in a stark
but thought-provoking declaration that the driver of climate change
was, in fact, atmospheric circulation, and that variations in solar
activity were responsible [5]. Along the same lines, and even more
unusual, according to another study [6], atmospheric circulation
changes happen when zonal circulation is transformed into merid-
ional circulation by the direct effects of solar interaction. Their
conclusions were interesting, providing more grist for the mill:
Zonal occurs during odd cycles and leads to warming, appear-
ing in latitudinal zones.
Meridional occurs in even cycles and leads to cooling, appear-
ing longitudinally, from north to south (see Rossby Waves,
Chap. 3) (Fig. 7.4).
Thus Kuznetsovas group proposed that solar activity in the
twentieth century had slowly altered the predominantly meridi-
onal atmospheric circulation to zonal, and so the climate had
grown warmer. It is interesting that these various researchers did
not give any weight at all to any other possible causes! However,
it was solar activity, nevertheless, that was indicted as a possible
driver of climate variability.
Without jumping to a conclusion that much of the world
scientific community has it all wrong, however, perhaps some of
the various alternate hypotheses could hold some of the missing
links, especially to uncovering some of the subtle contributing
factors that have been hard to pinpoint and quantify that com-
monly have appeared to be chaotic. Perhaps they could help to
find a position within the larger, more conventional theories that
could be supported by all. Naturally, when there have been such
new possibilities raised, it would seem incumbent on science to
follow through. Should any alternate theories gain wider credibil-
ity or acceptance, if even the staunchest AGW supporter were to
continue to claim that all the science is in, it would seem an
increasingly untenable position to take. The onus now is clearly to
disprove these theories if we ever hope to calm the debate.
FIG. 7.4 (a) Zonal circulation (Image courtesy U. S. government). (b) Merid-
ional circulation (Image courtesy NOAA/NCEP)
References
1. Duffy PB, Santer BD, Wigley TML (2009) Solar variability does not
explain late-20th century warming. Phys Today 62(1):4849
2. Ching-Cheh Hung (2007) Apparent relations between solar activ-
ity and solar tides caused by the planets. Report NASA/TM-2007-
214817. Glenn Research Center, Cleveland
3. Niroma T (2007) One possible explanation for the cyclicity in the
sun. http://personal.inet.fi/tiede/tilmari/sunspots.html
4. Leubner IH (2007) Variability of stellar and solar radii and effect on
planetary orbits and temperatures. American Geophysical Union
Fall Meeting 2007
5. Georgieva K, Kirov B, Bianch C (2005) Long-term variations in
the correlation between solar activity and climate. Soc Astron Ital
76(4):965968
6. Kuznetsova TV, Tsirulnik LB (2004) Solar activity cycles in interan-
nual global and hemisphere temperatures on the earths surface. In:
35th COSPAR Scientific Assembly, Paris, France, July 2004
8. Climate Models
Far from fulfilling their promise of providing clarity of cause and

effect that all scientists could agree upon, climate models instead
have taken a place at the very core of the debate. The concept is not
in dispute; rather, it is the type and quality of the input that con-
tinues to fuel the disagreement. However, their importance cannot
be underestimated, and as such, they are the result of research
closely tied to astronomical monitoring and space studies.
Models show significant and increasing skill in representing

many important mean climate features, such as the large-scale
distributions of atmospheric temperature, precipitation, radia-
tion and wind, and of oceanic temperatures, currents and sea
ice cover. Models can also simulate essential aspects of many
of the patterns of climate variability observed across a range
of time scales . Models ability to represent these and other
important climate features increases our confidence that they
represent the essential physical processes important for the
simulation of future climate change.
IPCC Report on Climate Change (2007)
Since I am no longer affiliated with any organization nor re-

ceiving any funding, I can speak quite frankly . As a scien-
tist I remain skeptical . The main basis of the claim that
mans release of greenhouse gases is the cause of the warming
is based almost entirely upon climate models. We all know the
frailty of models concerning the air-surface system.
Dr. Joanne Simpson, U.S. Senate Minority Report 2009
(Updated from 2007 report)

The Advent of Climate Models

Climate models have only been on the scene to any significant
degree since the age of solar satellite reconnaissance, just a little
over 30 years before the time of this writing. Since then many pro-
jections have been made and revised, and just as many changes in
methodology have been applied to them! Even the staunchest
advocates give little credence to those models created before mod-
ern supercomputers were applied to climate. Therefore, that time-
line of 30 years would probably be considered quite a stretch by
most. So although some of the earliest examples of global general
circulation models (the most developed climate model form) date
back to the 1960s, probably none of these would be of much, or
indeed, any value, today.
Because weather forecasting has always been related to cli-
mate, unquestionably the study of both has helped in farming,
travel, flood preparation, fires, blizzards, or hurricanes, etc. How-
ever, these are short-term scenarios. With climate change becom-
ing a global scientific-political-socioeconomic issue, projecting
what the future would hold assumed new and rapidly increasing
significance. A growing international alarm developed about the
potential for runaway greenhouse conditions encroaching ever-
faster, and computer projections (models) became the foundation
for climate research. Many climate scientists as well as govern-
ments had by now become increasingly convinced that the poten-
tial for disaster made it imperative to neutralize additional CO2
forcing immediately. The downside was that politics had now
entered the debate.
With the earliest computers which filled large rooms and
provided less computing power than a modern PC a new world of
potential could be seen to be within reach in the not too far distant
future. However, the rudimentary power of these early machines
was soon found to be insufficient to handle the multitude of intri-
cate factors involved in replicating weather and climate forecasts
with any degree of accuracy. Making realistic forecasts of weather
just a few days ahead was enough of a challenge (and frequently a
failure), let alone projections for the long term.
Climate Models 161
In Chap. 3 we discussed time series, Fourier-transforms and

power spectra, useful tools to inspect and analyze various factors,
but with the element of time removed. All of these, when applied
to climate, have certain common ties to climate modeling. In their
relationships to climate models, however, these analytical tools
part company early and fulfill entirely different functions, but
remain standard studies in isolation. They cannot project manifes-
tations of multiple factors on climate or weather on the world
globe (or part thereof), nor can they anticipate future responses to
other projected inputs. More specifically, they cannot reveal how
changing factors will interact with the whole. Again, they are not
forecasting tools, but can greatly aid in the understanding of which
key inputs have affected observed outcomes.
The tangled code that determines the makeup of Earths subtle
and extremely complex cocoon separates us from immediate extinc-
tion, were we to irreparably damage or lose it. For life to continue
to exist, conditions inside that cocoon must remain conducive to
it, and thus significant temperature change constitutes damage.
Computing what had been added to it during the twentieth century
and into the early twenty-first century was not difficult, once the
Suns effects had been deduced and separated from pre-industrial
age greenhouse warming. With a noticeable increase in tempera-
tures worldwide having taken place over a sustained period of
decades, scientists began to theorize how and where the total energy
equation might be out of balance, and what might be responsible.
However small this amount of warming may be, it is the key
to everything. The problem has been in agreeing on precisely what
is happening, what is the cause, and how reliable predictions might
be made about the future. Thus, the advent of climate modeling,
an attempt to put all known factors together in the hopper and
measure their present and future interactions. The total accumu-
lation of anthropogenic global greenhouse gases (GHGs) over the
past century, and specifically carbon dioxide (CO2) above all oth-
ers, has become central in building these models. Because, rightly
or wrongly, climate model scenarios reflect changes to this one
factor, virtually to the exclusion of other possible major consider-
ations, they have been challenged for projecting future climate.
We will return to this in the next chapter.
The term anthropogenic refers to the result of human activity

upon the environment. First coined by nineteenth-century
Russian geologist A. P. Pavlov, it has, however, become more
generally associated with the early twentieth-century British
ecologist Arthur Tansley, with his references to climax plant
communities, areas that had reached a balance over time, a
stable and steady state of existence. These now were undergo-
ing change as a consequence of human influences.
As a result, passionate disagreements about how climate

will change in the short and long term have emerged. Although
projections have been made from a number of perspectives, all of
them are umbilically tied to CO2. Not everyone has embraced the
findings that include proposed remedies, such as keeping future
increases of CO2 to a minimum by a number of methods, or even
decreasing levels by fundamentally changing our lifestyles. How-
ever, all of this has spawned a counter-discussion at least as loud
from those who contend that human activities have not caused the
observed changes to the climate, or may have only partly contrib-
uted to them in ways that ultimately will not prove detrimental.
At the outset, however, it is fair to say that climate models
were never seen as likely hot-button issues, especially of the kind
that would cause contentious debate such as we have seen. This is
perhaps more the result of the frequent revisions and inaccuracies,
variety of projections and predictions over the years, which have
resulted from these models being, in essence, works in progress.
Past inaccuracies of those from the early days have only become
ever more starkly contrasted against more modern projections.
Thus when any statistic from even just a few years ago is used as
part of a prediction, these findings are immediately called into
question. However, none of this has stopped many public figures
from stating as certainties the scenarios painted by any particular
climate model projection at the time of its making, something
usually even their designers have shied away from.
Although the IPCC considers that the various models pres-
ently in use around the world have a considerable degree of agree-
ment, with each other, this is not quite the same thing as saying
Climate Models 163
IPCC Definitions of Degrees of Confidence and Likelihoods

Very high confidence Virtually certain
At least 9 out of 10 chance 99% probability
High confidence Extremely likely
About 8 out of 10 chance 95% probability
Medium confidence Very likely
Low confidence Likely
Very low confidence More likely than not
Less than 1 out of 10 chance 50% probability
About as likely as not
3366% probability
Unlikely
33% probability
Very unlikely
10% probability
Extremely unlikely
5% probability
Exceptionally unlikely
1% probability
they are completely consistent or reliable. Therefore it cannot be

stated with certainty that even the most advanced climate models
have created accurate scenarios for the future. Since all of them
share the same philosophy of presumed cause and effect with sim-
ilar types of inputs, some general agreement of outcome would be
expected. However, because all climate models are computer pro-
grams that process input according to mathematical formulae, it
does not necessarily translate that the less precisely determined
and chaotic nature of the universe will necessarily oblige. For long-
term models, thus, we may need to wait many years to see if their
projections are borne out. Naturally there are many differences
of opinion about how well observations have matched existing

projections or actual predictions, but this all depends on the
observation and model one cites.
Since actual quantifiable measurements of cause and effect have
been harder to establish than the projections painted by the models,
opponents of anthropogenic theories have continued to blame the
use of models for the perception of crisis. A common criticism is that
there has been a predetermined assumption among modelers that
human activity is primarily responsible for recent climate change,
and that Earth cannot respond other than in a negative way. Thus,
they claim that worst-case scenarios are just that, and therefore cli-
mate models have been designed and modified to reflect this bias.
Weather and Climate

Needless to say, the development of both weather forecasting and
climate modeling has steadily continued. Aside from some obvi-
ous characteristics exclusive to one or the other, the primary dif-
ference between the two remains time, detail, and scale, in degrees
depending on the purpose. Weather forecasts work with local
weather systems and thunderstorms, local topographical influences
on air currents, local oceanic and atmospheric conditions, and so
forth. It is also not possible to include some of these smaller fac-
tors in climate models, simply because of the lack of computing
power for this degree of fine detail over such enormous timelines.
Weather forecasts can be thus verified for accuracy in the
short term, and thus the models utilized are easier to modify and
develop. We do not have this luxury with climate models, because
they are long-term projections.
The chaotic nature of the environment common to both types
of models still makes precise forecasting of any kind constantly
problematic. However, as computing power and sophistication has
grown, weather forecasting has improved substantially, enabling
even hourly projections to become reasonably accurate. Thus it
was only a matter of time before longer-term climate predictions
similarly became more refined. The expanding upper limits of
computers to integrate and retain information, and at far faster
rates, enabled both forms to develop rapidly.
Climate Models 165
However, a forecast of just a few days ahead requires literally

trillions of calculations. This makes it is easy to see how climate
models pose almost infinitely greater problems simply because
their timelines are likely to extend over decades. And because of
limited time scales, obviously a far higher level of resolution
could be employed in weather than climate. However, it is those
expressions of levels of confidence in climate models, versus hav-
ing reliable, readily verifiable predictions that remain a fundamen-
tal weakness.
The Makeup of Climate Models

Figure 8.1 represents the findings of the model developed for the
IPCC in 2007. It is one of the more recent projections for various
parts of the world, even though it does not go further than the year
2000. It is thus more of a reference for cause and effect than it is
a prediction for the future, the purpose being to confirm what
is behind recent trends while utilizing a wide range of inputs.
FIG. 8.1 IPCC climate model projections for different regions (Graphic
courtesy of Bounford.com and UNEP/GRID-Arendal. http:maps.grida.
no/go/graphic/observed-warming-over-the-20th-century-compared-with-
climate-model-calculations)
Thus the future is implied by factors establishing the record as

presented. However, charges have repeatedly been made that IPCC
models have been regularly altered to reflect observations, and
that they have consistently used projections involving a far greater
warming effect of CO2 than has occurred in practice.
The implication again, therefore, is that models have been
tuned to fit only the recent increases in CO2 and not those ear-
lier in the twentieth century with the presumption being that
only CO2 could have been responsible. However, it must be said
that IPCC graphic model projections such as these may be prone
to challenge for at least two other reasons:
Starting and ending points create an entirely different perspec-
tive; IPCC models suffer from too short a timeline at both ends
of the projection to allow possible cycles to be represented,
especially the 60-year cycle.
The graphic irregularities have been smoothed over and
simplified to a degree that makes almost any projection seem
possible and not far out of line.
It could be argued that the visual simplicity of these represen-
tations is likely to make the IPCC projections seem more convinc-
ing to those who have little background in climate science.
Critics believe further that other possibly stronger factors
have received scant attention, through oversights or even deliber-
ate exclusion. Thus they charge that certain significant compo-
nents of climate have been omitted from the models, or
insufficiently weighted in them. These would include the El Nino
Southern Oscillation (ENSO), considered by some scientists to be
among the principal drivers of climate, and also such possible indi-
rect yet undetermined effects of even slightly elevated solar irra-
diation. It is no secret that some researchers consider this latter
factor alone to be one of the main keys to climate throughout his-
tory. However, it is possible to find strongly held convictions on
almost anything, as other scientists have taken a contrary stance
even on what seemed certain generally agreed fundamentals.
A system of defining subtle varieties of climate model has
been developed by the IPCC in order to express concepts more
accurately. Reminiscent of some of the fine distinctions between
forcings and feedbacks, for our purposes we will try to keep uses of
Climate Models 167
the terms a little more general. Thus, usage of them in this writing
may not necessarily coincide with the meanings of the IPCC, those
often being hard to separate. The following are excerpts from the
IPCC Climate Model hierarchy:
The basic model is a numerical representation of the climate
system based on the physical, chemical and biological prop-
erties of its components, their interactions and feedback pro-
cesses, and accounting for all or some of its known properties.
A climate prediction or climate forecast is the result of an
attempt to produce a most likely description or estimate of the
actual evolution of the climate in the future, e.g., at seasonal,
inter-annual or long-term time scales. (See also below: climate
projection and climate scenario).
A climate projection of the response of the climate system to
emission or concentration scenarios of greenhouse gases and
aerosols, or radiative forcing scenarios, often based upon simula-
tions by climate models. Climate projections are distinguished
from climate predictions in order to emphasize that climate
projections depend upon the emission/concentration/radiative
forcing scenario used, which is based on assumptions concern-
ing, e.g., future socio-economic and technological developments
that may or may not be realized and are therefore subject to sub-
stantial uncertainty.
A climate scenario is a plausible and often simplified represen-
tation of the future climate, based on an internally consistent
set of climatological relationships, that has been constructed
for explicit use in investigating the potential consequences of
anthropogenic climate change, often serving as input to impact
models.
Thus, as we have seen before, convolution is no stranger to
the IPCC. Meanwhile, depending on the purpose intended, climate
models range greatly in inputs, complexity, time frames, regions,
type, etc. The late E. N. Lorenz, in the early days of modern cli-
mate forecasting, established two principles in the definition of
predictability in atmospheric studies. (Lorenz also was one of the
first modern scientists to develop theories surrounding the cha-
otic nature of the environment, and to bring the concept into gen-
eral usage).
The most straightforward form of predictability centers on an

established base line of factors that are known quantities on
which to calculate the response.
The other principle involves more complex processes concern-
ing the interaction of lesser-known factors together, without a
known finite base line on which to calculate the response.
These principles apply no less now than they did when
Lorenz first proposed them, and certainly seem very close to the
concepts of climate modeling in general. Unknowns the second
principle remain the single biggest issue and a source of contro-
versy for climate models to overcome, in which adjustments, or
tunings, have been performed on them regularly in order to make
them fit otherwise non-quantified forcings. Although these may
exist in theory, in practice they have been harder to show to
everyones satisfaction. For example, the temperature dynamics
of the oceans are far from understood as a component, and
continue to pose more questions than answers.
Additionally, the longer the time frame of a climate projec-
tion, the less finely resolved information can be included. This
means, therefore, that longer-term climate models are primarily
concerned with creating estimates of the future climate and over-
all conditions of large world regions, rather than details specific to
smaller areas. This is why, even with todays mighty computers, it
is still impossible to project details of even a slightly comparable
resolution to those found in weather forecasts. It is also why no
one really can say for sure how accurately present models are able
to anticipate future climate conditions.
Climate models as a whole can be classified accordingly:
The simplest are termed Energy Balance Models (EBMs) and
are usually considered low-resolution models covering larger
world regions with simple inputs.
More complex atmospheric one-dimensional Radiative-
Convective Models (RCMs: radiation balance and heat trans-
port of convection), or two-dimensional Statistical-Dynamical
Models (STMs: combination of other energy balances and
RCMs together).
Earth Models of Intermediate Complexity (EMICs) are gen-
erally developed in comparison to EMBs, containing many
Climate Models 169
more parameters and inputs but still falling below maximum

possible parameters.
General Circulation Models (GCMs) is a general term for mod-
els that are built around a mathematically divided spherical
grid of Earth and may be utilized to project outcomes from a
wide range of inputs and resolutions for any given time frame
and/or outcome being considered.
Specific varieties of GCM also exist, depending on the pur-
pose intended and types of included inputs:
Those that model ocean environments are termed Ocean Gen-
eral Circulation Models (OGCMs). These are used to predict
future temperature patterns, salinity, currents, etc., through
the entire depth of the oceans.
When modeling atmospheric factors, the models are known as
Atmospheric General Circulation Models (AGCMs). In these,
the influences of wind, precipitation, atmospheric temperature,
humidity, etc., are included.
Coupled General Circulation Models (CGCMs) utilize all fac-
tors linked together and also may be termed Atmosphere Ocean
General Circulation Models (AOGCMs). These are the most
elaborate and inclusive types of models.
To build a model, one needs to divide the globe (or portion
thereof) into a format of workable units within a three-dimensional
grid, each being usually a maximum of a few hundred square kilo-
meters in dimension. As time-dependent units these are collected
over a finite duration, in specific volumes according to the division
of the three-dimensional grid. Figure 8.2 shows the general con-
cept of such a model, but limited to the atmosphere (an AGCM).
Having thus divided the model sample into symmetrical cells
by volume, the behavior of each and the responses over time are
computed as mathematical equations, each being compared against
adjacent cells. In this way, an overall global model is assembled.
Unknowns include whether/how Earth will respond to increased
forcings of anthropogenic origin, whether it will effectively neu-
tralize them, or something in between maybe even none of these.
Climate modelers have made certain determinations according to
theory and past observations, the gray areas that are central to the
ongoing debate.
FIG. 8.2 Schematic for an atmospheric global climate model (Graphic

courtesy of NOAA)
However, we should examine further the most sophisticated

model type in a little more detail (AOGCM or CGCM), the type
used in most of todays total global climate projections especially
since the IPCC considers them to be essential components in their
periodic assessments. In an AOGCM, full measures of all known
(or at least those that are acknowledged) interactive components
are accommodated, including but not limited to:
Known forcings and feedbacks, and compounded feedback loops.
Biological and chemical factors and aerosols.
Atmospheric currents, convection and pressure.
Water vapor and cloud cover (the latter a subject of dispute as
to whether it is a positive or negative forcing; all current mod-
els used by the IPCC project them as positive).
Winds, wind speeds, and directions.
CO2 storage and recirculation, including storage and release
from land and ocean heat sinks.
Climate Models 171
ENSO and NAO oscillations and other air and ocean currents.
Solar variations, and radiation input and output at all latitudes.
Deforestation, changing albedo.
Variations in snow and ice cover, water density and composi-
tion, according to speed and degree of ice melt, further chang-
ing albedo.
Responses of greenhouse gases to Earths emissive radiative
wavelengths.
Computed energy loss to space, after all factors are taken into
consideration.
The interaction of all of these factors together.
After this, each long-term model has to be adjusted according
the projected seasonal changes in weather patterns, as well as dif-
ferentiating between all global regions. It may need to cover
decades into the future. Because so much of Earths weather and
climate is chaotic in nature, this makes precise predictions and
projections further in advance increasingly problematic. We have
already seen how certain longer-term influences on weather can
ape true climate change (see again Chap. 3).
Models of all types and complexity may even be assembled
for specific regions in isolation, having entirely different contrib-
uting forcing and feedback processes than the greater surrounding
areas. High-resolution three-dimensional modeling applied to lim-
ited regions and time scales have been able to simulate ocean
eddies and show the flexibility of this technology. Because ocean
eddies have a great influence on the mixing of waters and ulti-
mately on deepwater circulation they influence climate more
than might seem obvious at first glance. In this instance, Fig. 8.3,
an OGCM, the specific modeling of eddies in the northern Atlan-
tic Ocean, shows that precise information may be deduced.
Figure 8.4 illustrates modeling on a global scale, at a 1012 km
resolution. Although limited to the study of cloud movements and
circulation only, it covers the entire globe. We can consider it an
AGCM, although this is again a highly short-term projection. In
this instance NASA created a moving graphic for a 1-day period,
from which this is excerpted.
Meanwhile, Fig. 8.5 shows something we may be far more
familiar with: a coupled climate model for the entire global sur-
face to project future temperatures for the remainder of the twenty-
first century. This is far more typical of the climate models we are
FIG. 8.3 Eddies off Greenland and Canada in the northern Atlantic Ocean
(Image courtesy of NOAA/GFDL)
FIG. 8.4 Atmospheric general circulation model (Graphic courtesy of

NOAA/GFDL)
Climate Models 173
FIG. 8.5 2005 (CGCM) 19712100 (Keith Dixon) (Graphic courtesy of

NOAA/GDFL)
likely to see in the mainstream. It is not comforting, although we

must remember it is only a projection based on acknowledged and
assumed factors. However, it is precisely the drastic conclusions
of models such as this that have been the target of so much criti-
cism by those who maintain that the wrong forcings have been
applied or omitted, with entirely unrealistic projections being
reached.
Water Vapor and Clouds

The subject of clouds and water vapor are also at the core of the
various controversies in climate models, as well as trying to deter-
mine whether they function first as feedback or forcing. Cause and
effect of both water vapor and clouds are still far from understood
or agreed, also in respect to which came first the warming or the
clouds and whether heat is lost because of them or gained. Water
vapor is to some degree self-regulating through precipitation back
into liquid water. What is not so clear is how warming affects its
overall impact on climate; as an intensely complex and transi-
tional component it is insufficiently understood. Thus, its effect
must be largely assessed depending on ones faith in computer pro-
jections and estimates.
As one of the central tenets of climatology, the ongoing study
of these hydrological factors has a number of well-known follow-
ers, such as climatologist Roy Spencer. His position and theories
about climate models can be accessed on his own website in addi-
tion to links on his various peer-reviewed research papers [1].
However, Spencer is no stranger to controversy, and his positions
are obviously at odds with other practitioners of mainstream sci-
ence. He remains a prominent and respected climatologist regard-
less, believing instead that Earth has many built-in systems of
self-regulation. Apparently this is another manifestation of the
Gaia Hypothesis (see Chap. 1), albeit in an unsung capacity.
Climate Model Errors and Questionable

Temperature Readings
Because numerous researchers remain steadfast that present con-
ditions could not have originated with present allowed inputs
only, their charge is by now familiar. In short, key factors have
been omitted, while others, notably the influence of carbon diox-
ide, a measurably increasing known quantity, has been exagger-
ated in order to make the models work.
The Accuracy of Climate Models

According to the website Global Warming Man or Myth, it
is easier to predict climate than it is weather. If this were so,
the argument would already be over, and there would be noth-
ing to write or talk about. Meanwhile, few devout supporters
even of the IPCC position would be likely to make such a
wild claim, in light of the constant revisions found necessary
in the long and arduous evolution of climate models.
Climate Models 175
FIG. 8.6 ENSO coupled climate model (Hovmoeller) and parallel observa-
tions (Image courtesy of NOAA)
Although it seems no scientist or research center has claimed

to have 100% faith in these models, their proponents believe that
overall they are reasonably accurate or to paraphrase the IPCC,
that there is a high degree of confidence in them, such a lack of
certainty being the constant bone of contention. Skeptics have
questioned the prospect of making major changes in the way the
people live, against uncertain, or even unlikely, projections of the
future. Certainly, it is not hard to find simple errors in past model
projections. Figure 8.6 represents the NOAA/GFDL record since
1980 in modeling for future ENSO/El Nino events. Comparisons
FIG. 8.7 Errors SST in Hadley Climate Model 3 (Graphic courtesy of

William M. Connolley)
of observation against model are instructive, as the resemblances

often are none too close.
Although it can be seen in this particular example that the
accuracy between 1985 and 2000 appeared to have improved some-
what, the prediction of events was still far from precise. In defense
of those trying to develop such predictions, it must be realized that
precise definitions of any factor in projection will, by default, always
be subject to error, and small errors can indeed create entirely dif-
ferent outcomes. However, a strong and theoretically demonstrable
component of the skeptics argument has been that if just one forc-
ing effect has been overestimated, that this alone will completely
negate all the outcomes projected by climate models.
Figure 8.7 illustrates precise levels of error over a 1-year
time span for sea surface temperatures (SSTs). Projections of the
OCGM Hadley Climate Model 3, and actual observed tempera-
tures (19781994), were reviewed for correction in the re-analysis
project ERA-15. The errors are not inconsiderable, and are dis-
played in degree according to color. They underline the difficulties
faced by climate modelers, as well as the potential for skeptics to
call the entire methodology into question. We should remember,
however, that the models used in this analysis date from some
Climate Models 177
time back; it is unlikely they would be considered valuable by

todays standards, regardless.
Satellites have become increasingly important in supplying
more reliable temperature readings to climate modelers; their reli-
ability is increasingly trusted. Indeed, their accuracy today is virtu-
ally universally agreed and accepted, so at least there is one area of
climate science that is not in dispute. A notable study in Nature
reaffirmed not only the degree of accuracy of satellite readings versus
other methods of temperature measurement (i.e., balloons) and cli-
mate models, but declared that lower atmosphere temperatures had
actually declined since satellites had been utilized some two decades
earlier [2]. However, this is a diametrically opposite stance to NASAs
own published records for 19792011 (see again Fig. 5.8, Chap. 5).
Although climate models had projected significantly higher
temperatures through increases in greenhouse gas, the Nature
study, at least, did not find that to have been an accurate outcome.
However, before all skeptics run a victory lap, it should be pointed
out that this article dated from 1997, the year before the 1997/1998
El Nino spike, and well before the NASA graph in Chap. 5. At very
least, however, even if it did not address the current situation, it
seemed to confirm that the models up to that time were wrong.
Regardless, the same factors of anthropogenic gas increases are
still being included in present climate models. This apparent con-
tradiction has not yet been laid to rest to everyones satisfaction.
Figure 8.8 illustrates the history of all types of measurements
combined. It also shows how one can draw different conclusions
from the same information, and again seems to fly in the face of the
97 Nature article that claimed lower atmosphere temperatures
actually had fallen. On this graphic, if we look at the three averaged
trend lines it seems clear that all of the trends agree in essence, and
that overall surface and lower atmosphere temperatures had
increased over the period. However, if we reset our starting point
after the 97/98 El Nino spike, at least (the time of the Nature study)
we can draw another determination: there seems to have been no
overall warming at all since 1998. It is not surprising, therefore,
that this and the reliability of temperature readings (especially sur-
face-based ones) have become central to present arguments on cli-
mate change. In such examples, it can depend on where we set our
starting and ending points and draw our intersecting lines.
FIG. 8.8 Surface and satellite temperatures combined (Graphic courtesy

Global Warming Art Project)
The Urban Heat Island

Still other reservations about the accuracy of climate models stem
from the twentieth-century phenomenon called the urban heat
island effect. It has been observed in areas of significant urbaniza-
tion that the climate is affected to some degree, with resulting
hotter temperatures. The causes of these higher temperatures
include reduced areas of vegetation, increased density of roads and
buildings, reduced permeability to water (with consequently drier
and warmer surface conditions in sunlight), increased storage of
heat in buildings and concrete pavement, as well as significant
reductions in the amounts of moist areas of wooded shade. The
consequences are two distinctly different heat island effects:
Surface temperatures tend to be somewhat higher during day-
light hours than elsewhere, although they continue to radiate
heat at night at a reduced rate.
At night, the air immediately above the urban landscape
becomes increasingly warmed from the outward radiation
stored during the day in structures below. Thus nighttime
temperatures tend to be relatively much hotter than in rural
Climate Models 179
FIG. 8.9 Effects of the urban heat island effect (Graphic courtesy of NOAA)
areas where the ground has far less stored heat near the imme-
diate surface.
The EPA estimates that the urban heat island effect can be as
large as 3C during the day in a city of at least one million people,
and a surprising 12C at night. The great divergence is, of course,
due to rural areas cooling down much more than do urban areas,
full of heat-retaining infrastructure, during the night (Fig. 8.9).
Another effect within the urban heat island phenomenon can
be clearly seen in Fig. 8.10. Interestingly, tall buildings often retain
heat to far lesser extent than the surrounding urban sprawl, pre-
sumably because heat is more readily radiated from the more iso-
lated taller structures than those near ground level, and the fact
that most of them are glass-covered and highly reflective. When
this image of Atlanta was made in 1997, the actual temperature
recorded in outlying areas was approximately 80 F, but within the
city, temperatures as high as 118F were recorded!
The reason this phenomenon is so important is that it is con-
nected to the way global temperatures are collected and inputted
FIG. 8.10 Atlanta urban heat island effect (infrared) (Image courtesy of NASA)
into climate models. If the numbers being fed into the models do
not reflect accurately what is really happening, the models will
reflect and possibly compound such errors in computations many
times larger. Critics have continually raised questions about the
reliability of temperature measurements used in models, whether
due to the heat island effect or the various other methods utilized
for temperature collection. Among the criticisms:
Many monitors/sensors are located within areas of urban heat
islands.
Early models did not accurately account for the urban heat
island effect.
There is a greater density and longer history of land-based tem-
perature sensors located in the United States than elsewhere.
Ocean sensors are carried onboard buoys, with varying reli-
ability. Plus, early sensors were on board ships, and overesti-
mated SST by 0.6C because of the heat from the ships engines
another related effect.
Satellite SST readings may be unreliable because they usually
monitor only the tops of the oceans surfaces and not immedi-
ately below, where truer readings lie.
Climate Models 181
Satellite measurements cannot penetrate cloud, leading to

underestimations of temperatures, although microwave tech-
nologies have now helped to remedy this defect.
The last two reservations seem not to instill confidence that
the satellite record can always be trusted. Therefore, despite claims
that everything has been taken into account, and thus, despite the
great strides in monitoring technology that has been made over the
years, it is clear that the complete accuracy climate modelers seek
has been demonstrated to few peoples satisfaction. Even proponents
and designers of the models have found plenty of fault with them.
Kevin Trenberth, in a 2011 article in Climate Research, highlighted
some significant shortcomings in climate models, ranging from:
Poor representation of transient tropical weather systems,
including hurricanes and tropical storms.
Overstatement of frequency of precipitation and understate-
ment of intensity.
The possibility that all modeling has built a too-rapid convec-
tion effect, leading to the overstatement of precipitation.
Inaccurate simulations of the hydrological cycle in general.
Too little atmospheric residence time projected for water
vapor [3].
Such shortcomings are far more significant than everyone
might realize, especially since water vapor plays such an impor-
tant part in the entire climate, not the least of which is its huge
greenhouse contribution. Critics have argued if this one key aspect
cannot be accurately represented, climate models are not likely to
be trustworthy. We should remember that just small inaccuracies
in these models have been implicated in having far reaching effects
on the accuracy of overall projections.
There is no shortage of questions about the methodology used
in climate models and the quality of their projections. Researchers
R. Fildes and N. Kourentzes cast serious doubts about the accuracy
of even a 10-year projection [4]. However, in their study they pro-
posed a way to reduce the controversies by blending time series and
climate models together. They maintained that their method would
produce far greater reliability, and therefore ultimate acceptance of
these models. However, in a bold position, perhaps risking outright
rejection, the authors stated that they considered efforts to regulate
carbon emissions above all else had been misguided.
Another finding from Oregon State University was that cli-

mate models had probably based future carbon dioxide release
from soils at latitudes too high and too low, depending on variable
temperatures in each region [5]. Terrestrially stored CO2, though a
far smaller sink than that of the oceans, was actually responsible
for more net annual exchange. Because the total annual release of
all fossil fuels is only 5.4% of all CO2 exchanged by the atmo-
sphere, the potential was considerable for even small errors (in
estimates of carbon release from the land sink) to add to or off-
set all or most of the fossil fuel projection. It was not hard to deduce
that probably all net total added CO2 represented not more than
1.5% of the total amount exchanged each year. Compare this again
with the authors deduction in Chap. 2, which put this amount in
similar territory, at 0.93%.
If the range of challenges and suggested remedies seems end-
less overall, however, the creators of climate models can justly
claim considerable success in improving their projections in recent
years. For those who maintain that new considerations have not
been factored in, and that their proponents have been shut out of
discussions taking place among those who design them, unfortu-
nately, these models also have served to ensure that the divide
between both sides of the debate stays energized.
References
1. Spencer R (2009) How do climate models work? http://www.drroys-
pencer.com/2009/07/how-do-climate-models-work/
2. Christy JR, Spencer RW, Braswell WD (1997) How accurate are satel-
lite thermometers? Nature 389:342343
3. Trenberth K (2011) Changes in precipitation with climate change.
Clim Res 47:123138
4. Fildes R, Kourentzes N (2011) Validation and forecasting accuracy in
models of climate change. Int J Forecast 27:9681005
5. Sierra CA, Harmon ME, Thomann E, Perakis SS, Loescher HW (2011)
Amplification and dampening of soil respiration by changes in tem-
perature variability. Faculty Research Publications, Oregon State
University, April 2011 http://www.ir.library.oregonstate.edu/xmlui/
handle/1957/21537?show=full
9. Interpretations of the Data
Despite the earnest and best efforts of scientists, the sheer

complexity of the subject makes precise agreement between stud-
ies, types of research, quality and interpretations of the data sub-
ject to any number of differences and disagreements between
colleagues. The passion that climate science has generated has
sometimes tended to make these become personal, especially
when reputations are on the line and hard sought research has
taken years of dedicated work. As such, climate science has not
been without its star players, who have found themselves either
embraced or becoming targets of the opposite side.
James Hansen, head of NASAs Goddard Institute for Space
Studies (GISS), and perhaps the most famous climatologist in the
world today, has headed some of the most frequently quoted
research findings that leave little doubt that CO2 is the primary
culprit of recent climate change [1]. Hansen certainly is supportive
of the 2007 IPCC position and has, of course, been one of the lead-
ing advocates for the theory of anthropogenic causes of climate
change for decades. As such, he is no stranger to criticism, some of
it far from objective. His views represent the many aspects of cli-
mate studies that can be supported by space research through GISS,
his hallmark being never to deprecate the efforts of other research-
ers of any stripe. Perhaps surprisingly, various papers that Hansen
headed show statistics that seem to contradict themselves, for
example, discrepancies in temperature readings over the years:
From 1981 [2]:

The 1981 measurements put global air surface temperatures at
their highest in 1940 at just over 0.4C higher than in 1900
and at almost 0.1C less than in 1980. Then the temperature
gradient follows a jagged decline until about 1970, increasing
after that time.

A remarkable conclusion is that the global temperature is

almost as high today as it was in 1940.
From 1987 [3]:

Without apparent explanation, another graph of measurements
from 1987 shows that suddenly the high temperature in 1940
now registers almost 0.1C less than shown in 1981, while that
of 1980 registered higher by the same amount. The accompany-
ing quote is strikingly at odds with that of just 6 years earlier.
The global air surface temperature in 1981 reached a warmer
level than obtained in any previous time in the period of instru-
mental record.
From 2009 [4]:

Recent new graphs showed the temperature in 1900 had been
lowered by 0.1C. Although that for 1980 had also been reduced
by the same amount, the steep slope up to the high tempera-
ture in 2007 (0.55C) was even more drastic.
The analysis method was documented in Hansen and Leb-

edeff (1987), showing that the correlation of temperature
change was reasonably strong for stations separated by up to
1,200 km, especially at middle and high latitudes. They ob-
tained quantitative estimates of the error in annual and 5-year
mean temperature change by sampling at station locations a
spatially complete data set of a long run of a global climate
model, which was shown to have realistic spatial and tempo-
ral variability.
This derived error bar only addressed the error due to in-
complete spatial coverage of measurements. As there are other
potential sources of error, such as urban warming near meteo-
rological stations, etc., many other methods have been used
to verify the approximate magnitude of inferred global warm-
ing. These methods include inference of surface temperature
change from vertical temperature profiles in the ground (bore
holes) at many sites around the world, rate of glacier retreat
at many locations, and studies by several groups of the effect
of urban and other local human influences on the global tem-
perature record. All of these yield consistent estimates of the
Interpretations of the Data 185
approximate magnitude of global warming, which now stands

at about twice the magnitude that we reported in 1981.
NASA
Before we rush to judgment that someone has been playing

fast and loose with the facts, however, we should bear in mind
that these results only reflect the thinking at the time of the study.
They do not represent the inputs of any one individual or institu-
tion, although certainly those of the institution (GISS) that Han-
sen heads are the major component. Regardless, it is easy to see
why some have questioned the methodology utilized.
But this will probably not satisfy everyone. Four issues come
to mind at first glance:
The last reference to using a 1987 climate model is highly ques-
tionable. Even now, newly formulated models are far from uni-
versally accepted as being reliable tools.
The reference to the urban heat island effect in paragraph 2
has no relevancy for ocean temperatures, which, at 70% of
Earths surface constitute a large proportion of the global read-
ings. Therefore, if any adjustment were necessary, we would
assume that the adjusted global readings for 1980 from the ear-
liest report (1981) would have registered too high, instead of
too low.
Similarly, because the actual occurrence of the urban heat
island effect was even less in 1940, one would think that those
adjusted readings would have been too low, not too high!
On the other hand, measurements of ocean temperatures also
present their own set of reliability issues, especially since these
readings are often taken from moving vessels and are thus sub-
ject to other adjustments [5]. (See also Chap. 8.)
Regretfully, NASAs explanation only helps in our quest
for clarity and consistency if we have already accepted their posi-
tion a good example of the problems we have raised. Justly or
unjustly, the various scenarios Hansen painted reveal a history of
constant tinkering over the years. Two related graphs (for U.S.
temperature) again readily illustrate the essence of the problem
(Fig. 9.1):
FIG. 9.1 (a) An actual temperature graph by Hansens team (GISS) for the
United States, dating from 1999 [6]. It shows a clear downward trend in
temperature from a peak in the 1930s. (b) Compare (a) carefully with a
parallel plot by Hansens team from 2001 [7]. Though superficially similar,
we can readily see that subtle changes make it appear that temperatures
have been on an upward trend since the 1930s totally opposite to the
conclusion from just 2 years earlier!
Although these adjustments were justified according to stated

newer enhancements in measurement techniques, etc., regardless
of their validity, reassurances that only favor ones case do little to
calm controversies from staunchly distrusting critics. More prob-
lematically, a critical part of the argument has been brought up, in
that apparently CO2 had no effect on climate prior to 1980, but
since then it has. As you will recall, critics have pounced on this
with the accusation that CO2 was indicted only to make climate
models work, because there was no other way to explain the rise
in temperature. Indeed, NASA has made this very justification.
Make of this what you will.
James Hansen maintains that advancing techniques have
allowed more accurate determinations of statistics from past
records, which surely is an accurate statement of his convictions.
Hansens perspective can better be appreciated, unfiltered, from
excerpts of a recent press release from the Goddard Institute
(GISS):
NASA Research Finds 2010 Tied for Warmest Year on Record

January 12, 2011
Global surface temperatures in 2010 tied 2005 as the warmest

on record, according to an analysis released Wednesday by re-
searchers at NASAs Goddard Institute for Space Studies (GISS)
in New York.
The two years differed by less than 0.018 degrees Fahr-
enheit. The difference is smaller than the uncertainty in com-
paring the temperatures of recent years, putting them into a
statistical tie. In the new analysis, the next warmest years are
1998, 2002, 2003, 2006, 2007 and 2009, which are statistically
tied for third warmest year. The GISS records begin in 1880.
The analysis found 2010 approximately 1.13F warmer
than the average global surface temperature from 1951 to
1980. To measure climate change, scientists look at long-term
trends. The temperature trend, including data from 2010,
shows the climate has warmed by approximately 0.36 F per
decade since the late 1970s.
The record temperature in 2010 is particularly notewor-
thy, because the last half of the year was marked by a transi-
tion to strong La Nia conditions, which bring cool sea surface
temperatures to the eastern tropical Pacific Ocean. A chilly
spell also struck this winter across northern Europe. The event
may have been influenced by the decline of Arctic sea ice and
could be linked to warming temperatures at more northern
latitudes.
The loss of sea ice may also be driving Arctic air into
the middle latitudes. Winter weather patterns are notorious-
ly chaotic, and the GISS analysis finds seven of the last ten
European winters warmer than the average from 1951 to 1980.
The unusual cold in the past two winters has caused scientists
to begin to speculate about a potential connection to sea ice
changes.
Within the scientific community, it is possible to find many

examples of entirely different conclusions theoretically based
upon the same evidence. However, it is not necessarily true that
all, let alone any of the recent, seemingly esoteric astronomical
concepts have been taken into consideration, especially since most
researchers cannot be intimately involved in every science. Con-
sequently, many positions might have been made in a partial vac-
uum. Regardless, the field of climate study has already long
established positions and methodologies; many of the more com-
pelling astronomical findings and theories are relatively new on
the scene.
Empirical Evidence for the Effects

of Carbon Dioxide
The crux of the entire climate change controversy, the largest sin-
gle focus of disagreement of all, is centered on carbon dioxide,
CO2. The difficulties of pinning down its effects have ensured that
it remains the largest single data anomaly.
In the twentieth century, climate scientists have universally
accepted two distinct periods of warming: that which occurred
prior to 1970, and what has occurred since. There has been a
distinct separation of the attribution of greenhouse warming in
the first period and the second. Virtually every climate model has
contained the inference that carbon dioxide has been responsible

for the second period of warming, because concentrations have
been steadily rising with no other possible new contributing
factors being incorporated as possible forcing agents.
Thus CO2 remains central to anthropogenic theories, and
central to the formulae to make climate models fit the observed
temperatures. However, the problem from the start has been in
quantifying the effects of the gas, since many projections have
been built on its anticipated effect. The problem is that direct
evidence for it is largely missing that the recent warming and
retreat of Earths ice sheets, etc., has been indirectly attributed to
CO2 and thus all we have is circumstantial evidence at best, and
expectations based on physics. However, we have already seen
that even the physics regarding the warming effects of atmo-
spheric CO2 has many interpretations. Perhaps, though, a truer
argument would be whether all warming is due to anthropogenic
causes. After all, it seems that many, if not most, researchers look-
ing for other causes of recent warming have not claimed that their
findings exclude anthropogenic contributions as part of the mix.
In theory at least, increased greenhouse gases should lead to some
warming.
Note that most serious critics refer to exaggerations of the
effects of AGW, while not necessarily denying them, although that
is something that all of them have been incorrectly accused of
doing. Although the degree of supposed exaggeration has been var-
iously estimated, and some have certainly considered it statisti-
cally insignificant, maybe an approach that holds it partly
responsible could prove to be one way out of this mess. For any
chance of this to happen would mean that everyone concerned
would have to be open to any and all possibilities, and all recent
studies. Should either side hang onto their position that they
understand the entire picture, it would not break the logjam. How-
ever, such a scenario would have to be ultimately verifiable, of
course, since we should not be looking for a popular vote and a
happy medium of opinions to settle science matters, or to impose
something expedient. Canute again.
The Linking of Warming to CO2
The Environmental Defense Fund has declared that CO2 is

definitely behind global warming, and that nations have the
responsibility to control future emissions.
The website Skepticalscience has stated that direct mea-
surements indicate that increasing levels of CO2 are trapping
more heat, that human-induced CO2 is responsible for global
warming, and known with high certainty and confirmed by
observation that CO2 is the main driver of climate change
and that human CO2 emissions are what is behind global
warming. Similarly, the NRDC, the National Resources
Defense Council, claims that unless global warming emis-
sions are reduced, average U.S. temperatures could be 39
higher by the end of the twenty-first century. The NRDC did
not even provide the reference temperature scale (C, F, or K)
while quoting unnamed scientists to back up their claim.
If we search for actual empirical evidence of the link
between recent warming and carbon dioxide, we will find lit-
tle that allows us such take such bold stances as these. Even
those scientists most passionately on-board with AGW theo-
ries are careful not to fall into the trap of stating such unequiv-
ocally rigid dogma, preferring instead to frame their
conclusions in terms more akin to likelihoods.
More specifically, therefore, what scientific evidence exists of

that direct link between increased levels of CO2 and rising tem-
peratures? Since we find so many references from those who do
not accept anthropogenic warming theories that there is no
empirical evidence linking carbon dioxide to recent warming, is
that, in fact, true? The fact that the debate continues so vigorously
to this day would seem to imply strongly that such measurements
have not yet been demonstrated in a convincing manner. Other-
wise, we would expect doubters to have been silenced.
However, a somewhat definitive-sounding article by John
Cook on his Skeptical Science website offers a synopsis of what it
can [8]. Satellite reconnaissance and surface measurements have
revealed less infrared energy escaping to space at wavelengths

associated with CO2 absorption. That may well be indisputable,
although Cook apparently is unable to state any point of reference
to the actual degree of warming that has resulted from that. Beyond
this, unfortunately, the summary case that Cook presents is not at
all conclusive, let alone compelling. Pointing to the fact that the
oceans and land have warmed is further supposed to prove that
CO2 was responsible! However, no one has disputed that tempera-
tures have been rising, so we need to examine some of the more
salient references provided in the article, because they represent
the best efforts of those looking for such a definitive link.
The first two studies cited involved a common author, taking
the same approach of hedging bets on specifics [9]. Since neither is
particularly recent, we can assume that they were not able to end
the dispute. Though primarily concerned with increases in green-
house gas, the first happened to make mention of the fact that the
hydrological cycle a key factor, if ever there were one (water
vapor, rain, ocean currents, etc.) was not yet well understood.
Both found changes to outgoing radiative functions of greenhouse
gases, consistent with concerns over radiative forcing, but no
measured consequences of temperature increase.
However, careful analysis revealed that the strongest increase
in retained heat occurred in absorption bands of a greenhouse gases
other than CO2. Specifically, it was methane (CH4) that scored
highest on the totem pole. Methane, incidentally, represents less
than 1/22 of the total volume of atmospheric carbon dioxide, and
about a quarter the radiative forcing value, molecule for molecule.
A contrasting view concluded that the effects of water vapor
were significantly underestimated, while those of CO2 were
significantly overestimated [10]. These are not inconsequential
remarks, considering how much weight has been given anthropo-
genic greenhouse contributions. The author also reminded us that
increases in CO2 levels, historically, were the result of warming
rather than the cause, a charge we have heard before from others.
He continued to remind us of the uneven rates of temperature
increase over the twentieth century versus the near monolithic
increases in CO2 levels. Perhaps most interesting was the projec-
tion that CFC and CO2 heat saturation had probably occurred by
the end of the twentieth century, and that a long-term cooling will
follow for up to seven decades.
Water Vapor and CO2

Among those arbitrarily claiming as a fact that CO2 warming
has led to increases in atmospheric water vapor, we will find
both the Environmental Defense Fund and the website Skep-
ticalscience.
Although such a scenario exists in most theories, CO2
warming has yet to be demonstrated. In the absence of empir-
ical evidence of actual CO2 warming (existing as yet only in
computer models), it is difficult to determine if there has been
any anthropogenic influence resulting in observed increases
in atmospheric water vapor.
Other researchers have tried to be specific; one estimate of

warming was a global net forcing increase of 2.2 W/m2 per decade
from 1973 to 2008 [11]. However, the trend was attributed to
increases in water vapor and CO2, although it is unclear how that
conclusion was reached, or what was used to support it. However,
different research put the total energy flux imbalance from all
increases in anthropogenic emissions since 1850 at 3.52 W/m2.
This is clearly quite a different conclusion [12]. The abstract of the
paper contains a statement that the findings should end the dis-
cussion that no empirical evidence exists to connect increases of
greenhouse gases and global warming. Although starting out with
a good premise, it was far from successful in substantiating those
bold claims that accompanied it.
However, as an important effort to quantify with actual phys-
ical evidence of otherwise unsupported claims made by others it is
perhaps the best we have. Its greatest weakness may have been in
prioritizing the analysis of increases to almost every minor other
trace greenhouse gas, most notably CFCs, ahead of CO2. Thus, the
authors did not provide a strong case for the link that supporters of
AGW are trying to make, namely that CO2 is the primary driver of
climate change. However, the carefully chosen words of the sum-
mation seem to disguise what may be an avoidance of the key ele-
ment of AGW theories namely, CO2! Indeed, in the introduction,
CO2 is not even mentioned.
Furthermore, the specifics that study provided, although cer-

tainly a commitment to actual numbers, showed:
An over-reliance of comparisons against simulated fluxes, esti-
mates and formulae.
Compared to these simulated readings, most readings are not
so striking that they could be argued to represent more than
just statistical anomalies.
An insufficient breadth of sampling locations, those utilized
having been taken at a single mid-latitude location only.
In fact, in one key table (measured summer downward sur-
face fluxes), the actual measured downward radiative flux for CO2
shows no change between past (read, simulated) readings and the
measurement made in 1999. Although this table attempts to pit
readings in 1999 against those of the pre-industrial period, because
these records were simulated it surely cannot be claimed the argu-
ment has been settled that is, without the expectation of any
challenge.
The many other listed and analyzed compounds are indeed
greenhouse gases, but they are considered even by the IPCC to
represent collectively at most only 23% of the total warming
excluding water vapor (see Chap. 2, Fig. 2.5). Thus, the purported
primary driver of AGW (CO2) was marginalized, rather than the
other way around. CFCs seem to take the brunt of the blame, and
should these be the cause of the late twentieth-century warming,
the problem would be relatively simple to correct.
CFCs
Many sources confirm that CFCs contributions to global

warming are at a small level relative to CO2. Probably most
scientists would concur with this position, and it is not inher-
ently likely to be untrue. However, some of these same sources
have used certain atmospheric studies that include the
effects of CFCs to mask the lack of empirical evidence for
observed CO2 warming since 1970, thus confusing the issue.
Although evidence of slight warming from these gases has
been easier to implicate, one cannot have it both ways.
Qualified Critics
Since we know there are many who disagree with conventional
AGW theories, we should know a little of such perspectives from a
few of those who have, at least, significant scientific credentials.
Richard Lindzen, of the Massachusetts Institute of Technol-
ogy, was intimately involved in the creation of the 2001 IPCC
Report and Working Group 1, and a contributor to the 1995 IPCC
Second Assessment; he is one of an elite group of leading interna-
tionally renowned climatologists. He is widely respected, even
among those who take diametrically opposing positions, though
both Hansen and Lindzen have been among the most savagely
attacked by some of their opposite counterparts.
Lindzens perspectives perhaps can best be summed up by his
likening of the constant changes made to climate models to a
classroom exam where students know the answers but arrived at
them by using all the wrong methods. He famously outlined a
result of technical statements emanating from the scientific com-
munity that are beyond the capability of the media to interpret
correctly. Restated in alarmist terms, politicians respond by award-
ing increased funding for research!
He has maintained a position that all dire projections of
warming include assumptions that added feedback from water
vapor and clouds will greatly multiply this effect, believing that
undetermined feedback from water vapor damages the credibility
of climate models based on such statistics as provided by GISS.
Lindzen repeatedly has claimed that such models have been mis-
represented and manipulated through the conduit of the media,
and also has criticized the IPCC Summary for Policymakers for
not accurately reflecting the reports findings, as previously refer-
enced in the preface [13]. Lindzen has stated for the record that
doubling present levels of CO2 alone would produce a further
warming of just 1C. This is again much in line with T. J. Nelsons
calculations (see Chap. 2).
Climatologists Roy Spencer and William Braswell also have
weighed in, authoring several papers [14]. It is clear that they con-
sider that models of feedback effects have been misdiagnosed
and that current observations are biased in the positive direction.
Note that significantly, and in light of earlier remarks, they did not
dismiss the effect of greenhouse gases but consider them to have
been overstated. Thus, they appear to be looking for truth some-

where in the middle. None of these findings necessarily should be
taken to mean the authors disagree that some amount of manmade
greenhouse effect could not be in play.
Differences in interpretation of the data can also be tied to
other factors. Nils-Axel Mrner, a leading figure in sea level stud-
ies, if a highly controversial one, was the former head of paleogeo-
physics and geodynamics at Stockholm University. He has
presented numerous papers, many appearing in Global Planetary
Change, an important journal. Because astronomical climate
research has involved the effects of the Sun on Earths ocean
masses, we can expect that any warming detected within them
will be tied to the Sun, no matter how indirectly.
An outspoken critic of anthropogenic warming, Mrner
remarked of the IPCC Third Assessment Report (TAR), It seems
that the authors involved in this chapter were chosen not because
of their deep knowledge in the subject, but rather because they
should say what the climate model had predicted. A gruff and
short commentary, with a highly amusing graphic, may be accessed
online [15].
Former Apollo 17 astronaut and now a U.S. senator, Harrison
H. Schmitt has tied the differences to outside influences, roundly
condemning the National Academy of Sciences for their policies of
promoting a federal mandate based on flawed as well as selective
science within the American Association for the Advancement of
Science. Of the latter he expressed distaste that it could not even
bring itself to require consideration of books dissenting from the
consensus that current climate change is human caused. More
serious still are Schmitts comments that if grant applications
from the researchers involved do not propose to show the effects of
humans on climate, their proposals risk not being funded.
Whether this view represents reality depends on whom one
listens to, but it has been widely propagated. One difference, how-
ever, between this senator and most of the remainder of his col-
leagues is that Schmitt does have a real scientific and astronomical
background.
Strident tones against AGW (anthropogenic global warming)
theories have also emerged from other, sometimes unlikely, places
[16]. Taking a decidedly purist approach using mathematics and
statistics, along with data from NASA/GISS, economists Michael
Beenstock and Yaniv Reingewertz claimed that the anthropogenic

theory is spurious, that the contributions of greenhouse gases are
temporary rather than permanent, and that solar irradiance is
indeed the driver of climate change. The final opinion was that
although the effects of increased carbon emissions were real, they
would be only temporary, and likely to be reversed in the near
future. It seems that this final position has its feet planted firmly
on both sides of the argument!
And Then
Perhaps the most telling effort to find common ground among all
came as recently as 2011 from no less a figure than James Hansen
who, in a paper with several co-authors, made some interesting
and indeed rather startling adjustments to his long-held positions
[17]. This is a critically significant paper, as the authors attempted
to juggle contradictory evidence, some of it of their own making.
An extraordinary concession made early on in the paper was
that effects due to anthropogenic aerosols are virtually unmea-
sured, along with their influence on cloud formation, having prob-
ably been a greater negative forcing than had been assumed. Hansen
et al. then continued along some climate-hydrological lines not
too far removed from those analyzed by Trenberth (see Chap. 8).
The conclusion was that climate models failed to project accu-
rately the absorption of projected greenhouse heat into the oceans,
with rates of absorption since 2003 far less than had been expected.
Another stunning concession was the conclusion that the models
must have employed a net climate forcing greater than had taken
place in the real world of climate forcing, and that the slow cli-
mate response function of the oceans had allowed climate models
to compute an unrealistically large net climate forcing.
However, perhaps even more startling were remarks within
the summation that since projections of net anthropogenic cli-
mate forcing had been unrealistically large, it would signal some-
thing of a white flag and could only lead skeptics once again to
call into question the viability of models as a whole. Although
Hansen lauded the success and effectiveness of the GISS model
1E-R in projecting sea surface warming, its findings had overstated
warming of the deep oceans. It had further been estimated that

aerosols acted as a cooling agent twice as efficiently as had been
allowed.
The mindset of many scientists such as Hansen, who support
the IPCC position, has long been that CO2 increases inevitably
lead to continuing increases in temperature, and thus the only
explanation they could provide for inaccurate forecasts is that they
have not correctly counted the aerosol factor. However, if once
again we return to T. J. Nelsons paper (Chap. 2), a more realistic
explanation might be that the existing CO2 is already fully heat-
saturated. Additionally, the researchers referenced that the rate of
sea level rise had slowed by an estimated 0.6 mm/year, according
to ARGO program.
However, the paper did not stop there. In perhaps the most
astounding remark, and delivered almost off-handedly, the authors
stated that the biggest uncertainty in assessing the fast-feedback
effects of increased greenhouse gases was actual global tempera-
ture change.
A stunning conclusion if ever there were one. Accordingly, it
was stated that no climate model would ever be able to compete
with empirically derived data. Stunning, again. Among further
admissions were that previous studies (i.e., Hansen et al. 1984)
treated ancient aerosol changes incorrectly as a forcing. In fact,
they concluded anthropogenic aerosols were probably a far greater
negative forcing than had been assumed, because they could not
otherwise explain the slow rate of warming relative to their calcu-
lated energy imbalance.
The Effects of Aerosols
Many have claimed that aerosols have been masking global

warming, which otherwise would be worse. In light of recent
positions taken by leading AGW proponents, and having made
such a bold pronouncement before they had evidence, the
convenient carelessness of this position can easily be seen,
especially since it has been stated in a vacuum. The role of
aerosols is still unclear at this time.
Hansen thus revealed some truly remarkable qualities that

his critics had always been unwilling to acknowledge or similarly
demonstrate: that he remains ready and willing to adjust his con-
clusions, in an open manner, when evidence emerges that past
conclusions have been flawed. This is quite contrary to the posi-
tions taken by many figures on both sides in many other instances.
Kudos to Hansen. Perhaps there is a way out after all.
Shark-Infested Waters: Surfing

for Insights
The example above represents a well-justified rationale. In con-
trast, a 2007 article from the National Post about climate change
occurring in other planetary members of the Solar System con-
tained virtually every possible blanket clich [18]. Relegating some
possibly interesting research into the realm of pop science by
attributing without a shred of evidence that, somehow, the Sun
had to be responsible for every observation of warming within the
Solar System, they fell into their own trap. It is interesting to note
that we seldom see this kind of populist, pseudo-science from
those supporting the IPCC position, an observation that should
not be lost on those taking the opposite stance.
Other official-sounding organizations have taken just as sim-
plistic blanket positions, seldom with much to back them up. The
Capital Research Center stated that the Union of Concerned Sci-
entists had waged a jihad against climate skeptics. Perhaps the
worst effect of these is when they link climate science and politics
together. From the wealth of materials on the Internet about cli-
mate change, independent websites with grandiose, less-than-
concealed names and headings are likely to be suspect sources.
These sources should not be confused with well-written peer-
reviewed research, even though one should not conclude that all
independent commentary is necessarily of little or no relevance;
we just need to be extremely careful.
However, we can also find instances also of less-than-model
practices even from among other government agencies. One closely
FIG. 9.2 Carbon dioxide concentrations over the past 2,000 years (From the
NOAA website)
affiliated with NASA, the National Oceanic and Atmospheric

Administration (NOAA), features on its website at least one graph
(Fig. 9.2) that uses a base point other than zero, resulting in some
startling results [19].
The NOAA graph for atmospheric CO2 increases registers the
starting point 280 ppmv (thats right, 280 parts per million) at
the bottom of the graph, showing it soaring dramatically to the top
of the chart with the most recent reading of 388 ppmv. The con-
clusion likely to be drawn by the uninitiated is that CO2 has taken
over the entire atmosphere! This from a governmental agency, no
less. Although many examples from private sites may be just as
bad, at least they do not represent public taxpayer-funded official
agencies.
Just as appalling, in this writers view, is the fact sheet that
appears with this grossly misleading graph. From the outset, the
page reveals a predetermined agenda with stated certainties about
anthropogenic warming remember, even the IPCC itself uses
only terms such as likelihood, or high level of confidence.
Manmade Global Warming

Many pro-AGW websites, such as the very official sounding,
Environmental Defense Fund, and the NRDC, the National
Resources Defense Council, state unequivocally amongst
their lists of facts that global warming is not a natural pro-
cess, and that humans and CO2 are causing it [20]. The NRDC
repeats a false position that CO2 is a heat trapping pollut-
ant, while promoting an agenda based on statistics about new
employment in clean, green industries. However, these usu-
ally include frequently including long-existing employment
in trash and waste disposal, hydro-electric power and so
forth.
Even the most ardent AGW climate scientists have shied
away from stating for the record such simplistic black-and-
white positions, and stated in the absence of documentation.
Instead, they usually assign levels of confidence to each
aspect of existing research.
The 31,000
We cannot leave this part of the discussion without briefly touch-
ing upon a petition purportedly signed by 31,000 U.S. scientists
who have challenged the consensus view. Such dissent, if accu-
rately representing what it appears to, illustrates vividly the wide
disparity of interpretations of the same data. Many distinguished
names, astronomers and space scientists among them, appear on
these rolls, including Fred Singer, Edward Teller, Reid Bryson, Wil-
liam Gray and William Happer assuming they are one and the
same as the famous scientists of those names. One private website
claimed that the 31,000 scientists represent only 0.1% of U.S. sci-
entists who hold a BS degree or higher. If 31,000 signatories repre-
sent 0.1% of U.S. scientists, this would translate to 31 million, or
10% of the population! Regardless, of the portion who are con-
nected to astronomical and space sciences, this would translate to
an extremely unrealistic number.
The 31,000 signatories in question appear in the Global

Warming Petition Project, the creation of noted physicist Freder-
ick Seitz (19112008) [21]. Regardless, it was not the first such
petition, but it is by far the largest. Regretfully, none of the names
on the list state their affiliations, credentials, or published papers,
etc., which is its greatest and some would say fatal weakness.
Although many critics have tried to discredit this source because
not every name appearing on the list may be legitimate, we ought
not assume that none of them are. It is equally interesting to note
the many well-known figures who might be considered critics are
among those names that do not appear. All in all, it is perhaps
unfortunate that the petition was not better devised, more that it
is impossible to verify what is presented.
However, the spectre of human-induced (anthropogenic) car-
bon dioxide levels remains pivotal to the discussion, and the most
polarizing part of it. The establishment has not done a good job in
providing clarity beyond blanket positions of absolutes while
allowing for little curiosity. Worse is when it appears to be out-
right contradictory. That perception has allowed some to call all
the field of climate science into question.
References
1. Hansen J, Soto M, Khareshka P, von Schuckmann K (2011) Earths
energy imbalance and implication. NASA Goddard Institute for
Space Studies (GISS). Atoms Chem Phys 11:1342113499
2. Hansen J, Johnson D, Lacis A, Lebedeff S, Lee P, Rind D, Russell
G (1981) Climate impact of increasing carbon dioxide. Science
213(4511):957966
3. Hansen J, Lebedeff S (1987) Global trends of measured surface air
temperature. J Astrophys Res 92(D11):1334513372
4. Hansen J, Ruedy R, Sato M, Lo K (2011) 2010 global surface tempera-
ture change. Rev Geophys 48:RG4004
5. Brohan P, Kennedy JJ, Harris I, Tett SFB, Jones PD (2006) Uncertainty
estimates in regional and global observed temperatures: a new data
set from 1850. J Geogr Res 111(D12):D12106
6. Hansen J, Ruedy R, Glascoe J, Sato M (1999) GISS analysis of sur-
face temperature change of 1999. Goddard Institute for Space Studies
(GISS). J Geophys Res 104:3099731022
7. Hansen J, Ruedy R, Sato M, Imhoff M, Lawrence W, Easterling D,

Peterson T, Karl T (2001) A closer look at United States and global
surface temperature change. Goddard Institute for Space Studies
(GISS). J Geophys Res 106:2394723963
8. Cook J (2010) Empirical evidence that humans are causing global
warming. Skept Sci. 2010 http://www.skepticalscience.com/empir-
ical-evidence-for-global-warming.htm
9. Harries JE, Brindley HE, Sagoo PJ, Bantges RJ (2001) Increases in
greenhouse forcing inferred from the outgoing longwave radiation
spectra of the Earth in 1970 and 1997. Nature 410(6826):355357;
Griggs JA, Harries JE (2004) Comparisons of spectrally resolved out-
going longwave data between 1970 and present. Proc SPIE 5543:164
10. Qing-Bin Lu (2010) What is the major culprit for global warming:
CFCs or CO2? J Cosmol 8
11. Wang K, Liang S (2009) Global atmospheric downward longwave
radiation over land surface under all-sky conditions from 1973 to
2008. J Atmos Phys 114:D19101
12. Evans WFJ, Puckrin E (2006) Measurements of the radiative surface
forcing of climate. In: 18th conference on climate variability and
change 17
13. Lindzen RS (2005) Understanding common climate claims. Draft
paper for 2005 Erice meeting of the world federation of scientists on
global emergencies. eproceedings.worldscinet.com/9789812773890/
9789812773890_0016.html, pp. 189210
14. Spencer RW, Braswell WD (2008) Potential biases in feedback diag-
nosis from observational data: a simple model demonstration. J Clim
21(21):56245628; Spencer RW, Braswell WD (2010) On the diagnosis
of radiative feedbacks in the presence of unknown radiative forcing.
J Geophys Res 115:D16109; Spencer RW, Braswell WD, Hall C (2011)
On the misdiagnosis of surface temperature feedbacks from varia-
tions in Earths radiant energy balance. Remote Sens 3(8):16031613
15. Mrner N-A (2004) IPCC again. INQUA commission on sea level
changes and coastal evalution, 25 July 2004. http://www.pog.su.se/
sea/HP-14.+IPCC-3.pdf
16. Beenstock M, Reingewertz Y (2010) Polynomial cointegration tests
of the anthropogenic theory of global warming. Department of Eco-
nomics, Hebrew University, Mount Scopus
17. Hansen J, Sato M, Kharecha P, von Schuckmann K (2011) Earths energy
imbalance and implication. Atmos Chem Phys 11:1342113449
18. Gunter L (2007) Bright sun, warm Earth. Coincidence? National
Post, 12 March 2007. http://www.nationalpost.com/story.
html?id=551bfe58-882f4889-ab76-5cel02dced7
19. How do human activities contribute to climate change and how do

they compare with natural influences? NOAA. oceanservice.noaa.
gov/education/pd/climate/factsheets/howhuman.pdf
20. Global warming myths and facts. Environmental Defense Fund.
http://www.fightglobalwarming.com/page.cfm?tagID=274; National
Resources Defense Council. NRDC. www.nrdc.org
21. Global warming petition project. http://www.petitionproject.org/
10. Global Warming
on Other Worlds
We have all heard it: global warming is not exclusive to Planet

Earth [1]. A number of other members of the Solar System may be
experiencing their own forms of climate change. However, before
succumbing to the exciting lure that there is, or is not, any rele-
vance to what may be taking place on other planets and what is
occurring on Earth, we should look to see if there are actually any
parallels at all. Because not everyone has been persuaded by the
supposed climate links that have been promoted, we may have
also heard absolute denials of the possibility of extraterrestrial
warming. Other researchers have taken the position that these
perceived changes have no connection with the Sun at all, or to
Earths recent warming (Fig. 10.1).
However, it is certainly easy to understand why some have
jumped to the conclusion that if there has been an increase in solar
activity, it is only natural to expect that there should be some
repercussions in places other than on Earth assuming we accept
even the latter premise.
Although these theories and sentiments are certainly worth
looking into, such simple reference points do not necessarily
equate with similar phenomena in other places. Climate change in
other places does not necessarily follow the same rules as on
Earth, for a number of reasons. Whatever may or may not be tak-
ing place within the greater Solar System, at present it remains
problematic to be definitive about any of it. It is still harder to tie
any part of those various observations to any particular factor, for
a number of reasons:
Earth exists within a complex environment, containing almost
countless components that react singly, or combined interac-
tively, together. Its highly active, turbulent atmosphere, mag-
netosphere, variety of landmasses, abundant surface water, deep

FIG. 10.1 Evidence of once-flowing water and erosion on Mars (Ares Vallis)
(Image courtesy of NASA)
and shallow ocean currents, temperatures, significant atmo-

spheric greenhouse and aerosol conditions, with extremely
complex feedback processes, makes it unique in the Solar Sys-
tem. On Planet Earth, many additional influences may apply,
well beyond the obvious. It is quite possible not all have yet
been established.
Earths orbit is also unique; its proximity to the Sun makes it not
only a prime candidate for the development of life forms but for
multiple strong interactions with the Sun, the central source of
all radiant energy. Other planets with more elliptical orbits and
far longer orbital periods actually may be moving further from
the Sun at this time. Plutos wildly eccentric orbit even crosses
that of Neptunes at times. For other planets, this factor alone
could easily cancel completely any potential increased warming
Global Warming on Other Worlds 207
from the Sun. However, Earths less elliptical and smaller orbit
ensures more consistent and greater solar exposure.
Earth has an axial tilt and precessional wobble that is also
unique to it. These have significant consequences. Whereas
other planets and their satellites also have similar character-
istics, these are substantially different overall. Thus, they are
affected accordingly at any moment of time, their situation
often being totally opposite. Equivalents of the Milankovic
cycles on Earth (see Chap. 11) therefore cannot be applied with
the same blanket values, and maybe hardly at all.
The four largest planets are differently structured from Earth,
being primarily gaseous in nature. Presumably with no hard or
mountainous surfaces below, this affects their response to solar
activity. Additionally, their atmospheres have entirely differ-
ent compositions from Earths, and their substantially differ-
ent temperatures greatly affect their behavior and responses to
solar input.
Differences in the magnetospheres of different planets also play
a substantial role in climate issues. The interplanetary mag-
netic field (the Suns), or those of individual planetary magne-
tospheres, both have also been implicated in the deflection of
cosmic rays. Although deflection of the solar wind is part of
the whole, and not directly tied to temperature, its interactions
with other related planetary components do indeed affect envi-
ronments, and ultimately influence climate.
Because the lengths of planetary years and orbits also vary sub-
stantially (Plutos being the longest at some 248 Earth years),
entirely different potential tidal forces of their alignments with
other Solar System members have to be considered (see Chap. 7).
This could either reduce or enhance possible solar interactions.
The Sun, as ever, remains at the center of all controversies,
and no less so with climate issues concerning other members of
the Solar System. Despite the case that has been made for solar
irradiance having increased through the turn of the twenty-first
century, (as laid out by the ACRIM team and others), the contro-
versy has never gone away. The PMOD team has not given ground
in the argument and remains closely tied to the IPCC position
(Chap. 5). Old arguments thus die hard about the Suns recent out-
put, and continue to be raised in the most public of forums. If the
Sun has been cooling in recent years, we should not expect to be

witnessing solar-induced warming on other worlds, especially
since in the most quoted instances the warming and cooling effects
ought to be more or less instant in the instances in question.
An article that appeared in New Scientist [2], Climate Myths:
Mars and Pluto are warming too, typified another all too common
type of argument. By again selectively choosing only the much-
challenged solar outputs (the alternative PMOD analysis), the arti-
cle stated without the slightest hesitation that the Suns output
had not increased since 1978. Thus, even if the wrong argument
was used to refute another, the implication was that no warming
could have taken place anywhere because the Suns output had
declined.
Connecting the Unconnectable

It might be instructive to spend a little time with the website,
globalwarminglies.com. Here you will find all manner of arbi-
trary connections made between what is happening on Earth
and what has been observed on other planets. The compari-
sons made are patently shallow ultimately absurd, as
attempts are made to correlate what cannot be correlated in
any possible way.
So where do we begin? First, we should acknowledge that

there is no doubt that changes have been observed in the surface
conditions of other members of the Solar System. However, before
we jump on the bandwagon of believing this is just another mani-
festation of what we are experiencing on Earth, we should exam-
ine each case individually. In doing so, we might be able to even
test some climate theories about Earths own situation. Addition-
ally, some events might only be occurrences that went undetected
before.
Venus
Although this planet is not among those that have been thought to
be currently experiencing climate change, looking at the processes
surrounding its dense carbon dioxide laden atmosphere is certainly
instructive. Many researchers have looked to it for parallels and
findings on Earths greenhouse conditions, because this planet per-
haps represents the ultimate extreme case of CO2 greenhouse warm-
ing. However, the warming definitely is not manmade! (Fig. 10.2)
Direct comparisons with Earths present situation are far from
productive, since the Venusian atmosphere is virtually all CO2
(96.5% CO2, 3.5% N2), compared to the puny proportion of CO2 in
Earths atmosphere at 0.0388%. There is really no way to compare
the two planets beyond their similarities in size, since even these
most basic of circumstances could hardly differ more. The atmo-
sphere is also a hundred times as dense. Fortunately, there are
other facts about greenhouse conditions we can learn from Venus.
FIG. 10.2 The surface of Venus in the vicinity of a volcano (infrared image)
(Image courtesy of NASA/JPL-Caltech/ESA)
FIG. 10.3 The dense atmosphere of Venus (Pioneer) (Image courtesy of NASA)
The extreme opacity of its atmosphere is due to clouds of

sulfuric acid droplets and sulfur dioxide. The temperature at the
surface is a scalding 737 K, which registers almost 500 K higher
than that on Earth. Some of this high temperature is determined
by its closer proximity to the Sun, but if we remember that almost
all of the atmosphere of Venus is greenhouse gas, versus, at most
2% of that of Earth (and only if we include Earths highly variable
water vapor, the largest greenhouse component), a better perspec-
tive emerges. In addition, Earths atmosphere is also partly warmed
by trace greenhouse gases other than CO2. Once we include the
multiple feedback from all of them as well, we can see how greatly
the environment of Venus differs (Fig. 10.3).
A recent article in Nature GeoScience, Nov. 16, 2010 [3],
reported the confirmation of significant sulfur dioxide in Venuss
atmosphere. Possible cooling effects of the transformation into
sulfuric acid high in the atmosphere were also discussed, although
this was not as groundbreaking as it might seem. However, in the
1970s, sophisticated analyses by ground-based instruments had
already enabled the deduction of the presence of such aerosols high
in the Venusian atmosphere. At the time no less a figure than
James Hansen had conducted groundbreaking research into such
potential cooling by these compounds. He had concluded that any
possible reflective properties that the clouds might have contrib-

uted against incoming solar radiation were far outweighed by the
warming caused by heat reflection back to the surface. Significantly,
it was largely through Hansens efforts that the effects of such sul-
fur particles in Earths atmosphere would become appreciated and
understood for their role in climate.
Because Earthly aerosols emitted by volcanic eruptions are
largely comprised of sulfur compounds, too, the possibility of
using them to reverse warming trends has been contemplated. It
has been even the subject of actual programs and proposed experi-
ments (see Chap. 2). Regardless, It would seem that further
thoughts of experimenting with global cooling processes from
artificially adding these compounds into Earths atmosphere are
presently not in NASAs cards. Regardless, others have continued
to contemplate, theoretically at least, the possibilities, such as
chemistry Nobel Laureate Paul Crutzen.
Paul Crutzen has proposed a method of artificially cooling the

global climate by releasing particles of sulfur into the upper
atmosphere to reflect incoming sunlight and heat back to
space. Some leading scientists have taken the controversial
proposal seriously because Crutzen has a substantial and
proven track record in atmospheric research.
A diametrically opposing view [4] is that of Nasif S. Nahle, a

biologist who has taken an intense interest in climate studies and
has self-published his findings online. Although all of his climate
work appears to be independent of any publisher or peer reviewing
process, it does not appear to be in the realm of pop science. How-
ever, it must be appreciated from the start that Nahle is also very
independent in the conclusions he reaches. Although he leads us
with great care through the entire system of his deductions,
the result seems completely incompatible with the research of
other scientists in the mainstream or perhaps anywhere! His
conclusions are that the amount of CO2 greenhouse warming on
Venus would total only 7.36 K, and thus, CO2 super-heating of that
planet and CO2 greenhouse warming of Earth is a myth!
Naturally, such estimates are far out of step with any of those
we discussed in Chap. 2. This is especially the case here, since it is
considered that less solar energy reaches the Venusian surface than
it does Earth, due to the great reflectivity of the cloud cover. There
does not appear to be any parallel study, so Nahle truly is out on
his own.
The Mercury Factor

Further difficulties in reconciling Nahles conclusions by any other
scientific logic continue, since Venuss temperatures average 64C
more than those of Mercury, an airless planet that is almost twice
as close to the Sun. However, his position seems set in stone, and
his denial of what has been observed and extensively analyzed
apparently is irreconcilable.
Nahles explanation? Solar plasma particles have easy access
to the planet through a weak Venusian magnetosphere. The cir-
cumstances themselves are not in dispute. The lack of a significant
planetary magnetosphere was first observed by Mariner 1 in 1962
and confirmed by Mariner 5 as well as subsequent missions.
Instead, what limited magnetic field as Venus does have appears to
be induced, as the bow shock formed when its ionosphere col-
lides with the larger interplanetary magnetic field, compressing
the wave front as it comes into contact with it [5]. Apparently, this
has the double benefit of causing some ionization in this part of
the atmosphere, assisting in deflecting solar winds that would oth-
erwise erode it.
But could this have produced such an outcome? Data gath-
ered in 2008 by the NASA Messenger mission indicated that
although Mercurys magnetic field was strong enough to deflect
the most severe of solar wind [6], it is far less than that of Earth.
Measurements are generally in the 1% range, so essentially it is
not very different from that of Venus. The fact that the solar wind
is not generally considered to be part of the process of warming of
an environment such as this also stands out. Thus Nahles sce-
nario, while providing some highly interesting speculation, does
not seem sufficiently plausible to have produced such a dramatic
outcome (Fig. 10.4).
FIG. 10.4 Mercury (Image courtesy of NASA/JPL (Messenger))
Accepted theories continue to point to an extreme Venusian

greenhouse condition. However, there are other independent
papers that have come to similar conclusions to those of Nahle, if
arrived at by different processes. Another website, operated by J. F.
Anthoni, concludes that Venuss temperature is primarily caused
by convection and not greenhouse effects [7]. In his online article,
Anthoni cites two other independent studies that reject green-
house warming entirely [8], which would have repercussions for
Earths climate projections. Should any of these be taken seriously?
The absence of similar analysis in peer-reviewed research would
seem to speak loudly. However, all of this makes for a compelling
discussion, and perhaps even for a modicum of further investiga-
tion into some of these peripheral concepts.
Martian Water
Mars, the subject of probably the most intense extraterrestrial
controversies, unsurprisingly can count climate change among
them. In recent years, with each new discovery of physical activity
on the Red Planet, numerous commentators have been swift to
FIG. 10.5 Water on Mars (a), beginning of flow, through (d) maximum
observed flow (Images courtesy of NASA)
pronounce parallels to Earths own changing climate [9]. Some-

times even serious astronomers have joined in. However, all may
not be quite what it may seem at first blush.
An excited announcement in 2011 about recent observations
by NASAs Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter revealed what seems
likely to be water released from buried ice stores, flowing down
and saturating the soil of some crater slopes in ever-darkening
streaks (Fig. 10.5ad). This is an environment that was not sup-
posed to be conducive to free form flowing liquid water, one in
which it was thought not so long ago would cause evaporation
immediately upon ice liquefying at almost all altitudes and all
possible Martian temperatures. As a result, many individuals were
swift to proclaim this example of possible Martian water flows as
proof of global warming on Mars. In the absence of human-induced
warming on Mars, others immediately cited this as being the result
of the same natural warming mechanisms that were responsible
for changes being experienced in Earths environment.
However, again before jumping to hasty conclusions, we

should realize that Marss environment and circumstances in the
world of planetary science are totally different from our own. Aside
from a highly elliptical orbit, with a 19% variance from perihelion
to aphelion (due to the lack of a comparable influence from a satel-
lite such as our own sizeable Moon), Mars is not subject to the
same constraints as Earth with regard to its axial tilt. Although
currently its tilt is not dissimilar to Earths (at 25 vs. Earth at
23.5), it experiences wild swings of as much as an estimated
4060 over time.
Marss perihelion also occurs at a different time each full
orbit. Similarly, comparable to Earths own Milankovic cycles are
Martian astronomical cycles (see Chap. 11), but they are totally
different, sharing no common traits. Additionally, Martian north
to south precession is almost seven times longer than our own.
Consequently, we cannot overlook these most basic comparisons,
as the two planets thus have entirely different natural forces act-
ing upon them. This is even before we get to physical conditions
themselves on the Martian surface or in its atmosphere.
Mars has an extremely tenuous atmosphere, with a surface
average pressure of just 1/169 that of Earths. Even though it con-
sists of 95% CO2 (plus multiple trace gases), it could hardly be
considered a candidate for significant greenhouse warming. Indeed,
it seems that the thin, dusty lower atmosphere achieves the oppo-
site effect, actually cooling the surface while the upper atmosphere
experiences searing temperatures. However, it is generally thought
that at one time Mars would have had a much greater atmospheric
presence, since it is clear that there were large flows of water on its
surface millions of years ago (Fig. 10.1). Thus, the Red Planet has
undergone greater climate change than most of us could even
imagine.
Ingo H. Leubner, who we encountered earlier with regard to
his theories of solar radius change and the consequences for the
Solar System, also weighed in with his research and some specifics
for Mars [10]. Using the same methodology as before, he con-
structed a model for the evolution of the entire Solar System, esti-
mating that water on Mars froze into ice deposits between three
and four billion years ago, when Marss average orbit increased
by 30 million km to the present 228 km. Leubner has continued
to explore his theories about the orbital dynamics of the Solar

System; his studies and findings may be referenced at the
American Geophysical Union website.
The lack of Martian magnetosphere has been frequently cited
as the main reason for its thin atmosphere, solar winds eventually
having destroyed it. However, this argument does not hold when
considering the intensely thick atmosphere of similarly magneto-
sphere-deprived Venus. Significantly, where a strong magnetosphere
is present, it cannot be crossed by hydrogen ions, or, in combina-
tion with water vapor in the upper atmosphere as H3O+ (hydro-
nium ions), in this case the product of cosmic radiation. It is
therefore considered that the Mars of ancient times was abundant
in flowing water, even oceans, but because of its weak magneto-
sphere it gradually evaporated into the atmosphere and was lost to
space. Apparently Mars also has been unable to hold on to most
other atmospheric components, either, due to the power of the
solar wind and the planets feeble gravity.
Water, Atmosphere and Gravity on Other Planets
A key factor on climate within the Solar System, and espe-

cially for any possibility of harboring life, is water. In the case
of Mars, it seems it has been slowly eroded from the atmo-
sphere due to the absence of a magnetic field and weaker grav-
ity (it has just 38% of Earths). However, Venus may never
have had any water at any time, despite its much stronger
gravity being almost the same as Earths (90%).
Interestingly, trace amounts of methane and water vapor,

both gases with a short shelf life in the absence of a planetary mag-
netic field, have been detected in the Martian atmosphere by vari-
ous space-based programs since 2003. This points to the possibility
of a recent past (or even present) biological origin, and as such, is
at the top of ongoing research programs focused on Mars. How-
ever, it is much too soon to draw any conclusions, although the
prospect is tantalizing and intimately connected to Earthbound
climate science, both of those gases being greenhouse gases.
FIG. 10.6 Martian gullies and glacial remnants in Phaethontis (Image cour-
tesy of NASA)
Meanwhile, the presence of gullies on crater and canyon walls

has been known since 2000, when NASA excitedly announced the
dramatic news of the discoveries (Fig. 10.6).
It was concluded early on that there were limited possibilities
for the formation of such features, other than by a flow of some
type. These were also generally considered likely to be the rela-
tively recent product of newly released water (within the last
million years or so). It was reasoned at the time that their exis-
tence appeared to stem from the melting of Martian snow not
underground springs but pressure-induced flows (and certainly not
rainstorms!).
For any flow to occur, slopes would have to face away from
direct sunlight and its warming effects, and hence, it had been
thought that such happenings could only take place at the poles,
seemingly eliminating the equatorial regions. However, flows had
been spotted far from the polar regions, even in those very equato-
rial regions. For some pop science followers, this could only mean
Sun-induced Martian global warming! However, a fundamental

difference between Earth and Mars was perfectly illustrated
instead, because Mars peculiar variations of tilt enables shaded
slopes to occur almost anywhere on the planet. They can also face
either direction, depending on the circumstances of tilt and Marss
position in orbit at the time.
Further discoveries of newly formed Martian gullies and roll-
ing boulders were announced in 2005 [10], indicating that the Mar-
tian topography was far from inactive. Once again, could water be
implicated? An answer eventually came that was not perhaps what
most researchers were hoping for: a new study in 2010 [11] settled
on the thawing of frozen carbon dioxide, rather than water, as being
the most likely explanation for the phenomenon. For most plane-
tary scientists, this must have come as a big disappointment.
As fortune would have it, those scientists did not have to wait
too long, with the surprise announcement in 2011 of a stronger
case for water flows being responsible for the gullies after all. Indeed,
it appeared, amazingly, that those pictures snapped by the HiRISE
camera aboard the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter were of present-
day water flows (Fig. 10.5a, b). Dark projections, growing in length
with time, down some crater slopes reopened the case for free-
flowing water of some kind on the Martian surface. Most exciting
was that it had been happening right under the researchers noses.
While being careful not to claim a conclusive finding, NASA
was upbeat and confident of the analysis of the observations, stat-
ing that the potential water flow was likely briny in nature, and
that it had been observed over successive orbiter laps around the
planet. Because briny solutions are more able to become liquid at
low Martian temperatures, rather than remaining frozen, it seemed
to be the only way that such events could have taken place. Ques-
tions remaining included whether such occurrences were unusual
(and possibly indicative, therefore, of a warming trend), or if they
have occurred routinely in the past.
Melting Ice Caps?

However, perhaps the single-most significant suggestion of possi-
ble Martian global warming came in 2005, when it was announced
that NASAs Global Surveyor and Odyssey reconnaissance satellite
FIG. 10.7 South polar cap, Mars, 2000 (Image courtesy of NASA/JPL/Malin
Space Science Systems)
programs had observed a sudden shrinkage of the south polar cap,

a phenomenon of carbon dioxide sublimation that had been taking
place over three Martian years during the summers, revealed also
as what the researchers termed a Swiss cheese-like thinning in
pockets of the carbon dioxide upper polar ice coating (Fig. 10.7).
Although it is normal for the polar caps to recede during the
summer months, the degree to which the melting had progressed
beyond normal seasonal thaw was apparently unprecedented since
such detailed imagery became available. It was also noted that low
latitude regions had been observed to harbor more water-ice than
would be expected [12]. All of this was considered indicative of
possible, though far from confirmed, evidence of Martian climatic
change (Fig. 10.8).
Although NASA scientists had reported a possible warming
of Mars as responsible, they took care not to link it to what has
been experienced on Earth. It was considered most likely to be
internally generated. However, Habibullo Abdussamatov (head of
space research at the Pulkovo Observatory), whose name we have
come across earlier in this book, jumped to the startling conclu-
sion that this observation represented further evidence of increas-
ing solar activity [13]! Despite recent satellite evidence that solar
FIG. 10.8 Development of carbon dioxide Swiss cheese holes in Martian

southern polar cap (Image courtesy of NASA)
activity had been waning, Abdussamatov, never one shy to take

controversial positions, had staked his claim. Basing his studies on
solar variations and comparisons of climate patterns on Earth,
Abdussamatovs pronouncement about Martian global warming
created a stir in the astronomical community, where it had been
generally concluded that the caps change in dimensions was
something of a regional anomaly, rather than global in nature, or
representative of a fundamental change in climate.
Regardless, despite Abdussamatovs distinguished back-
ground, many fellow astronomers were quick to dismiss his
hypothesis. They noted that he had not been a supporter of IPCC
assessments, especially in respect of the greenhouse effect, which
he had long rejected. Certainly, he had reason to look for new evi-
dence to support his beliefs. As for some of Abdussamatovs other
views on climate change, he is also among those who consider
that Earth is now in a cooling phase, something that logically we
might have presumed he would have thought would also be the
case on Mars. Less clear is how he equated the multitude of other
variables listed at the beginning of this chapter with such simple
parallels to what has been happening on Earth.
One could argue quite plausibly that the very large swings in
axial tilt may also play a key role in climate fluctuations on Mars.
This does not apply to the present situation, though, because these
changes are slow progressing, with no sudden degree of change
being possible or having taken place from before observations of
the polar cap recession to the present. Despite the similarity of
Mars present angle of axial tilt to Earths, the Red Planet experi-
ences more pronounced seasons and climatic patterns neverthe-
less, due to its greater orbital eccentricity.
However, simply because solar activity had been declining
noticeably at the time the polar cap was observed to be shrinking
(and this is not in dispute), a direct solar link does not seem pos-
sible from this standpoint alone. Such variations cannot be so
immediately and directly tied to climate variations on Earth,
though. The lack of a significant Martian atmosphere (and any
oceans) means that any changes in the Suns output will be felt at
once on Marss surface. In comparison, on Earth, the buffering
from the Suns rays through its complex warming and cooling
mechanisms may take years to be reflected in changes to the cli-
mate. An extremely detailed rebuttal and analysis of various solar
warming hypotheses on Mars, by Steinn Sigurdsson (Penn. State
University), may be found online [14].
Storms on Jupiter
Adding further ammunition to the arsenals of speculation about
climate change in other places within the Solar System was an
article that appeared in 2004 in Letters to Nature [15]. The author,
Philip S. Marcus (a professor of fluid dynamics at University of
California at Berkeley, and one of the Hubble team), surmised that
we might soon be able to observe noticeable changes to the cloud
tops of Jupiter due to the disappearance of many anticyclonic vor-
tices (the familiar white oval spots). This would bring about a
warming effect of approximately 10 K (Fig. 10.9).
Marcuss theory proposed that anticyclonic vortices were
being trapped by Jupiters equivalent of Rossby waves, largely
eliminating the present cyclonic Jovian spots, a process with a
lifespan averaging 60 years (another 60-year cycle?). A recurring
sequence of events would result in the ongoing creation and
destruction of the vortices. Their loss would mean less venting of
FIG. 10.9 Jupiter and spots (Image courtesy of NASA/JPL/University of Ari-

zona)
atmospheric heat, leading to increased global temperatures. In

turn, this would create atmospheric instability, ultimately usher-
ing in a new cycle of anticyclone formation, with the familiar
reappearance of oval spots. At such point, it would seem that tem-
peratures again would drop to prior levels.
Perhaps the most important point to note is that at no time
did Marcus state that temperatures on Jupiter actually had been
observed to rise. No matter. It was enough for certain zealous cli-
mate conspiracy buffs to take the ball and run with it, proclaiming
this to be another example of a naturally occurring solar-induced
climate change in the Solar System. This was surely not what
Marcus had in mind. Many press articles simply misstated the
facts, at least one of them even mixing up 10 K with 10F. Again,
such definitive even dogmatic declarations of Solar System-
wide climate mechanisms are non-sequiturs, all with different
causes and effects. In this case, they represent only what was pro-
posed as a potential theory of a warming effect! As of the time of
this writing, such warming still has not been detected.
Other researchers consider that many of the smaller white
cyclonic storm-spots will slowly merge into a larger great storm
and disappear. Perhaps there was a link to Marcuss theory after
all. There is some evidence of this type of evolutionary process
taking place, as illustrated in Fig. 10.10.
FIG. 10.10 Merging white spots (Image courtesy of NASA)
FIG. 10.11 The Great Red Spot, Red Spot Jr., and Baby Red Spot devoured
(arrow at right)
Meanwhile, the pronounced coloration of the Great Red Spot

(GRS) is something of an anomaly; most spots are white. When the
three small white oval spots in Fig. 10.10 started to converge on
the iconic Great Red Spots domain in 1999, they eventually
merged to form one larger spot. By 2006, this new spot (ultimately
termed Red Spot Jr.) had survived several close encounters with
the GRS and was seen to be taking a similar reddish hue
(Fig. 10.11).
We could speculate, of course, that color changes are connected

to temperature, with perhaps the strength of the upward rising
vortex exposing deeper-lying mixtures of warmer gases, or even
the altitudes of the tops of these twisting systems rising above
obscuring gas layers. That same year, an article appeared in
Science Daily [16] that described well all that had been occurring
on Jupiter.
Since that time the Great Red Spot itself appeared to have
spawned yet another, third smaller red spot (the Baby Red Spot).
Scientists speculate that both new spots should be considered pos-
sible candidates for consumption by the massive larger spot, per-
haps illustrating the mechanism that has sustained it for almost
four centuries. Alternatively, the outcome could be yet more red-
dish spots! Scientists had observed increasing turbulence on both
sides of the GRS, along with considerable variance in the hues of
the cloud belts in general. Could they possibly be further indica-
tions of Marcuss global warming prediction as the atmosphere
reacts? However, it is still important to stress that no actual Jovian
warming has been detected at this time!
By 2008, the three red spots were still independent until one
fateful encounter with the GRS resulted in the demise of the baby
spot (Fig. 10.11). The Great Red Spot apparently is capable of eat-
ing its young.
All in all, however, it is not possible to say what has been tak-
ing place on Jupiter recently, and especially if it is indicative of a
warming trend to come. Meanwhile, all claims of Jovian global
warming should be taken with maybe more than a pinch of salt.
Triton: Neptunes Warming Satellite?

Rumblings about global warming on Triton also helped to fuel
what has become an endlessly compounding gossip mill. However,
again, we need to look at exactly what was observed on this dis-
tant world before jumping to any foregone conclusion (Fig. 10.12).
As the most distant of the Solar Systems eight recognized
planets (since Plutos recent fall from grace), Neptune has 13
known satellites. Of them, Triton is presumed to be a former plan-
etoid similar in structure and size to Pluto, and captured from
FIG. 10.12 Artists impression of the surface of Triton and its thin atmo-
sphere (Image courtesy of ESO/L. Calada)
among the larger objects of the Kuiper Belt in the early days of the
Solar System. Its retrograde orbit around Neptune and extreme
inclination (presently 129.8 relative to the ecliptic), along with its
various physical properties would seem to confirm a less than
impeccable planetary satellite origin. Orbiting in lockstep to Nep-
tunes rotation, as does Earths Moon, it keeps the same face turned
to its parent planet at all times, except Triton itself is slowly being
drawn inwards in an ultimate path to tidal disintegration.
With a surface coated in frozen nitrogen, water and carbon
monoxide, Titans overall makeup consists of up to 45% water ice,
the remainder consisting of rocky compounds. Its atmosphere is
extremely tenuous, comprised primarily of nitrogen that has sub-
limated from the surface, along with other trace gases. These
include carbon dioxide and methane, the latter of which has pro-
vided food for any amount of wild speculation about potential life
forms. The western hemisphere exhibits a curious texture that has
been termed cantaloupe terrain, which is believed may have
resulted from flooding by the hot processes of geysers or volca-
nism, or even the separation into uneven layering of different
materials of various densities (Fig. 10.13).
FIG. 10.13 Triton and Neptune (cantaloupe terrain clearly visible) (Image
courtesy of NASA)
In 1998, an edition of MIT News [17] featured an article about

global warming on Triton. Massachusetts Institute of Technology
researcher James Elliot had concluded there had been a noticeable
increase in the density of Tritons atmosphere at the expense of
the frozen nitrogen on the surface. Utilizing one of the Hubble
Space Telescopes fine guide sensors and other sophisticated instru-
ments on Earth during an occultation of a star, the gradual decrease
in brightness prior to its being extinguished provided a measure of
atmospheric density. This measurement allowed a final calcula-
tion of atmospheric pressure. It was thus determined that since
last measured in 1989, some 9 years previously, Triton had experi-
enced a substantial increase in atmospheric pressure, correspond-
ing to 1.7C.
A possible explanation given was that Neptunes location
along its 164-year elliptical orbit had brought it close to its sum-
mer season, a rare placement that was even closer to the Sun this
FIG. 10.14 Triton geysers (Image courtesy of NASA)
time than usual. Beyond this possibility, it was thought that varia-
tions in the crystalline ice or frozen nitrogen structure might have
affected reflectivity. We might even speculate that an unusually
active period of geysers or volcanism could have deposited dark
ash on the otherwise highly reflective surface. Indeed, active gey-
sers and even hydrocarbon ejecta have been imaged in Tritons
atmosphere. Might it be conceivable even that the surface could
have picked up some Kuiper Belt dust along its travels? (This last
supposition is just the writers wild speculation ) (Fig. 10.14).
Tritons normal average temperature of 35.6 K, although not
being far from absolute zero, is warm enough that small differ-
ences register like large differences would in our own environ-
ment. Thus the deduced increase of 1.7 K actually represents an
increase of 5%, not an insubstantial amount enough, in fact. to
cause frozen nitrogen to sublimate into a gas, and to make a mea-
surable difference in the density of the atmosphere. Such a large
temperature percentage in Earths climate would be calamity from
which all life on Earth probably would perish, apparently compa-
rable to a 22C warming.
Regardless, in no way does it appear that what has occurred
on Triton infers a warming caused by increased solar radiation. Of
course, any direct warming effects from a possible increase in solar
irradiance of just 0.01% at this enormous distance would likely be
very hard to measure. Plus, there is little possibility of indirect
solar warming of any kind. More significantly, and perhaps fatally
for climate conspiracies, there have been no observations of com-

parable sudden warming anywhere else in Neptunes own climate,
or that of its other 12 satellites.
A Warming Pluto?
It was inevitable that still other examples of out-of-the-ordinary
warming phenomena would be found within the Solar System and
reported. Interestingly, in 1988 and 2002, the same basic tempera-
ture measuring techniques were utilized for Pluto, as had been
applied earlier with Triton, except with different instruments
located around the world [18]. James Elliot again led the team.
Pluto is not considered a particularly likely candidate for reacting
to changes in solar irradiance, which also would be miniscule at
its great distance, especially at aphelion. More significant to bear
in mind is the little worlds highly elliptical, lopsided orbit (greater
than any planet), which brings it alternately much closer to the
Sun than would normally be the case. Additionally, it is placed at
an oddly inclined angle to the ecliptic, as well as an extreme angle
of axial rotation. All such irregularities eliminate direct compari-
sons with Earths situation.
Other possible variations include changes to the surface
albedo, perhaps due to some kind of volcanism, but more likely
due to variations in frost and methane deposits. A 1988 paper [19]
dealt exclusively with this possibility, concluding that the general
lack of sunlight, and presumed lack of protection from the solar
wind, would cause the frozen surface methane to darken. It is not
known if Pluto has a magnetosphere, although it is possible that it
does through its barycentric orbit with Charon, its moon. It is not
generally thought possible for bodies predominantly made up of
icy compounds to have magnetic fields, but examples have been
discovered, most notably Ganymede, one of Jupiters four Galilean
satellites.
It is also possible, if it should be that methane darkening is
taking place, that the increasingly cold conditions caused when
the planetoid becomes more distant from its approach at perihe-
lion would cause gases in the atmosphere to freeze on the surface
in the form of frost deposits. It is clear from the images in Fig. 10.15
FIG. 10.15 Pluto through a 180 rotation
that Plutos surface albedo is highly varied, both in density and

color; the south polar region is decidedly darker than the north,
and we may presume that this was determined by the Plutonian
pole that was facing the Sun at the time.
Despite Pluto orbiting at a greater average distance from the
Sun than Triton (even when Plutos orbit does cross that of Nep-
tune, it is only by a small amount), the amount of temperature
increase (2 K) has apparently been greater than that which occurred
on Triton. Plutos average temperature (44 K) is a little warmer
than Tritons, so the ratio of the increase is in some ways compat-
ible for Pluto. Other comparisons are useful in this discussion.
Although Pluto is smaller than Triton, they both have similar
sizes (Triton 1,353 km vs. Pluto 1,161 km), similar icy and rocky
makeup, with a large presence of frozen surface nitrogen, water
and carbon dioxide, and similar densities. Plutos radical axial tilt
to the solar equator (119.6) and Tritons strong leaning from the
ecliptic (129.8) result in a fairly similar angular relationship to
the Sun, atmospheres consisting primarily of nitrogen, along with
carbon monoxide and methane, and even relative comparable dis-
tances (at perihelion) from the Sun. It has been speculated plausi-
bly that a delayed observable warming following Plutos closest
encounter with the Sun some 13 years earlier might explain the
increased temperature (Fig. 10.16).
FIG. 10.16 The surface and atmosphere of Pluto, with its satellite, Charon,
low in the sky (Image courtesy of ESO/L. Calada)
However, the last point about delayed onset warming (LTP

again?) is instructive, because it is only at perihelion (when condi-
tions are warm enough to produce it) that Pluto has any measur-
able atmosphere at all. Pluto last was at perihelion in 1989, and
therefore would have had some atmosphere over the period when
the observations were made. However, its density is never more
than a maximum of about 1/100,000 that of Earth, while that of
Triton apparently remains fairly constant at about 1/70,000. MIT
researchers therefore concluded when putting everything into con-
text that, despite the similarities of these quite similar worlds,
Plutos atmosphere was more prominently and dynamically
impacted than Tritons [20]. It is important to note that Pluto
would have been losing its atmosphere during the 14-year period
between the observations made, making the increase in tempera-
ture all the more striking.
Could all these factors, therefore, possibly imply a common
denominator, perhaps even a solar connection to these recently
observed temperature increases? In a study from 2005, Henrik
Svensmark pointed out that changes observed on other planets
could possibly be linked to galactic cosmic rays [21]. He referenced
a lessening of Neptunes brightness that seemed to be in step with
the solar cycle and changes in brightness (8%) on Titan (a Saturnian

satellite). The connection seems plausible, if not proven. We will
spend more time with Svensmarks theories in Chap. 12.
It is considered, however, likely that such occurrences are
more in the normal range of ongoing variances than exceptional
happenings. Because Plutos surface is also much more highly con-
trasted than that of Triton, with its extremely dark and bright
regions, and therefore entirely different reflective or absorptive
properties, comparisons are made harder. Indeed, extensive volca-
nism has even been proposed as the underlying cause of the recent
warming, although there is no evidence of that to date.
Thus, while not quite in the category of comparing apples to
oranges, a direct comparison of Triton and Pluto is not likely to be
reliable. And although the studies both were conducted by atmo-
spheric analysis, possible connections to a larger external cause are
still seen as unlikely. It is also possible that the measurements will
later be disproved. Regardless, our knowledge of these distant worlds
is so sketchy at best that far more questions remain than answers.
Putting It All Together

Looking at the severe conditions that dominate the environments
of the planets, it is hard to not to feel overawed by an awakened
appreciation of the little protective bubble that encloses our own
Earth as it roams the vastness of space. Looking at the Solar Sys-
tem as a whole, our isolation and the delicate balance of factors we
take for granted take on a new meaning and reality. The depen-
dence on our cosmic cocoon to protect, nurture and shelter us is
never more starkly apparent, as are the perils that would await us
in a moment were we to lose the safe harbor it provides. The Solar
System stands in bleak testimony to the fate that stands just a
short distance above the atmosphere, were we to find ourselves
further or nearer to the Sun, or with any change to the atmo-
sphere great enough to make it instantly toxic or somehow dam-
aged beyond repair. However, perhaps we are living under an
assumption that Earth is frailer than it is. As an egocentric species
perhaps we take our role in the great order of things too seriously.
Perhaps Earth is able to regulate the climate in ways of which we
are unaware. Perhaps Earth is the Great Regulator, after all. Only
time will tell.
Having examined the most significant of the various Solar
System members to which warming has been attributed, it remains
problematic to attempt to find a common thread linking any of
them, let alone all. Indeed, examples of uneven temperatures exist
throughout the Solar System. An example is the 10 K warmer
south polar zone on Neptune that will one day shift back and forth
to its north pole in a recurring pattern. Overall, it seems not unrea-
sonable to presume that many temperature irregularities, either
permanent or temporary will crop up continually within the Solar
System, and it is perhaps unwise to read too much into them at
least as far as trying to find a direct tie-in to Earths present cli-
mate situation.
Regardless, this has not stopped large numbers of astronomi-
cally unsophisticated individuals from trying. So until there really
is any clear evidence of a Solar System-wide warming pattern, it
would seem perhaps best to exercise extreme caution in sequester-
ing the jury away to deliberate the case. And however unlikely
such a scenario may seem to this writer, it is not the purpose of
this book to render a verdict.
References
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(2006). http://www.abovetopsecret.com/forum/thread221608/pg1
2. le Page M (2007) Climate myths: Mars and Pluto are warming too.
New Sci, 16 May 2007
3. CNRS (2010) Sulfur dioxide in Venus atmosphere could be key to
fighting global warming on Earth. Nat GeoScience. http://www.
physorg.com.news/2010-11-sulfur-dioxide-venus-atmosphere-key.
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4. Nahle NS (2010) Determination of the effective total emissivity of
the carbon dioxide in the Venusian atmosphere, and the mean free
path length and crossing lapse (delay) time of photons into the tropo-
sphere of Venus. Clim Realists. Online: http://climaterealists.com/
index.php?id=6153
5. Luhmann JG, Russell CT (1997) Venus: magnetic field and magneto-
sphere. In: Shirley JH, Fairbridge RW (eds) Encyclopedia of planetary
science. Chapman and Hall, New York
6. Mercurys magnetosphere fends off the solar wind. University of

Michigan Public Release, 30 Jan 2008. http://www.eurekalert.org/
pub_releases/2008-01/uom-mmf013008.php
7. Anthoni JF (2010) Marble in space; main influences on Earths tem-
perature. Online: http://www.seafriends.org.nz/issues/global/cli-
mate1.htm
8. Duffman HD (2010) No greenhouse effect. Online: http://theend-
ofthemytery.blogspot.com/2010/11/venus-no-greenhouse-effect.
html; Frizius R (2001) Venus atmosphere temperature and pressure
profiles. Online: http://www.datasync.com/~rsf1/vel/1918vpt.html
9. Hinderacker J (2005) Global warming on Mars. PowerLine, 21 Sep
2005. http://www.powerlineblog.com/archives/2005/09/011571.php
10. Leubner IH (2006) Mars orbit and temperature: why and when an
early wet mars. American Geophysical Union, Fall Meeting 2004
11. Orbiters long life helps scientists track changes on Mars.
NASA press release, 20 Sep 2005. http://mars.jpl.nasa.gov/mgs/
newsroom/20050920a.html
12. UA HiRISE camera links fresh Mars gullies to carbon dioxide. Uni-
versity Communications (University of Arizona), 29 Oct 2010. http://
uanews.org/node/33357
13. Odyssey studies changing weather and climate on Mars. NASA press
release, 8 Dec 2003. http://mars.jpl.nasa.gov/odyssey/newsroom/
pressreleases/20031208a.html
14. Ravilious K (2007) Mars melt hints at solar, not human, cause for
warming, scientist says. National Geographic Society, 28 Feb 2007
15. Sigurdsson S (2005) Global warming on Mars? RealClimate (online),
5 Oct 2005. http://realclimate.org/index.php/archives/2005/10/
global-warming-on-mars/
16. Marcus PS (2004) Prediction of climate change on Jupiter. Lett Nat
428:828831
17. Jupiters little red spot growing stronger. Sci Daily, 14 Oct 2006.
http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2006/10/061013122425.htm
18. MIT researcher finds evidence of global warming on Neptunes
largest moon. MIT News, 24 June 1998. http://web.mit.edu/
newsoffice/1998/triton.html
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75(3):485498
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National Space Center
11. Ice Ages and Long-Term
Cycles
Perhaps the most celebrated and generally acknowledged

astronomical cycles are those that presumably have had no appre-
ciable effect on the climate warming of the late twentieth century.
However, they are thought by many to be the drivers of climate on
a time scale of the ice ages. Known as Milankovic cycles, they
could represent some of the greatest of all external influences on
Earth and its climate. Although still controversial, the theory
behind them has garnered the support of perhaps the majority in
the mainstream scientific community.
Because they are closely aligned with everything under dis-
cussion in this book, a discussion of these cycles is also mandatory
in this context. However, in no way should it be implied that they
are responsible for recent global warming, even though some argu-
ments could possibly be made for some unseen yet incidental, and
presumably very slight, short-term connections to them in combi-
nation with other such factors. Unfortunately, many individuals
have tried to make untenable cases, blaming Milankovic cycles for
the recent warming in an effort to disprove existing AGW theo-
ries. This only further illustrates our need to understand all of the
specific influences on climate in order to separate them. The con-
text and function of the large astronomical cycles is just as impor-
tant to grasp as the short-term influences, and how they have
affected Earths climate historically and, more important than
ever, how they will do so in the future.

The Milankovic Theory

Milutin Milankovic (18791958), by profession a mathematician,
spent his greatest energies, however, on developing his visionary
theory of climate. This was based on the blend of mathematical
and astronomical theories. From early in life, he believed it was
possible to codify what was responsible for the ice ages, and the
warmer periods separating them. He also saw the possibility of
developing a mathematical code for calculating the degree and
effect of solar radiation as it passed through the atmosphere to the
many different regions on Earth. In short, it seemed to him that
climate had a predictable order. The best-known theory that he
finally developed involved Earths many orbital and axial varia-
tions, which became known as the cycles that bear his name. After
a period of interest shown by the scientific community, the theory
was eventually shunned until being rediscovered in the 1970s, its
significance and potential finally understood and recognized.
It was clear that from early in Milankovics career he had a
passion that would remain with him for the rest of his life. He
authored a number of astronomically related studies, beginning
with the earliest form of his famous theory:
Contribution to the mathematical theory of climate (1912)
The schedule of sun radiation on the earths surface (1913)
About the issue of astronomical theory of ice ages (1914)
Researching the climate planet Mars (1916)
Mathematical Theory of Heat Phenomena Produced by Solar
Radiation (1920)
Thus, it was clear his attention was already focused on extra-
terrestrial horizons from the start. We can see how a grand theory
of climate, in particular, was where it was all leading. However, it
was not until 1927 that his momentous theory on the ice ages
had developed into a fully fledged entity, as the introduction to
Handbuch der Klimatologie, entitled, Mathematical Science
of Climate and Astronomical Theory on the Variations of the
Climate. This soon developed into a full book in 1930, the iconic
Mathematical Climatology and Astronomical Theory of Climate
Change.
Ice Ages and Long-Term Cycles 237
FIG. 11.1 Milankovic cycles (Graphic courtesy of Robert A. Rohde for the
Global Warming Art Project)
Milankovic continued to refine and develop his theory for the

next decade, with perhaps his most revered work being Canon of
Isolation and the Ice Age Problem. A detailed study of planetary
motions and the resulting forces between them, by the 1940s, how-
ever, his theories had already fallen into irrelevance, having to wait
for a few more decades to become mainstays in modern science.
At the heart of Milankovics theory are the analyses of plane-
tary motions and tidal influences within the Solar System, all of
which result in identifiable cycles on Earth in its climate over the
ages. Milankovic followed in the footsteps of James Croll in the
nineteenth century, who was first to theorize about orbital varia-
tions, and even the 100,000-year cycle of the ice ages. Figure 11.1
shows these identifiable cycles dating back over one million years,
the resulting variations in solar forcing (from proxy records) as well
as periods of glaciation. The approximate 100,000-year cycle is clear
in the ice age record shown on this graph. However, the first three
categories precession, obliquity and orbital eccentricity repre-
sent the primary astronomical ingredients of Milankovics theory.
The keys to understanding Milankovics theory are the varia-
tions in the positions and angles that Earth is placed in relation to
FIG. 11.2 Orbital eccentricity (scale exaggerated) (Graphic courtesy of NASA)
the Sun, and thus its degree of exposure to solar radiation. Because
many variable factors work together, the formula for their interac-
tion is complex. We should first consider the characteristics of
Earths orbit, which is far from a simple path:
Small variations in its orbit from perfectly circular (slightly
varying elliptically from between 0.005 to 0.058) influence
the degree of warming Earth receives from the Sun. The Sun
also is not to be found at the center of these elliptical orbits
(see Fig. 11.2, elliptical orbit exaggerated), due to the gravita-
tional influences of other planets, primarily Jupiter and Saturn.
Although the amount of eccentricity might seem small, on the
Earth-Sun scale it is apparently sufficient to produce a measur-
able difference. The reason for these orbital variations is also
mostly due to the gravitational influences of other planets. The
length of one full cycle of orbital eccentricity is approximately
100,000 years, although a more complex explanation is behind
this cycle.
Although a larger periodicity of 413,000 years may be seen to
be stronger than the former (by its relative amplitude), in the
simplest of terms, the combination with a number of other sub-
cycles (the most significant being of 95,000 years and 125,000
years) has resulted in an overall observable cycle within that
larger one of approximately 100,000 years during the last mil-

lion years (Fig. 11.1). It is this cycle that is seen to correspond
to the rise and fall of successive ice ages.
The orbital eccentricity results in Earth speeding up at perihe-
lion and slowing down at aphelion, although it does not affect
the length of the year. This is because orbital periods are fixed
by the length of the semi-major axis, which corresponds to the
radius of a circular orbit. However, these variations do result in
slight adjustments in the lengths of the seasons. In the present
orbital configuration, Earth receives almost 3.5% more radia-
tion at perihelion than it does at aphelion, although at the max-
imum extremes of eccentricity the variation can be as much
as 23%, quite a radical variation. This, all by itself, would be
enough to trigger substantial changes in climate.
For a relatively modest ellipse such Earths present orbit sub-
scribes, total radiation received (insolation) is not much dif-
ferent than that of a perfectly circular orbit, as well as being
effectively averaged over the year. The same is not true for
temperature over orbits of maximum eccentricity, how-
ever, as differences at both extremes may amount to several
degrees Centigrade. At these times, this factor becomes highly
significant in the resulting climate, especially when winters
fall at the furthest reaches of the orbit.
Second, there are variations in the way Earths tilt, relative to
its axis (called obliquity), comes into play. Let us examine the
obliquity of Earths rotation (Fig. 11.3).
This key variable, whereby the tilt of Earths axis varies in
motion, has been described by many as a wobble. Almost
everyone realizes that the angle of the poles is not 90 relative to
the line subscribed by Earth as it orbits the Sun along its orbital
plane. The period of variation of axial tilt for the full cycle is
about 41,000 years, although that is also superimposed on a far
larger cycle of about 1.25 million years. We can see that at one
time the 41,000-year cycle was dominant but was superceded
by what we now recognize as the 100,000-year cycle (Fig. 11.4).
Similar to the 100,000-year cycle, the 41,000-year cycle incor-
porates other sub-cycles, in this case the most pronounced
being the 19,000-year and 23,000-year cycles. Together, they
result in what can be observed as the larger 41,000-year cycle.
FIG. 11.3 Range of Earths obliquity (Graphic courtesy of NASA)
FIG. 11.4 The sudden change from 41,000-year to 100,000-year cycles

(Graph courtesy of Dragons Flight and the Global Warming Art Project)
Presently, Earth is at a mid-way position (at 23.5) between the

two extremes, and decreasing. Clearly both extremes will pro-
duce variations in radiation at the poles and equator, although
globally, there is obviously the same amount of radiation reach-
ing Earth. However, because Earths largest landmasses lie in
the Northern Hemisphere, the prospect of potentially greater
or lesser accumulations of ice and snow become factors when
this hemisphere is least favorably placed. This will again be the
case about 9,000 years from now.
FIG. 11.5 Axial precession (Graphic courtesy of NASA)
A recent study (2009) by R. N. Drysdale et al. [1] concluded

that obliquity could have significant consequences for climate. In
this paper, a direct link was made to the culmination of the second
last epoch (the Pleistocene), when about 141,000 years ago the
change came to Earths axial orientation. Presumably the author
was implying a similar link to ice ages and other epochs.
Beyond obliquity, another motion, axial precession, plays a
role (Fig. 11.5). Caused by the gravitational influences of the Sun
and Moon, the poles slowly rotate around a near-circular path,
which is also considered to affect the climate. During times when
one axis is more favorably placed than the other with regard to the
Sun, the effect will be one of greater seasonal extremes for one
hemisphere than the other. Axial precession occurs in a cycle of
approximately 26,000 years. However, although clearly capable of
FIG. 11.6 Precession and obliquity (Graphic courtesy of Xavier Snelgrove)
having an effect on climate, we can see from the record that it is

not a dominant cycle in the development of the ice ages. Regard-
less, this cycle seems most frequently associated with Milankovic
theory.
We can compare this motion to the axial rotation of a spin-
ning top or gyroscope. It is easy to separate obliquity from preces-
sion by visualizing this simple device in motion (Fig. 11.6).
Although the axis rotates in a circle (precession), the angle at
which it does so relative to vertical will determine the diameter
that the circle subscribes (obliquity).
In addition to the seasonal variations that would be expected
in a planet with axial tilt and an eccentric orbit (precession of the
equinoxes), there is one other factor to consider (Fig. 11.7). The
gradual accumulation of axial shift produces a change relative to
the outside universe. Over a period of as little as 71.6 years, it will
have shifted westwards around the ecliptic in the amount of 1,
completing the full circle in 26,000 years, (or 25,920 years, to be
precise). Polaris will no longer be aptly named within a few thou-
sand years. In about 10,000 years time, Vega will be the pole star!
FIG. 11.7 Precession of the equinoxes (Graphic courtesy of Tauolunga)
Strangely, some have commented that no significant changes

are seen to be consequences of either precessional maximum
extreme. This seems to be at odds with other sources.
In relation to Earths axial orientation relative to its eccentric
orbit, there is one other consideration. This results from a further
complication known as apsidial precession. As was pointed out,
during elliptical orbits, the Sun is not central to its orbit, an effect
caused by the influences of Jupiter and Saturn. Over Earths suc-
cessive orbits, its perihelion and aphelion slowly rotate around the
Sun, resulting in different hemispheres becoming more and less
favorably faced to it, and appreciable variations in the precession
of the equinoxes in the amount of about 4,000 years. This causes
the 26,000-year precession to shorten to about 22,000 years and is
FIG. 11.8 Apsidial precession (Graphic courtesy of WillowW)
the reason we hear both numbers in reference to the precessional

cycle often without explanation.
Apsidial precession can be demonstrated graphically. At the
present time, Earth is quite favorably placed, and thus winter
(aphelion) in the Northern Hemisphere occurs most favorably in
relation to the Suns radiation. We can see in Fig. 11.8 how a few
thousand years can alter this relationship quite appreciably as the
ellipse slowly turns over upon itself (see Earths orbit today rela-
tive to 5,000 years ago).
Remarkably, there is yet one other orbital variation that usu-
ally receives little comment. In regard to Earths orbital plane, it
also deviates from a flat plane, up and down, over about 70,000
years. Not investigated by Milankovic, this has been the subject of
some recent speculation. In relation to similar motions of the
other planets, the effective motion also covers about 100,000 years,
coincidentally, the same duration as the 100,000-year Milankovic
cycle.
Ice Ages and CO2
On the Skepticalscience website is the statement that CO2

was not responsible for the warming from past ice ages but
that it did cause amplification of the warming.
Such a definitive position is unfounded in any scientific
realm. It is not possible to know from proxy records all that
is available to us from the ice ages exactly what took place,
other than to note increased levels of CO2 that have histori-
cally accompanied warmer periods between the ice ages. Sim-
ilarly, it not possible to cite decreases in CO2 as being
responsible for the ice ages, as some have done.
Muller and MacDonald [2] proposed that a meteoric colli-

sion might have produced an orbiting debris field that could have
paralleled this period, especially since the sudden temperature
shifts of the ice ages did not seem to correspond to smooth orbital
motions. (The authors observed that the overly abrupt tempera-
ture peak in the cycle that does not seem in line with the more
gradual effects that would be expected with normal eccentricity.)
They suggested that a debris field might have produced the anom-
aly that appears in the historic record as Earth moves through it.
Their findings also gave greater credence to variations of apsidial
precession than to orbital eccentricity in the creation of the
100,000-year cycle. By comparing the motions of the 70,000-year
cycle against the angular momentum of the Solar System (which
approximates Jupiters orbital plane), they found an excellent
match to an alternative 100,000-year cycle that seemed to better
fit the record. However, as it turns out, ice core records corre-
spond closely to the timing of the Milankovic cycle and not
to Mullers and MacDonalds hypothesis! Thus, Milankovic has
prevailed.
The 41,000-Year Cycle Versus

the 100,000-Year Cycle
Mainstream research has shown that the precessional variations,
occurring within the 41,000-year obliquity cycle, should exert
stronger influences on the climate than either the 41,000- or the
100,000-year orbital cycle. The fact that over the last million years
the latter has showed up most strongly in ice core records (which
revealed the ongoing cycles of ice ages of the same periodicity) has
posed something of a problem for the theory. We can see that prior
to this time, over about a million and a half years, the 41,000-year
cycle is clearly dominant (see again Fig. 11.4). Only then, about a
million years ago, does the 100,000-year cycle show up, which
would be expected to be far less important as regards variations in
incoming irradiation.
There have been several speculations that have been put
forward as explanations. William Burroughs, in his excellent
book, deals with this apparent contradiction quite thoroughly and
convincingly; it seems reasonable. Briefly, it revolves around the
theory developed by John and John Z. Imbrie of Brown University,
Rhode Island [3], that utilized the geologic record of total land ice
in preference to using the theoretical. Apparently climate models
are roughly in agreement with the Imbries finding that the
100,000-year cycle became dominant only after a critical mass of
ice had been reached. A proposed 15,000-year cushion of delay
allowed an accumulation of added ice to exceed the amount that
melted between each ice age (despite the rapid retreat of ice after
each period ended that is clearly evident in ice core records).
Continuing Controversy
However, as in all things associated with the climate, there have
been continuing controversies regarding Milankovics theories as
well. It all began when isotope readings were sampled from a deep
location in a Nevada aquifer (Devils Hole). A 17,000-year discrep-
ancy between the 141,000-year date given to the culmination of
the second last ice age (as well as timings proposed by Milankovics
theory) and those of the samples was noted. This opened a new
area of controversy, and the disputes continued with numerous
competing papers, variously in defense of or against Milankovics
theory:
In a 1992 article in Nature, Wallace S. Broecker concurred with

the problems posed in relation to the specific historical timings
predicted by Milankovics theories [4].
In direct response Cesare Emiliani [5] defended the theory, in
claiming the reliability of such markers from the transitions
between ice ages were questionable.
Naturally, this was not the end of the discussion. In a fol-
low-up, Landwehr et al. [6] accused Emiliani of biased research,
whereby only data that was helpful to his case was allowed into
his research. The authors stated that where events did not fit
his criteria, he gave them less or no weight in his paper, effec-
tively and selectively supporting only his case.
Regardless, the cause and effect remains in doubt, because

others consider that the findings of Devils Hole may have been
caused by entirely different historic factors. There has been con-
tinuing speculation about the Milankovic theory ever since,
including the theories put forward by Muller and MacDonald as
alternative explanations.
Whether time eventually proves Milankovic right or wrong,
his theories still are embraced as the commonly ordained mecha-
nism for the ice ages. Just as the conventional wisdom has, by and
large, embraced AGW as the overriding cause of recent warming,
Milankovics theories have been similarly held as the correct ones
at this time. Regardless, the continuing saga does further reveal
the many counter-arguments that exist beneath the surface, just
as we have seen with other theories proposed in practically every
other aspect of climate research.
As may be seen by spending any time with the various arti-
cles and websites dealing with astronomical and solar cycles, the
array and variety is almost endless. Other papers, such as that by
Maya Elkibbi and Jos A. Rial [7], looked at some of the more
familiar questions and tried to deduce an overriding formula to

explain them. They found that:
The 100,000-year cycle could be reproduced by a critical thresh-

old of CO2 being reached, despite a meager 1% increase in the
resulting incoming solar radiation.
That the 100,000-year may not be the blending of several other
cycles as proposed, but orbital eccentricity may play a role after
all by modifying precession.
That the 100,000-year cycle may act as a non-linear amplifier
of other frequencies, yet to be determined.
That frequency modulation by the 41,000-year cycle of the
larger 413,000-year cycle could possibly explain the 100,000-
year cycle just as a high-frequency carrier modulates a lower
frequency-modulating signal in FM radio.
That increases in naturally occurring CO2 rising to a specific
level and later declining could have acted as the catalyst for
each ice age, by allowing more polar ice to survive each cycle.
This is somewhat in line with the Imbries position [3].
The study concluded that any astronomical factors must be

exceedingly complex combinations of effective forcings yet to be
understood, in order to act together and be capable of making
weaker cycles dominant. The authors found hard confirmation of
Milankovics theory scarce, but clues from astronomical sources
plentiful. They concluded that the Milankovic theory is likely
sound, but that it apparently varies and responds to all other
Milankovic cycles in a non-linear (chaotic) pattern. Various alter-
native possibilities were raised, but suffice it to say, none of them
has found universal acceptance, and Milankovic has still survived.
There are many other theories and analyses as well, and it
will be up to the reader to try make sense of them if desired, such
as a 1,800-year oceanic tidal cycle proposed by Keeling and Wharf
[8]. Far from solar-oriented, the article proposed that lunar-Earth
tidal forces of the gradual shifting in declination of maximum tidal
forces over hundreds of years would produce a maximum effect
every 1,800 years. The authors argued that we are presently in an
upswing that would continue in an uneven manner for several
hundreds of years. The most important part of this paper makes it

clear that rapid climate change such as is presently under discus-
sion may yet prove to have a hidden cause. Certainly it is unre-
lated to the longer-term scenarios of Milankovic.
The Law of Universal Gravitation
Isaac Newtons law of universal gravitation states that:

Every object of mass in the universe attracts every other
object of mass with a force that is directly proportional to the
product of their masses and inversely proportional to the dis-
tance between them squared.
As one can see, prospect of known or yet unrecognized forces,

even simple gravitational ones, playing more than an insignificant
role in climate change are far from easy to dismiss. The variety of
plausible-sounding theories is endless. Only time will tell which
theories will survive the test of time, but even then, some research-
ers will surely question whether everything in play has been stud-
ied, or is yet even known. But the search continues by those still
unconvinced that the correct formula has yet been found. How-
ever, the continued shredding of fine even when relevant minu-
tia is far beyond the purposes of this book, and certainly beyond
illustrating the general reasoning and precedent behind Milank-
ovics theories.
Perhaps a telling conclusion to this section might be the rel-
atively early study (1976) by J. D. Hays et al. [9] that found precise
and directly parallel evidence in ocean floor sediments for Milank-
ovics primary 41,000, 22,000 and 100,000-year cycles, along with
firm conclusions that the theory held convincingly, despite the
many challenges it has since received. For want of another expla-
nation timed so well to these periods, it is still difficult to imag-
ine another theory replacing it, although future refinements are
still needed to explain some of those questions presently unre-
solved.
References
1. Drysdale RN, Hellstrom JC, Zanchetta G, Fallick AE, Snchez Goi
MF, Couchoud I, McDonald J, Maas R, Lohmann G, Isola I (2009)
Evidence for obliquity forcing of glacial termination II. Science
325:15271531
2. Muller RA, MacDonald GJ (1997) Origin of the 100 kyr glacial cycle:
eccentricity or orbital inclination? Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 94:
83298334
3. Imbrie J, Imbrie JZ (1980) Modeling the climatic response to orbital
variations. Science 207(4434):943953
4. Broecker WS (1992) Upset for Milankovitch theory. Nature 359:
779780
5. Emiliani C (1993) Milankovitch theory verified. Nature 364:583584
6. Landwehr JM, Winograd IJ, Coplan TB (1994) No verification for
Milankovitch. Nature 368(6472):594
7. Elkibbi M, Rial JA (2001) An outsiders review of the astronomical
theory of the climate: is the eccentricity-driven insolation the main
driver of the ice ages? Earth Sci Rev 56:161177
8. Keeling CD, Wharf TP (2000) The 1,800-year oceanic tidal cycle:
a possible cause of rapid climate change. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA
97(8):38143819
9. Hays JD, Imbrie J, Shackleton NJ (1976) Variation in the Earths orbit:
pacemaker of the Ice ages. Science 194:11211132
12. Cosmic Crisis
Milankovics theories were not the only ones to emerge out of the
search for hidden clues to the large climate variations and epochs
that have taken place throughout Earths history. However, it con-
cerns only the domain of the Sun. Two related theories, with impli-
cations from far more distant places than any within the Suns
realm, also have been at the heart of no less bitter a controversy
and dispute than any we have encountered before. Probably the
most esoteric and contested of them all, they link us to the very
heart of the galaxy, involving the effects of galactic cosmic rays.
Although the proponents presented detailed cases and analy-
ses, these theories have had a rough ride, not unlike the furor sur-
rounding the ACRIM findings but on a grander scale. Although
some debunked the hypotheses, not all researchers have reached
an opinion, maintaining that no final resolution has been deter-
mined to their satisfaction. Meanwhile, the proponents have vig-
orously defended their turf.
The possible link of cloud formation to galactic cosmic rays
has been at the center of intense speculation on and off for many
years. In 1959 Edward Ney, who had been studying them since the
end of World War II, published his landmark study, Cosmic Radia-
tion and the Weather, in which the connection apparently was
first made a high level in the scientific community [1]. Indeed,
Burroughs referenced other pioneering work in cosmic radiation
being undertaken by Ralph Markson of MIT; this has continued up
to the present. Marksons primary research, though concerned
with the possible connection of cosmic rays to thunderstorms, has
developed further into examining possible electrical connections
to global warming itself [2].

The Galactic Findings of Henrik Svensmark

In 1997 came a theory that would jump-start all the research and
controversy that was to follow. Henrik Svensmark and Eigil Friis-
Christensens Variation of cosmic ray flux and global cloud cover-
age a missing link in solar-climate relationships (referenced in
Chap. 4) proposed that cloud cover was triggered by cosmic ray
flux (CRF) [3]. They based their assessment on data from the Inter-
national Satellite Cloud Climatology Project (ISCCP), the Defense
Satellite Meteorological Program (DSMP), and the Nimbus-7 pro-
gram. Although it is fairly well established that the Suns mag-
netic field has profoundly deflective properties against incoming
cosmic rays, Svensmark and Friis-Christensen claimed corre-
sponding global temperature variations were better synchronized
with CRF variations than direct solar activity. Thus, a link to cli-
mate and the solar magnetic field might prove to be the elusive
link to climate change the possible indirect warming mecha-
nism many climate scientists had been looking for.
Cloud Formation and Cosmic Rays

Cloud formation cannot occur without a seeding mechanism. In
the case of the atmosphere the seeds are fine particulates in the
form of aerosols that act as the trigger to begin the process of the
condensation of water vapor into droplets. With better cloud mon-
itoring and precipitation records over solar cycles, climate models
would benefit greatly. Bear in mind that cloud formation in the
lower atmosphere is seen as quite different from that of the strato-
sphere, where ice clouds form by different processes and could not
thus be tied to cosmic rays.
The theoretical process of cosmic ray interactions with the
lower atmosphere to form aerosols can be summed up as follows:
1. Photochemical reactions change atmospheric sulfur dioxide to sul-
furic acid.
2. Cosmic rays ionize sulfuric acid into ultra-fine ionized gas par-
ticles.
Cosmic Crisis 253
3. These particles gather and clump together.

4. The clumps condense further into larger cloud condensation
nuclei.
5. Water vapor is attracted to these larger highly charged aerosols and
condense into droplets.
6. Clouds begin to form.
Svensmark and Friis-Christensen tied the 11-year solar cycle
to what they claimed was an observed 34% century-long varia-
tion in cloud cover caused by changes to the strength of the solar
magnetic field. Recognizing that clouds of all types resulted in an
overall net cooling effect of the lower atmosphere (by reflection)
than heating (by greenhouse warming), they theorized that incom-
ing cosmic rays led to ionization of gas particles in the atmosphere.
These could serve as aerosol catalysts for low altitude cloud for-
mation. Thus, during times of the Suns greatest activity, the
increased solar magnetic field would reduce the amount of cosmic
rays able to penetrate Earths atmosphere and lead to less cloud
formation and higher temperatures.
Cloud Categories and Relative Altitudes

Cirrus (highest)
Cirrostratus
Cirrocumulus
Altostratus
Altocumulus
Cumulonimbus (reaching from ground level even above
cirrus clouds)
Nimbostratus (reaching from ground level into the upper
atmosphere)
Cumulus
Stratocumulus
Stratus (low clouds and fog)
Over the course of the twentieth century an ever-stronger

solar magnetic field (through growing solar activity) had increased
the Suns cosmic ray shielding properties; thus, less CRF-generated
cloud had led to a reduction in the total cloud component of Earths
composite albedo. The evidence seemed to fit the estimated dou-
bling of the solar magnetic field to the estimated 3.5% decrease in
cosmic ray flux, with a parallel increase in global temperatures.
However, the new theory was soon to spawn the latest great storm
of controversy in the climate wars, as questions and challenges
immediately arose from what was loosely termed a problem with
the satellite viewing angle of the three sets of data utilized from
Nimbus-7/ISCCP/DMSP, Nimbus-7, interestingly being the same
satellite that was tied to the ACRIM controversy.
In 1999, Jorgensen and Hansen (not James Hansen!) for the
IPCC TAR challenged the veracity of the findings, claiming that
none of the necessary proof existed to support the theory [4]. Svens-
mark and Friis-Christensen responded that just because they could
not conclusively state that their CRF theory was beyond doubt did
it necessarily rule it out [5].
Regardless of the early negative response, Svensmark fol-
lowed up on this paper over the next few years with a flurry of new
research papers along similar lines (sometimes with his colleague,
Nigel Marsh) [6]. These included references to Milankovics orbital
theories, ENSO cycles, and past solar activity cycles, amongst
other factors. Amongst them, perhaps the case for cosmic ray
influences was stated most effectively with, Low Cloud Proper-
ties Influenced by Cosmic Rays, in which Marsh and Svensmark
focused on the link of CRF to low altitude cloud formation the
densest and most reflective of cloud layers.
Having then reconstructed the historical low cloud cover
(LAC) over the century, Marsh and Svensmark deduced an increased
warming from the reduced cloud cover to be about 1.4 W/m2, an
amount approximately equal to that which had been theorized due
to anthropogenic causes. They continued further, going back in
time over thousands of years, concluding there was a reasonably
good correlation with climate and cosmic rays, as deduced through
carbon 14 records. It should be pointed out again that the authors
did not state their case as a certainty but rather as a foundation
for further research. They also did not rule out anthropogenic
contributions. This is an important distinction quite a common
Cosmic Crisis 255
position among scientists who have explored alternative theories

and who are often unfairly accused of denying any warming effect
from anthropogenic causes.
However Svensmark, by this line of research, and also pre-
sumably through his spirited public defense of his controversial
research findings, had become a darling of some, and thus, by
default, increasingly likely to come under heavy fire, although he
did receive some early support from a number of other researchers
[7]. Convincing to Lockwood et al., for example, was how the
observed temperatures seemed to fit the relatively well-established
solar magnetic flux for the period under review (19641995) [8].
The Other Side of the Coin

A remarkably damning paper by Peter Laut found very little to like
in Marshs and Svensmarks work [9]. Lauts analysis led him to
conclude that the data had been misinterpreted, and that some of
the newly sensational findings of Marsh and Svensmark were at
odds with the facts.
Laut first took issue with the switch of the description of
total cloud cover from Svensmark and Christensens findings to
low cloud cover in Marsh and Svensens subsequent work. Since
low clouds are dense and highly reflective, and thus have very dif-
ferent implications for the influence of cosmic rays, it was an
important distinction. Further, Laut could find little correlation
between the two sets of satellite data in many instances, and cre-
ated a corrected graph by removing the DMSP satellite data (that
he claimed did not represent total cloud cover) and adding new
ISCCP satellite data. Here cosmic rays and total cloud cover
seemed to be widely diverging after 1992.
In citing other studies that found no correlation whatsoever
between cosmic rays and cloud formation, additionally, he found
issues with the timing of cosmic ray flux (CRF) and cloud forma-
tion, which he stated should have been virtually instantaneous
[10]. Commenting on the difficulties of differentiating between
types of cloud cover from the satellite data, Laut continued with
critiques of a number of other similar papers, especially the work
by Lassen and Friis-Christensen, again faulting the interpretation
of data [11].
Fraudulent Climate Science?

To form any kind of opinion, we need to look at contrary views,
because the data behind such esoteric concepts is liable to have
numerous interpretations. Svensmark had done his best to explain
the limitations of the data at the time of his research some 3 years
earlier [12]. Now he considered he had come under personal attack,
effectively having been accused of committing scientific fraud.
However, he went on to justify why and how it was perfectly cor-
rect to include it, and how the change from total cloud cover to
low cloud cover came about with the emergence of new informa-
tion. He considered his paper had put an emphasis on the need for
further research, since an ideal monitoring system did not exist at
the time of writing. He also insisted that he had taken into account
and expressed all possible reservations that could be drawn from
the findings, providing full transparency of the methodology uti-
lized for all subsequent researchers.
His protests were in vain, however. Laut would attack what
he saw as an inappropriate response being published on the Danish
Space Research Institutes website where Svensmark worked
and not in a peer-reviewed journal in which it would be taken
more seriously within the scientific community [13]. Laut sug-
gested that this route might have been chosen because it might
not stand up to peer review. Svensmark may have felt that he had
no choice but to act in the quickest possible way, given the stakes
for his future credibility in the wider community. Regardless, hav-
ing made his point, Laut then proceeded to commit the same
offence, publishing this second piece on the website of the Tech-
nical University of Denmark, his own workplace!
Laut further accused Svensmark of manipulating the text of his
(Lauts) paper. However, in light of what appeared to be a related
accusation by Svensmark about Lauts analysis, Laut also suddenly
seemed to be on the defensive, justifying why he was not obligated
to check all of Svensmarks results. In highlighted wording for added
emphasis, Laut once again made it clear that he considered that
Svensmark had misunderstood the very meaning of the DMSP sat-
ellite data. He returned to the distinctions in cloud cover between
low and total again and again, ramming home his unchanged view
that the data had been misused, misapplied, and misunderstood.
Cosmic Crisis 257
Stalemate
All the materials warrant careful study if one wants to fully grasp
what was at the center of all the fuss. Ones interpretations and
conclusions will depend on many things, some of which may be
mired in ones own mindset. However, there can be no doubt that
this was an example of climate change acrimony at its most ugly
and personal. One wonders how these researchers would handle a
situation should they find themselves in the same room at some
social function! The argument was thus left in limbo, with some
scientists still intrigued at the possibilities. However, it was fre-
quently stated in many blog comments that the theory had been
debunked and discredited, so for the time being, at least, the the-
ory had taken on enough water to have become somewhat bogged
down under its own weight.
Regardless, other articles emerged from time to time that kept
the door open, such as one by E. Pall, who ventured to dip his toe
into the icy water, commencing with the prospect that satellites
may have artificially induced the apparent extent of low cloud
cover [14]. His concluding remarks left open the distinct possibil-
ity of cosmic ray influence on low cloud formation, and stated
with a fair degree of confidence that Sun/cloud relationships may
have played a large role in pre-industrial climate variation not an
insignificant position to take. Svensmarks work continued con-
cluding there was conspicuous evidence of the effects of varia-
tions in solar activity in the creation of clouds and aerosols, as
evidenced by Forbush Decrease events (FDs) the immediately
measurable decreases of cosmic rays striking Earth [15].
Low clouds are found from near the surface up to 6,500 ft

(2,000 m). Typically this also includes cumuliform and strati-
form category types. When low stratiform clouds contact the
ground, they become one of many categories of fog. These
include radiation and advection and surface-generated types
that do not form from such stratus layers.
Meanwhile, another bombshell had already dropped and

would extend the argument and controversy further and into
another realm (if not quite another galaxy) entirely.
Nir Shaviv and the Galactic

Arm Connection
Sure to create additional dispute was the daring research of Nir J.
Shaviv, one of the new generation of astrophysicist/climate
researchers. Though born in New York, he is currently based at
Hebrew University of Jerusalem. Shaviv is well known for his neg-
ative assessment of CO2-based warming, the widespread accep-
tance of which he, too, blames on the media. Like Svensmark,
Shaviv, too, would become a target. However, Shaviv had also
proven to be a formidable adversary, having built up considerable
respect from worldwide colleagues with seemingly impeccable
credentials and scholarly brilliance.
He was soon to become doubly famous and controversial for
his 2003 findings with fellow researcher, Jn Veizer, for placing an
upper limit for temperature increases on a future doubling of CO2
atmospheric concentrations [16]. Here, they put it at about one
third that estimated by the IPCC 2001 climate model: about 0.5
1.9C, versus about 1.5C to about 5.5C. Thus Shavivs and Veiz-
ers average produced a rough estimate of about 0.75C. Among his
explanations for the upward temperature trend since then, he con-
sidered that the oceans played a significant role in tempering short-
term effects of the Sun, which has delayed the reaction to a cooling
Sun (Long Term PersistenceLTP, again).
Shaviv has long considered the Medieval Climate Optimum
and the Little Ice Age were certainties, linking them to 14C flux via
cosmic rays being deflected by the varying solar magnetic field, or
possibly the photochemical reactions of UV in the upper atmo-
sphere. Shaviv already had made no bones about the Sun-climate
connection, further correlating the increasing temperature curve
to solar variation rather than the monotonic anthropogenic
increases [17]. However, with the view that the 0.1% variation is
insufficient in itself to directly affect the climate significantly, he
thus indicted theories of warming process by that means.
Cosmic Crisis 259
Forbush events the immediately measurable decreases (by

means of particle detectors) of cosmic rays striking Earth become
significant in Shavivs thinking, following a coronal mass ejection
from the Sun, accompanied by sudden bursts in the strength of the
Suns magnetic field. In Shavivs theories, we find frequent men-
tion of Forbush events (especially in regard to the research of Tins-
ley and Deen [18]). Shaviv noted direct consequences to the climate,
as well as variations in the CRF over the course of each 11-year
solar cycle. Thus, he further speculated on the plausibility of CRF
on cloud cover, in essence supporting the aerosol-CRF contentions
of Svensmark. Shaviv must have known that he was reopening
unhealed wounds, but obviously he felt this was an important part
of climate research that had been relegated to the attic.
Proceeding further, he looked for possible cosmic links to
twentieth-century warming trends. Specifically mentioning the
role of greenhouse gases in Earths recent temperature changes, he
looked at periods during the century when declines in temperature
were recorded. This was because he had logically deduced that
increased anthropogenic gases could not have contributed to peri-
ods of cooling. Thus, with the period from the 1950s until the 1970s,
as well as support from various reference sources, Shaviv believed
he had correctly attributed a 1.5% increase in CRF to the 0.2C
cooling trend that took place at that time. He actually figured that
cosmic rays would have had a greater effect on temperature than
this, since the data included ocean temperatures, the expanses of
oceans having greater heat storage capabilities than land.
The Galactic Climate Connection

However, the real crux of the paper came with the new theory that
directly tied long-term periods of CRF, not merely to such local
phenomena as just described, but to the passage of the Solar Sys-
tem through the spiral arms of the galaxy! This was to be at the
core of a new theory that proposed that the great ice age epochs
had a distant celestial origin and was the focus of a follow-up paper
later that same year [19]. Shaviv argued, with the aid of carefully
constructed diagrams, that CRF coincided with the geologically
reconstructed periods of those ages, dating back 500 million years
(the Phanerozoic period). Certainly these diagrams made things

look clear enough. However, resistance to these ideas sprung forth
very quickly and forcefully, especially (but not unexpectedly) from
the AGW proponents.
We should also be sure to distinguish between the variations
of CRF on Earth through solar activity, versus those that might
come about through its placement in the galaxy. Many have theo-
rized that cosmic rays are byproducts of supernova explosions, the
consequences of which reverberate throughout the galaxy. Because
stars that ultimately end their days in this spectacular fashion are
inherently unstable, due to their core mass growing to exceed the
theoretical limits (the Chandrasekhar Limit), they will not have
time during their relatively short existence to progress far in their
orbits around the galactic core. Thus, many will meet their
untimely demise not far from their place of creation in the spiral
arms, because obviously more supernova events will happen in
regions where there are greater stellar concentrations.
Supernovae and the Chandrasekhar Limit

This is the maximum mass that a white dwarf star may main-
tain or attain (dwarf being a terminology that refers to all
main sequence stars before they attain red giant status) before
becoming unstable. It was named after Subrahmanyan Chan-
drasekhar, who formulated this stellar constant in 1930. The
numerical value of the limit is about generally accepted to be
approximately 1.4 solar masses.
Also, galactic structure is not all that it might seem. The arms
are more akin to compression zones than the familiar firework
pinwheel arms, where stars periodically become more densely
packed together in waves during the course of circumnavigating
the galactic center. Not everyone is aware that spinning motions
of the galactic core do not form the galactic arms; pinwheels might
look similar but actually have nothing in common. In fact, galac-
tic arms are the product of density waves. There is a considerable
Cosmic Crisis 261
density of stars in between the spiral arms as well, but being far
more tenuous populations they are much less obvious. However,
any experienced observer knows well the luminous galactic halo
that immerses the entire galactic structure. Halos are comprised
of stars, the luminous product of which we can readily see in eye-
piece views in the brighter examples. CCD imagery makes this
even clearer, of course.
Shaviv theorized that CRF could be directly traced back
through the historic record to an approximate historical synchroni-
zation of Milky Ways arm placement with the epochs. His theory
was reliant on known models of its structure, at that time believed
to be a very large, four-armed barred galaxy. When the Sun passes
through one of the arms, an increase in CRF would be anticipated.
In pursuing his theory, remarkably, he found uncanny matching of
the calculated passage of the Sun through these spiral arms and the
onsets and declines of these past epochs. He theorized that increased
CRF during these crossings resulted in increased low cloud cover
and thus the onset of declining temperatures.
Interestingly, Shaviv referenced other earlier studies that had
theorized galactic connections, including one by Hoyle and Wick-
ramasinghe that theorized climate warming should occur if the
Solar System happened to pass through a cloud of interstellar mat-
ter, due to increased solar irradiance [20]. Shaviv listed several
other possibilities, too, some of them decidedly serious for life on
Earth. All of this is the stuff of further research, and even were any
of it occurring now, this could not be the cause of present-day cli-
mate change because it would take place over far greater lengths of
time. This distinction is important to know, since so many have
tried inaccurately to tie the recent twentieth-century warming to
such esoteric concepts, when, in fact, they are surely unrelated.
Naturally, those opposed to conventional theories rejoiced,
even if such findings could not be tied to the recent short upward
spike (at least, in these galactic terms) and present temperatures
on Earth. Many chose to ignore this important distinction. It was
a complex presentation and analysis indeed, thoroughly reasoned
and appearing to produce compelling evidence to support it. With
a calculated timing for galactic arm crossings was 108 years, Shaviv
thus believed that he had been able to show which arms were
crossed at what time in history, and the parallel ice ages that
resulted from them. The implications of this amazing and innova-

tive piece of cosmic thinking were huge.
Exploring the CRF link as far as he could, Shaviv then esti-
mated that the larger signal was of the order of approximately 143
million (10 million) years, which corresponded reasonably closely
to the periodicity of the spiral arms, estimated to be around 134
million (25 million) years. He had also made mention that differ-
ent zones within the arms, such as stellar nurseries, could be
expected to produce significant intrinsic increases in CRF, along
with periods of short term cooling. However, his theory was beau-
tifully conceived for a four-armed barred spiral. Somehow it was
all too perfect.
The Wrong Galactic Model!

It was only a matter of time before a new model of the spiral for-
mation of the Milky Way was theorized, especially since the four-
arm concept was not proven, and was only considered the most
likely form of the galaxy according to knowledge of the time. Even
Shaviv had acknowledged that. In 2008, a revised projection of the
Milky Way appeared from NASA, whereby it now showed only
two main arms. This certainly was problematic to the CRF spiral
arm theory and was immediately seized upon by Shavivs detrac-
tors to discredit it. However, the structure of the galaxy as revealed
now is not altogether a simple two-armed affair, since there are
other lesser arm components the spurs. Spurs are more transi-
tional than the arms, although even the great spiral arms them-
selves only have a life span of 900,0001,500,000 years. Thus, the
galaxy is an ongoing work in progress, and appears to be more com-
plex from the overhead view than many others.
Regardless, the new two-armed theory must certainly have
been a setback for Shaviv, since many claimed that the findings
effectively eliminated his theory. However, it is perhaps a little
too soon to rule out all possible connections to the spiral arms; we
still do not know the Milky Ways precise form with certainty, and
only time will determine it. Only then will it be possible to see if
any possible waves of CRF could be related to the great epochs. Is
it unreasonable to surmise that perhaps the spurs might them-
selves be sufficiently dense to initiate some degree of increased,
Cosmic Crisis 263
FIG. 12.1 The two Milky Ways: the New and the Old (Graphic courtesy
of NASA/JPL-Caltech)
moderately long-term cosmic ray incidence? Clearly, Shaviv has

seen no reason to yield any ground (Fig. 12.1).
Regardless of how the Milky Ways form ultimately turns
out to be, at present there are still four named arm/spur compo-
nents to the galaxy, as shown in Fig. 12.2, which also shows Earths
position and orientation within it. Could these be sufficient to
support Shavivs theories?
Although the furor swirling around this latest expanded view
of Svensmark and Friis-Christensens original CRF theory would
continue in short order, it should be noted that Shaviv went to
considerable pains to acknowledge that much within his theory
was just that theory and yet to be proven. In referencing various
caveats, it was not as if he had stated some kind of heretical posi-
tion, or had not recognized that its circumstances were far from
settled, much less even known. He had also acknowledged that
the spiral arms were not all created equal well before the newly
configured Milky Way map had appeared, and had even referenced
its spurs (relatively short-lived structures) as opposed to the spi-
ral arms. Undaunted, Shaviv would follow his original paper with
another with co-author Jn Veizer, referenced earlier, continuing
the spiral arm theory [16].
Not all of the critiques demonstrated comparable quality
of analysis to Shaviv and Veizers work [21]. Regardless, some
members of the scientific community pointed out that Shavivs
original study had based its findings on 50 iron meteorites coordi-
nated into the theory of galactic spiral arm crossings. However,
FIG. 12.2 Earths position in the galaxy, comfortably within the Orion Spur
lying between the Sagittarius Arm and the Perseus Arm (Graphic courtesy
of NASA/JPL-Caltech, and Brews OHare (grid))
reliable dating of such meteorites, and the interpretation of the

143 million (10 million) year periodicity from a variety of only
approximate and mixed results, were not agreed by all, nor the
deduced ages demonstrating anything near enough the type of
periodicity that would be expected in galactic arm crossings. Some
conceded that CRF might have some place in climate epochs of
the ages, but that CO2 remained the main driver. Further proxy
evidence from over the prior 15 years was utilized without success
in corroborating any principal connection of CRF to climate.
Other reservations from Shavivs findings included:
The premise that as much as 66% of recent warming was not
attributable to AGW.
The reconstructed sea surface temperatures (SST) over hundred
of millions of years.
Cosmic Crisis 265
His arbitrary change in time scaling to coordinate with CRF

at low altitudes.
The projection of warming that would result from a doubling of
CO2, calculated at an average of only about 0.75C.
The reference to an incorrect quote of IPCC projections for
the worst-case scenario at 5.5C, instead of 4.5C.
Meanwhile, Shaviv and Veizer, claiming that the very uncer-
tainties they themselves had raised had been used against them,
provided:
The methodology of dating the meteorites, along with the
dependability of their findings, supporting the projected CRF
variability, and their temperature findings of past epochal radi-
ative forcings.
References to the table in which uncertainties in the calcu-
lating timings of the crossings of spiral arms were addressed,
including reservations about the Milky Ways Norma Arm.
Influences of orbital forcing (Milankovic cycles).
Tuning methods for ill-synchronized sedimentary deposits to
make the data sets correspond.
Justification for their superior margin of error of the delayed
response to galactic arm crossing.
Clear CRF parallels.
Justification for the discrepancies between the temperature
range referenced for CO2 increases in IPCC climate models and
the stated projections used in the TAR (for which they had been
criticized) [22].
Further detailing and graphics [23].
Looking for Middle Ground

As the debate continued, Shaviv and Veizer appeared to be looking
for common ground even though they clung to their original con-
clusions [24]. Allowing that the pH effect discussed at length (by
Royer et al.) might have distorted the data in reconstructing past
temperatures as being too high, it was acknowledged that good
research may indeed have improved the data [21]. Shaviv contin-
ued to detail his theorized link between CRF, low altitude cloud
cover and climate change, especially with regard to the epochs.

In this analysis, he included as much from the Royer et al. study
as seemed relevant. His conclusions were that anthropogenic
warming was responsible for no more than 0.140.36C of the total
warming since 1900, with theorized sources and actual tempera-
ture observations being remarkably compatible. However, the key
to retaining the intact spiral arm crossing theory depended on
Marshs and Svensmarks fundamental theory.
Similarly objective was the work of several other researchers,
with the findings on CRF and the spiral arm crossings often incon-
clusive:
The link between cosmic rays induced ionization (CRII) and
low altitude cloud cover (LAC) was often upheld, not only con-
current with the 11-year solar cycle but also being dependent
on latitude.
Towards the poles, the effects of CRII and increased low cloud
cover seemed most pronounced, exactly the opposite of what
one would have expected, had solar irradiance been the pri-
mary driver.
Further conclusions indicated that the influence of CRII at
mid-latitudes far outweighed those related to solar activity, and
that key information was being lost due to the averaging of all
regions together.
Some regret was also voiced that the influence of cosmic rays
was largely absent in climate models [25].
Thus, Shaviv and Svensmark found that they had at least
some common ground with other researchers, in addition to what
existed between them. Along with F. Christiansen, Svensmark
further would conduct new research on the cosmic ray, solar wind
and UV links and would even feature Shavivs spiral arm theory
prominently [26].
Death Knell for a Theory?

As the first decade of the twenty-first century was drawing to a
close, some newer studies with updated methodologies would
pour cold water all over the CRF theory [27].
Cosmic Crisis 267
Among the more negative outcomes of the new studies:

Recent warming was not found tied to CRF, although an
undecided position on long-term hypotheses did little to keep
Shavivs spiral arms concept alive.
One of the key personalities originally to concur with the CRF
theory apparently had changed his mind. In this particular
review, conclusions from this and other research appeared to
discount the theory on every level.
However, at least some highly detailed and comprehensive
studies were being undertaken, exactly the kind that Svensmark
and Shaviv had suggested was needed to explore the possibilities
further. However, for those who had invested so much time and
effort, to say nothing of their reputations, it seemed that the newer
research had trumped the older. Maybe the time had come to
throw in the towel.
The CLOUD Experiment

CERN is the acronym for the European Organization for Nuclear
Research, responsible for, among other things, the Large Hadron
Collider [28]. In 2009 the organization initiated research into the
core of Svensmarks argument to see if cosmic rays could produce
the results he predicted and had so energetically championed. The
program was named the CLOUD experiment (Cosmics Leaving
OUtdoor Droplets) and involved the use of a high-energy physic
accelerator (the Proton Synchrotron) and a cloud chamber [29]. The
chamber simulated the atmospheric environment, and the acceler-
ator was used to bombard it with artificial cosmic rays. It was hoped
that it might settle the argument once and for all, although for
many researchers, the answer was already a foregone conclusion.
On August 29, 2011, 1 month to the day before the comple-
tion of the first draft of this book, CERN announced that the first
results of 2 years of work had been published in Nature [30]. They
were startling by any standards:
First it was determined that the sulfur-based vapors (mostly
sulfuric acid H2SO4), always thought responsible for most
lower atmosphere aerosol production, actually accounted for

very little of it.
Second, clear linkage of cosmic rays to aerosol production was
established.
Third, Svensmarks theory of clusters of sulfur compound par-
ticulates gathering into aerosols large enough for cloud forma-
tion being dramatically enhanced by CRF was borne out, by a
factor of at least ten times.
However, a little caution was raised. It was apparent that
ammonia-type compounds are also necessary for low altitude
cloud formation. CLOUD had showed that even with cosmic ray
bombardment of sulfuric acid, ammonia and water vapor alone
were still insufficient in themselves to account for aerosol produc-
tion in the absence of some other unknown compounds. Addi-
tional supporting information is available from the CERN website
[31]. Next on the agenda for the CLOUD experiment is therefore
to find such a compound(s), should this indeed be present.
Could it be that Svensmark, perhaps the most ridiculed of the
recent alternate thinkers, suddenly had been vindicated, along
with more than a few other outspoken scientists who backed him?
Perhaps even the spiral arm connection will prove to have some
value as well, and Shaviv could yet have his day. Only time will
tell, of course, where the continuing research will bring us, and
what it all means for climate science, especially regarding all sim-
ilarly related research and hypotheses.
In Conclusion
Certainly some of the theories that we have examined in this book
are controversial and far from universally accepted or even
respected, but many of their advocates are leading figures in
research, and their studies are fascinating at the very least. Regret-
tably, the information is not well promulgated at this stage. The
lack of general recognition within the larger climate community
may speak more to unfamiliarity than lack of validity, or any desire
to suppress it, although even this may be true in some cases.
Cosmic Crisis 269
Cosmic Rays and Climate

On its website, the Environmental Defense Fund states that
there has been no trend in incoming cosmic rays detected
over the last 30 years, and that these rays have had little
impact on recent warming.
These so-called facts are stated in a vacuum. And the
term little is interesting, especially in lieu of actual
quantifiable measurements. Are we supposed to discount cos-
mic rays, but then wonder what their actual effect might have
been? No serious scientist would ever make such missteps.
Predictably, the ink barely had time to dry on the CERN
press release (concerning the results of the CLOUD experi-
ments) than Skepticalscience acted at light speed to dismiss
the results, while not seeming to represent what actually had
been claimed. Apparently this organization sees little purpose
in further investigation and has already concluded that CERN
has no case.
Whether this is, or is not so, as always, however, Canute
will have the final word.
Should critics choose to characterize much of what is con-

tained in these new studies as unproven, that is fine, except there
are many positions and conclusions they may accept that are sim-
ilarly unproven! Perhaps we will not have to wait too many years
to finally come to a mutual understanding of everything. How-
ever, at least for now we should no longer be surprised at unusual
findings that seem to fly in the face of the accepted norms of cli-
mate science. Perhaps we really dont know all that there is to
know, and maybe the debate is really not over after all. Time and
Canute will tell (Fig. 12.3).
FIG. 12.3 Earth observatory top of the atmosphere (Image courtesy of

NASA)
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Index
A Axial precession, 241

ACRIM solar satellite program, 92 Axial shift, 242
Aerosols, 16, 21, 24, 26, 28, 30, 31, Axial tilt, 207, 215, 220, 221, 229,
48, 86, 114, 123, 167, 170, 239, 242
196, 197, 210, 211, 252, 253,
257, 268
AGCMs. See Atmospheric general B
circulation models (AGCMs) Barycenter, 128, 129, 133
AGW. See Anthropogenic global Big Bang, 19
warming (AGW) Biosphere, 46, 47, 6264
Albedo, 11, 13, 24, 2628, 33, 38, Black body, 2428
171, 228, 229, 254 Bodes Law, 132
Anthropogenic global warming Bow shock, 212
(AGW), 1, 4, 33, 34, 38, 46, Braswell, W.D., 194
71, 102, 111, 118, 133, 135, Brown dwarf, 83
141, 146, 156, 189, 190, Burroughs, William James, 5, 90,
192195, 197, 200, 235, 247, 98, 134, 145, 155, 246, 251
260, 264
Aphelion, 215, 228, 239, 243, 244
Apsidial precession, 243245 C
ARGO program, 197 Carbon 14 (14C), 34, 105, 258
Assessment report 4 (AR4), 36, 139 Carbon cycle, 45
Atmosphere, 7, 11, 13, 16, 20, 21, Carbon dioxide (CO2), 1, 23, 86,
2326, 2832, 34, 35, 37, 38, 111, 141, 160, 183, 209, 245,
4143, 45, 46, 47, 54, 58, 62, 258
6466, 87, 96101, 111, 116, Carbon sinks, 12, 4250
122124, 145, 169, 177, 182, CERN, 267269
199, 205, 207, 209212, 215, CFCs. See Chlorofluorocarbons
216, 221, 224231, 236, 252, (CFCs)
253, 258, 268, 270 CGCMs. See Coupled General
Atmospheric general circulation Circulation Models (CGCMs)
models (AGCMs), 169, 171, Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), 29,
172 35, 98100, 191193

Astronomers Universe, DOI 10.1007/978-1-4614-4608-8,
276 Index
Christiansen, F., 266 Electromagnetic energy, 20, 25, 26

Climate models, 11, 13, 31, 32, 74, El Nino Southern Oscillation
79, 96, 99, 102, 105, 111, 114, (ENSO), 59, 6164, 95, 113,
135, 136, 141, 142, 145147, 137, 166, 171, 175, 254
152, 159182, 184, 185, El Nino spike, 123, 136, 177
187189, 194197, 246, 252, EMICs. See Earth Models of Inter-
258, 265, 266 mediate Complexity (EMICs)
CLOUD experiment, 267269 Emiliani, C., 247
Cloud formation, 56, 79, 96, 116, Energy balance models (EBMs),
131, 196, 251255, 257, 268 168
Clouds, 3, 21, 2529, 38, 54, 56 Energy imbalance, 197
58, 77, 79, 98, 138, 170, 171, ENSO. See El Nino Southern Os-
173174, 181, 194, 210212, cillation (ENSO)
221, 224, 252257, 259, 261, Epitrochoid, 127
265267 EUV. See Extreme ultraviolet
Coriolis force, 56, 64 radiation (EUV)
Coronal mass ejection, 78, 131, 259 Extreme ultraviolet radiation
Cosmic microwave background, (EUV), 87, 100
19, 20, 74
Cosmic rays, 3, 58, 79, 87, 9698,
116, 120, 131, 153, 207, F
230, 251255, 257260, 263, Faculae, 8082
266269 Fairbridge, Rhodes, 43, 71, 129
Cosmic rays induced ionization Feedback, 2224, 2729, 35, 39,
(CRII), 266 42, 58, 71, 72, 100, 124, 142,
Coupled General Circulation Models 153, 166, 167, 170, 171, 173,
(CGCMs), 169, 170, 173 194, 197, 206, 210
CRII. See Cosmic rays induced First Assessment Report (FAR),
ionization (CRII) 106
Forbush events, 2259
Forcings, 2224, 2730, 35, 42, 63,
D 71, 72, 86, 95, 97, 99102,
Deen, G.W., 259 114, 124, 141, 145, 153, 154,
Deforestation, 1116, 43, 171 160, 166171, 173, 176, 189,
Degrees of confidence and likeli- 191, 192, 196, 197, 237, 248,
hoods, 163 265
Devils Hole, 246, 247 Foukal, P., 97, 100
Fourier transform, 72, 73, 161
Frhlich, C., 117, 118
E
Earth Models of Intermediate
Complexity (EMICs), 168 G
Earths energy budget, 5354 Gaia hypothesis, 16, 174
EBMs. See Energy balance models Galactic arms, 77, 120, 258261,
(EBMs) 264, 265
Index 277
General circulation models Hung, Ching-Cheh, 133, 142,

(GCMs), 160, 169, 172 147152, 155
GISS. See Goddard Institute for Hurricanes, 55, 57, 65, 160, 181
Space Studies (GISS)
Glaciation, 237
Glacier, 5, 8, 10, 62, 70, 105, 184 I
Gleissberg cycle, 94, 146 Ice ages, 9, 109, 112, 120, 129, 133,
Global surveyor, 218 235249, 259, 261
Global warming, 1, 6, 9, 10, 34, Imbrie, J.Z., 246, 248
36, 39, 48, 53, 54, 66, 93, 111, Infrared radiation, 24, 30, 37
116, 118, 174, 178, 184, 185, Insolation, 239
190, 192, 193, 195, 197, 200, Intergovernmental Panel on
201, 205232, 235, 237, 240, Climate Change (IPCC), 2,
251 3, 5, 11, 2324, 31, 32, 34,
Goddard Institute for Space Stud- 36, 3840, 46, 51, 63, 83, 86,
ies (GISS), 102, 138140, 183, 87, 93, 94, 96, 105, 106, 111,
185188, 194196 112, 115, 118, 121, 138, 139,
Granulation, 82 142, 145, 159, 162, 165167,
Great global conveyor, 58, 60 170, 174, 175, 183, 193195,
Great Red Spot (GRS), 66, 223, 224 197199, 207, 220, 254, 258,
Greenhouse effect, 2022, 29, 195, 265
213, 220 Intertropical Convergence Zone
Greenhouse gases, 28, 29, 3339, (ITCZ), 55, 63
4143, 45, 49, 50, 63, 101, Ionosphere, 89, 212
112, 123, 137, 146, 159, 161, IPCC. See Intergovernmental
167, 171, 189, 191194, 196, Panel on Climate Change
197, 210, 216, 259 (IPCC)
Greenland, 8, 70, 107, 110, 172 ITCZ. See Intertropical Convergence
GRS. See Great Red Spot (GRS) Zone (ITCZ)
H J
Hadley cell, 55, 99 JASON satellite program, 69
Hadley Climate Research Unit, Jet stream, 65
135, 139 Jupiter, 65, 66, 127, 131, 150, 151,
Hale cycle, 90, 146, 150 221224, 228, 238, 243, 245
Handbuch der Klimatologie, 236
Hansen, James, 1, 102, 141,
183187, 194, 196198, 210, K
211, 254 Kuiper Belt, 225, 227
Heat sink, 4951, 170
Heliosphere, 131
Holocene, 5, 9, 10, 71, 95, 106 L
Hoyle, F., 261 LAC. See Low cloud cover (LAC)
Hoyt, D.V., 89, 93, 94 La Nina, 61, 62, 65
278 Index
Laut, P., 255, 256 N

Lean, Judith, 97, 100, 101, 117 NAO. See North Atlantic Oscilla-
Length of day (LOD), 133, 137, 153 tion (NAO)
Leubner, Ingo H, 132, 133, 153, 215 Nahle, N.S., 211213
LIDAR system, 7 National Oceanic and Atmospher-
Little Ice Age, 9, 65, 93, 106, ic Administration (NOAA),
108110, 113, 114, 258 57, 60, 6668, 73, 8385, 95,
Lockwood, M., 255 114, 123, 152, 157, 170, 172,
LOD. See Length of day (LOD) 173, 175, 179, 199
Long Term Persistence (LTP), 95, Nelson, T. J., 3638, 40, 41, 43, 50,
141, 230, 258 135, 194, 197
Lorenz, E. N., 167, 168 Neptune, 206, 224230, 232
Low cloud cover (LAC), 254257, NIMBUS-7, 117119, 252, 254
261, 266 Niroma, T., 84, 85, 136, 151
LTP. See Long Term Persistence (LTP) NOAA. See National Oceanic and
Lunisolar tides, 147 Atmospheric Administration
(NOAA)
Norse setters, 110
M North Atlantic Oscillation (NAO),
Mac Donald, G.J.,245, 247 6264, 72, 73, 110, 171
Magnetic field, 81, 87, 89, 90,
147, 150, 207, 212, 216, 228,
252254, 258, 259 O
Magnetosphere, 89, 90, 153, 205, Obliquity, 237, 239242, 246
207, 212, 216, 228 Ocean currents, 49, 56, 5862, 99,
Mann, Michael, 110114 105, 147, 171, 191, 206
Mars, 4, 15, 206, 208, 213216, Ocean General Circulation Mod-
218221, 236 els (OGCMs), 169, 171
Marsh, N., 254, 255, 266 OGCMs. See Ocean General Cir-
Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter, 214, culation Models (OGCMs)
218 Orbital eccentricity, 221, 237239,
Martian gullies, 217, 218 245, 248
Maunder Minimum, 85, 93, 94, Outgassing Pacific Decadel Oscil-
108, 110, 134, 150, 155 lation (PDO), 137
Medieval Climate Optimum (me- Ozone, 29, 50, 96101
dieval warm period), 106 Ozone holes, 99
107, 110, 113, 114, 155, 258
Mercury, 70, 131, 150, 151, 212213
Meridional circulation, 156, 157 P
Metronome, 153, 154 Perihelion, 215, 228230, 239, 243
Milankovic cycles, 207, 215, 235, PGF. See Pressure gradient force
237, 244, 245, 248, 265 (PGF)
Milky Way Galaxy, 3 Photosphere, 8083
Moberg, A., 113, 114 Planets, 3, 8, 1113, 21, 34, 53,
Mrner, N.-A., 195 56, 65, 77, 127, 129133,
Muller, R.A., 245, 247 142, 146148, 150153, 155,
Index 279
205209, 211213, 215, 216, Solar flares, 90, 97, 147153

218, 221, 224, 225, 228, 230, Solar Magnetic Planetary Index, 88
231, 236, 238, 242, 244 Solar radiation, 21, 2832, 41, 53,
Plasma, 90, 91, 97, 100, 149, 212 97101, 109, 211, 227, 236,
Pleistocene, 241 238, 248
Pluto, 206208, 224, 228231 Solar spectrum, 41, 99
PMOD, 117122, 207, 208 Solar system, 3, 9, 13, 25, 77, 79,
Polar cap, 71, 219221 127142, 152, 153, 155, 198,
Polar ice, 69, 71, 219, 248 205207, 215, 216, 221, 222,
Pole star, 242 224, 225, 228, 231, 232, 237,
Power spectrum, 7274 245, 259, 261
Precession, 237, 241245, 248 Solar wind, 89, 90, 131, 207, 212,
Precession of the equinoxes, 242, 243 216, 226, 228
Pressure gradient force (PGF), 54, 56 Soon, Willie, 112
Proxy evidence/records, 6, 10, 41, Spencer, R.W., 174, 194
77, 94, 95, 105108, 110, 111, Spin-orbit coupling, 130
135, 142, 237, 245, 264 Spiral arms, 259263, 265268
Spring tides, 147
SST. See Sea surface temperatures
R (SST)
Radiative-convective models Stratosphere, 16, 29, 98, 123, 124,
(RCMs), 168 252
Rahmstorf, S., 272 Stratospheric Particle Injection for
Runaway greenhouse conditions, 160 Climate Engineering (SPICE),
32
Summary for Policy Makers, 194
S Sun, 3, 19, 53, 77102, 106,
Saturn, 127, 131, 238, 243 127, 145, 161, 195, 205,
Schatten, H.K., 89, 93, 94 236, 251
Schmitt, H.H., 195 Sunspots, 7985, 87, 88, 9097,
Sea ice, 105, 159, 188 100, 107, 108, 123, 129, 131,
Sea levels, 7, 1012, 57, 6871, 134, 136, 139, 147153
105, 147, 195, 197 Svensmark, H., 79, 230, 231,
Sea surface temperatures (SST), 252259, 263, 266268
6668, 83, 84, 176, 180,
187, 264
Second Assessment Report (SAR), T
194 TAR. See Third Assessment Re-
Sedimentary deposits, 65 port (TAR)
Shaviv, N.J., 101 Thermocline, 5962, 64, 65, 147
Sixty-year cycle, 134142, 146, Thermohaline circulation, 58
152, 166, 221 Third Assessment Report (TAR),
Snow, 8, 13, 26, 27, 38, 57, 58, 71, 40, 96, 106, 111, 115, 195,
108, 171, 217, 240 254, 265
Solanki, S.K., 94, 95 Time series, 72, 73, 161, 181
Solar butterfly, 92 Tinsley, B.A., 259
280 Index
Total solar irradiance (TSI), 87, W

116118 Water, 7, 26, 27, 32, 41, 43,
Tree-ring evidence, 113 46, 53, 56, 5862, 6466,
Trenberth, Kevin, 61, 95, 181 6871, 109, 123, 147, 170,
Triton, 224231 174, 178, 198200, 205,
Troposphere, 16, 55, 123, 124 206, 213219, 225, 229, 257,
TSI. See Total solar Irradiance (TSI) 266, 268
Water flows, 59, 214, 218
Water vapor, 3, 11, 13, 21, 23, 24,
U 29, 30, 33, 35, 36, 38, 64, 170,
Ultraviolet radiation, 80, 87, 9799 173174, 181, 191194, 210,
Urban heat island effect, 40, 138, 216, 252, 253, 268
178180, 185 Weather, 7, 17, 26, 5374, 80,
123, 147, 152, 160, 161,
164165, 168, 171, 174, 181,
V 188, 251
Veizer, Jn, 258, 263 Weather forecasting, 160, 164
Venus, 4, 131, 150, 151, 209213, White dwarf, 83, 260
216 Willson, R., 92, 117, 118
Venus volcanoes, 209
Volcanic aerosols, 16, 31, 86, 114,
123 Y
Vostok ice core, 40 Yellow dwarf, 83

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Astronomers Universe

For further volumes:

Library of Congress Control Number: 2012941866

Springer Science+Business Media New York 2012

Printed on acid-free paper

Springer is part of Springer Science+Business Media (www.springer.com)

In February1632 the mathematician and astronomer Galileo Galilei

NSW, Australia Fred Watson

The science is in, the debate is over!

If only it were that simple; such a grandiose and dramatic pro-

mind the late Senator Daniel Patrick Moynahans perceptive and

A finding by the Environmental Protection Agency to declare carbon di-

The author seeks neither to take a position nor evaluate the

The underlying cause of these climactic shifts is ultimately not well-

With the advent of climate change, aka global warming, tak-

Any developed and geographically well-situated nation that is not will-

A careful review of the documents prepared and presented by

The government has been captured by an extreme Green agendain-

In light of a prevailing view (a consensus) that man-made

have affirmed their support of the IPCC assessments. Apparently,

Index .......................................................................................... 275

Anyone who doubts that there is any point in discussing any

Halting global warming requires urgent, unprecedented inter-

We should always keep in mind that the focus of most main-

A. Cooke, Astronomy and the Climate Crisis, 1

conciliatory and fair to scientists of every view. In assessing and

Some serious scientists pursuing possible astronomical con-

astronomical/climate studies in many of the most important and

How did Earth, Venus and Mars wind up so radically different

We can speculate, too, on the possible result of a galactic

of these references as much as possible, because the kind of

Our Place in Time

Their value is because the historical record extends over a period

0C anomaly threshold. Be sure to look carefully at the amounts

Visible Signs of Warming

First, though, we should look at some of those indicators that

of some fossil fuels. However, this poses a new wrinkle previously

result in an increase to sea levels by 1.3 mm yearly [7]. Again,

On the scale of the graph, which is admittedly coarse, any

Earth, however, has the distinction in the Solar System of hav-

is no tall canopy forestry left anywhere at all, and much of Earths

estimated that the release of human-induced CO2 into the atmo-

whether it be the oceans clean-up of oil spills or other types of

The Complexity of the Subject

Earth and Space

A. Cooke, Astronomy and the Climate Crisis, 19

FIG. 2.1 The cosmic microwave background temperature fluctuations from

The Greenhouse Effect

A starting point is to understand how electromagnetic energy from

Inviting a parallel with glass greenhouses, the analogy has

A common misconception is that the greenhouse effect is a

What is not directly reflected back into space is absorbed and

FIG. 2.2 The greenhouse effect (Image courtesy of UNEP/GRID-Arendal

Forcings and Feedback

In climate change science some other specific terms come with

The subject is somewhat diffusely defined, since many

a measure of the influence a factor has in altering the balance

Additionally, the IPCCs definition of feedback is:

an interaction mechanism between processes in the climate