Calgaro, Jean-Armand - Formichi, P. - Gulvanessian, H. - Harding, Geoff-Designer's Guide To Eurocode 1 - Actions On Buildings - en 1991-1-1 and - 1-3 To - 1-7-Thomas Telf
Calgaro, Jean-Armand - Formichi, P. - Gulvanessian, H. - Harding, Geoff-Designer's Guide To Eurocode 1 - Actions On Buildings - en 1991-1-1 and - 1-3 To - 1-7-Thomas Telf
Calgaro, Jean-Armand - Formichi, P. - Gulvanessian, H. - Harding, Geoff-Designer's Guide To Eurocode 1 - Actions On Buildings - en 1991-1-1 and - 1-3 To - 1-7-Thomas Telf
Designers Guide to Eurocode 8: Design of structures for earthquake resistance. EN 1998-1 and EN 1998-5.
General rules, seismic actions, design rules for buildings, foundations and retaining structures. M. Fardis,
E. Carvalho, A. Elnashai, E. Faccioli, P. Pinto and A. Plumier. 978 0 7277 3348 1. Published 2005.
Designers Guide to EN 1994-1-1. Eurocode 4: Design of Composite Steel and Concrete Structures, Part 1-1:
General Rules and Rules for Buildings. R.P. Johnson and D. Anderson. 978 0 7277 3151 7. Published 2004.
Designers Guide to Eurocode 7: Geotechnical design. EN 1997-1 General rules. R. Frank, C. Bauduin, R. Driscoll,
M. Kavvadas, N. Krebs Ovesen, T. Orr and B. Schuppener. 978 0 7277 3154 8. Published 2004.
Designers Guide to Eurocode 3: Design of Steel Structures. EN 1993-1-1 General rules and rules for buildings.
L. Gardner and D. Nethercot. 978 0 7277 3163 0. Published 2005.
Designers Guide to Eurocode 2: Design of Concrete Structures. EN 1992-1-1 and EN 1992-1-2 General rules and
rules for buildings and structural re design. R.S. Narayanan and A.W. Beeby. 978 0 7277 3105 0. Published
2005.
Designers Guide to EN 1994-2. Eurocode 4: Design of composite steel and concrete structures. Part 2 General
rules for bridges. C.R. Hendy and R.P. Johnson. 978 0 7277 3161 6. Published 2006
Designers Guide to EN 1992-2. Eurocode 2: Design of concrete structures. Part 2: Concrete bridges. C.R. Hendy
and D.A. Smith. 978-0-7277-3159-3. Published 2007.
Designers Guide to EN 1991-1-2, EN 1992-1-2, EN 1993-1-2 and EN 1994-1-2. T. Lennon, D.B. Moore,
Y.C. Wang and C.G. Bailey. 978 0 7277 3157 9. Published 2007.
Designers Guide to EN 1993-2. Eurocode 3: Design of steel structures. Part 2: Steel bridges. C.R. Hendy and C.J.
Murphy. 978 0 7277 3160 9. Published 2007.
Designers Guide to EN 1991-1.4. Eurocode 1: Actions on structures, general actions. Part 1-4 Wind actions.
N. Cook. 978 0 7277 3152 4. Published 2007.
Designers Guide to Eurocode 1: Actions on buildings. EN 1991-1-1 and -1-3 to -1-7. H. Gulvanessian, P. Formichi
and J.-A. Calgaro. 978 0 7277 3156 2. Published 2009.
Designers Guide to Eurocode 1: Actions on Bridges. EN 1991-1-1, -1-3 to -1-7 and EN 1991-2. J.-A. Calgaro,
M. Tschumi and H. Gulvanessian. 978 0 7277 3158 6. Forthcoming: 2009.
www.thomastelford.com/books
www.eurocodes.co.uk
Series editor
H. Gulvanessian
Eurocodes Expert
Structural Eurocodes oer the opportunity of harmonized design standards for the European
construction market and the rest of the world. To achieve this, the construction industry needs to
become acquainted with the Eurocodes so that the maximum advantage can be taken of these
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A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library
ISBN: 978-0-7277-3156-2
# Authors 2009
All rights, including translation, reserved. Except as permitted by the Copyright, Designs and Patents
Act 1988, no part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in
any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying or otherwise, without the prior
written permission of the Publisher, Thomas Telford Limited, 40 Marsh Wall, London E14 9TP.
This book is published on the understanding that the authors are solely responsible for the statements
made and opinions expressed in it and that its publication does not necessarily imply that such
statements and/or opinions are or reect the views or opinions of the publishers. While every eort
has been made to ensure that the statements made and the opinions expressed in this publication
provide a safe and accurate guide, no liability or responsibility can be accepted in this respect by the
authors or publishers.
EN 1991: Eurocode 1: Actions on Structures includes ten parts which provide comprehensive
information and guidance on all actions that it is normally necessary to consider in the design
of building and civil engineering structures. All parts have now been published by the
European Committee for Standardisation (CEN) as European Standards (EN).
. clients
. product manufacturers
. public authorities and other bodies who produce regulations.
Acknowledgements
This book would not have been possible without the successful completion of EN 1991 and
the authors would like to thank all those who contributed to its preparation. Those involved
included the members of the Project Teams and the National Delegations. The following
individuals are especially thanked: Professor Luca Sanpaolesi, Professor Gerhard Sedlacek,
Dr Paul Luchinger, Mr Lars Albretkson and Mr Malcolm Greenley.
Mr Geo Harding deserves a special thank you for his advice on Part 7 of this Designers
guide.
While this book was being prepared, Professor Gulvanessian was involved in producing
the Institution of Structural Engineers manual on EN 1990 and EN 1991. Some of the
content of the current guide springs from the IstructE committee producing the manual
and the authors acknowledge in particular John Tubman, David Dibbs-Fuller and John
Littler.
Professor Gulvanessian would also especially like to thank Rohan Rupasinghe of the
Building Research Establishment (BRE) who was his constant sounding board.
This book is dedicated to the following:
. The authors employers and supporters, BRE Garston and the Department of Com-
munities and Local Government, London; the University of Pisa and the General
Council for Environment and Sustainable Ministry of Ecology, Energy, Sustainable
Development and Town and Country Planning, Paris.
. The authors wives, Vera Gulvanessian, Enrica Formichi and Elisabeth Calgaro, for their
support and patience over the years.
vi
Preface v
Aims and objectives of this guide v
Layout of this guide vi
Acknowledgements vi
Introduction 1
Background to the Eurocode programme 1
Status and eld of application of the Eurocodes 3
National standards implementing the EN Eurocode 3
Additional information on EN 1991 4
National Annexes on EN 1991 7
References 7
PART 1: EN 1991-1-1 9
Chapter 1. General 11
1.1. Scope 11
1.2. Normative references 12
1.3. Distinction between principles and application rules 12
1.4. Terms and denitions 13
1.5. Symbols 14
Chapter 8. Annex B of EN 1991-1-1: Vehicle barriers and parapets for car parks 57
Example 58
References 59
PART 2: EN 1991-1-2 61
Chapter 1. Eurocode 1 Actions on structures: Part 1.2: General Actions
Actions on structures exposed to re 63
References 63
PART 3: EN 1991-1-3 65
Chapter 1. General 67
1.1. Scope 67
1.2. Normative references 68
1.3. Assumptions 68
1.4. Distinction between Principles and Application Rules 69
1.5. Design assisted by testing 69
1.6. Terms and denitions 69
1.7. Symbols 70
viii
Example 5.1 92
Example 5.2 93
Example 5.3 93
Example 5.4 97
Example 5.5 98
Chapter 8. Annex B. Snow load shape coecients for exceptional snow drifts 109
Chapter 10. Annex D. Adjustment of the ground snow load according to return
period 117
References 123
ix
References 156
References 178
References 217
xi
xii
References 284
Index 285
xiii
The material in this Introduction relates to the forwards of the parts of the European
Standard EN 1991: Actions on Structures. The forewords include the following aspects:
. The background to the Eurocode programme
. Status and eld of application of the Eurocodes
. National Standards implementing Eurocodes
. Additional information on EN 1991
. National Annexes on EN 1991.
The forewords of all of the Eurocode parts have common text. Guidance on the common text
is provided in the Introduction of the Designers Guide to EN 1990: Eurocode: Basis of Struc-
tural Design1 to which reference should be made. Only information essential to the user of
EN 1991 is given here.
The European Commission (EC), in close cooperation with representatives of Member
States (the Eurocode National Correspondents (ENC)) has prepared a document Application
and Use of the Eurocodes.2 The reader is recommended to study this document, guidance to
which is given in reference 1.
Eurocode programme
The structural Eurocodes, as shown in Table 0.1, each generally consisting of a number of
parts, some of which relate to bridges, have all now been released in EN form.
Each of the ten Eurocodes listed above are made up of separate parts, which cover the
technical aspects of the structural and re design of buildings and civil engineering
structures. The Eurocodes are a harmonised set of documents that have to be used together.
Figure 0.1 shows the links among the various Eurocodes.
Structural safety,
EN 1990 serviceability and
durability
Actions on
EN 1991 structures
Geotechnical and
EN 1997 EN 1998 seismic design
. Facilitate the marketing and use of materials and constituent products, the properties of
which enter into design calculations, in Member States.
. Be a common basis for research and development.
. Allow the preparation of common design aids and software.
. Benet the European civil engineering enterprises, contractors, designers and product
manufacturers in their worldwide activities, and increasing their competitiveness.
a
b
c
d
National Annexes
The National Standards bodies should publish the parameters in a National Annex on behalf
of and with the agreement of the national competent authorities.
A National Annex is not required if the EN Eurocode Part is not relevant for the Member
State (e.g. seismic design for some countries).
The Annex may also contain
. decisions on the application of informative annexes
. references to non-contradictory complementary information to assist the user in applying
the Eurocode.
A National Annex cannot change or modify the content of the EN Eurocode text in any way
other than where it indicates that national choices may be made by means of Nationally
Determined Parameters.
EN number Title
t1 t2 t3
Time
Action 0 1 2
Coecient k
Return Probability of for thermal, for thermal, for snow, for wind,
Design working life period, R exeedence, P Tmax;R Tmin;R sn;R vb;R
Note: The expressions for determining k are given in Part 6 of this Designers Guide. For determining k for the climatic
actions, the recommended values of the appropriate parameters have been used. For snow, a coecient of variation
v 0:6 has been used.
References
1. Gulvanessian, H., Calgaro, J.-A. and Holicky, M. Designers Guide to EN 1990: Euro-
code: Basis of Structural Design. Thomas Telford, London, 2002.
2. Guidance Paper L (concerning the Construction Products Directive 89/106/EEC)
Application and Use of the Eurocodes: European Commission, Enterprise Directorate-
General, 2004.
3. European Committee for Standardisation. EN 1990: Eurocode: Basis of Structural
Design. CEN, Brussels, 2002.
General
This chapter is concerned with the general aspects of EN 1991-1-1: Eurocode 1 Actions on
structures: Part 1.1: General Actions Densities, self-weight, imposed loads for buildings.1 The
material described in this chapter is covered in the following clauses:
. Scope Clause 1.1: 1991-1-1
. Normative references Clause 1.2: 1991-1-1
. Distinction between Principles and Application Rules Clause 1.3: 1991-1-1
. Terms and denitions Clause 1.4: 1991-1-1
. Symbols Clause 1.5: 1991-1-1
1.1. Scope
1.1.1. Primary scope
EN 1991-1-1: Eurocode 1 Actions on structures: Part 1.1: General Actions Densities, self-
weight, imposed loads for buildings is one of the ten Parts of EN 1991 (see Table 0.2).
It gives design guidance and species actions for the structural design of buildings and civil
engineering works for the following topics: cl.1.1(1): 1991-1-1
. Densities of construction materials and stored materials, for the design of buildings and
civil engineering works.
. Self-weight of construction works for the design of buildings and civil engineering works.
. Imposed loads for buildings.
cl.1.1(5): 1991-1-1 . on trac areas for vehicles up to a gross vehicle weight of 160 kN, and
. for barriers or walls, which have the function of barriers, horizontal forces are given.
cl.1.1(6): 1991-1-1 An informative Annex B provides additional guidance for vehicle barriers in car parks.
cl.1.1(7): 1991-1-1 No comment is necessary for Clause 1.1(7): 1991-1-1.
If an alternative design rule is substituted for an Application Rule, the resulting design cannot be
claimed to be wholly in accordance with EN 1991-1-1 although the design will remain in accor-
dance with the Principles of EN 1991-1-1. When EN 1991-1-1 is used in respect of a property
listed in an Annex Z of a product standard or an ETAG, the use of an alternative design rule
may not be acceptable for CE marking.
cl.1.3(5): 1991-1-1 With regard to the note to Clause 1.3(5): 1991-1-1, the European Commission guidance
paper L, Application and Use of the Eurocodes2 states:
National Provisions should avoid replacing any EN Eurocode provisions, e.g. Application Rules,
by national rules (codes, standards, regulatory provisions, etc).
When, however, National Provisions do provide that the designer may even after the end of
the co-existence period deviate from or not apply the EN Eurocodes or certain provisions
thereof (e.g. Application Rules), then the design will not be called a design according to EN
Eurocodes.
cl.1.3(6): 1991-1-1 . Application Rules are identied by a number in brackets (only). The word should is
normally used for application rules. The word may is also used for example as an
alternative application rule. The words is and can are used for a denitive statement or
as an assumption.
12
13
1.5. Symbols
cl.1.5(1): 1991-1-1 The notation in Clause 1.5: EN 1991-1-1 is based on ISO 38984.
cl.1.5(2): 1991-1-1 EN 1990 Clause 1.6 provides a comprehensive list of symbols, some of which may be
appropriate for use with EN 1991-1-1. The symbols given in Clause 1.5(2): 1991-1-1 are
additional notations specic to this part of EN 1991-1-1.
14
Classication of actions
This chapter is concerned with the classication of the actions in EN 1991-1-1: Eurocode 1
Actions on structures: Part 1.1: General Actions Densities, self-weight, imposed loads for
buildings. The material described in this chapter is covered in the following clauses.
. Self-weight Clause 2.1: 1991-1-1
. Imposed loads Clause 2.2: 1991-1-1
2.1. Self-weight
EN 1991-1-1 classies self-weight as a permanent xed action in most cases. cl.2.1(1): 1991-1-1
Permanent actions (G), which normally are likely to act throughout the design life of a
structure, include self-weight of structures, xed equipment etc.
A xed action has a xed distribution in space such that its magnitude and direction
are determined unambiguously for the whole structure when determined at one point on
it. Static water pressure represents an example of a xed action (see Clause 1.5.3.8 of
EN 1990).
Normally with self-weight the variability with time is negligible. Thus the variability of G
may be neglected as G does not vary signicantly during the design working life of the
structure and its coecient of variation is small. Therefore the characteristic value (Gk)
can be taken equal to the mean value ( of the statistical distribution for G, which may
be assumed to be normal (Gaussian). See Fig. 2.1.
However when self-weight can vary in time, it should be taken into account by the
upper (Gk,sup) and lower (Gk,inf) characteristic values in accordance with EN 1990: Clause cl.2.1(2): 1991-1-1
4.1.2. According to EN 1990, Gk,inf is the 5% fractile and Gk,sup is the 95% fractile of the
statistical distribution for G, which may be assumed to be normal (Gaussian) as shown in
Fig. 2.1.
For example: the self-weight of items such as parapets, waterproong, coatings, screeds,
etc. is taken into account using an upper and lower characteristic value because the
variability with time may not be small. cl.2.1(2): 1991-1-1
The following relationships (see Designers Guide to EN 19906) can be used to determine
the lower value Gk,inf and the upper value Gk,sup:
Gk;inf G 1:64G G 1 1:64VG D 2:1
Gk;sup G 1:64G G 1 1:64VG D 2:2
where VG is the coecient of variation of G.
Normally the variation of G could be considered signicant when VG 0:10. In this case
the variability of G should be taken into account for all structures and members.
1.64G 1.64G
G G
Gk,inf G Gk,sup
Large variability
Fig. 2.1. Denition of mean value (G) and lower (Gk,inf) and upper (Gk,sup) characteristic values of
permanent actions based on normal (Gaussian) distribution
For special cases for particular design situations (e.g. when considering overturning and
strength of retaining walls), both the lower value Gk,inf and the upper value Gk,sup need to
be used in the design when the coecient of variation is greater than 0.05.
Two values, namely an upper value Gk,sup and a lower value Gk,inf, may have to be used
when considering the stabilising and de-stabilising eects of self-weight on for example a
multi-span oor where the quality control during the construction of the oor is below
that expected. This can occur for example when casting in in situ concrete, where there
may not be site supervision on behalf of the client. However, for quality-controlled construc-
tions (e.g. for a steel frame or precast concrete member, where the members are manufac-
tured under factory conditions), the variability of G may be neglected as G does not vary
signicantly during the design working life of the structure and its coecient of variation
is small. Therefore the characteristic value (Gk) can be taken equal to the mean value (
of the statistical distribution for G, which may be assumed to be normal (Gaussian). See
Fig. 2.1.
Example 2.1
Assume the design species a 200 mm thick (i.e. for determining the mean value G of G)
reinforced concrete slab, to be cast in situ. If the designer considers a coecient of
variation V 0:10, due to deviations from the design due to construction errors, then
using expressions (D 2.1) and (D 2.2), Gk,inf and Gk,sup will therefore be 16.4% less
than or greater than the mean value G .
Thus for a specied 200 mm slab the self-weight should be determined for a thickness of
167.2 mm for Gk,inf and 232.8 mm for Gk,sup.
When the self-weight is classied as a free action (e.g. for movable partitions, or oor
coverings), it should be treated as an additional imposed load. This applies in particular
cl.2.1(2): 1991-1-1 when the permanent free action is favourable. A free action may have various spatial
distributions over the structure.
cl.2.1(3)P: 1991-1-1 No comment is necessary in the case of buildings for Clause 2.1(3)P: 1991-1-1. For com-
ments regarding ballast on railway bridges, see Designers Guide to EN 1991 for bridges.8
cl.2.1(4)P: 1991-1-1 EN 1991-1-1 stipulates that earth loads on roofs and terraces (e.g. for roof gardens) be
considered as permanent actions.
cl.2.1(3)P: 1991-1-1 For both ballast and earth loads (e.g. for roof gardens) the self-weight will vary with time
cl.2.1(4)P: 1991-1-1 due to variations in moisture content and variation in depth, that may be caused by uncontrolled
accumulation during the design life of the structure and these should be considered in the
cl.2.1(5)P: 1991-1-1 design.
16
Information on earth pressures is given in EN 1997 and the Designers Guide to EN 19979. cl.2.1(5)P: 1991-1-1
17
(3) Use specic guidance as required by the certifying authority for the type of structure
under consideration. In certain cases, e.g. structures intended primarily for providing
spectator facilities, the relevant certifying authority may refer to specic guidance
documents as appropriate and sucient for compliance with their requirements.
18
Design situations
This chapter is concerned with the general concepts of design situations relating to EN 1991-1-
1: Eurocode 1 Actions on structures: Part 1.1: General Actions Densities, self-weight, imposed
loads for buildings. The material described in this chapter is covered in the following clauses:
. General Clause 3.1: 1991-1-1
. Permanent loads Clause 3.2: 1991-1-1
. Imposed loads Clause 3.3: 1991-1-1
. Additional provisions for buildings Clause 3.4: 1991-1-1
3.1. General
EN 1990 Clause 3.2 identies the following design situations for the verication of ultimate
limit states: cl.3.1(1)P: 1991-1-1
. persistent design situations, which refer to the conditions of normal use
. transient design situations, which refer to temporary conditions applicable to the
structure, e.g. during execution or repair
. accidental design situations, which refer to exceptional conditions applicable to the
structure or to its exposure, e.g. explosions
. seismic design situations.
Each of these design situations is linked to a particular expression for the combination of
action eects as follows:
. persistent and transient design situations, which refer to expressions (6.10), or (6.10a)
and (6.10b) in EN 1990
. accidental design situations, which refers to expression (6.11b) in EN 1990
. seismic design situations, which refers to expression (6.12b) in EN 1990.
In addition, permanent and imposed loads need to be determined for the verication of
serviceability limit states and the following expressions for the combination of action
eects given in EN 1990:
. the characteristic combination which refers to expression (6.14b) of EN 1990
. the frequent combination which refers to expression (6.15b) of EN 1990
. the quasi-permanent combination which refers to expression (6.16b) of EN 1990.
The relevant permanent and imposed loads that need to be identied for each of the
above design situations for ultimate and serviceability limit state verications include the
following:
(1) For self-weight, the characteristic value of a permanent action G. If the variability of G
can be considered as small, one single value Gk may be used. If the variability of G
cannot be considered as small, two values shall be used: an upper value Gk,sup and a
lower value Gk,inf (see section 2.1 of this Part of this Designers guide).
(2) For variable actions, the characteristic value (Qk) which usually corresponds to an upper
value with an intended probability of not being exceeded during a specic reference
period (normally 50 years for buildings). This return period is directly linked to the
service lifetime assumed in the design of the structure. In particular for a service lifetime
greater than one year but lower than 50 years, the return period should be taken as 50
years; for a longer service lifetime, the return period should be taken as the service
lifetime itself.
Depending upon the design situation being considered for the ultimate or service-
ability limit states (described in EN 1990 Clauses 6.4 and 6.5 and its Designers
Guide1) other representative values of a variable action need to be determined as follows:
. The combination value, represented as the product 0 Qk.
. The frequent value, represented as the product 1 Qk. For buildings, the frequent
value is generally chosen so that the time it is exceeded is 0.01 of the reference period.
. The quasi-permanent value, represented as a product 2 Qk. Quasi-permanent values
are also used for the calculation of long-term eects. For loads on building oors, the
quasi-permanent value is usually chosen so that the proportion of the time it is
exceeded is 0.50 of the reference period. The quasi-permanent value can alternatively
be determined as the value averaged over a chosen period of time.
The notations 0 , 1 and 2 are factors for the combination, frequent and quasi-
permanent value, respectively of a variable action. Values for 0 , 1 and 2 are given
in EN 1990 Table A1.
Example 3.1
Consider the combination of actions in expression (6.10) for the persistent or transient
design situation (EN 1990 Clause 6.4.3.2).
X X
G; j Gk; j 00 00 P P 00 00 Q;1 Qk;1 00 00 Q;i 0;i Qk;i 6:10
j1 i>1
Assume that the variability of self-weight is small; and three variable actions are being
considered as follows: wind (leading) and imposed and snow accompanying.
The following permanent and imposed loads need to be determined for the design
situation in this example:
. the characteristic value of a permanent action G
. for wind the characteristic value (Qk)
. for imposed and snow loads the combination value, represented as a product 0 Qk.
(For this example 0.7Qk and 0.5Qk in accordance with EN 1990: Table A.1.)
20
q 1.5Qk
1.35Gk
1.5Qk
q
1.00Gk
Fig. 3.1. Applying upper and lower design values (e.g. the self-weight of continuous slabs, with good
standard of supervision during execution)
during execution is envisaged and when signicant deviations from a specied member thick-
ness are not expected. Furthermore, permanent loads are supposed to originate from one
source only.
With regard to EN 1990 Table A1.2 (B) Note 3, where the results of verication may be
. very sensitive to variations of the magnitude of a permanent action from G; and if
. the variability of G cannot be considered as small due to deviations from the design
during the execution process,
allowance has to be made for the construction tolerances.
This may be signicant, for example for the following two cases.
(1) For in-situ concrete where self-weight is dominant, and when the quality of site control
may not be high and hence deviation from a specied member thickness may occur.
(2) For a thin reinforced concrete member (e.g. <150 mm thickness). For these cases, two
values for G should be used in any verication: an upper value Gk,sup (where the
eects of the action are unfavourable) and a lower value Gk,inf (where the eects of
the action are favourable).
As explained in Clause 2.1 of this Designers Guide and according to EN 1990, Gk,inf is the
5% fractile and Gk,sup is the 95% fractile of the statistical distribution for G, which may be
assumed to be normal (Gaussian).
Figure 3.2 illustrates how the upper and lower design values are considered in the combi-
nation of action eects in accordance with EN 1990 Table A1.2 (B) Note 3 where signicant
deviations from a specied member thickness may occur. Upper and lower design values (i.e.
when considering the unfavourable (with G 1:35 applied to Gk,sup) and favourable eects
(with G 1:0 applied to Gk,inf) for self-weight) are obtained by using appropriate partial
factors in accordance with EN 1990.
As for the example in Fig. 3.1, permanent loads are assumed to originate from one single
source.
The favourable or unfavourable eects of permanent loads in an area where it is intended
to remove or add structural or non-structural elements (e.g. removable surfacing or
q 1.5Qk
1.35Gk,sup
1.5Qk
q
1.00Gk,inf
For mid-span effects of actions on central span with none or low controlled conditions
Fig. 3.2. Applying upper and lower design values (e.g. the self-weight of thin continuous slabs, or where a
good standard of supervision during execution is not expected)
21
22
Instantaneous value of Q
Characteristic value Qk
t1 t2 t3
Time
0 Qk, 1 Qk and 2 Qk should be used. See Clause 4.1.3 of EN 1990 and the explanation in the
Designers Guide to EN 1990.6 cl.3.3.2(4): 1991-1-1
The combination value 0 Qk is associated with the combination of actions for irreversible
serviceability limit states. Examples where this representative value should be considered are
for the functioning of the structure or to its nishes or to non-structural parts (e.g. partition
walls, claddings).
The frequent value 1 Qk is primarily associated with the frequent combination in the
serviceability limit states. Examples where this representative value should be considered
are for the comfort of the user, or the functioning of machinery.
The main use of quasi-permanent values 2 Qk is the assessment of long-term eects, for
example cosmetic cracking and appearance of a building or creep eects in timber structures,
and for verication of frequent and quasi-permanent combinations (long-term eects) of cl.4.1.3(1)P:
serviceability limit states. 1991-1-1
See Fig. 3.3. for an explanation of the representative values of the actions 0 Qk, 1 Qk and
2 Qk.
Two examples, regarding Clauses 3.1 and 3.2 of EN 1991-1-1 are given below showing the cl.3.1: 1991-1-1
load arrangements for the design of the following: cl.3.2: 1991-1-1
. Example 3.2. A cantilever beam against overturning (reference Table A1.2(A) of
EN 1990)
. Example 3.3. A three-span continuous oor slab (reference Table A1.2(B) of EN 1990).
N.B. Reference needs to be made to Tables A1.2(A) and A1.2(B) of Annex A of EN 1990.
23
QQk
G1Gk
A B
G2Gk
a b
RA
24
A B C D
Table 3.2. Using Expression 6.10 and Table A1.2(B) of EN 1990. Span BC
Expression/
condition Application of actions and partial factors Comments
Table 3.3. Using Expression 6.10 and Table A1.2(B) of EN 1990. Span AB
Expression/
condition Application of actions and partial factors Comments
25
Table 3.4. Using Expressions 6.10a and 6.10b and Table A1.2(B) of EN 1990. Span BC
Expression/
condition Application of actions and partial factors Comments
A B C D
G,infGk,inf = 1.00 25 = 25
Table 3.5. Using Expressions 6.10a and 6.10b and Table A1.2(B) of EN 1990. Span AB
A B C D
G,supGk,sup = 1.35 25 = 33.75
26
27
This chapter is concerned with densities of construction and stored materials in EN 1991-1-1:
Eurocode 1 Actions on structures: Part 1.1: General Actions Densities, self-weight, imposed
loads for buildings. The material described in this chapter is covered in the following clauses:
. General Clause 4.1: 1991-1-1
4.1. General
Where available, the design should use characteristic values of densities of construction and
stored materials. Where characteristic values are not available, mean values should be used
as characteristic values. Annex A of EN 1991-1-1 (see Chapter 7 of the EN 1991-1-1 part of cl.4.1.(1): 1991-1-1
this Designers Guide) gives mean values. It should be noted that when a range is given,
EN 1991-1-1 recognises that the mean value will be highly dependent on the source of the
material, moisture variation etc. These values should be selected and used considering
each individual project and design situation (see Chapter 3 of the EN 1991-1-1 part of this
Designers Guide).
For materials (e.g. new and innovative materials) which are not covered by the Tables
in Annex A of EN 1991-1-1, the characteristic value of the density needs to be determined cl.4.1.(2): 1991-1-1
in accordance with EN 1990 Clause 4.1.2 and agreed for each individual project.
Further information is given in EN 1990 and its relevant Designers Guide.6
Sections 2.1 and 3.2 of the EN 1991-1-1 part of this Designers Guide explain how the cl.4.1.(3): 1991-1-1
requirements of (Clause 4.1.(3): 1991-1-1), and EN 1990 Clause 4.1.2 should be met. cl.4.1.(3): 1991-1-1
No comment necessary for Clause 4.1.(4): 1991-1-1. cl.4.1.(4): 1991-1-1
This chapter is concerned with the general concepts of self-weight of construction works
relating to EN 1991-1-1: Eurocode 1 Actions on structures: Part 1.1: General Actions
Densities, self-weight, imposed loads for buildings. The material described in this chapter is
covered in the following clauses:
. Representation of actions Clause 5.1: 1991-1-1
. Characteristic values of self-weight Clause 5.2: 1991-1-1
Permanent action
Time
Fig. 5.1. Example of variation of permanent and variable actions during the design working life of a
structure
Note to cl.5.1.(3): There will be occasions when a manufacturer will need to be consulted (e.g. for safes and
1991-1-1 other industrial equipment).
cl.5.1.(4): 1991-1-1 Clause 5.1.(4) of EN 1991-1-1 lists examples of xed services as below:
. equipment for lifts and moving stairways
. heating, ventilating and air-conditioning equipment
. electrical equipment
. pipes without their contents
. cable trunking and conduits.
Loads due to some types of non-structural elements may be treated as imposed loads (e.g.
cl.5.1.(5): 1991-1-1 movable partitions).
Concrete structures
The factors which determine the characteristic values of the self-weight for concrete
structures or members include the cross-section dimensions, the characteristic values of
the densities for concrete, reinforcement, steel detail etc. Random deviations are mainly
caused by the random variability of the dimensions and the density of concrete. The self-
weight of a concrete member is a substantial part of the total load on a structure.
Masonry structures
The factors which determine the characteristic values of the self-weight for masonry
structures or members, include:
. the dimensions of the bricks and blocks
. ancillary elements (e.g. wall ties)
. the bulk density of bricks or blocks (depending on the voids)
. the property of the mortar
32
Steel structures
The factors which determine the characteristic values of the self-weight for steel structures
or members include the weight of the individual parts and components, and the weight of
the connections. Random deviations are mainly caused by the variability of the dimensions
(material thickness). In comparison with the random deviations of structures of other
materials the random deviation of the self-weight of metal structures is small. The self-
weight of a steel member is often a small part of the total load on a structure.
Timber structures
The factors which determine the characteristic values of the self-weight for timber structures
or members, include:
. the weight density of the timber
. the dimensions of the individual parts
. the weight of connecting parts
. ancillary elements (e.g. the weight of metal parts)
. moisture contents.
Random deviations are mainly associated by the rst two factors above. The self-weight of
a timber member is important as timber structures are often designed to carry relatively low
loads.
When determining the characteristic values for self-weight, any required nominal cl.5.2.1.(2):
dimensions should be those as shown on the drawings. 1991-1-1
33
This chapter is concerned with the general concepts of imposed loads on buildings relating
to EN 1991-1-1: Eurocode 1 Actions on structures: Part 1.1: General Actions Densities,
self-weight, imposed loads for buildings. The material described in this chapter is covered in
the following clauses.
. Representation of actions Clause 6.1: 1991-1-1
. Load arrangements Clause 6.2: 1991-1-1
. Characteristic values of Imposed Loads Clause 6.3: 1991-1-1
(1) Furniture and movable objects (e.g. movable partitions, storage, equipment, the
contents of containers); these loads at certain points in time are subjected to considerable
instantaneous changes in their magnitudes, mainly due to change of occupancy, change
of use etc. Between these instantaneous changes the load varies very slowly with time and
the magnitudes of the variation are generally small (see Fig. 6.1(a)).
(2) Normal use by persons; these loads are often periodical and only present during a
relatively small part of the time, e.g. for school rooms only for about 14 of a 24-hour
day (see Fig. 6.1(b)). In some cases the loads from persons may also cause dynamic
eects, e.g. dancing halls and gyms used for aerobics.
(3) Vehicles including industrial vehicles, and helicopters in the case of some roofs.
(4) Anticipated rare events, such as concentrations of persons or of furniture, or the moving cl.6.1.(1): 1991-1-1
or stacking of objects which may occur during reorganisation or refurbishment, or the
moving and stacking of storage items. These special situations occur during a short or
moderate period of time but suciently during the design working life of a building
to make it necessary to take them into account in the minimum values of imposed
loads given in EN 1991-1-1 (see Fig. 6.1(c)).
The imposed load on oors may, in special situations, be considerably increased for a
short or moderate period of time. Examples of such situations could be:
. The gathering of people during special planned events, such as parties. During such
events people tend to cluster into groups.
. The crowding of people under emergency-type situations, such as in an exit hall or a re
escape.
Time
(a) Load caused by furniture and heavy equipment
Time
(b) Load caused by persons in ordinary load situations
Time
(c) Loads in special load situations
The density and intensity of people on a oor, as shown in Fig. 6.2,12 can have a signicant
inuence on the imposed load on a oor.
Imposed loads may be regarded as consisting of two dierent parts. The rst part is associated
with ordinary load situations occurring many times a year, and caused by the loads described in
Fig. 6.1(a) and (b) above. The second part is associated with special load situations, and caused
by the loads described in Fig. 6.1(c) above where the load may be considerably increased. The
ordinary and special load situations are also called sustained and intermittent loads.
cl.6.1.(22): 1991-1-1 The principal background to the modelling of imposed loads in EN 1991-1-1 is CIB
Report 116.13 The imposed loads specied EN 1991-1-1 are modelled by uniformly
distributed loads (to determine general eects on a oor or a roof ), line loads (normally
for horizontal loads acting on parapets) or concentrated loads (for the determination of
local eects) or combinations of these loads.
cl.6.1.(3): 1991-1-1 The values of imposed loads, on oor and roof areas in buildings are dependent on the
use of the oor or roof, and are categorised in EN 1991-1-1 accordingly.
The categorisation is into ten main categories A, B, C, D, E, F, G, H, I, K as follows:
. Category A: Areas for domestic and residential activities
. Category B: Oce areas
. Category C: Areas where people may congregate (with the exception of areas dened
under category A, B and D)
. Category D: Shopping areas
. Category E1: Areas susceptible to accumulation of goods, including access areas
. Category E2: Industrial use
. Category F: Trac and parking areas for light vehicles (30 kN gross vehicle weight and
8 seats not including driver)
. Category G: Trac and parking areas for medium vehicles (>30 kN, 160 kN gross
vehicle weight, on two axles)
. Category H: Roofs not accessible except for normal maintenance and repair
. Category I: Roofs accessible with occupancy according to categories A to D
. Category K: Roofs accessible for special services, such as helicopter landing areas.
Values of loads for heavy equipment (e.g. in communal kitchens, radiology rooms, boiler
rooms etc.) are not given in EN 1991-1-1, and the designer is asked to agree these with the
36
2m
Fig. 6.2. Load values associated with various intensities of people loading
client and/or the relevant authority. Heavy equipment comes under Category E2 in EN 1991- cl.6.1.(4): 1991-1-1
1-1, and advice on value loads for heavy equipment is given in Section 6.3.2 and Table 6.6) of
this Designers Guide.
37
Fig. 6.3. Mid-span bending moment of a oor structure (arrow points to element under consideration)
cl.6.2.1.(3)P: In addition, to ensure a minimum local resistance of the oor member a separate
1991-1-1 verication needs to be performed with a concentrated load. Unless required by the
design, a concentrated load need not normally be combined with the uniformly distributed
loads or other variable actions.
cl.6.2.1.(4): The imposed loads on an appropriate member (e.g. a beam) may be reduced according to
1991-1-1 the magnitude of the area supported, by a reduction factor A . See Clause 6.3.1.2(10) for the
value and conditions of use of A .
cl.6.3.1.1.(1)P: See Table 6.1 which gives an example of the style of presentation of Table 6.1 of EN 1991-1-1.
1991-1-1
A
B
C
D Shopping areas D1: Areas in general retail shops
D2: Areas in department stores
38
Within Table 6.1 Categories C and D have been sub-categorised reecting the dierent Table 6.1 and
specic uses within a category as follows: cl.6.3.1.1.(1)P:
1991-1-1
(1) For category C:
. C1: areas with tables, e.g. restaurants
. C2: areas with xed seats, e.g. churches, theatres and lecture rooms
. C3: areas without obstacles for moving people such as museums
. C4: for example gyms
. C5: areas susceptible to large crowds such as concert halls and stands.
(2) For Category D:
. D1: general retail shops
. D2: departmental stores.
Sub-categories C1 to C4, depending on their anticipated use, may be categorised as Note 2 to Table 6.1
C5 (e.g. area susceptible to large crowds). This recognises that areas covered by C1 to cl.6.3.1.1(1)P:
C4 may themselves be susceptible to large crowds during the design working life of the 1991-1-1
structure.
The National Annex may additionally sub-categorise Catagories A, B, C1 to C5, D1 and Note 2 to Table 6.1
D2. Reference should therefore be made to the appropriate National Annex. In particular, cl.6.3.1.1(1)P:
users in the UK should note that the BSI National Annex oers a comprehensive heavy sub- 1991-1-1
categorisation for all categories A to D as described below.
(1) Category A is sub-categorised into seven sub-categories:
. A1 (All usages within self-contained dwelling units (a unit occupied by a single family
or a modular student accommodation unit with a secure door and comprising not
more than six single bedrooms and an internal corridor.) Communal areas (including
kitchens) in blocks of ats with limited use. For communal areas in other blocks of
ats, see A5, A6 and C3)
. A2 (Bedrooms and dormitories except those in self-contained single family dwelling
units and in hotels and motels)
. A3 (Bedrooms in hotels and motels; hospital wards; toilet areas)
. A4 (Billiard/snooker rooms)
. A5 (Balconies in single family dwelling units and communal areas in blocks of ats
with limited use)
. A6 (Balconies in hostels, guest houses, residential clubs and communal areas in
blocks of ats) and
. A7 (Balconies in hotels and motels)
(2) Category B is sub-categorised into two sub-categories:
. B1 (General oce use)
. B2 (At or below ground-oor level)
(3) Category C1 (Areas with tables) is sub-categorised into three sub-categories:
. C11 (Public, institutional and communal dining rooms and lounges, cafes and
restaurants)
. C12 (Reading rooms with no book storage)
. C13 (Classrooms)
(4) Category C2 (Areas with xed seats) is sub-categorised into two sub-categories:
. C21 (Assembly areas with xed seating)
. C22 (Places of worship)
(5) Category C3 (Areas without obstacles for moving people) is sub-categorised into nine
sub-categories:
39
40
Table 6.2. Example to illustrate the style of Table 6.2 of EN 1991-1-1. Imposed loads on oors, balconies
and stairs in buildings
Category A
Category B
Category C
Category D
. D1 4.0 to 5.0 3.5 to 7.0 (4.0)
. D2 4.0 to 5.0 3.5 to 7.0
Balconies will also attract larger loads, for example at social gatherings, or watching street cl.6.3.1.2(2):
events, where clustering of people is common. 1991-1-1
When verifying for local eects, the concentrated load Qk from Table 6.2 of EN 1991-1-1, cl.6.3.1.2(3):
acting alone, should be used. 1991-1-1
Concentrated loads should be assumed to act at positions on a member to give the
greatest moment, shear or deection. Concentrated loads should be applied to individual
members and assumed to act on them unless there is evidence that adequate interaction
exists to ensure that the load can be shared or spread (e.g. a concrete slab with adequate
depth). cl.6.3.1.2(4):
No comment necessary for Clause 6.3.1.2(4): 1991-1-1. 1991-1-1
When used for the calculation of local eects such as crushing and punching, the Note to
appropriate concentrated load Qk should be assumed to act at a position, and over an cl.6.3.1.2(5):
area of application of a oor, balcony or stair, appropriate to its cause. Where this 1991-1-1
cannot be foreseen, both the Note to Clause 6.3.1.2(5): 1991-1-1 and BS 6399: Part 114 cl.6.3.1.2(5)P:
recommends a square contact area with a 50 mm side. 1991-1-1
For specic applications, for example for trac loads and helicopters, EN 1991-1-1 gives
specic recommendations (see Sections 6.3.2.4, 6.3.3 and 6.3.4 of this part of this Designers
Guide). cl.6.3.1.2(6)P:
No comment is necessary for Clause 6.3.1.2(6)P: 1991-1-1. 1991-1-1
In accordance with EN 1991-1-1, oors that may be subjected to multiple use have to be cl.6.3.1.2(7)P:
designed for the most unfavourable category of loading which produces the highest eects of 1991-1-1
actions (e.g. bending moment, shear force or deection) for the member under consideration.
In EN 1991-1-1, movable partitions are considered as variable actions. Provided that a cl.6.3.1.2(8):
oor allows a lateral distribution of loads (e.g. a concrete oor), the self-weight of 1991-1-1
movable partitions is considered as a uniformly distributed load qk which is added to the
imposed loads of oors obtained from Table 6.2 of EN 1991-1-1. The value of qk is
dependent on the self-weight of the partitions. EN 1991-1-1 gives values for qk for
movable partitions with a self-weight:
. 1.0 kN/m
. 2.0 kN/m
. 3.0 kN/m wall length.
As an example:
. for movable partitions with a self-weight 2.0 kN/m wall length: qk 0:8 kN/m2.
Values for qk for other self-weighs of movable partitions are given in Clause 6.3.1.2(8): 1991- cl.6.3.1.2(8):
1-1. 1991-1-1
When selecting a value for the self-weight of the partition it would be prudent for
the design to anticipate any alterations that may occur during the design working life if
feasible.
For heavier partitions than those described above (i.e. >3.0 kN/m wall length), the design
should take account of:
41
Table 6.3. Comparison between EN 1991-1-1 and the UK National Annex for A
A (m2) A (EN 1991-1-1 with 0 0:7 A (EN 1991-1-1 with 0 1:0 A (BSI NA for EN 1991-1-1)
cl.6.3.1.2(9): As described in Clause 6.2.1 of this Designers Guide, the imposed loads on an appropriate
1991-1-1 member (e.g. a beam, oors, and accessible roofs) may be reduced according to the
magnitude of the area supported, by a reduction factor A .
This reduction factor A may only be applied to the qk values for imposed loads in the
following Tables in EN 1991-1-1:
cl.6.3.1.2(10): 5 A0
A 0 1:0 (Expression 6.1 of EN 1991-1-1)
1991-1-1 7 A
with the restriction for categories C and D: A 0:6
where:
Note 2 to (Clause 6.3.1.2(10): 1991-1-1) allows the National Annex to give an alternative
method.
cl.NA 2.5 UK NA to The National Annex for use in the UK substitutes expression 6.1 of EN 1991-1-1 by
1991-1-1 the expression below (expression NA.1 from UK National Annex to EN 1991-1-1) for the
determination of the reduction factor A .
It is emphasised that Clause NA 2.5 UK NA to EN 1991-1-1 states that Loads that have
been specically determined from knowledge of the proposed use of the structure do not
qualify for reduction.
Table 6.3 shows a comparison between the EN 1991-1-1 and the UK National Annex
values for A .
Figure 6.4 shows the comparison for A graphically for EN 1991-1-1 (CEN), the UK
National Annex (UK) and current practices (i.e. before implementation of the Eurocodes)
taken from the codes of practices for France (FR), Germany (DE), Czech Republic (CR)
and Finland (FI).
42
CR (C, D)
A
UK
0.9 FI
FR DE (C, D)
0.8 CR (A, B)
0.7
CEN
DE (A, B)
0.6
0.5
20 30 40 50 60
A (m2)
As described in Clause 6.2.2 of this Designers Guide, the imposed loads on columns and
walls can be reduced by a reduction factor n . This reduction factor n may only be applied
to the qk values for imposed loads in the following Tables in EN 1991-1-1:
2 n 2 0
n (Expression 6.2 of EN 1991-1-1)
n
where:
n is the number of storeys (>2) above the loaded structural elements from the same
category
0 is in accordance with EN 1990, Annex A1, Table A1.1.
Note 2 to (Clause 6.3.1.2(11): 1991-1-1) allows the National Annex to give an alternative
method.
The National Annex for use in the UK substitutes expression 6.2 of EN 1991-1-1 by cl.NA 2.6 UK NA to
the expression below (expression NA.2 from UK National Annex to EN 1991-1-1) for the 1991-1-1
determination of the reduction factor n .
Clause NA 2.6 UK NA to EN 1991-1-1 states that Loads that have been specically cl.NA 2.6 UK NA to
determined from knowledge of the proposed use of the structure do not qualify for 1991-1-1
reduction.
43
Table 6.4. Comparison between EN 1991-1-1 and the UK National Annex for n
n (number of storeys of building) n (EN 1991-1-1); 0:7 n (BSI NA for EN 1991-1-1)
1 1 1
2 1 0.9
3 0.9 0.8
4 0.85 0.7
5 0.82 0.6
6 0.8 0.6
7 0.79 0.6
8 0.78 0.6
9 0.77 0.6
10 0.76 0.6
Table 6.4 shows a comparison between the EN 1991-1-1 and the UK National Annex
values for n .
Figure 6.5 shows the comparison for n graphically for EN 1991-1-1 (CEN), the UK
National Annex (UK) and current practices taken from the codes of practice (i.e. before imple-
mentation of the Eurocodes) for France (FR), Germany (DE), and the Czech Republic (CR).
No advice is given in EN 1991-1-1 on whether the reduction factors A and n can both be
used simultaneously. The UK National Annex gives the following guidance:
. Load reductions based on area may be applied if A < n .
. However, the reductions given by A cannot be used in combination with those
determined for n .
The following advice is recommended by the authors.
Use of A for the reduction of values of qk for the design of beams, oors, roofs etc. for
appropriate oor area.
The total imposed loads from several storeys, can be reduced by n . However, the value of
the imposed loads from oors etc. should be the value of qk before any reduction by A .
CEN, DE
FR (C, D)
0.9
0.8
CR (C, D)
0.7
UK
0.6
FR (A, B)
CR (A, B)
0.5
2 4 6 8 10
n
Fig. 6.5. Comparison of n values
44
Table 6.5. Categories of storage and industrial use from the UK National Annex to EN 1991-1
E1 Areas susceptible to E1: General areas for static equipment not specied elsewhere
accumulation of (institutional and public buildings)
goods, including E11: Reading rooms with book storage, e.g. libraries
access areas E12: General storage other than those specied
E13: File rooms, ling and storage space (oces)
E14: Stack rooms (books)
E15: Paper storage for printing plants and stationery stores
E16: Dense mobile stacking (books) on mobile trolleys, in public and
institutional buildings
E17: Dense mobile stacking (books) on mobile trucks, in warehouses
E18: Cold storage
E2 Industrial use
Table 6.6a. Imposed oor loads due to storage from the UK National Annex to EN 1991-1-1
Category of
loaded areas qk (kN/m2) Qk (kN)
. E11
. E12 2.4 for each metre of storage height 7.0
. E13 5.0 4.5
. E14
. E15
. E16
. E17
. E18 5.0 for each metre of storage height but with a minimum of 15.0 9.0
45
Category of qk Qk
loaded area Examples of specic use (kN/m2) (kN)
In the absence of such agreement, the minimum imposed loads given in Table 6.6b above,
reproduced from BS PD 6688-116 may be used for Category E2 loaded areas.
cl.6.3.2.(2)P: For industrial activities the characteristic value of the imposed load that is taken in the
1991-1-1 design should be the maximum value taking account of the dynamic eects when appropriate
(e.g. for forklifts, see 6.3.2.3 and for other transport vehicles see 6.3.2.4). The loading
arrangement needs to produce the most unfavourable conditions allowed in use.
Note to cl.6.3.2.(2)P: No further advice required for the Note to Clause 6.3.2.(2)P: 1991-1-1.
1991-1-1 In the absence of the information in EN 1991-1-1 or its appropriate National Annex, the
characteristic values of vertical loads in storage areas should be derived by taking into
account the density of the storage item which can generally be obtained from Annex A of
cl.6.3.2.(3): EN 1991-1-1 and the upper design values for stacking heights. When stored material
1991-1-1 exerts horizontal forces on walls etc. (e.g. in silos), the horizontal force can be determined
in accordance with EN 1991-4.
cl.6.3.2.(4): The design needs to take into account the stabilising and de-stabilising eects of the eects
1991-1-1 of lling and emptying.
As for example specied for Category E17 in the BSI National Annex to EN 1991-1-1 (see
Table 6.6 of this Designers Guide), loads for storage areas for books and other documents
cl.6.3.2.(5): should be determined from the loaded area and the height of the book cases using the
1991-1-1 appropriate values for density from Annex A of EN 1991-1-1 (Clause 6.3.2.(5): 1991-1-1).
cl.6.3.2.(6): No further guidance required for Clause 6.3.2.(6): 1991-1-1.
1991-1-1 Actions due to industrial vehicles (e.g. forklifts and transport vehicles) should be
considered as concentrated loads as described below. Where these industrial vehicle
loads occur simultaneously with the categories of loads which are given in Tables 6.2,
6.4. and 6.8 of EN 1991-1-1 (see Table 6.2, Clause 6.3.2 and Table 6.10 of this
Designers Guide), the appropriate imposed distributed loads given in Tables 6.2, 6.4 and
cl.6.3.2.(7): 6.8 need only be used with the concentrated loads from the forklifts (Clause 6.3.2.(7):
1991-1-1 1991-1-1).
46
Class of Net weight Hoisting load Width of axle a Overall width b Overall length l
forklift (kN) (kN) (m) (m) (m)
FL 1 21
FL 2 31
FL 3 44
FL 4 60 40 1.20 1.40 4.00
FL 5 90 60 1.50 1.90 4.60
FL 6 110
where:
Notation for forklifts takes into account the inertial eects caused by acceleration and
deceleration of the hoisting load and is be taken as in EN 1991-1-1 as follows:
When the type of tyre is not known at the design stage, 2:00 should be used.
For forklifts having a net weight greater than 110 kN, EN 1991-1-1 recommends that cl.6.3.2.3(5):
the dynamic loads should be dened by a more accurate analysis. A good source would 1991-1-1
be the manufacturers of forklifts.
It is recommended that details of specic forklifts be checked with the clients or the
manufacturers in case they dier from those described in Table 6.7.
The load arrangements for the vertical axle load Qk and Qk,dyn of a forklift should be in cl.6.3.2.3(6):
accordance with Fig. 6.6 (reproduced from Fig. 6.1 of EN 1991-1-1). All measurements in 1991-1-1
the diagram are in metres.
For situations where the design needs to consider the horizontal loads due to acceleration cl.6.3.2.3(7):
or deceleration of forklifts, EN 1991-1-1 recommends that these are taken as 30% of the 1991-1-1
vertical axle loads Qk given in Table 6.8 below which reproduces Table 6.6 of EN 1991-1-1.
Dynamic magnication factors are not needed to be applied to horizontal loads for
forklifts (Note Clause 6.3.2.3(7): 1991-1-1).
47
FL 1 26
FL 2 40
FL 3 63
FL 4 90
FL 5 140
FL 6 170
cl.6.3.2.4(1): The actions from transport vehicles that move on oors freely or guided by rails need to be
1991-1-1 determined considering the pattern of wheel loads.
cl.6.3.2.4(2): The static values of the vertical wheel loads are dened in terms of permanent weights
1991-1-1 and payloads. Their spectra should be used to dene combination factors and fatigue
cl.6.3.2.4(3): loads.
1991-1-1 The vertical and horizontal wheel loads need to be determined for each specic case.
cl.6.3.2.4(1): The load arrangements including the dimensions relevant for the design are determined for
1991-1-1 the specic case.
Appropriate load models from EN 1991-2 may be used where relevant. In the absence of
Note to cl.6.3.2.4(1): any information it is recommended that contact areas for loading be obtained from vehicle
1991-1-1 manufacturers or hirers.
Qk
Qk/2
0.2
a b
0.2
Qk/2
48
Categories of
trac areas Specic use Examples
F Trac and parking areas for light vehicles Garages, parking areas, parking halls
(30 kN gross vehicle weight and 8 seats
not including driver)
G Trac and parking areas for medium vehicles Access routes, delivery zones, zones
(>30 kN, 160 kN gross vehicle weight, on accessible to re engines (160 kN gross
2 axles) vehicle weight)
a Qk/2 Qk/2 a
1.80
Fig. 6.7. Dimensions of axle load (for Category F, a 100 mm and for Category G a 200 mm (see
Table 6.10 below) (Note of Table 6.7 EN 1991-1-1))
49
Category F
Gross vehicle weight: 30 kN qk Qk
Category G
5.0
30 kN < gross vehicle weight 160 kN Qk
Note 1: For Category F, qk may be selected within the range 1.5 to 2.5 kN/m2 and Qk may be selected within the range
10 to 20 kN.
Note 2: For Category G, Qk may be selected within the range 40 to 90 kN.
Note 3: Where a range of values is given in Notes 1 and 2, the value may be set by the National Annex.
The recommended values are in bold type.
6.3.4. Roofs
6.3.4.1. Categories
cl.6.3.4.1(1)P: Roofs need to be categorised according to their accessibility into three categories as shown in
1991-1-1 Table 6.11 (based on Table 6.9 of EN 1991-1-1).
cl.6.3.4.1(2): and No further information required for Clause 6.3.4.1(2).
cl.6.3.4.1(3): No further information required for Clause 6.3.4.1(3).
1991-1-1
6.3.4.2. Values of actions
Category H roofs
For roofs of Category H (i.e. roofs not accessible except for normal maintenance and repair)
Table 6.10 the minimum characteristic values qk and Qk that have to be used are given in Table 6.12.
1991 These load values are related to the projected area of the roof under consideration (Clause
cl.6.3.4.2(1): 6.3.4.2(1): 1991-1-1).
1991-1-1 In Table 6.12 qk and Qk are Nationally Determined Parameters.
It is recommended by EN 1991-1-1 for Category H roofs that qk may be selected within the
range 0.00 kN/m2 to 1.0 kN/m2 and Qk may be selected within the range 0.9 kN to 1.5 kN in
accordance with Note 1 of Table 6.10 of EN 1991-1-1.
The recommended values for these Nationally Determined Parameters are:
qk 0:4 kN=m2 ; Qk 1:0 kN
EN 1991-1-1 allows qk to be varied by the National Annex dependent upon the roof slope
in accordance with Note 2 of Table 6.10 of EN 1991-1-1. It should be noted that this reduc-
tion applies to qk only. For reductions for snow loads on pitched roofs see the Part of this
Designers Guide relating to snow loads.
qk may be assumed to act on an area A which may be set by the National Annex. The
recommended value for A is 10 m2, within the range of zero to the whole area of the roof
in accordance with Note 3 of Table 6.10 of EN 1991-1-1.
Categories of
loaded area Specic use
H Roofs not accessible except for normal maintenance and repair (see Table 6.12)
I Roofs accessible with occupancy according to Categories A to G (see Tables 6.2, 6.6 and 6.10)
K Roofs accessible for special services, such as helicopter landing areas (see Table 6.13)
50
Category H qk Qk
As an example of National Choices the BSI National Annex species values of qk and Qk
dierent from the EN 1991-1-1 recommended values given above. Furthermore, for more
pitched roofs the uniformly distributed load qk which is specied at 0.6 kN/m2 for pitches
of up to 308 reduces to qk 0 for roofs of pitch greater that 608 in the UK National
Annex. A value of Qk 0:9 kN is selected. It is debatable whether a reduction for increasing cl.NA.2.10 of
roof slope can be justied for imposed loads considering that they are already made for snow 1991-1-1
loads.
Regarding Note 3 to Table 6.10, it is recommended by the BSI National Annex that the cl.NA.2.10 of
value of A should be the whole area of the roof (Clause NA.2.10 of BS EN 1991-1-1: 2002). 1991-1-1
The minimum values given in Table 6.12 (Table 6.10 of EN 1991-1-1) or those specied in a cl.6.3.4.1(2):
National Annex do not take into account uncontrolled accumulations of construction and Note to
materials that may occur during maintenance (Clause 6.3.4.1(2): 1991-1-1). Further cl.6.3.4.1(2):
information on these loads may be obtained from EN 1991-1-6: Actions during execution 1991-1-1
and described in the Part relating to EN 1991-1-6 of this Designers Guide (Note to Clause
6.3.4.1(2): 1991-1-1).
Category K roofs
For Category K roofs, the actions from helicopters on landing areas are specied in cl.6.3.4.1(5):
EN 1991-1-1 Table 6.11 reproduced in this Guide as Table 6.13. Dynamic amplication 1991-1-1
factors (see below) have to be applied to the characteristic load values given for the two
classes of helicopter in Table 6.13.
A dynamic factor has to be applied to the characteristic take-o load Qk to take account cl.6.3.4.1(6):
of impact eects. EN 1991-1-1 species 1:40. 1991-1-1
Roofs general
Access ladders and walkways are assumed to be loaded according to Table 6.12 (Table 6.10 Table 6.10
of EN 1991-1-1) or the appropriate clause in a National Annex for a roof slope <208. 1991-1-1
Therefore considering the recommended values for Table 6.12 of EN 1991-1-1 these values
are:
qk 0:4 kN=m2 ; Qk 1:0 kN
51
For walkways which are part of a designated escape route, qk should be according to Table
6.2 of EN 1991-1-2 and this Designers Guide. Therefore for a roof acting as a roof restaurant
considering the recommended values from Table 6.2 of EN 1991-1-1, qk 3:0 kN/m2.
EN 1991-1-1 does not recommend a value to use for Qk for walkways designated as
escape routes for Category I roofs. It is considered reasonable to use the recommended
values in Table 6.2.
cl.6.3.4.1(7): However, for walkways for service (e.g. for maintenance access) a minimum characteristic
1991-1-1 value for Qk of 1.5 kN is specied by EN 1991-1-1.
For the design of frames and coverings of access hatches (other than glazing), the supports
of ceilings and similar structures, EN 1991-1-1 species the following:
cl.6.3.4.1(8): . Without access: no imposed load.
1991-1-1 . With access: 0.25 kN/m2 distributed over the whole area or the area supported, and the
concentrated load of 0.9 kN so placed so as to produce maximum stresses in the aected
member.
Category A qk
Category B and C1 qk
Categories C2 to C4 and D qk
Category C5 qk
Category E qk
Category F See Annex B
Category G See Annex B
Note 1: For Categories A, B and C1, qk may be selected within the range 0.2 to
1.0 (0.5).
Note 2: For Categories C2 to C4 and D, qk may be selected within the range
0.8 kN/m to 1.0 kN/m.
Note 3: For Category C5, qk may be selected within the range 3.0 kN/m to
5.0 kN/m.
Note 4: For Category E, qk may be selected within the range 0.8 kN/m to
2.0 kN/m. For areas of Category E, the horizontal loads depend on the occu-
pancy. Therefore the value of qk is dened as a minimum value and should be
checked for the specic occupancy.
Note 5: Where a range of values is given in Notes 1, 2, 3 and 4, the value may
be set by the National Annex. The recommended value is shown in bold face.
Note 6: The National Annex may prescribe additional point loads Qk and/or hard
or soft body impact specications for analytical or experimental verication.
52
Table 6.15. Horizontal loads on partition walls and parapets (from BS EN 1991-1-1)
A (including (i) All areas within or serving exclusively one dwelling including stairs,
sub-categories in landings etc. but excluding external balconies and edges of roofs [see
Table NA.2) (vii)]
(ii) Residential areas not covered by (i)
B and C1 (iii) Areas not susceptible to overcrowding in oce and institutional
(including buildings, reading rooms and classrooms including stairs
sub-categories in (iv) Restaurants and cafes
Table NA.2)
C2, C3, C4 and D (v) Areas having xed seating within 530 mm of the barrier, balustrade or 1.5
(including parapet
sub-categories in (vi) Stairs, landings, balustrades, corridors and ramps 0.74
Table NA.2) (vii) External balconies and edges of roofs 0.74
Footways within building curtilage and adjacent to basement/sunken
areas
(viii) All retail areas 1.5
C5 (ix) Footways or pavements less than 3 m wide adjacent to sunken areas
(including Footways or pavements greater than 3 m wide adjacent to sunken areas
sub-categories in (x) Theatres, cinemas, discotheques, bars, auditoria, shopping malls,
Table NA.2) assembly areas, studios
(xi) Grandstands and stadia See requirements of
the appropriate
certifying authority
E (xii) Industrial and storage buildings except as given by (xiii) and (xiv)
(including (xiii) Light pedestrian trac routes in industrial and storage buildings except
sub-categories in designated escape routes
Table NA.4) (xiv) Light access stairs and gangways not more than 600 mm wide
F and G (xv) Pedestrian areas in car parks including stairs, landings, ramps, edges or
internal oors, footways, edges of roofs
(xvi) Horizontal loads imposed by vehicles See BS EN 1991-1-1:
2002, Annex B
For areas where large crowds might occur, see C5.
53
Annex A (informative)
Tables for nominal density of
construction materials, and
nominal density and angles of
repose for stored materials
Annex A of EN 1991-1-1 is an informative annex which gives the following tables for Annex A
nominal density of construction materials, and nominal density and angles of repose for 1991-1-1:
stored materials. Annex A will mean that BS 64817 will be withdrawn by the BSI in 2002
the UK.
(1) Table A.1 Construction materials concrete and mortar
(2) Table A.2 Construction materials masonry
(3) Table A.3 Construction materials wood
(4) Table A.4 Construction materials metals
(5) Table A.5 Construction materials other materials
(6) Table A.6 Bridge materials
(7) Table A.7 Stored materials building and construction
(8) Table A.8 Stored products agricultural
(9) Table A.9 Stored products foodstus
(10) Table A.10 Stored products liquids
(11) Table A.11 Stored products solid fuels
(12) Table A.12 Stored products industrial and general
For those materials where their density is dependent upon the moisture content, unless
otherwise stated it may be assumed that the tabulated value includes an allowance for this
for the situation in which the material is normally used.
For certain materials, means are given for converting dry densities to densities in situ,
taking account of the potential for absorption of moisture.
For some materials the density has signicant variability according to its source; for
these items a range of representative values is given in the tables.
A representative value for densities of the more commonly used construction materials
(from Tables A.1 to A.4) is given in Table 7.1 of this Designers Guide.
Table 7.1. Examples of nominal density of some construction materials (from Tables A.1, A.3 and A.4 of
EN 1991-1-1)
56
Annex B of EN 1991-1-1:
Vehicle barriers and parapets
for car parks
Annex B of E 1991-1-1: Vehicle barriers and parapets for car parks is an informative cl.NA.3.2
annex. Its use is required by the UK National Annex. 1991-1-1:
The horizontal loads that barriers and parapets in car parking areas should be designed cl.B(1)
to resist are explained in this Annex B of EN 1991-1-1 and are explained below. 1991-1-1
The horizontal characteristic force F (in kN), normal to and uniformly distributed over cl.B(2)
any length of 1.5 m of a barrier for a car park, required to withstand the impact of a 1991-1-1:
vehicle is given by the expression below. 2002
F 0:5mv2 =c b
where:
m is the gross mass of the vehicle (in kg)
v is the velocity of the vehicle (in m/s) normal to the barrier
c is the deformations of the vehicle (in mm)
b is the deformations of the barrier (in mm).
For car parks designed on the basis that the gross mass of the vehicles using the car
park will not exceed 2500 kg, the following values are used to determine the force F:
m 1500 kg
v 4:5 m/s
c 100 mm unless better evidence is available.
For a rigid barrier, for which b may be given as zero, the characteristic force F cl.B(3)
appropriate to vehicles up to 2500 kg gross mass is taken as 150 kN. 1991-1-1
For car parks designed on the basis that the gross mass of the vehicles using the car cl.B(4)
park can exceed 2500 kg, the following values are used to determine the force F: 1991-1-1
m the actual mass of the vehicle for which the car park is designed (in kg)
v 4:5 m/s
c 100 mm unless better evidence is available.
The force F determined in either B(3) or B(4) of EN 1991-1-1 may be considered to act cl.B(5)
at bumper height of the vehicle. For vehicles whose gross mass does not exceed 2500 kg 1991-1-1
this height may be taken as 375 mm above the oor level.
Example
The graph below (Fig. 8.1) shows the variation of F for various deformations for the
vehicle and the barrier for car of masses of 1500 and 2500 kg, assuming:
Thus for m 1500 kg, b 0 and c 100, F 150 kN
Thus for m 2500 kg, b 0 and c 100, F 250 kN
600.0
c = 50
m = 1500 kg
500.0
c = 50
c = 100 m = 2500 kg
m = 1500 kg
400.0
c = 100
c = 200
F (kN)
m = 2500 kg
300.0 m = 1500 kg
c = 200
m = 2500 kg
200.0
100.0
0.0
0 50 100 150 200
b (mm)
EN 1991-1-1 does not give guidance for bumper height for vehicles greater that 2500 kg.
For car parks designed for these heavier vehicles the information may be obtained from
vehicle manufacturers or EN 1991-1-7.
cl.B(6) For the design of barriers to access ramps of car parks, these have to withstand one
1991-1-1 half of the force determined in B(3) or B(4) of EN 1991-1-1, acting at a height of 610 mm
above the ramp.
Opposite the ends of straight ramps intended for downward travel which exceed 20 m in
cl.B(7) length, the barrier needs to withstand twice the force determined in B(3) acting at a height
1991-1-1 of 610 mm above the ramp (Clause B(7) of BS EN 1991-1-1: 2002).
58
References to Part 1
1. EN 1991-1-1. Eurocode 1. Actions on Structures Part 1-1: General Actions Densities,
self-weight, imposed loads for buildings. European Committee for Standardisation,
Brussels, 2002.
2. Guidance paper L Application and Use of Eurocodes. European Commission Enterprise
Directorate-General ENTR/G5, Brussels, 27 November 2003.
3. ISO 2394: 1998. General Principles on Reliability for Structures. International Organisa-
tion for Standardisation, Geneva, 1998.
4. ISO 3898: 1997. Bases for Design of Structures Notations General symbols. Inter-
national Organisation for Standardisation, Geneva, 1997.
5. ISO 8930: 1987. General Principles on Reliability for Structures List of equivalent terms.
International Organisation for Standardisation, Geneva, 1987.
6. Gulvanessian, H., Calgaro, J.-A. and Holicky, M. Designers Guide to EN 1990. Euro-
code: Basis of Structural Design. Thomas Telford, London, 2002, ISBN 0 7277 3011 8.
7. ISO 9194: 1987. Bases for Design of Structures Actions Due to the Self-weight of
Structures, Non-structural Elements and Stored Materials Density. International
Organisation for Standardisation, Geneva, 1987.
8. Calgaro, J.-A., Tschumi, M. and Gulvanessian, H. Designers Guide to EN 1991 for
Bridges. Actions on Bridges. Thomas Telford, London, 2009.
9. Frank, R., Bauduin, C., Driscoll, R., Kavvadas, M., Krebs Ovesen, N., Orr, T. and
Schuppener, B. Designers Guide to EN 1997-1. Eurocode 7: Geotechnical Design
General rules. Thomas Telford, London, 2004, ISBN 9 780 7277 3154 8.
10. Building Research Establishment. The Response of Structures to Dynamic Crowd Loads.
BRE Digest 246, BRE, Watford, 2004.
11. BS EN 1991-3: 2006. Eurocode 1. Actions on Structures Part 3: Actions induced by
cranes and machinery. European Committee for Standardisation, Brussels, 2006.
12. Ferry Norges, J. and Castanheta, M. Structural Safety. Laboratorio, Nacional de
Engenharia Civil, Lisbon, 1971.
13. International Council for Research and Innovation in Building and Construction.
Committee W81. Actions on Structures. Live Loads in Buildings. CIB report 116. CIB,
Rotterdam, 1989.
14. BS 6399-1: 1996. Loading for Buildings. Code of Practice for Dead and Imposed Loads.
British Standards Institution, London, 2006.
15. UK National Annex to EN 1991-1-1. Eurocode 1. Actions on Structures Part 1-1:
General Actions Densities, self-weight, imposed loads for buildings. British Standards
Institution, London, 2005.
16. PD 6688. Background Paper to the UK National Annexes to BS EN 1991-1-1. British
Standards Institution, London, 2006.
17. BS 648: 1964. Schedule of Weights of Building Materials. British Standards Institution,
London, 1964.
59
Eurocode 1 Actions on
structures: Part 1.2: General
Actions Actions on structures
exposed to re
References
1. EN 1991-1-2: 2002. Eurocode 1: Actions on Structures Part 1-2: General Actions
Actions on structures exposed to re. European Committee for Standardisation, Brussels,
2002.
2. Moore, D., Bailey, C., Lennon, T. and Wang, Y. Designers Guide to the Eurocode Fire
Parts (EN 1991-1-2; EN 1992-1-2; EN 1991-1-3 and EN 1991-1-4). Thomas Telford,
London, 2007, ISBN 9 7807 2773 1579.
General
This chapter is concerned with the general aspects of EN 1991-1-3: Eurocode 1 Actions
on structures: Part 1.3: General Actions Snow loads.1 The material described in this
chapter is covered in the following clauses:
1.1. Scope
EN 1991-1-3: Eurocode 1 Actions on structures: Part 1.3: General Actions Snow loads is cl.1.1(1): 1991-1-3
one of the ten Parts of EN 1991. It gives design guidance to determine the values of loads
due to snow for the structural design of buildings and other civil engineering works.
EN 1991-1-3 only applies for sites at altitudes below 1500 m. Comparing with national cl.1.1(2): 1991-1-3
codes, in the UK, BS 6399 Part 3 is applicable for sites up to 500 m. For Italy the limit is
the same as EN 1991-1-3.
In the case of altitudes above 1500 m, advice may be found in the appropriate National Note to cl.1.1(2):
Annex. 1991-1-3
Diering climatic situations will give rise to dierent conditions. In EN 1991-1-3, the
following have been identied:
Depending on the climatic conditions at the site, four possible situations and load cl.1.1(3): 1991-1-3
arrangements are identied in Annex A and explained below.
Table 1.1. Recommended return periods for the determination of the characteristic values of climatic
actions
3 days 2
3 months (but >3 days) 5
1 year (but >3 months) 10
>1 year (but less than 50 years) 50
>50 years Actual agreed design working life
1.3. Assumptions
cl.1.3: 1991-1-3 The statements and assumptions given in EN 1990 Clause 1.3 apply to all the Eurocode
parts and designers guidance for these is given in the Designers Guide to EN 1990.
68
Fig. 1.1. Transversal cross-section of the central market hall in Livorno, Italy and wind tunnel tests on
the roof structure
69
From the many denitions provided in EN 1990, those that apply for use with EN 1991
are described in Chapter 1 Clause 1.4(a), (b), (c) and (d): 1991-1-1.
The following comments are made to help the understanding of particular denitions in
EN 1991-1-3.
Note to cl.1.6.4: The Note to Clause 1.6.4 characteristic value of snow load on the roof explains that
1991-1-3 the coecients chosen for converting snow load on the ground into snow load on the roof
have been selected taking that the snow load on the roof has an annual probability of
exceedence equal to or less then the annual probability of exceedence of the snow load on
cl.1.6.1: 1991-1-3 the ground, which the code states in Clause 1.6.1: 1991-1-3 to be 0.02.
1.7. Symbols
cl.1.7(1): 1991-1-3 The notation in Clause 1.7: EN 1991-1-3 is based on ISO 3898.
EN 1990 Clause 1.6 provides a comprehensive list of symbols, some of which may be
appropriate for use with EN 1991-1-3. The symbols given in Clause 1.7(2): 1991-1-3 are
additional notations specic to this part of EN 1991-1-3.
70
Classication of actions
Design situations
This chapter is concerned with the general concepts of design situations relating to
EN 1991-1-3: Eurocode 1 Actions on structures: Part 1.3: General Actions Snow loads.
The material described in this chapter is covered in the following clauses:
. General Clause 3.1: 1991-1-3
. Normal conditions Clause 3.2: 1991-1-3
. Exceptional conditions Clause 3.3: 1991-1-3
3.1. General
EN 1990 Clause 3.2 identies the following design situations for the verication of ultimate cl.3.1(1)P: 1991-1-3
limit states:
. persistent design situations, which refer to the conditions of normal use
. transient design situations, which refer to temporary conditions applicable to the
structure, e.g. during execution or repair
. accidental design situations, which refer to exceptional conditions applicable to the
structure or to its exposure, e.g. exceptional snow falls and drifts
. seismic design situations.
Each of these design situations is linked to a particular expression for the combination
of action eects as follows:
. persistent and transient design situations, which refer to expressions (6.10), or (6.10a)
and (6.10b) in EN 1990
. accidental design situations, which refers to expression (6.11b) in EN 1990
. seismic design situations, which refers to expression (6.12b) in EN 1990.
In addition snow loads need to be determined for the verication of serviceability limit
states using the following expressions for the combination of action eects given in EN 1990:
. the characteristic combination which refers to expression (6.14b) of EN 1990
. the frequent combination which refers to expression (6.15b) of EN 1990
. the quasi-permanent combination which refers to expression (6.16b) of EN 1990.
In all the ULS and SLS verications for situations including snow loads, the character-
istic value (Qk in EN 1991-1-3 is described as sk which usually corresponds to an upper
value with an intended probability of not being exceeded during a specic reference period
(normally 50 years for buildings) is used. Depending upon the design situation being
considered for the ultimate or serviceability limit states (described in EN 1990 Clauses 6.4
and 6.5) and its Designers Guide, other representative values of a variable action need to
be determined. See Chapter 4 of this Part of this Designers Guide.
cl.3.1(2): 1991-1-3 When considering the local eects (e.g. drifting at projections and obstructions or snow
overhanging the edge of a roof) EN 1991-1-3 species that the persistent/transient design
situation should be used for normal snow falls.
In locations where exceptional drifting occurs, the accidental design situation is used
according to Annex B of EN 1991-1-3.
74
and designated Case B2 in EN 1991-1-3. In this case the designer should follow the proce-
dure summarised below.
The transient/persistent design situation should be used for the undrifted snow load
arrangements; the same design situation should be used for the drifted snow load arrange-
ments, except for roof shapes indicated in Annex B of EN 1991-1-3. The characteristic
ground snow load value given in the appropriate National Annex to EN 1991-1-3 is the
reference ground load value. In this case the roof snow load is obtained according to the
specications given in Clause 5.2(3)P(a) and Section 5.3 of EN 1991-1-3.
In addition to the above verication the designer should use the accidental design situa-
tion for the drifted snow load arrangement for roof shapes indicated in Annex B to
EN 1991-1-3 only. In this case the exceptional snow drift is the accidental action and its
value is to be calculated according to specications given in Annex B of EN 1991-1-3.
Expressions of the roof snow loads to be used are given below; see also Chapters 4 and
5 and Annex B of this Part of this Designers Guide.
Persistent/transient design situation
(1) Undrifted i Ce Ct sk .
(2) Drifted i Ce Ct sk (except for roof shapes in Annex B of EN 1991-1-3).
Accidental design situation (where snow is the accidental action)
(3) Drifted i sk (for roof shapes in Annex B of EN 1991-1-3).
No further guidance is required to the note to Clause 3.3(1): 1991-1-3.
(c) Case B.3 Exceptional snow falls and exceptional drifts
Clause 3.3(3): 1991-1-3 covers locations where both exceptional snow falls and excep-
tional snow drifts are likely to be expected. This condition is considered exceptional and
designated Case B3 in EN 1991-1-3. In this case the designer should follow the procedure
summarised below.
The transient/persistent design situation should be used similarly to the above Case B2.
In addition to the above verication the designer should use the accidental design situa-
tion for the undrifted snow load arrangements, making reference to the exceptional
ground snow load, determined according to Section 4.3 of EN 1991-1-3. The roof snow
load is obtained according to the specications given in Clause 5.2(3)P(a) and Section 5.3
of EN 1991-1-3.
Furthermore, the designer should use the accidental design situation for the drifted
snow load arrangement for roof shapes indicated in Annex B to EN 1991-1-3 only. In this
case the exceptional snow drift is the accidental action and its value is to be calculated
according to specications given in Annex B of EN 1991-1-3.
Expressions of the roof snow loads to be used are given below; see also Chapters 4 and
5 and Annex B of this Designers Guide.
Persistent/transient design situation
(1) Undrifted i Ce Ct sk .
(2) Drifted i Ce Ct sk (except for roof shapes in Annex B of EN 1991-1-3).
Accidental design situation (where snow is the accidental action)
(3) Undrifted i Ce Ct Cesl sk .
(4) Drifted i sk (for roof shapes in Annex B of EN 1991-1-3).
Note 1 to cl.3.3(3):
No further guidance is required to the note 1 to Clause 3.3(3): 1991-1-3. 1991-1-3
As in Case B1, for local eects described in Section 6 of EN 1991-1-3, the National Note 2 to cl.3.3(3):
Annex may specify either the persistent/transient or the accidental design situation may 1991-1-3
apply.
75
This chapter is concerned with the snow load on the ground in EN 1991-1-3: Eurocode 1
Actions on Structures: Part 1.3: General Actions Snow loads. The material described in
this chapter is covered in the following clauses:
. Characteristic values Clause 4.1: 1991-1-3
. Other representative values Clause 4.2: 1991-1-3
. Treatment of exceptional snow loads on the ground Clause 4.3: 1991-1-3
For countries who have based their maps on the principles of the maps given in Annex
C of EN 1991-1-3, such as France, Germany, Italy and UK, the method, for which the
principles of calculation are given below, may be used to determine dierent values for a
particular location.
Before applying the method the designer is advised to check the background of a parti-
cular national map with the relevant standard authority.
Note 2 to cl.4.1(1): It is the intention that all the National Annexes eventually base their maps on those
1991-1-3 provided in Annex C. The maps in the National Annex should be used to determine sk .
The maps in Annex C may only be used directly with the agreement of the National
Competent Authority.
cl.4.1(2): 1991-1-3 For some locations it may be necessary to rene the data for the determination of sk .
and note 2 to For example for a location where the value of sk in the map is determined by interpolation
cl.4.1(2): 1991-1-3 from surrounding weather station measurements, where snow records are available for at
least 20 years, characteristic ground snow load may be determined for that particular loca-
tion (Clause 4.1(2): 1991-1-3 and note 2 to Clause 4.1(2): 1991-1-3).
For the maps in Annex C of EN 1991-1-3 a common mean return interval, equal to 50
years, was agreed upon, and a common statistical model adopted for processing yearly
maxima. The Gumbel Type I cumulative distribution function has been used together
with the least squares method to get the best tting regression curve. In the analysis both
the zero and the non-zero values have been taken into account, through the so-called
mixed distribution approach. In the research work2;3 it is shown that the above method
leads to the best correlation coecients of the tting curves for the majority of the 2600
Note to cl.4.1(2): weather stations analysed throughout Europe. See Fig. 4.1.
1991-1-3 No more guidance required to note 1 to Clause 4.1(2): 1991-1-3.
At some locations isolated very heavy snow falls have been recorded in the past and
these have resulted in abnormally large snow loads. Such snow falls disturb the statistical
processing of the more regular snow data signicantly and clearly do not t in with the
statistical distribution calculated for the remaining values. These snow loads are referred
cl.4.1(3): 1991-1-3 to as exceptional snow loads.
Exceptional values have been encountered in many areas of Europe, mainly in maritime
and coastal areas and in mild climates where snow falls are intermittent and generally
short-lived. Exceptional snow loads may be identied in the appropriate National
5.00
4.00
3.00
Reduced variable Y
2.00
Sk = 0.90 kN/m2
1.00
0.00
0.00 0.20 0.40 0.60 0.80 1.00 1.20
1.00
2.00
Ground snow load, sk (kN/m2)
Fig. 4.1. Probability paper (Gumbel Type I) for the weather station at Arezzo, Italy. On the x axis ground
snow loads sk kN/m2 ; on y axis the probability reduced variable Y lnf ln1 m=n 1g, where m
is the plotting position of the yearly maximum and n the total number of years in the database. The
intersection of the best tting regression line of the non-zero values with the line at
Y ln ln0:98 3:90 gives the characteristic value sk 0:90 kN/m2
78
7.00
Line A
6.00
5.00
Line B
4.00
Reduced variable Y
3.00
2.00
0.00
0.10 0.10 0.30 0.50 0.70 0.90 1.10 1.30
1.00
2.00
Ground snow load, sk (kN/m2)
Fig. 4.2. Probability paper (Gumbel Type I) for the weather station at Vercelli, Italy (135 m a.s.l.),
showing an exceptional value sk 0:69 kN/m2 , smax 1:13 kN/m2 , smax =sk 1:64
Annexes, and below is given the background to their derivation, as this may be of interest
to the user for understanding their concept. See also Cases B1 and B3 in Chapter 3 of this
part of this Designers Guide.
Figure 4.2 shows an example for exceptional snow loads according to the following
denition established within the programme of research:
If the ratio of the largest load value to the characteristic load value (determined without inclusion of
that maximum value) is greater than 1.5, then the largest load value shall be treated as an exceptional
snow load.
In Fig. 4.2 line A is the curve obtained using a regression analysis considering all the
values with the exception of the maximum value. In this case the characteristic value for
skA is 0.69 kN/m2 .
Line B is the curve obtained using a regression analysis considering all the values
including the maximum value. In this case the characteristic value for skB is 0.92 kN/m2 .
The maximum recorded value is 1.13 kN/m2 , which leads to a ratio of smax =skA 1:64.
Therefore in accordance with the denition provided above for exceptional snow loads,
the maximum value, being over 50% greater than skA , can be treated as an exceptional
snow load for the particular location. The characteristic snow load for that location is
0.69 kN/m2 .
The opportunity to choose skA together with the exceptional snow load or skA alone or
skB is a decision for the National Annex. See also Section 5.2 of this part of this Designers
Guide. For example in the UK no exceptional snow load locations were identied, and
hence skA was used.
In Italy, although over approximately 130 weather stations were used for the data, only
in eight cases exceptional snow loads were identied. Although these values are excep-
tional according to the above denition, they are not considered relevant to the Italian
snow map, since the interpolation of the results for skA leads to values covering the
maximum recorded values. In addition, although dened as exceptional, their absolute
values are relatively low compared to values obtained at other locations in Italy. Therefore
the Italian National Annex does not cover exceptional snow loads.
79
Table 4.1. Recommended values of coecients 0, 1 and 2 for dierent locations for buildings
Regions 0 1 2
80
Example 4.1
Consider the combination of actions given in expression (6.10) for the persistent or
transient design situation (EN 1990 Clause 6.4.3.2). 1990 cl.6.4.3.2
X X
G;j Gk;j 00 00 P P 00 00 Q;1 Qk;1 00 00 Q;i 0;i Qk;i 6:10
j1 i>1
Assume that the variability of self-weight is small, and three variable actions are
being considered as follows: wind (leading) and imposed and snow accompanying.
The following permanent and imposed loads need to be determined for the design
situation in this example:
. the characteristic value of a permanent action Gk
. for wind (the leading variable action) the characteristic value (Qk
. for imposed and snow loads (the accompanying actions) the combination value is
represented by the product 0 Qk (for this example 0.7Qk for imposed loads and
0.5Qk for snow loads, in accordance with EN 1990: Table A.1 for sites where
h 1000 m e.g. in Continental Europe).
where:
Cesl is the coecient for exceptional snow loads which may be set by the National Annex.
EN 1991-1-3 recommends a value for Cesl is 2.0 cl.4.3(1): 1991-1-3
sk is the characteristic value of snow load on the ground for a given location.
In Example 4.2 below the snow load on the ground is considered an accidental action
and therefore the accidental design situation and hence expression 6.11b of EN 1990 is
used.
Example 4.2
Consider the combination of actions in expression (6.11b) for the accidental situation. 1990 cl.6.4.3.3
X X
Gk; j 00 00 P 00 00 Ad 00 00 1;1 or 2;1 Qk;1 00 00 2;i Qk;i 6:11b
j1 i>1
Assume that the variability of self-weight is small; and three variable actions are
being considered as follows: snow as an accidental action, wind (as the leading variable
action) and imposed as the accompanying variable action.
The following permanent accidental and imposed loads need to be determined for
the design situation in this example:
. the characteristic value of a permanent action Gk
. the value for Ad is the accidental snow load (i.e. sAd
. for wind the leading value (taken as 1 Qk where 1 0:2 as given in EN 1990 cl.4.3(1):
Table A1.1 EN 1991-1-3
. for imposed load the accompanying value is represented as a product ( 2 Qk where
2 0:3 as given in EN 1990 Table A1.1.
81
In this chapter the determination of snow loads on the roof, to be used for the verication
of the whole structural resisting frame is described. The material described in this chapter
is described in the following clauses:
. nature of the load Clause 5.1: EN 1991-1-3
. load arrangements Clause 5.2: EN 1991-1-3
. roof shape coecients Clause 5.3: EN 1991-1-3
100 Aerodynamic
90 shaded area
80
70
Height (cm)
Wind 60
50
40
Building
30
Roof
20
Snow 1
10
0
60 40 20 0 20 40 60
Length (cm)
Fig. 5.1. Model in wind tunnel, wind from the left side with velocity of 4 m/s
cl.1.6.5: 1991-1-3 (1) Undrifted snow load on roofs, which describes the uniformly distributed snow load on
the roof, aected only by the shape of the roof, before any redistribution of snow due to
other climatic actions (see Fig. 5.3, for a case where the load arrangement is an undrifted
state).
cl.1.6.6: 1991-1-3 (2) Drifted snow load which describes the snow load distribution resulting from snow
having been moved from one location to another location on a roof, e.g. by the
action of the wind (see Fig. 5.4 for a case where wind has caused drifting from one
pitch to the other).
EN 1991-1-3 assumes snow depositions and drifting for the dierent climatic regions of
Europe.
(a) Continental
Where the snow that falls is persistent and where snow falling in calm conditions may be
followed by further snow, carried by another weather system driven by wind and there
may be several repetitions of these events before there is any signicant thawing (this case
is covered in Section 5 of EN 1991-1-3).
(b) Maritime
Where all the snow usually melts and clears between the individual weather systems and
where moderate to high wind speeds occur during the individual weather system. For
example for the UK and Ireland it is assumed that all the layer of snow on the windward
Fig. 5.2. Model in wind tunnel for multi-pitched roof, wind from the left side with 4 m/sec velocity
84
Fig. 5.3. Undrifted snow load Fig. 5.4. Drifted snow load
side is available for drifting. The amount of the drifted load is considered to be of a high
magnitude, compared to the ground snow load, and for this reason in these two countries
the drifted snow is considered an exceptional load and treated as an accidental load using
the accidental design situation (this case is covered by Annex B of EN 1991-1-3).
The National Annex may specify the use of alternative drift patterns dependent on the cl.5.2(2): 1991-1-3
climatic variations described above for particular roof shapes in specic locations.
In EN 1991-1-3 snow load on the roof is determined as follows:
Step 1. By determining the characteristic snow load on the ground, which is generally
obtained from national maps.
Step 2. Converting this load into an undrifted or drifted roof load for both persistent and,
where required by the National Annex, accidental design situations by the use of:
. an appropriate shape coecient which depends on the shape of the roof, and
. considering the inuence of thermal eects from inside the building and the terrain
around the building.
For the persistent/transient design situations, i.e. no exceptional snow falls or drifts:
s i C e C t sk 5.1 EN 1991-1-3
For the accidental design situations, where exceptional snow load is the accidental
action:
s i Ce Ct sAd 5.2 EN 1991-1-3
For the accidental design situations where exceptional snow drift is the accidental
action and where Annex B applies:
s i sk 5.3 EN 1991-1-3
where:
i is the snow load shape coecient (see Section 5.3 below and Annex B of EN 1991-1-3)
sk is the characteristic value of snow load on the ground
sAd is the design value of exceptional snow load on the ground for a given location (see
Section 4.3 above)
Ce is the exposure coecient (see Exposure characteristics below)
Ct is the thermal coecient (see Thermal characteristics below).
Dependent upon the specic locations, they can be four dierent cases that may need cl.5.2(3)P:
to be considered as shown in Table 5.1, as reproduced from Table A.1 of EN 1991-1-3. 1991-1-3
Decision for which case to use is found in the National Annex. For example in Italy
85
Table 5.1. Design situations and load arrangements for dierent locations
Exceptional conditions
Normal
Case A Case B1 Case B2 Case B3
cl.A.1: 1991-1-3 Case A is used; in the UK Case B2 is used; and in France for certain locations Case B1 is
used.
cl.5.2(4): 1991-1-3 Once the snow load value on the roof has been determined, this should be assumed to
act vertically and referred to a horizontal projection of the roof area.
Load cases corresponding to severe imbalances on a roof resulting from snow removal,
redistribution of snow on the roof, sliding, melting etc. should be considered. The results
from these eects will cause load arrangement patterns which will include zero snow loads
on specic parts of the roof. These considerations are very important for structures that
are sensitive to the form of the load distribution, i.e. curved roofs, arches, domes, long-
span at roofs etc.
Figure 5.5 shows, as an example, the collapse of the roof of the Baltimore & Ohio Rail-
road Museum (Maryland, US), which occurred in February 2003, under a severe unba-
lanced load distribution on the roof surface. The roof structure was formed by simply
supported latticed beams, disposed along radial lines. The beams were tied together by
horizontal steel rings, unable to resist bending moments. The unbalanced load arrange-
ment caused by wind (a trace of which is visible on the upper roof in Fig. 5.5), induced
the collapse.
Another example of unbalanced load distribution is shown in Fig. 5.6.
cl.5.2(5): 1991-1-3 If articial removal or redistribution is anticipated, EN 1991-1-3 allows the National
Annex to produce suitable load arrangements if considered necessary.
cl.5.2(6): 1991-1-3 Another cause of possible increase in snow loads on roofs may occur in regions with
possible rainfalls on the snow and consecutive melting and freezing. Where such a
scenario is possible, the design snow loads on roofs should be increased, especially in
cases where snow and ice can block the drainage system of the roof. There have allegedly
been roof collapses causing fatalities due to this phenomenon.
In the US it is estimated that approximately 2000 roof collapses occur every year, a
relevant majority of which are supposed to be caused by ponding eects on large at
roofs, due to the presence of heavy snow and rain. Figure 5.7 shows a partial roof
collapse, which occurred in 2004 in Portland, Oregon.
EN 1991-1-3 asks the National Annexes to provide appropriate advice.
86
Fig. 5.5. Baltimore & Ohio Railroad Museum (Maryland, US) roof collapse
Exposure characteristics
Exposure of the structure depends on the wind speed in the area and the features of the
surrounding areas. If the structure is surrounded by high trees or other higher structures,
a so-called sheltered situation results. If on the other hand there is no obstruction in the
vicinity of the roof and high wind speeds occur in the region, windswept conditions result.
In addition EN 1991-1-3 asks for the consideration of the future development around the
site, for example in areas where planning permissions for future developments have been
granted.
EN 1991-1-3 denes the exposure coecient Ce as a coecient dening the reduction or cl.1.6.9: 1991-1-3
increase of load on a roof of an unheated building, as a fraction of the characteristic snow
load on the ground.
Fig. 5.6. Unbalanced snow deposition on spherical domes, covering oil tanks
87
Fig. 5.7. Partial at roof collapse due to presence of snow and rain
cl.5.2(7): 1991-1-3 The exposure coecient Ce is used in expressions 5.1 and 5.2 for determining the snow
load on the roof, in cases where no exceptional snow drift occurs.
The choice for Ce is in the National Annex, the recommended value being 1.0 unless
otherwise specied for dierent topographies.
Table 5.1 of EN 1991-1-3 is partially reproduced below as Table 5.2.
Thermal characteristics
cl.1.6.8: 1991-1-3 The rate at which snow on roofs melts after snowfall is inuenced by the roof thermal
transmittance. EN 1991-1-3 denes the thermal coecient Ct as a coecient dening the
reduction of snow load on roofs as a function of the heat ux through the roof, causing
snow melting.
cl.5.2(8): 1991-1-3 The thermal coecient Ct is used in expressions 5.1 and 5.2 for determining the snow
load on the roof, in cases where no exceptional snow drift occurs. The choice for Ct is in
the National Annex, the recommended value being 1.0, unless otherwise specied.
Topography Ce
Windswepta 0.8
Normalb 1.0
Shelteredc 1.2
a
A windswept topography is for at unobstructed areas exposed on all
sides without, or with little, shelter aorded by terrain, higher construc-
tion works or trees. This is illustrated in Fig. 5.8(a).
b
A normal topography is for areas where there is no signicant
removal of snow by wind on construction work, because of terrain,
other construction works or trees. This is illustrated in Fig. 5.8(b).
c
A sheltered topography is for areas in which the construction work
being considered is considerably lower than the surrounding terrain or
surrounded by high trees and/or surrounded by higher construction
works. This is illustrated in Fig. 5.8(c).
88
Fig. 5.8. Examples of dierent exposure conditions: (a) windswept condition; (b) normal condition;
(c) sheltered condition
Regarding roofs with high thermal transmittance (>1 W/m2K), such as glass-covered
roofs, the eect of snow load reduction is important, especially in cases where there will
be melting between the upper roof surface and the layer of snow, producing a thin layer
of water, which reduces the friction between the snow layer and the top of the roof,
causing sliding of snow from the roof.
A check that melting water can be drained from the roof surface should be carried out.
Further guidance may be found in ISO 4355.4
For other roof shapes than those covered by this section, further guidance may be
found in ISO 4355.4 In special cases, such as cantilever roofs in stadia, or for other very
large roofs or where severe load arrangements are anticipated, the shape coecients can
be determined by testing, using boundary layer wind tunnels.
Roofs that have an external geometry which may lead to increases in snow load, and
which may be signicant in comparison with a roof of linear prole, should be given
special consideration regarding the determination of the snow load shape coecients.
89
Fig. 5.9. Example of a roof having an external geometry that may lead to increases in snow load
This case applies, for example, for large at roofs where the roof elements (e.g. precast
prestressed RC beams) are placed in such a way as to be treated as multi-span roofs (see
Section 5.3.4 below), and the clear length under the two adjacent pitches is greater than
cl.5.3.1(2): 3.5 m and the pitches angles are above 308.
1991-1-3 An example of such a roof is shown in Fig. 5.9.
Shape coecients for the following roof shapes:
cl.5.3.2: 1991-1-3 . monopitch
cl.5.3.3: 1991-1-3 . pitched
cl.5.3.4: 1991-1-3 . multi-span
cl.5.3.1(3): are given in Fig. 5.10, which is reproduced from Fig. 5.1 of EN 1991-1-3.
1991-1-3 In Fig. 5.10 is the pitch angle.
2.0
1.6
2
1.0
0.8
1
0 15 30 45 60
90
1 = 1.08
P2
(a)
Wind
Photo
(b)
Wind
Photo
(c)
Fig. 5.11. Wind tunnel tests on a large at roof: (a) diagrammatic representation of the snow deposition;
(b) lateral view of the model; (c) angled front view of the model
Load arrangements given in Fig. 5.2 of EN 1991-1-3 that should be used for both the
undrifted and drifted cases are calibrated for roof sizes which usually are encountered for
general everyday buildings.
The designer should consider large at roofs which are treated in EN 1991-1-3 as a
monopitch roof with 08.
There is research evidence that for larger roofs (e.g. square or almost square roofs with
length about 40 m) the snow layer may be non-uniform and the maximum value of the
ratio between the roof and the ground snow loads reaches unity. Figure 5.11 illustrates an
example of such a case which was obtained in a climatic wind tunnel.3 In this case, as is
shown in Fig. 5.11(a), the shape coecient locally reaches 1.08. The average value for
in this case is 0.77.
91
cl.5.3.3(2): with a parapet, the coecient should not be reduced below 0.8, as sliding will not take
1991-1-3 place.
cls.5.3.3(3) and No further guidance is needed for Clauses 5.3.3(3) and 5.3.3(4).
5.3.3(4): EN 1991-1-3 allows, through the National Annex, an alternative drifting load arrange-
1991-1-3 ment based on local conditions. An example of the use of an alternative drifting load
Note to cl.5.3.3(4): arrangement is a roof located in the UK, where the shape coecients are obtained for
1991-1-3 maritime climates.
Two examples are given below: the rst uses the guidance in Clause 5.3.3 and the
Italian National Annex; the second uses the guidance given in the UK National Annex to
EN 1991-1-3.
Example 5.1
Consider a steel portal frame located in Milan, Italy, with dimensions as shown in the
diagram below.
1000
h = 8000
L = 20 000
Determination of sk 1 Ce and Ct .
Characteristic ground snow load:
From Italian Map: Zone I Mediterranean
sk 1:60 kN/m2
Shape coecient:
Slope: 10%
68 100
1 0:8
Exposure coecient:
Normal topography Ce 1:0
Thermal coecient:
Insulated roof Ct 1:0
The load arrangements for the undrifted case and the drifted case are determined using
the guidance given in Clause 5.3.3 of EN 1991-1-3 and the following shape proles for
snow are obtained.
(a) Undrifted (case i)
92
Example 5.2
Consider the same steel portal frame as in Example 5.1, located in the Scottish High-
lands UK, see UK National Annex where sk 1:60 kN/m2, after allowing for altitude
corrections.
(a) Undrifted (case i)
s = 0.8 1.60 = 1.28 kN/m2
cls.5.3.4(1)
5.3.4. Multi-span roofs and 5.3.4(2):
No further guidance needed for Clauses 5.3.4(1) and 5.3.4(2). 1991-1-3
EN 1991-1-3 allows through the National Annex an alternative drifting load arrange- Note to cl.5.3.4(3):
ment based on local conditions. 1991-1-3
Figure 5.12(a) and (b) illustrate the dierent patterns for drifted load arrangements for
normal and accidental conditions (for denition of symbols see EN 1991-1-3). cl.B2(1): 1991-1-3
1
2() = (1 + 2)/2
Case (ii)
ls1 ls2
1(1) 1(2)
h
1 2 1 2 b1 b2
b3
(a) (b)
Fig. 5.12. Patterns for load arrangements: (a) normal drift; (b) accidental drift
An example of the use of normal load arrangements, for both undrifted and drifted, is
given in Example 5.3 below with reference to a building located in Sweden.
Example 5.3
Consider a factory building with the following properties.
Location: Sweden Snow load zone 2 300 m a.s.l.
40 30 40 30
93
Determination of sk 1 Ce and Ct .
Characteristic ground snow load:
From Swedish Map: Zone 2
sk 0:790Z 0:375A=336
where:
Z is the zone number 2
A is the altitude 300 m a.s.l.
Giving sk 2:85 kN/m2
Considering Fig. 5.1 of EN 1991-1-3, the shape coecients 1 and 2 are:
1 1 1 408 0:53
1 2 1 308 0:80
2 1 2 =2 2 358 1:60
Exposure coecient:
Building surroundings normal Ce 1:0
Thermal coecient:
Eective heat insulation applied to roof Ct 1:0
The load arrangements for the undrifted case and the drifted case are determined using
the guidance given in Clause 5.3.4 of EN 1991-1-3 and the following shape proles for
snow are obtained.
(a) Undrifted (case i)
2.28 kN/m2 2.28 kN/m2
1.51 kN/m2 1.51 kN/m2
40 30 40 30
2.28 kN/m2
2
1.51 kN/m
40 30 40 30
94
The proles given in Clause 5.3.4 are not applicable when the slope is greater than
608 as in this case all the deposited snow on the roof is available for drifting.
This case should normally be covered by the individual National Annexes and is
covered by ISO 4355.4
95
(a)
2
w
1
ls
b1 b2
(b)
Fig. 5.14. Shape coecients for (a) undrifted and (b) drifted snow load arrangements
where is the weight density of snow, which for this calculation may be taken as
2 kN/m3.
Note 1 to cl.5.3.6(1): The National Annex may specify a range for the variation of both w and ls . The
1991-1-3 recommended range for w is 0:8 w 4. The recommended range for the drift length
ls , to be taken equal to 2h, is 5 ls 15 m.
Note 2 to cl.5.3.6(1): Examples of the use of normal load arrangements for the drifted case are given in
1991-1-3 Examples 5.4 and 5.5.
Fig. 5.15. Wind tunnel test on a multi-level at roof (wind acting from the left side)
96
Example 5.4
Consider the building in Fig. 5.14, with the following dimensions:
b1 8:0 m
b2 10:0 m
sk 0:8 kN/m2
108
From the above, as 108, s 0.
For the calculation of the contribution of wind accumulation w let us consider
the variability of the distance h from the upper roof to the lower one within the range
0.57.0 m.
From the formula (5.1 EN 1991-1-3) we get the following variation of the shape
coecient w .
10.00
9.00
8.00 C
7.00
6.00 B
w
5.00
4.00
A
3.00
2.00
1.00
0
0 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 6.0 7.0 8.0
h (m)
In the graph line A indicates the variation of the coecient w , which is limited by
line B (h=sk and by the hyperbolic line C b1 b2 =2h.
For h equal to 5 m the wind accumulation eect results in a shape coecient w
equal to 1.80 and the corresponding peak value of the snow load at the conjunction
line between the two buildings is s w , sk 1:80 0:80 1:44 kN/m2.
For greater values of h the shape coecient w decreases due to the action wind
vortexes, which are increasingly altered by the obstacle (see Fig. 5.15).
97
Example 5.5
Consider the building in the previous Example 5.4, with the following dimensions:
b1 30:0 m
b2 15:0 m
The variation of the shape coecient w is illustrated in the gure below.
10.00
9.00
8.00
7.00
6.00
w
5.00
4.00
3.00
2.00
1.00
0
0 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 6.0 7.0 8.0
h (m)
In this case, for the same dierence in height h 5:0 m examined in Example 5.4, the
shape coecient w rises to the maximum value 4.0, and the corresponding peak snow
load value to 3.2 kN/m2.
The above eects are justied by the alteration of the aerodynamic shaded area in
the vicinity of the change in height. The wider dimensions in plan of the two buildings
result in a sensible modication of the wind vortexes and of the available snow for
redistribution (see gure below taken during wind tunnel tests on a multi-level roof
with a large lower roof ).
98
EN 1991-1-3 allows through the National Annex an alternative drifting load arrangement Note to cl.5.3.6(3):
based on local conditions. 1991-1-3
Figure 5.16 illustrates the pattern for drifted load arrangements for accidental conditions
(for denition of symbols see EN 1991-1-3). cl.B3(1): 1991-1-3
2 h
ls
b2
b1
Fig. 5.16. Pattern for drifted load arrangements for accidental conditions
99
Local eects
6.1. General
This chapter treats snow load arrangements specic for the verication of local eects,
which may involve structural members or structural parts rather than the whole structural
resisting frame, as for load cases treated in Chapter 5.
The cases covered allow the verication of:
In all cases the design situations to be considered are persistent/transient. cl.6.1(2): 1991-1-3
It has to be recognised that there is an inconsistency in the above clause, which leads to
a contradiction when the case of drifting at projections and obstructions is considered
with reference to those locations where, through the National Annex, the use of Annex B
is allowed. This will give alternative load arrangements which actually cover exceptional
snow drifts.
To better clarify this point it has to be borne in mind that considering the load arrange-
ment given in Annex B for drifting at projections and obstructions for local verications,
it is assumed that there is no snow elsewhere on the roof, notwithstanding Clause 6.1(2).
It seems therefore reasonable to adopt the load arrangement indicated in Annex B only in
accidental design situations.
Example 6.1
Consider the obstruction on a at roof illustrated in the gure below, located in a
region where the characteristic ground snow load is equal to sk 1:0 kN/m2 . Let us
now consider the variation of the height h of the obstruction in a range between 0.0
and 1.5 m.
2
1
ls ls
Taking for the weight density of snow the value 2:0 kN/m3 , we get the variation
of the shape coecient 2 illustrated in the graph below. Line A represents the varia-
tion of 2 within the imposed limits.
4.00
3.50
3.00
2.50
2
2.00
1.50
A
1.00
0.50
0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4
h (m)
From the above graph it is evident that the accumulation of snow at the obstacle is
signicant, in comparison with the undrifted distribution 1 which is present on the
rest of the roof surface. This is only if the obstacle height is greater than the undrifted
roof snow cover, which depends on sk . In this case the minimum height is
1 sk = 0:8 1:0=2:0 0:4 m.
The drift length ls , to be taken equal to 2h, is limited within the range 5 ls 15 m.
For all cases examined in the graph the drift length is equal to 5.0 m.
102
1 2
1
ls
ls1 ls2 h
b1 b2
h2
1 2
ls1 ls2
h1 h2
b1 b2
Fig. 6.1. Drifting at projections and obstructions allowed through the National Annex for specic local
conditions
b1 b1
Ridge line
h h
Gutter line
1 1
ls ls
Snow behind parapet; flat roof Snow in valley behind parapet at gable end
b2
b1
ls
Snow behind parapet at eaves; pitched or curved roof
Fig. 6.2. Drifting at parapets allowed through the National Annex for specic local conditions
103
se
The values for the dimensionless coecient k may be given by the National Annex. The
recommended values are as follows:
k 3=d, but k d
Note to cl.6.3(2):
1991-1-3 where d is the roof snow cover depth, measured as shown in Fig. 6.4.
Example 6.2
Consider the edge of a roof illustrated in Fig. 6.4 and suppose the building being
located at 1200 m a.s.l. in a zone where the characteristic ground snow load is
sk 1:50 kN/m2 . Suppose also that the edge considered is part of a duo-pitched roof
with identical pitch angles 258.
From 5.3.1 and 5.3.3 we get the most onerous undrifted load value for the pitch
terminating with the edge under consideration:
1 258 0:8
s 1:50 0:8 1:20 kN/m2
The roof snow cover depth d is: d s= 1:20=3:0 0:40 m.
The coecient k in this case is given by the upper limit k d 1:20.
Finally we get the action due to snow overhang:
se ks2 = 1:20 1:202 =3:0 0:58 kN/m
104
Fs
height independently of pitch angle, as well as for the design of the snowguard or of a
more general obstacle.
Figure 6.5 shows the load pattern to be considered for the design of a snowguard.
The force Fs exerted by a sliding mass of snow, in the direction of slide, per unit length
of the building is given by:
Fs sb sin (expression 6.5: EN 1991-1-3)
where:
s is the snow load on the roof relative to the most onerous undrifted load case appropriate
for roof area from which snow could slide (see 5.2 and 5.3)
b is the width on plan (horizontal) from the guard or obstacle to the next guard or to the
ridge
is the pitch of the roof, measured from the horizontal.
Example 6.3
Consider the monopitched roof illustrated in Fig. 6.5, with pitch angle 308, located in a
place where the characteristic ground snow load is sk 1:00 kN/m2 .
Let us calculate the force Fs exerted on the snowguard by the sliding mass of snow,
assuming that the distance b between two consecutive snowguards is b 3 m.
From 5.3.1 and 5.3.2 we get the most onerous undrifted load value for the pitch
under consideration:
1 308 0:8
The corresponding roof snow load is s 0:8 1:00 0:80 kN/m2 .
From expression 6.5 it results:
Fs sb sin 0:80 3:0 sin308 1:20 kN=m
105
This annex summarises, in a tabular form, the four possible cases for the denition of design
situations and load arrangements to be used in accordance with the specications contained
in the National Annex.
For detailed description of the four cases see Chapter 3. cl.A.1: EN 1991-1-3
Table A.1: EN 1991-1-3. Design situations and load arrangements for dierent locations Table A.1:
1991-1-3
Exceptional conditions
Normal
Case A Case B1 Case B2 Case B3
107
This chapter is covered in Chapters 5 and 6 of this Part of this Designers Guide as
appropriate. Note that values given in the present annex are to be taken as non-
dimensional values.
Annex C of EN 1991-1-3 presents the European ground snow load maps, which are one of
the main results of scientic work, carried out under contract to DGIII/D-3 of the European
Commission, by a specically formed research Group.2;3
The maps represent a signicant innovation to the EN version of this Part of Eurocode 1.
In the previous ENV 1991-2-3,6 ground snow loads in dierent CEN countries, which at that
time numbered 18, were given in the form of individual national maps.
This assembly of snow information, applicable in dierent CEN member states, encour-
aged comparative examinations, which revealed discrepancies along national boundaries.
These were due to a large number of causes:
. National regulations were elaborated completely independently from one another.
. Diering procedures of measuring the amount of snow.
. The way of processing the data.
. The treatment of exceptional snow falls.
. The choice of an appropriate type of statistical distribution to calculate characteristic
values.
. The choice of the return period.
In the research work reported in Reference 2 a homogeneous approach was set up for
the elaboration of snow data and for the drawing of maps, to help National Competent
Authorities to redraft their national maps, to eliminate or reduce the inconsistencies of
snow load values in CEN member states at borders between countries.
The majority of maps presented in this annex were elaborated, starting from the collection
of snow data in the 18 CEN member states, which were included in the previous ENV code.
The snow database consists of approximately 2600 weather stations, spread all over Europe
within a latitude ranging between 358 (Cyprus) and 708 North Cape Norway.
Maps presented in C(5) for Czech Republic, C(6) for Iceland and C(7) for Poland in Annex
C of EN 1991-1-3, were added, but were not elaborated within the research work.
Maps are based upon a common procedure for the statistical treatment of data coming
from the single weather station. The return period to calculate the characteristic value is
xed to 50 years, as indicated for climatic actions by EN 1990. The statistical analysis was
performed on the yearly extreme values, using the Cumulative Distribution Function
Gumbel Type I. The winters when there was no snow were taken into account.
Exceptional ground snow loads (see Sections 4.1 and 4.3 of this Part of this Designers
Guide) were excluded from the database.
5.00
4.00
Sample
3.00 50 years
Reduced variable Y LSM
2.00
1.35 kN/m2
1.00
0
0.00 0.20 0.40 0.60 0.80 1.00 1.20 1.40 1.60
1.00
2.00
Snow load on the ground (kN/m2)
Fig. 9.1. Gumbel Type I probability paper, weather station in Parma, Italy; 50-year characteristic
value 1:35 kN/m2
Figure 9.1 shows, as an example, the probability paper for the weather station in Parma,
Italy, where the distinction between the years with zero and non-zero maximum snow loads
is evident. It also represents the best-tting line for the non-zero values and the characteristic
value, obtained from the intersection of this line with the horizontal line located at 3.90 of the
reduced probability scale (ordinate), corresponding to 0.02 probability of exceedance, which
is approximately associated with a 50-year return period.
The characteristic values of ground snow load at the location of the weather station need
to be interpolated with other values, to get a continuous geographical representation of the
ground load variation.
At rst sight, the simplest solution would be to set up a map giving directly the character-
istic snow load at any place. However, in all mountainous areas of Europe such a map would
have to be extremely detailed and would largely follow the topographic relief.
In the majority of regions with homogeneous climatic features, the best way to present the
snow loads in a map for use by design engineers is to dene areas in which a given altitude
function can be applied, thus assuming that snow load varies with altitude only, disregarding
other inuences caused by local eects such as presence of great water masses (lakes) or con-
centration of snow in valleys etc. These eects were carefully analysed and data from weather
stations which presented signicant alterations with respect to the surrounding ones were
excluded from the database.
The 18 CEN countries were divided into homogeneous climatic regions, through the ana-
lysis of the correlation presented by ground snow load characteristic values versus altitude of
the relative weather station. The European territory was divided into ten climatic regions as
illustrated in Fig. 9.2.
Borders of each region, dened through the correlation criteria illustrated above, are not
necessarily coincident with national borders; an example is the Alpine region, to which
belongs Switzerland, Austria and parts of Germany, France and Italy (see Fig. 9.3).
Figure 9.4 shows the scatterplot (ground snow load altitude a.s.l.) for the Alpine region.
In the scatterplot each point represents a weather station and it is possible to calculate, by
way of regression analysis, the best-tting curve correlating the ground snow load with alti-
tude. In the example, the curve is the parabola given by expression C.1.
" #
A 2
sk 0:642Z 0:009 1 C:1
728
112
Alpine region
Central East
Central West
Greece
Iberian peninsula
Iceland
Mediterranean region
Norway
Sweden, Finland
UK, Eire
W E
where:
A is the altitude a.s.l. of the site being considered in m
Z is the zone number given on the map for the site considered.
It is stressed that expression C.1 applies only for the Alpine region, and each climatic
region (see Fig. 9.2) has its unique expression. These expressions are given in Table C.1 of
EN 1991-1-3.
The variation of Z allows the coverage of the whole scatterplot in n intervals, which in the
case under consideration is 5. Each interval is represented by the mean curve marked with a
dashed line in Fig. 9.4.
Weather stations belonging to the same interval are geographically identied and grouped
in the same zone. In Fig. 9.3 the ve zones identied in the scatterplot are reduced to only
four. The two upper zones, numbered 4 and 5, are grouped together here.
W E
113
25
Alpine region
20
10
0
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500
Altitude (m)
Fig. 9.4. Alpine region. Correlation between characteristic ground snow load and altitude a.s.l.
Example C.1
Consider the ground snow load map for the Central West climatic region in the gure
below, to calculate the ground snow load in Paris, 75 m a.s.l.
W E
114
Data from weather stations from border regions, located within 100 km into the
neighbouring regions, have also been included. In this way the discontinuities at borders
between climatic regions are signicantly limited.
The use of the maps is extremely easy for the design engineer; he or she needs to input the
location of the site on the map and its altitude in metres only. With the zone number and the
altitude function known, the characteristic ground snow load on the site is easily obtained.
The following example shows the procedure.
Maps given in Annex C to EN 1991-1-3 are recommended to be considered as a reference
with the aim of satisfying the objectives indicated in Clause C(2) of EN 1991-1-3, listed here
below:
. to help National Competent Authorities to redraft their national maps
. to establish harmonised procedures to produce the maps.
The nal goal of the implementation of the use of this European map will be the elimina-
tion or reduction of the inconsistencies of snow load values in CEN member states and at
borders between countries.
Further work is still needed for the enlargement of the map to cover the new CEN
member states, which now total 28.
115
Ground snow load values given by maps in Annex C and by National Annexes are
characteristic values, and by denition are based on annual probability of exceedance of
0.02, corresponding to a mean recurrence interval of approximately 50 years (see Section
4.1 of this Part of this Designers Guide).
To obtain ground snow loads associated with any mean recurrence interval dierent to 50 cls.D(1) and D(2):
years it is recommended to apply the following formula: 1991-1-3
8 p 9
>
< 6 >
=
1V fln ln1 Pn 0:57722g
sn sk > > Expression D.1
: 1 2:5923V ;
where:
sk is the characteristic snow load on the ground (with a return period of 50 years, in
accordance with EN 1990: 2002)
sn is the ground snow load with a return period of n years
Pn is the annual probability of exceedance (equivalent to approximately 1=n, where n is the
corresponding recurrence interval in years)
V is the coecient of variation of annual maximum snow load.
Expression D.1 should not be used for probability of exceedance below 0.20, which is
associated with a return period approximately equal to ve years.
The use of the above formulation is based on the assumption that the available recorded Note 1 to cl.D(2):
series of yearly maxima ground snow loads shows a good t to a Gumbel Type I probability 1991-1-3
distribution function (PDF). This has been shown to be the case for the majority of
European snow data samples analysed in Reference 2. Any other best-tting statistical
distribution (such as log-normal or Weibull) can be adopted where allowed by the National
Annex. Obviously, in these cases expression D.1 has to be appropriately modied.
For the evaluation of the coecient of variation V of recorded yearly maxima, the
designer has to refer to specic information for the geographical location under considera-
tion. Obviously values of V may vary signicantly from site to site. Figure 10.1 shows an
example where the coecient of variation calculated for 331 weather stations in Germany
is plotted against the mean ground snow load.3
1.6
1.4
1.2
Coefficient of variation
1.0
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Snow load mean value (kN/m2)
Fig. 10.1. Coecient of variation plotted against mean ground snow loads for 331 weather stations in
Germany
In Fig. 10.2 the coecient of variation is plotted versus the altitude of the weather stations.
From Figs 10.1 and 10.2 it is evident that the scatter of the coecient of variation may be
very large (in this example ranging from 0.2 to 1.4), the wider scatter being associated with
lower mean ground snow loads, which are normally registered at weather stations located at
lower altitudes.
For initial calculations, and where no rened estimates are needed, it may be useful to refer
to mean values of the coecient of variation for a single climatic region or even for wider
regions.
In Reference 3 the coecient of variation has been calculated for 18 countries covered by
the European map in Annex C, and elaborated within the research work; the resulting overall
mean value is V 0:6.
cl.D(3): 1991-1-3 Figure 10.3 shows the graphical representation of expression D.1, plotted for
0:2 V 0:6.
For a return period of 10 years, which, for example, could be associated with a given
execution phase of the structure with an expected nominal duration of one year (see Part
1.6
1.4
1.2
Coefficient of variation
1.0
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400
Altitude (m)
Fig. 10.2. Coecient of variation plotted against altitude for 331 weather stations in Germany
118
1.20
1.10
V = 0.2
1.00
0.90
0.80
sn/sk
0.70
0.60
V = 0.6
0.50
0.40
0.30
0.20
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Return period in years
Fig. 10.3. Adjustment of the ground snow load according to return period
6 of this Designers Guide and Chapter 2 of EN 1991-1-6), the ratio sn =sk varies from 0.83 for
V 0:2 to 0.70 for V 0:6.
Expression D.1, where permitted by the National Annex, may also be used to calculate cl.D(4): 1991-1-3
snow loads on the ground for other probabilities of exceedance, such as for structures
where a higher risk of exceedance is deemed acceptable (e.g. greenhouses) or where
greater than normal safety is required (e.g. strategic structures).
119
The bulk weight density of snow is a function of many parameters among which are
included:
. the duration of the snow cover on the ground (or on the roof )
. the location of the site
. the exposure to solar radiation
. the climate and the altitude of the site itself cl.E(1): 1991-1-3
Del Corso and Formichi7 illustrated and discussed in detail the inuences on the deter-
mination of snow bulk weight density registered in Italy, which are briey summarised
below as an example valid for regions in a Mediterranean climate.
First, the air temperature during the snow fall plays an extremely important role in the
formation of crystals, on the denition of their size and shape and on the tendency to
clump together, leading to a low snow density in the case of dry cold air and high densities
in the case of humid relatively warm air. That is, wet snow particles (generally in humid,
relatively warm air) are susceptible to clumping, due to cohesion, whereas dry snow
particles (generally in dry, cold air) behave more akin to sand particles, governed by fric-
tional eects.
Furthermore, it has been observed that the bulk weight density rapidly increases after a
few hours from the snow event. This is mainly due to the eect of the modication of
lower-layer crystals shape, under pressure exerted by upper snow layers; this results in a
reduction of the overall layer volume and in the increase of its mass.
Duration on the ground (or on the roof ) of the snow layer is also another extremely
important parameter, signicantly aecting snow density. For long-lasting snow layers,
the overall density varies due to the driftingcompressionerosion process, consequence of
successive snow events in time, wind action and air temperature variations. Therefore
younger snow layers have a lower density than older ones. Once again this is the eect
of the compression of the lower and oldest snow layers, which may have incorporated
water due to the melting of upper layers.
Measurements taken at several high-altitude weather stations in the Italian Alps are
described by Zanon,8 where snow lasts on the ground for periods up to several months;
the data show a clear tendency to an increase in density with time. Specically it has been
observed that a rapid increase occurs at the beginning of winter, due to the drifting and of
the successive compression of dierent fresh snow layers. This is followed by a central
period, during which, probably due to the crystals stabilisation shape and structure, snow
kN/m3
Days
p p p
p
Fig. 11.1. Bulk weight density of snow as a function of layer duration, adopted in Italy
density can be assumed to remain constant. Finally, during the melting phase the density
increases rapidly due to the presence of water.
Figure 11.1 shows the simplied bulk weight density law based upon the above studies,
adopted in Italy for the conversion of ground snow depths into ground snow loads, where
the duration of the snow layer ( p) is greater than 10 days.
Values 1 , 2 , 3 are the limits of variation of the snow density during the period p.
Sub-periods p and p are the initial and the nal ones, associated with the increase in
snow density; p is the central sub-period during which density may be assumed to
remain constant. Values are calibrated through experimental measures810 as follows:
1 2:15 kN/m3, p 0:3
2 3:50 kN/m3, p 0:4
3 5:15 kN/m3, p 0:3
For snow layers with a duration lower than 10 days, which is typical of low-altitude sites
where the snow layer results from one single snow event, bulk weight density has been
assumed to remain constant and equal to 2.50 kN/m3.
Where no direct measures are available, and except where specied in Sections 1 to 6 of
EN 1991-1-3, mean bulk weight density of snow on the ground may be assumed to vary
cl.E(2): 1991-1-3 within the limits given in Table 11.1 (Clause E(2): EN 1991-1-3).
Fresh 1.0
Settled (several hours or days after its fall) 2.0
Old (several weeks or months after its fall) 2.53.5
Wet 4.0
122
References to Part 3
1. EN 1991-1-3: 2003. Eurocode 1 Actions on Structures Part 1-3: General Actions
Snow loads. European Committee for Standardisation, Brussels, 2003.
2. Final Report to the European Commission, Scientic Support Activity in the Field of
Structural Stability of Civil Engineering Works: Snow Loads Phase 1. Department of
Structural Engineering, University of Pisa, March 1998. The document is available at
the Commission of the European Communities DG III, D-3 Industry, Rue de la Loi,
200 B, 1049 Brussels, or at the Universita degli Studi di Pisa Dipartimento di Ingegneria
Strutturale, Via Diotisalvi, 2, 56100 Pisa, Italy. Or online at: http://www2.ing. unipi.it/
dis/snowloads/
3. Final Report to the European Commission, Scientic Support Activity in the Field of
Structural Stability of Civil Engineering Works: Snow Loads Phase 2. Department of
Structural Engineering, University of Pisa, September 1999. The document is available
at the Commission of the European Communities DG III, D-3 Industry, Rue de la Loi,
200 B, 1049 Brussels, or at the Universita degli Studi di Pisa Dipartimento di Ingegneria
Strutturale, Via Diotisalvi, 2, 56100 Pisa, Italy. Or online at: http://www2.ing. unipi.it/
dis/snowloads/
4. ISO 4355: 1998. Bases for Design of Structures Determination of Snow Loads on Roofs.
International Organisation for Standardisation, Geneva, 1998.
5. Irwin, P., Hochstenbach, F. and Gamble, L. Wind and Snow Considerations for Wide
Span Enclosures. Rowan Williams Davies & Irwin, Ontario, Canada, 2004.
6. ENV 1991-2-3: 1996. Eurocode 1. Basis of Design and Actions on Structures. Actions on
Structures. Snow loads. European Committee for Standardisation, Brussels, 1996.
7. Del Corso, R. and Formichi, P. A proposal for a new normative snow load map for the
Italian territory in Proceedings of the 5th International Conference on Snow Engineering,
Davos, Switzerland, 2004. A.A. Balkema, Rotterdam, 2004.
8. Zanon, G. Osservazioni sul manto nevoso alla stazione pilota della Fedaia nellinverno
19621963. Bollettino Comitato Glaciologico Italiano, 1967, Series II, No. 13, Part 2.
9. Del Corso, R. and Formichi, P. Duration of the snow load on the ground in Italy.
Proceedings of the 4th International Conference on Snow Engineering, Trondheim,
Norway, June 2000. A.A. Balkema, Rotterdam, 2000.
10. Del Corso, R. and Formichi, P. Shape coecients for conversion of ground snow loads
to roof snow loads. Proceedings of the 16th International Congress of the Precast
Concrete Industry, Venice, Italy, May 1999.
123
This Part gives a brief introduction to EN 1991-1-4: Eurocode 1 Actions on Structures: Part
1.4 General Actions Wind Actions.1 A comprehensive treatment for this Eurocode part is
given in the Thomas Telford Designers Guide on wind actions by N. J. Cook.2
The style of this brief introduction is dierent to the other Parts in this Designers Guide
which cover other Parts of EN 1991: Actions on Structures, in that it gives guidance on
selected clauses only. This Part makes numerous references to the UK National Annex to
EN 1991-1-4 and BS 6399: Part 2. In cases where the information is substantial, the text,
graphs etc. have been boxed.
General
1.1. Scope
EN 1991-1-4 gives guidance on the determination of natural wind actions for the structural cl.1.1(1):
design of buildings and civil engineering works for each of the loaded areas under considera- 1991-1-4
tion. The wind actions are given for the whole or parts of the structure, e.g. components,
cladding units and their xings. cl.1.1(2):
EN 1991-1-4 is applicable to: 1991-1-4
. building and civil engineering works with heights up to 200 m
. bridges with spans of not more than 200 m (subject to certain limitations based on
dynamic response criteria).
The application range of EN 1991-1-4 is much wider than compared to some European
National Wind Standards. For example, comparing EN 1991-1-4 to BS 6399-2,3 the scope
of EN 1991-1-4 is much wider than BS 6399-2, as it includes wind actions on other structures,
which in the UK are given in a number of other British Standards and design guides. In some
cases, for example dynamic response of buildings, there is no equivalent UK standard.
cl.4.5(1): . Basic velocity pressure qb (4.5(1)): derived from the basic wind velocity (qb 0:613v2b .
1991-1-4 There is no equivalent value in BS 6399-2.
. Basic wind velocity vb (4.2(2)P): is the fundamental basic wind velocity modied to
cl.4.2(2)P: account for seasonal and directional eects. There is no direct equivalent value in
1991-1-4 BS 6399-2.
. Directional factor cdir (4.2(2)P): used to modify the basic wind velocity to produce
cl.4.2(2)P: wind speeds with the same risk of being exceeded in any wind direction. cdir is the
1991-1-4 same as Sd in BS 6399-2.
. Exposure factor ce(z) (4.5(1)): accounts for the eect of terrain, orography and building
cl.4.5(1): height. Similar to Sb2 in BS 6399-2. Note: orography is equivalent to topography in
1991-1-4 BS 6399-2.
. Force coecient cf (5.3(2)): the ratio of the force acting on a structure or element to
cl.5.3(2): the peak velocity pressure multiplied by an appropriate area. There are no equivalent
1991-1-4 values in BS 6399-2.
. Friction coecient cfr (5.3(2)): the ratio of the frictional drag on surfaces aligned
cl.5.3(2): parallel with the wind to the peak velocity pressure multiplied by an appropriate area.
1991-1-4 Corresponds to Cf in BS 6399-2.
. Fundamental basic wind velocity vb,0 (4.2(1)P): this is the mean wind velocity for a 10-
cl.4.2(1)P: minute averaging period with an annual risk of being exceeded of 0.02, at a height of
1991-1-4 10 m above ground level in at open country terrain (terrain category II). There is no
direct equivalent value in the main body of BS 6399-2. For use in the UK,
vb;0 vb;0 calt where vb;0 is the mean wind velocity for a 10-minute averaging period
with an annual risk of being exceeded of 0.02, at a height of 10 m above sea level in
terrain category II and calt is the altitude factor which accounts for the eects of alti-
tude on the fundamental basic wind velocity.
Note 4 to cl.4.2(2)P: . Mean wind velocity vm(z) (4.2(2)P Note 4): is the basic wind velocity modied to
1991-1-4 account for terrain roughness category and orography eects (dened below). There is
no direct equivalent value in BS 6399-2.
cl.4.3.1(1): . Orography factor co(z) (4.3.1(1)): used to account for the increase in wind speed due to
1991-1-4 topographic features such as hills, clis and escarpments. co z is obtained using the
same method for calculating topographic eects as included in the Sa factor in
cl.4.5(1): BS 6399-2.
1991-1-4 . Peak velocity pressure qp(z) (4.5(1)): is the site wind velocity taking account of the
terrain and building size. qp z corresponds to qs in BS 6399-2.
cl.5.2(1): . Pressure coecients cpe and cpi (5.2(1)): the ratio of the pressure acting on the external
1991-1-4 or internal surfaces to the peak velocity pressure. Corresponds to Cpe and Cpi in
BS 6399-2.
Note 4 to cl.4.2(2)P: . Probability factor cprob (4.2(2)P Note 4): used to modify the basic wind velocity to
1991-1-4 change the risk of the wind speed being exceeded. cprob is the same as Sp in BS 6399-2.
cl.6.3.1(1): . Resonant response factor R (6.3.1(1)): accounts for the eects of wind turbulence in
1991-1-4 resonance with the vibration of the structure in its fundamental mode of vibration.
There is no equivalent value in BS 6399-2.
cl.4.3.1(1): . Roughness factor cr(z) (4.3.1(1)): used to modify the mean wind speed to account for
1991-1-4 the terrain roughness upwind of the site and the height of the building or structure
under consideration. cr z corresponds to Sc in the BS 6399-2 directional method.
cl.4.2(2)P: . Season factor cseason (4.2(2)P): used to modify the basic wind velocity to produce wind
1991-1-4 speeds with the same risk of being exceeded in any specic sub-annual period. cseason is
the same as Ss in BS 6399-2.
cl.5.3(2): . Structural factor cscd (5.3(2)): takes account of the eect of non-simultaneous wind
1991-1-4 action over the surfaces of the structure or element combined with the eect of
dynamic response of the structure or element. cs and cd correspond to Ca and (1 Cr
respectively in BS 6399-2.
cl.4.4(1): . Turbulence intensity Iv(z) (4.4(1)): is the standard deviation of the wind turbulence
1991-1-4 divided by the mean wind velocity and is a measure of the gustiness of the wind. Iv z
corresponds to St Tt in the BS 6399-2 directional method.
128
. Wind force Fw, Fw,e, Fw,i, Ffr (5.3(2)): the wind force acting on the overall structure or cl.5.3(2):
element (Fw , on the external surfaces (Fw;e , on the internal surfaces (Fw;i or due to 1991-1-4
frictional forces (Ffr . Corresponds to P and Pf in BS 6399-2.
. Wind pressure we and wi (5.2(1)): the wind pressure acting on external and internal cl.5.2(1):
building surfaces respectively. Corresponds to pe and pi in BS 6399-2. 1991-1-4
129
Design situations
The general requirement of this chapter is that the relevant wind actions be determined for cl.2.1(1)P:
each design situation identied in EN 1990 (Basis of Structural Design), such as persistent, 1991-1-4
transient and accidental design situations.
In EN 1991-1-4, the following specic design situations should also be taken into account:
. Modication to wind actions due to other actions (such as snow, trac or ice) which will cl.2.1(2): 1991-1-4
aect the wind loads.
. Changes to the structure during construction which modify the wind loads. cl.2.1(3): 1991-1-4
. Where doors and windows that are assumed to be shut are open under storm conditions cl.2.1(4): 1991-1-4
then they should be treated as accidental actions.
. Fatigue due to wind actions should be considered for susceptible structures. cl.2.1(4): 1991-1-4
This chapter describes wind actions and denes characteristic values of wind velocity and cl.3.1(1): 1991-1-4
velocity pressure according to EN 1990. Wind actions need to be classied according to
their variation in time, spatial variation, origin and their nature and/or structural response.
Wind actions are classied according to EN 1990 as variable xed actions; this means that
the wind actions will not always be present, and the wind actions have, for each considered
wind direction, a xed distributions along the structure. The classication to the origin of
wind actions can be direct as well as indirect: direct for external surfaces and internal surfaces
of open structures; indirect for internal surfaces of enclosed structures (Clause 3.1(1): cl.3.3(1): 1991-1-4
EN 1991-1-4) and (Clause 3.3(1): EN 1991-1-4).
Wind actions calculated using EN 1991-1-4 are characteristic values (see EN 1990 Clause cl.3.4(1): 1991-1-4
4.1.2) having annual probabilities of exceedance of 0.02, which is equivalent to a mean return
period of 50 years (Clause 3.4(1): EN 1991-1-4).
Note: Examples of the terrain categories are illustrated in Fig. 4. cl.A.1: 1991-1-4
Terrain category 0
Sea, coastal area exposed to the open sea
Terrain category I
Lakes or area with negligible vegetation and without obstacles
Terrain category II
Area with low vegetation such as grass and isolated obstacles
(trees, buildings) with separations of at least 20 obstacle heights
Terrain category IV
Area in which at least 15% of the surface is covered with buildings
and their average height exceeds 15 m
cl.4.2(2)P: The basic wind velocity vb having an annual probability of exceedance equal to 0.02 is
1991-1-4 determined with the expression:
vb cdir cseason vb;0 4:1
where:
136
The recommended values for the directional factor cdir and the seasonal factor cseason Notes 2 and 3 to
are in general equal to 1.0. cl.4.2(1)P:
EN 1991-1-4 expression (4.10) (given below as expression (4.2)) gives the following 1991-1-4
relationship between the basic wind velocity (vb and the basic wind velocity pressure (qb :
qb =2v2b 4:2
where is the density of air whose recommended value is 1.25 kg/m3. This value represents
the mean wind velocity pressure (averaging interval 10 min.) at a reference height of 10 m
in open terrain of category II, with a return period of 50 years, and does not include the
wind turbulence.
where:
The roughness factor (cr(z)) accounts for the variability of the mean wind velocity at the cl.4.3.2.(1):
site of the structure due to: 1991-1-4
. the height above ground level
. the ground roughness of the terrain upwind of the structure in the wind direction
considered.
The recommended procedure for the determination of the roughness factor at height z Note to cl.4.3.1.(1):
is given by expression (4.4) and is based on a logarithmic velocity prole: 1991-1-4
z
cr z kr ln for zmin z zmax
z0 4:4
cr z cr zmin for z zmin
where:
z0 isthe roughness length dened in Table 4.1
kr isthe terrain factor depending on the roughness length z0 calculated using:
zmin isthe minimum height dened in Table 4.1
zmax isto be taken as 200 m, unless otherwise specied in the National Annex
z0 0:07
kr 0:19 4:5
z0;II
where:
With regard to the guidance in EN 1991-1-4, Fig. 4.2 shows the variation of Cr with
height z, up to 200 m.
137
UK National Annex
Expressions (4.4) and (4.5) are not used in the BSI National Annex in which the
classication of roughness categories has been simplied to give the following three
terrain categories:
. Terrain category 0 is referred to as Sea terrain (Zone A).
. Terrain categories I and II have been considered together to give a single terrain
category referred to as Country terrain (Zone B).
. Terrain categories III and IV have been considered together to give a single terrain
category referred to as Town terrain (Zone C).
NA2-11: BSI All inland lakes that extend more than 1 km in the direction of wind and closer than
NA: 1991-1-7 1 km upwind of the site should be treated as Sea.
200
IV
III
II
I
150 0
z (m)
100
50
0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0
cr(z)
Fig. 4.2. Variation of the roughness factor cr z with the height above the terrain
138
0.500
0.450
0.400
0.350
0.300 IV
lv(z)
0.250
III
0.200
II
0.150
I
0.100
0
0.050
0.000
0 50 100 150 200
z (m)
Fig. 4.3. Variation of the tubulence intensity factor Iv z with the height above the terrain, for various
terrain categories (k1 1:0, c0 z 1:0
where:
kI is the turbulence factor. The value of kI to be used in a country may be found in its
National Annex. The recommended value is kI 1:0
co is the orography factor as described in Clause 4.3.3
z0 is the roughness length, given in Table 4.1.
Figure 4.3 shows the variation of the turbulence intensity factor Iv z, for various
terrain categories, having assumed both k1 1:0 and c0 z 1:0.
139
200
150
IV III II I 0
z (m) 100
50
0
0 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0
ce(z)
Fig. 4.4. Variation of the exposure factor ce z with height above the terrain for dierent terrain
categories. The dashed lines refer to the mean wind pressure, the solid lines include the eect of
turbulence eects
UK National Annex
The UK National Annex has a dierent expression for determining the peak velocity
pressure qp where ce z is the exposure factor which corresponds to Sb2 in BS 6399-2;
except that in EN 1991-1-4 a linearised version is used which disregards second-order
turbulence eects and consequently can signicantly underestimate the wind pressure,
particularly in urban terrain where the turbulence is greatest. ce;T is an exposure correc-
tion factor for town terrain.
NA2-17: BSI For this reason expression (4.8) in EN 1991-1-4 is not used in the UK and has been
NA: 1991-1-7 replaced by expressions NA.3a and NA.3b.
qp z ce zqb for sites in Country terrain NA:3a
qp z ce zce;T qb for sites in Town terrain NA:3b
Figure NA.7: BSI The values of exposure factor ce z for Country terrain are given in Fig. 4.5 (repro-
NA 1991-1-7 duced from Fig. NA.7 of the UK National Annex) and the values of exposure correc-
Figure NA.8: BSI tion factor for Town terrain ce;T are given in Fig. 4.6 (reproduced from Figure NA.8 of
NA 1991-1-7 the UK National Annex). In these gures hdis is the displacement height. See Section
cl.A.5: 1991-1-4 4.6 of this Designers Guide and Clause A.5 of EN 1991-1-4.
When orography is signicant (i.e. shaded areas of Figure 4.7):
qp z qp z from expression NA.3a or NA.3b co z 0:6=1:62 for z 50 m
NA:4a
or:
qp z 1 3:0Iv z2 0:5m
2
for z > 50 m NA:4b
Annex A of BSI NA: Annex A to the UK National Annex shows ow diagrams for the determination of
1991-1-4 qp z.
Orography is not signicant in the unshaded areas of Fig. 4.7 (reproduced from
Figure NA.2: Fig. NA.2 of the UK National Annex) (co {orography factor} 1.0). Where there is
BSI NA 1991-1-7 signicant orography, as dened by the shaded zones in Fig. 4.7, A (altitude factor in
the BSI NA) should be taken as the altitude of the upwind base of the orographic
feature for each wind direction considered.
140
200
4.2
4.1
100 4.0
90
80 3.9
70
A
3.8
60
50 3.7
3.6
40
3.5
3.4
30
3.3
z hdis (m)
3.2
20 3.1
3.0
2.9
2.8
2.7
10
9
8
7
6
2.6
2.5
2.4
2.3
B
2.2
5
2.1
4 2.0
1.9
3 1.8
1.7
1.6
1.5
2
<0.1 1 10 >100
Distance upwind to shoreline (km)
Note 1. The height z is the height at which qp is sought using expressions (NA.3a) or (NA.3b).
Note 2. Zones A and B are indicated for use in Table 6.1 (Table NA.3 in UK NA).
141
200
100
90 Use 1.0 in this area
80
70
60
50
40
A or B
30 1
0.98
0.96
z hdis (m)
20 0.94
0.92
0.9
0.88
10 0.86
9 0.84
8 0.82
0.8
7
4
6
5 C 0.78
0.76
0.74
0.72
0.7
0.68
0.66
3
2
<0.1 1 10 >20
Distance inside town terrain (km)
Note 1. The height z is the height at which qp is sought using expressions (NA.3a) or (NA.3b).
Note 2. Zones A, B and C are indicated for use in Table 6.1 (Table NA.3 in UK NA).
Fig. 4.6. Values of exposure correction factor ce;T for sites in Town terrain
142
H/2
H
H/2
Escarpment
6have
2have
z=0
h
have
hdis
143
Wind actions
5.1. General
Section 5 of EN 1991-1-4 gives the rules for determining the wind pressures on internal cl.5.1. (1)P:
and external surfaces, the wind forces and frictional forces. 1991-1-4
Positive Negative
Pos internal Neg Pos internal Neg
pressure pressure
(a) (b)
wi1 wi2
we1 we2
(c) (d)
where:
cs cd is the structural factor as dened in Chapter 6
cf is the force coecient for the structure or structural element, given for buildings in
Section 7 of EN 1991-1-4 (see also below)
qp ze is the peak velocity pressure (dened in Section 4.5 above) at reference height ze
(dened for buildings in Section 7 of EN 1991-1-4)
Aref is the reference area of the structure or structural element, given for buildings in
Section 7 of EN 1991-1-4.
Wind forces may be determined for the calculation of wind actions on a limited set of
structures or structural elements (see also Section 7 of EN 1991-1-4).
Note to cl.5.3(2): Chapter 7 gives cf values for structures or structural elements such as prisms, cylinders,
1991-1-4 roofs, signboards, plates and lattice structures. These values include friction eects.
In accordance with EN 1991-1-4 rectangular/polygonal shapes force coecients are
determined by:
cf cf;0 r
where:
cf;0 is the force coecient for shapes with sharp corners
r is the reduction factor for rounded corners at rectangular structures
cl.7.13: is the end-eect factor for elements with free end ow as dened in Clause 7.13 of
1991-1-4 EN 1991-1-4
146
Fig. 5.2. Relative inuence of the ow at the edge of the structure on the resulting wind force is smaller
for slender structures than for compact structures (where w is the wind pressure)
The reduction factor for rounded corners at rectangular structure r makes allowance
for the fact that the wind pressure for rounded corners is lower than for sharp corners
which provide a higher obstacle to the ow. This leads to a decreased wind force at
structures with rounded corners.
Furthermore, independent of the shape of the corner, the end-eect factor takes into
account at the top of structures that the resulting wind pressure is lower than the average
value at the inner surface. This eect, i.e. this reduction, decreases relatively with
structures of higher slenderness. See Fig. 5.2.
Force coecients for other shapes and geometries are given in Section 7 of EN 1991-1-4.
The wind force Fw acting on a structure or a structural element may be determined by cl.5.3(3):
vectorial summation of the forces Fw;e , Fw;i and Ffr calculated from the external and 1991-1-4
internal pressures using expressions (5.5) and (5.6) and the frictional forces resulting from
the friction of the wind parallel to the external surfaces, calculated using expression (5.7).
External forces:
X
Fw;e cs cd we Aref 5:5
surfaces
Internal forces:
X
Fw;i wi Aref 5:6
surfaces
Friction forces:
Ffr cfr qp ze Afr 5:7
where:
cs cd is the structural factor as dened in Chapter 6 below
we is the external pressure on the individual surface at height ze , given in expression (5.1)
wi is the internal pressure on the individual surface at height zi , given in expression (5.2)
Aref is the reference area of the individual surface
cfr is the friction coecient derived from Clause 7.5 of EN 1991-1-4
Afr is the area of external surface parallel to the wind, given in Clause 7.5 of EN 1991-1-4.
For elements (e.g. walls, roofs), the wind force is equal to the dierence between the Note 1 to cl.5.3(3):
external and internal resulting forces. 1991-1-4
The friction forces Ffr act in the direction of the wind components parallel to external Note 2 to cl.5.3(3):
surfaces. These can be disregarded when the total area of all surfaces parallel with (or at a 1991-1-4
small angle to) the wind is equal to or less than four times the total area of all external
surfaces perpendicular to the wind (windward and leeward).
147
Section 6 of EN 1991-1-4 gives rules for determining the structural factor cs cd which cl.6.1(1): 1991-1-4
accounts for the eect of non-simultaneous occurrence of peak pressures over the surface
of the structure (cs or element combined with the eect of dynamic response of the
structure or element due to turbulence (cd .
EN 1991-1-4 allows the separation of cs and cd through the National Annex. Note to cl.6.1(1):
For the majority of traditional low-rise or framed buildings cs cd may conservatively be 1991-1-4
taken as 1.0. Clause 6.2(1) of EN 1991-1-4 gives the following list of building and element
types for which cs cd may be taken as 1.0:
For other building types, or where a more precise value is required, cs cd is determined cl.6.3(1): 1991-1-4
using the detailed procedure (i.e. expression 6.1) given in Clause 6.3.1.
The procedure using expression 6.1 can only be used if the conditions given in Clause
6.3.1(2) apply.
p
1 2kp Iv ze B2 R2
cs cd 6:1
1 7Iv ze
where:
ze is the reference height, see Fig. 6.2; for structures where Fig. 6.2 does not apply ze may
be equal to h, the height of the structure
kp is the peak factor dened as the ratio of the maximum value of the uctuating part of the
response to its standard deviation
Iv is the turbulence intensity dened in Clause 4.4 of EN 1991-1-4 and this Designers
Guide
B2 is the background factor, allowing for the lack of full correlation of the pressure on the
structure surface
R2 is the resonance response factor, allowing for turbulence in resonance with the vibration
mode.
Note 1 to cl.6.3(1): The size factor cs , which takes into account the reduction eect on the wind action due
1991-1-4 to the non-simultaneity of occurrence of the peak wind pressures on the surface, may be
obtained from expression (6.2):
p
1 7Iv ze B2
cs 6:2
1 7Iv ze
Note 1 to cl.6.3(1): The dynamic factor cd , which takes into account the increasing eect from vibrations
1991-1-4 due to turbulence in resonance with the structure, may be obtained from expression (6.3):
p
1 2kp Iv ze B2 R2
cd p 6:3
1 7Iv ze B2
Note 3 to cl.6.3(1): The procedure to be used in a Country terrain to determine kp , B and R may be given
1991-1-4 in its National Annex. A recommended procedure is given in Annex B. An alternative
procedure is given in Annex C. As an indication to the users, the dierences in cs cd using
Annex C compared to Annex B does not exceed approximately 5%.
Annex B: 1991-1-4 In the BSI National Annex it has been decided to separate cs cd into a size factor cs and
a dynamic factor cd . The BSI NA gives Table NA3 (Table 6.1 in this Designers Guide)
for determining cs values and Fig. NA9 (Fig. 6.2 in this Designers Guide) for determining
cd . These have been derived using the detailed procedure in Annex B of EN 1991-1-4
(Annex B: EN 1991-1-4).
In Fig. 6.1 graphs are given for four classes of structure which correspond to various
values of logarithmic decrement of structural damping, s . The benets of separating cs
and cd are greatest for large plan area low-rise buildings and are shown in Example 6.1
below.
Table 6.1. Size factor cs for zones A, B and C indicated in Figs 4.6 and 4.7 (from Table NA3 UK NA)
1 0.99 0.98 0.97 0.99 0.99 0.97 0.99 0.99 0.98 0.99 0.99 0.99 0.99 0.99 0.99
5 0.96 0.96 0.92 0.97 0.96 0.93 0.98 0.97 0.95 0.98 0.98 0.96 0.98 0.98 0.98
10 0.95 0.94 0.88 0.95 0.95 0.90 0.96 0.96 0.93 0.97 0.96 0.94 0.98 0.97 0.97
20 0.93 0.91 0.84 0.93 0.92 0.87 0.95 0.94 0.90 0.95 0.95 0.92 0.96 0.96 0.95
30 0.91 0.89 0.81 0.92 0.91 0.84 0.94 0.93 0.88 0.94 0.93 0.90 0.96 0.95 0.93
40 0.90 0.88 0.79 0.91 0.89 0.82 0.93 0.91 0.86 0.93 0.92 0.88 0.95 0.94 0.92
50 0.89 0.86 0.77 0.90 0.88 0.80 0.92 0.90 0.85 0.92 0.91 0.87 0.94 0.94 0.91
70 0.87 0.84 0.74 0.88 0.86 0.77 0.90 0.89 0.83 0.91 0.90 0.85 0.93 0.92 0.90
100 0.85 0.82 0.71 0.86 0.84 0.74 0.89 0.87 0.80 0.90 0.88 0.82 0.92 0.91 0.88
150 0.83 0.80 0.67 0.84 0.82 0.71 0.87 0.85 0.77 0.88 0.86 0.79 0.90 0.89 0.85
200 0.81 0.78 0.65 0.83 0.80 0.69 0.85 0.83 0.74 0.86 0.84 0.77 0.89 0.88 0.83
300 0.79 0.75 0.62 0.80 0.77 0.65 0.83 0.80 0.71 0.84 0.82 0.73 0.87 0.85 0.80
150
s = 0.025 s = 0.05
h/b = 10
1.25 1.25
h/b = 5 h/b = 2 h/b = 10
1.20 1.20
h/b = 1
h/b = 5 h/b = 2
1.15 1.15
Cd
Cd
h/b = 0.5
h/b = 1
1.10 1.10
h/b = 0.2 h/b = 0.5
1.05 1.05
1.00 1.00
10 100 200 10 100 200
h (m) h (m)
s = 0.1 s = 0.2
1.25 1.25
Cd
h/b = 2 1.10 h/b = 10
1.10
h/b = 1
1.05 1.05 h/b = 5
1.00 1.00
10 100 200 10 100 200
h (m) h (m)
Note 1. This figure is based on vb = 26 m/s, n1h = 46, ze = 0.6h. (The value of cd does not change significantly
for other wind speeds.)
Note 2. The size effect factor cs accounts for the non-simultaneous action of gusts over external surfaces.
It may be applied to individual structural components and cladding units and to the overall structure.
Note 3. The dynamic factor cd accounts for the effect of fluctuating wind loads in combination with the
resonance of the structure. The simplified approach given in this figure has been derived for typical buildings
with typical damping and natural frequency characteristics. More accurate values will be given using the
procedure in Clause 6.3 of BS EN 1991-1-4: 2005. cl.6.3: 1991-1-4
Note 4. The dynamic factor cd may be taken as 1.0 for framed buildings with structural walls and masonry
internal walls and for cladding panels and elements.
Note 5. Values of s for typical classes of structure are given in Annex F.5 of BS EN 1991-1-4: 2005. Annex A5:
(N.B. for reinforced concrete buildings s = 0.1 and for steel buildings s = 0.05). 1991-1-4
Fig. 6.1. Dynamic factor cd for various values of logarithmic decrement of structural damping, s
Expression (6.1) can be used provided the following requirements are satised:
. The structure corresponds to one of the general shapes shown in Fig. 6.2. cl.6.3(1P):
. Only the along-wind vibration in the fundamental mode is signicant, and this mode 1991-1-4
shape has a constant sign and the contribution to the response from the second or
higher along-wind vibration modes is negligible.
. The height of the building is less than 200 m.
b
b
h h h d
d
Wind Wind
ze Wind
h1 ze ze
h1
d
b
h h
ze = 0.6h > zmin ze = h1 + > zmin ze = h1 + > zmin
2 2
(a) (b) (c)
Fig. 6.2. General shapes of structures covered by the design procedure: (a) vertical structures such as
buildings; (b) parallel oscillator, i.e. horizontal structures such as beams; (c) pointlike structure such as
signboards. The structural dimensions and the reference height used are also shown
151
Example 6.1. Comparing cscd values between EN 1991-1-4 and the BSI NA
Consider wind loads on the long face of an oce building 10 m high with plan dimen-
sions of 60 m 20 m in Town terrain.
Using the BSI NA cd 1:0 from Table 6.2 (for h=b 0:167 and cs 0:77 from
Table 6.2 (for b h 70 and z hdis 10 thus giving a cs cd value of 0.77.
This will give a 23% reduction in wind load on this face compared with the cs cd
value of 1.0 recommended in Clause 6.3.1 of EN 1991-1-4.
Wake bueting
cl.6.3.3(1): For slender buildings where h=d > 4 and chimneys (h=d > 6:5 in tandem or grouped
1991-1-4 arrangement, the eect of increased turbulence in the wake of nearby structures (wake
bueting) needs to be taken into account.
cl.6.3.3(2): Wake bueting eects may be assumed to be negligible if at least one of the following
1991-1-4 conditions applies:
. the distance between two buildings or chimneys is larger than 25 times the cross-wind
dimension of the upstream building or chimney
. the natural frequency of the downstream building or chimney is higher than 1 Hz.
152
General
Section 7 gives pressure and force coecients for a wide range of buildings, structures and
elements.
Depending on the structure, EN 1991-1-4 uses four separate types of aerodynamic
coecient:
. Internal and external pressure coecients, see paragraph (1) in Choice of aerodynamic cl.7.1(1): 1991-1-4
coecient below.
. Net pressure coecients, see paragraph (2) in Choice of aerodynamic coecient.
. Friction coecients, see paragraph (3) in Choice of aerodynamic coecient.
. Force coecients, see paragraph (3) in Choice of aerodynamic coecient.
External pressure coecients give the eect of the wind on the external surfaces of Note 1 to cl.7.1(1):
buildings; internal pressure coecients give the eect of the wind on the internal surfaces 1991-1-4
of buildings.
In EN 1991-1-4, the external pressure coecients are divided into overall coecients Note 2 to cl.7.1(1):
and local coecients. Local coecients give the pressure coecients for loaded areas of 1991-1-4
2
1 m or less, e.g. for the design of small elements and xings; overall coecients give the
pressure coecients for loaded areas larger than 10 m2.
(2) The net pressure coecients should be determined for:
. canopy roofs, using Clause 7.3 of EN 1991-1-4 cl.7.1(2): 1991-1-4
. free-standing walls, parapets and fences using Clause 7.4 of EN 1991-1-4.
Net pressure coecients give the resulting eect of the wind on a structure, structural Note to cl.7.1(2):
element or component per unit area. 1991-1-4
(3) Friction coecients should be determined for walls and surfaces dened in Clause 5.2(3) cl.7.1(3): 1991-1-4
of EN 1991-1-4 and the Designers Guide using Clause 7.5 of EN 1991-1-4.
154
Annexes to EN 1991-1-4
References to Part 4
1. EN 1991-1-4: 2005. Eurocode 1: Actions on Structures Part 1-4: General Actions Wind
actions. European Committee for Standardisation, Brussels, 2005.
2. Cook, N. J. Designers Guide to EN 1991-1-4. Eurocode 1: Actions on Structures, General
Actions Part 1-4. Wind actions. Thomas Telford, London, 2007, ISBN 9 7807 2773 1524.
3. BS 6399-2: 1997. Loadings for Buildings: Part 2: Code of Practice for Wind Loads. British
Standards Institution, London, 1997.
4. Blackmore, P. The Application of EN 1991: Eurocode 1 Actions on Structures: Part 1:
General Actions: Guide to the Use of EN 1991-1-4 Wind actions. BRE, Watford, 2005.
Available on the CLG website at: http://www.communities.gov.uk/index.asp?id=1502963
156
General
This chapter is concerned with the general aspects of EN 1991-1-5: Eurocode 1 Actions on
Structures: Part 1.5: General Actions Thermal actions.1 The material described in this
chapter is covered in the following clauses:
. Scope Clause 1.1: 1991-1-5
. Normative references Clause 1.2: 1991-1-5
. Assumptions Clause 1.3: 1991-1-5
. Distinction between Principles and Application Rules Clause 1.4: 1991-1-5
. Terms and denitions Clause 1.5: 1991-1-5
. Symbols Clause 1.6: 1991-1-5
1.1. Scope
EN 1991-1-5: Eurocode 1 Actions on Structures: Part 1.5: General Actions Thermal actions cl.1.1(1): 1991-1-5
is one of the ten Parts of EN 1991. It gives design guidance and rules for calculating thermal
actions on buildings, bridges and other structures including their structural elements.
Principles needed for cladding and other appendages of the buildings are also provided in
EN 1991-1-5.
EN 1991-1-5 also describes the changes in the temperature of structural elements. It gives cl.1.1(2): 1991-1-5
characteristic values of thermal actions for use in the design of structures which are exposed
to daily and seasonal climatic changes. This clause further states that Structures not so
exposed may not need to be considered for thermal actions.
EN 1991-1-5 also gives guidance for structures in which thermal actions are mainly a cl.1.1(3): 1991-1-5
function of their use (e.g. cooling towers, silos, tanks, warm and cold storage facilities,
hot and cold services).
This Designers Guide will only give guidance on the parts of EN 1991-1-5 dealing with build-
ings. Bridges are covered by The Thomas Telford Guide: EN 1991: Actions on Structures: Bridges.
Before discussing each clause relating to buildings in EN 1991-1-5, a brief introductory
advice for using this EN 1991-1-5 for the design of buildings is given below.
Introductory advice for using this EN 1991-1-5 for the design of buildings
Introduction
There are buildings which can be characterised as sensitive to the eects of thermal actions
which need to be designed to resist their eects. The designer should use experience and
the guidance oered by EN 1991-1-5 and this manual to determine whether a building
is sensitive to the eects of thermal actions.
The four criteria that are important and need to be considered by the designer are:
1. Material
2. Geometry
3. Restraint
4. Temperature range and frequency.
Materials
Coecients of linear expansion to determine temperature-induced strains are given in
Table 4.1 of this Part of the Designers Guide for a selection of common building
materials.
Geometry
Buildings that have abrupt changes in geometry such as wings and courtyards will be
prone to dierential movement at junctions of architectural massing. This movement
will arise from thermal action and may be accompanied by movement from other actions
such as the dierential settlement of foundations or seismic eects.
Restraints
Most buildings rely on bracing or framing systems to provide overall structural stability.
These stability systems have the potential to create points of restraint against temperature
movement which in turn leads to temperature-induced stresses. The combination of
changes in plan geometry and the proximity of such systems can cause particular
problems.
Long buildings (normally greater that 50 m) with stability systems located at the ends of
the building are likely to cause signicant temperature-induced stresses in both the
stability system and connected elements of structure. It will be preferable to locate
stability systems in the middle of the external face of the building or distributed evenly
along it provided that each stability system only works in one direction.
Multi-storey buildings may exhibit signicant dierential temperature movements
between the frame and its cladding. Cladding support systems should be designed to
accommodate dierential movement of the structural frame and the cladding while still
catering for normal vertical and horizontal loads from the cladding.
Consideration should be given to the construction conditions which may expose
elements of structure to temporary temperature eects.
160
. Temperatures can be increased by solar gain so roofs and top decks of car parks
should be checked. Car parks with surfacing are particularly susceptible to solar gain.
Extreme temperature changes due to equipment failures should be taken into account in
the design.
At the construction stage normal thermal action may need to be added to other strain-
related eects such as:
. concrete curing temperatures (for large or thick pours)
. shrinkage.
1.3. Assumptions
The statements and assumptions given in EN 1990 Clause 1.3 apply to all the Eurocode parts cl.1.3: 1991-1-5
and designers guidance for these are given in the Designers Guide to EN 1990.
1.6. Symbols
The notation in Clause 1.6: EN 1991-1-5 is based on ISO 3898. cl.1.7(1): 1991-1-3
EN 1990 Clause 1.6 provides a comprehensive list of symbols, some of which may be
appropriate for use with EN 1991-1-5. The symbols given in Clause 1.6(2): 1991-1-5 are
additional notations specic to this part of EN 1991-1-5.
161
Classication of actions
This chapter is concerned with the classication of the actions in EN 1991-1-5: Eurocode 1
Actions on structures: Part 1.5: General Actions Thermal actions.
EN 1991-1-5 classies thermal actions as variable and indirect actions. cl.2.1(1)P:
The values of thermal actions, and the maximum and minimum shade air temperatures 1991-1-5
Tmax and Tmin given in EN 1991-1-5 are characteristic values unless it is stated otherwise
in the code. The characteristic values of thermal actions given in EN 1991-1-5 are values cl.2.1(2): 1991-1-5
with an annual probability of being exceeded of 0.02 (equivalent to a mean return period
of 50 years) unless otherwise stated, e.g. for transient design situations.
For determining the maximum and minimum temperatures for shorter return periods cl.2.1(3): 1991-1-5
(Tmax,p and Tmin,p) relating to transient design situations, the related values of thermal
actions may be derived using the calculation method given in Annex 1 of EN 1991-1-5 and Note to cl.2.1(3):
the characteristic values Tmax and Tmin are given in National maps showing isotherms for 1991-1-5
the minimum and maximum temperatures. These values have been based on a return
period of 50 years, but formulae are given in Annex A of EN 1991-1-5, based on Gumbel
law (i.e. law of extreme values of type I), for the assessment of temperatures based on a
return period other than 50 years. As a simplication, the results of these formulae are
given diagrammatically (see Fig. 2.1) as ratios between the maximum (minimum) for a
Maximum Minimum
0.005
0.007
0.01
0.014
0.02
0.05
p
0.01
0.02
0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3
Ratios
probability p and the maximum (minimum) for a return period of 50 years (probability
A2: 1991-1-5 p 0:02 (A2: 1991-1-5).
Example 2.1
Using Fig. 2.1 determine the ratios for Tmax,p/Tmax and Tmin,p/Tmin for a return period of
10 years.
For a return period of 50 years p 1=50 0:02
For a return period of 10 years p 1=10 0:01
Thus for maximum temperature the ratio for Tmax,p/Tmax is equal to 0.9 and for
minimum temperatures the ratio Tmin,p/Tmin is equal to 0.72.
164
Design situations
This chapter is concerned with the general concepts of design situations relating to
EN 1991-1-3: Eurocode 1 Actions on Structures: Part 1.5: General Actions Thermal
Actions.
EN 1990 Clause 3.2 identies the following design situations for the verication of ultimate cl.3.1(1)P:
limit states. 1991-1-5
. persistent design situations, which refer to the conditions of normal use
. transient design situations, which refer to temporary conditions applicable to the
structure, e.g. during execution or repair
. accidental design situations, which refer to exceptional conditions applicable to the
structure or to its exposure, e.g. explosions
. seismic design situations.
Each of these design situations is linked to a particular expression for the combination of
action eects as follows:
. persistent and transient design situations, which refer to expressions (6.10), or (6.10a)
and (6.10b) in EN 1990
. accidental design situations, which refers to expression (6.11b) in EN 1990
. seismic design situations, which refers to expression (6.12b) in EN 1990.
In addition, thermal actions need to be determined for the verication of serviceability limit
states and the following expressions for the combination of action eects given in EN 1990:
. the characteristic combination which refers to expression (6.14b) of EN 1990
. the frequent combination which refers to expression (6.15b) of EN 1990
. the quasi-permanent combination which refers to expression (6.16b) of EN 1990.
The thermal actions that need to be identied for each of the above design situations for
ultimate and serviceability limit state verications include the following:
. A characteristic value (Qk) which usually corresponds to an upper value with an intended
probability of not being exceeded during a specic reference period (normally 50 years for
buildings). Depending upon the design situation being considered for the ultimate or
serviceability limit states verications (described in EN 1990 Clauses 6.4 and 6.5 and its
Designers Guide), other representative values of a variable action need to be determined
as follows:
. The combination value, represented as a product 0 Qk .
. The frequent value, represented as a product 1 Qk . For buildings, the frequent value is
generally chosen so that the time it is exceeded is 0.01 of the reference period (i.e. 50
years).
166
Representation of actions
z z z z z
y y y y y
x
= + + +
Centre of gravity
Tu TMY TMZ TE
(c) a linearly varying temperature dierence component about the yy axis, designated
TMZ (see Fig. 4.1(c))
(d) a non-linear temperature dierence component, designated TE (see Fig. 4.1(d)),
resulting in a system of self-equilibrated stresses which produce no net load eect on
the element.
Of the four thermal components, the self-equilibrating component TE (see Fig. 4.1(d))
causes the least eect on the structure or element under consideration.
cl.4(4): 1991-1-5 The strains, deformations and the resulting stresses induced by the thermal actions are
dependent upon the geometry and boundary conditions of the element being considered
and on the physical properties of the material employed in the construction. When
materials with dierent coecients of linear expansion are used compositely the thermal
eect should be taken into account.
For determining the thermal eects, the coecient of linear expansion for a material
cl.4(5): 1991-1-5 will be required (Clause 4(5): 1991-1-5). Annex C of EN 1991-1-5 gives a comprehensive
list of the coecient of linear expansion for a selection of commonly used construction
Annex C of materials (Annex C of EN 1991-1-5). A sample from the UK National Annex to EN 1991-
1991-1-5 1-5 is reproduced in Table 4.1.
168
Temperature changes in
buildings
This chapter is concerned with the temperature changes in buildings in EN 1991-1-5: Euro-
code 1 Actions on Structures: Part 1.5: General Actions Thermal actions. The material
described in this chapter is covered in the following clauses:
. General Clause 5.1: 1991-1-5
. Determination of temperatures Clause 5.2: 1991-1-5
. Determination of temperature proles Clause 5.3: 1991-1-5
5.1. General
Thermal actions on buildings due to:
. climatic temperature changes, and
. operational temperature changes inside the building
need to be considered in the design of buildings where there is a possibility of the ultimate
or serviceability limit states being exceeded due to thermal movement and/or stresses cl.5.1(1)P:
(Clause 5.1 (1)P: 1991-1-5). 1991-1-5
In addition thermal movement and stresses within the structure caused by temperature
changes can also be inuenced by:
. the shading from nearby structures
. the use of dierent materials in the structure with dierent thermal expansion coecients
and heat transfer
. the dierent geometric shapes of member cross-sections.
(Note 1 to Clause 5.1(1)P: 1991-1-5). Note 1 to cl.5.1(1)P:
Moisture and other environmental factors (orientation of the structure) may also aect 1991-1-5
the volume changes of elements (Note 2 to Clause 5.1(1)P: 1991-1-5). Note 2 to cl.5.1(1)P:
1991-1-5
variations caused by activities within the building, the eects of short-term thermal
actions can be neglected in the structural analysis.
cl.5.2(2)P: Climatic eects need to be determined by considering the variation of shade air
1991-1-5 temperature and solar radiation as described later in this section. The inuence of
activities (i.e. operations) carried out in the buildings interior (due to heating, cooling,
technological or industrial processes) also need to be considered for the particular project
if appropriate.
cl.5.2(3)P: In accordance with the temperature components given in Chapter 4 of this Part,
1991-1-5 thermal actions caused by climatic and operational inuences on a structural element need
to be specied using the following basic quantities:
cl.5.2(5)P: (a) A uniform temperature component Tu given by the dierence between the average
1991-1-5 temperature T of an element and its initial temperature T0. Tu is dened as:
Tu T T0 5:1: 1991-1-5
where:
T is an average temperature of a structural element due to climatic temperatures in the
winter or summer season and due to operational temperatures, and
cl.1.5.5: 1991-1-5 T0 is dened as the temperature of a structural element at the relevant stage of its
restraint (completion). Normally the value for T0 may not be known at the time of
the design. The designer should make a safe assessment for the value of T0, or national
guidance may be available. In Italy a value of T0 158C is recommended.2
(b) A linearly varying temperature component given by the dierence TM between the
temperatures on the outer and inner surfaces of a cross-section, or on the surfaces of
individual layers.
(c) A temperature dierence Tp of dierent parts of a structure given by the dierence of
average temperatures of these parts.
The values of TM and Tp are normally determined for the particular project.
cl.5.2(4): 1991-1-5 In addition, local eects of thermal actions should be considered where relevant (e.g. at
supports or xings of structural and cladding elements). Adequate representation of
thermal actions should be dened taking into account the location of the building and
structural detailing.
The quantities Tu , TM , Tp and T are determined in accordance with the guidance
provided in Section 5.3 below using regional data. When regional data are not available,
the rules in Section 5.3 may be applied.
170
Summer T1
Winter T2
See also Fig. 5.1 for a diagrammatical representation of external and internal
temperatures.
. the maximum temperature Tout which is usually reached in Europe for latitudes between
458 and 558 (and also in accordance with the UK National Annex) for surfaces facing
west, south-west or for horizontal surfaces
. the minimum Tmin for surfaces facing north or north-east.
With reference to Table 5.2, Fig. 5.2 shows the recommended values for T3, T4 and T5
for dierent orientations of a building.
The values given on absorptivity depend on both colour (which EN 1991-1-5 notes) and
nish (which EN 1991-1-5 does not note).
In reality one may nd surfaces with absorptivity from 5% to 95%. Generally 0.5
means a light grey while 0.7 (which means reectivity 0.3) is a medium-dark surface which
171
Summer Tmax + Ti (i = 3, 4 or 5)
See Table 5.2
Winter Tmin
Summer T1
See Table 5.1
Winter T2
Ground level
Summer T6
Summer T1 <1 m See Table 5.3
Winter T8
Winter T2 See Table 5.1
Summer T7
See Table 5.3
Winter T9
could be a medium grey or a glossy darker surface, and 0.9 (0.1 reectivity) is very dark,
like matt black.
The temperatures Tout for both the summer and winter seasons are given in Table 5.3
for the parts of buildings below ground level for parts of Europe between latitudes 458
and 558; these are dependent upon the depth below ground level.
Table 5.2. Indicative temperatures Tout for buildings above ground level for latitudes between 458 and 558
are given in maps in the National Annexes for mean return periods of 50 years.
The recommended solar radiation eects T3, T4, and T5 are given by the following values:
. T3 08C, T4 28C and T5 48C should be used for north or north-east facing elements, and
. T3 188C, T4 308C and T5 428C for south, south-west or horizontal facing elements.
172
Table 5.3. Indicative temperatures Tout for parts of buildings below ground for latitudes between 458
and 558
The following values for T6, T7, T8 and T9 are recommended in EN 1991-1-5 and also used, for example, in the UK and
Italian National Annexes:
T6 88C
T7 58C
T8 58C
T9 38C
13.5 W E 4.5
S
9
18
13.5
23 W E 9
16
30
23
32.5 W E 13.5
23
42
32.5
Fig. 5.2. Solar radiation eects T3, T4 and T5 for dierent building orientations
173
Section 6 of EN 1991-1-5 Temperature changes in bridges is covered in the Designers Guide Section 6: 1991-1-5
for Actions on Road and Rail Bridges.
Section 7 of EN 1991-1-5 Temperature changes in industrial chimneys, pipelines, silos, Section 7: 1991-1-5
tanks and cooling towers is outside the scope of this Designers Guide.
Guidance on information given in Annex A Isotherms of National minimum and Annex A: 1991-1-5
maximum shade air temperatures is given in Figure 2.1 of this Designers Guide.
Guidance on information given in Annex B Temperature dierences for various surfacing Annex B: 1991-1-5
depths is covered in the Designers Guide for Actions on Road and Rail Bridges.
Guidance on information given in Annex C Coecients of linear expansion are given in Annex C: 1991-1-5
Table 2.1 of this Designers Guide.
30 Tin
Outer surface
20 Inner
surface
C
10 T(x) X
0
10 Tout
20
where layers (or part of a layer) from the inner surface up to point x (see Fig. D.1/EN 1991-1-
5) are considered only.
Note to D(2): For buildings:
1991-1-5
. the thermal resistance Rin 0:10 to 0.17 [m2K/W] (depending on the orientation of the
heat ow)
. Rout 0:04 (for all orientations)
. the thermal conductivity i for concrete (of volume weight from 21 to 25 kN/m3) varies
from i 1:16 to 1.71 [W/(mK)].
References to Part 5
1. EN 1991-1-5: 2003. Eurocode 1: Actions on Structures Part 1-5: General Actions
Thermal actions. European Committee for Standardisation, Brussels, 2003.
2. Norme Tecniche per le Costruzioni, DM 14.01.08. Gazzetta Uciale della Repubblica
Italiana, n. 29 del 4 febbraio 2008 Suppl. Ordinario n. 30.
3. CIBSE Guide A: Environmental Design, Chartered Institution of Building Services
Engineers, 2006.
4. ISO 6949: 2007. Building components and building elements Thermal resistance and
thermal transmittance Calculation method. International Organisation for Standardisa-
tion, Geneva, Switzerland, 2007.
5. ISO 13370: 2007. Thermal performance of buildings Heat transfer via the ground
Calculation methods. International Organisation for Standardisation, Geneva, Switzer-
land, 2007.
178
General
This chapter is concerned with the general aspects of EN 1991-1-6: Eurocode 1 Actions on
Structures: Part 1.6: General Actions Actions during execution.1 The material described in
this chapter is covered in the following clauses:
. Scope Clause 1.1: 1991-1-6
. Normative references Clause 1.2: 1991-1-6
. Assumptions Clause 1.3: 1991-1-6
. Distinction between Principles and Application Rules Clause 1.4: 1991-1-6
. Terms and denitions Clause 1.5: 1991-1-6
. Symbols Clause 1.6: 1991-1-6
1.1. Scope
EN 1991-1-6: Eurocode 1 Actions on Structures: Part 1.6: General Actions Actions during cl.1.1(1): 1991-1-6
execution is one of the ten Parts of EN 1991. It gives design guidance and rules for the
determination of actions which should be taken into account during execution of buildings
and civil engineering works.
The guidance given in EN 1991-1-6 can also be used for the determination of actions to be
taken into account for the design of:
. auxiliary construction works (auxiliary construction works include those which are
sometimes known as temporary structures, which are typically structures that are not
required after use when the related construction works are completed), and
. dierent types of construction works (e.g. structural alterations such as refurbishment Note 1 to cl.1.1(1):
and/or partial or full demolition). 1991-1-6
It is stressed that EN 1991-1-6 does not provide any guidance concerning the safety of cl.1.1(1): 1991-1-6
people (other than due to structural failure) in and around the construction site. Such
rules may be dened for the individual project in accordance with National requirements
(e.g. from the Health and Safety Executive in the UK).
A brief introduction is given below to the sections of this Part of EN 1991 which are cl.1.1(1): 1991-1-6
discussed in greater detail in Chapters 2 to 4 of this Part of this Designers Guide.
. Section 1: General. The scope of EN 1991-1-6 is wide, and it is the rst code in Europe on
this topic, and will benet and be applicable to many types of users, including clients,
designers and contractors of dierent disciplines.
. Section 2: Classication of actions. Among the many dened actions, particular attention
is paid to the introduction of a number of dierent types of construction loads, which
may typically be present during the execution stages but which are unlikely to be present
after completion of the structure.
. Section 3: Design situations and limit states. Principles and general rules on the choice of
design situations and combinations of actions are given in accordance with EN 1990:
Eurocode: Basis of structural design. Additionally, the planned duration of a relevant
phase of execution can be associated with a theoretical nominal duration which may
be used as a basis for the determination of characteristic values of climatic actions for
return periods shorter than 50 years.
. Section 4: Representation of actions. EN 1991-1-6 describes Principles and Application
rules for the determination of actions to be considered during execution of buildings
and civil engineering works, including the following aspects. It should be noted that
not all the actions and eects of actions below apply to buildings. In Chapter 4 only
those actions relating to buildings will be discussed:
k actions on structural and non-structural members during handling
k geotechnical actions
k actions due to prestressing eects
k predeformations
k temperature, shrinkage, hydration eects
k wind actions
k snow loads
k actions caused by water
k actions due to atmospheric icing
k construction loads
k accidental actions
k seismic actions.
. Annex A1: Supplementary rules for buildings, which is a normative annex, where
additional Basis of structural design information is given relating to Construction loads.
. Annex A2: Supplementary rules for bridges, which is a normative annex. This annex is
covered by the Thomas Telford Designers Guide for Actions on Bridges.
. Annex B: Actions on structures during alteration, reconstruction or demolition, which is an
informative annex where general introductory guidance is given by EN 1991-1-6.
cl.1.6.2.1: 1991-1-6 EN 1991-1-6 also gives rules for the determination of actions which may be used for the
design of auxiliary construction works which are dened as follows.
1.3. Assumptions
cl.1.3: 1991-1-6 The statements and assumptions given in EN 1990 Clause 1.3 apply to all the Eurocode
Parts and designers guidance, for these are given in the Designers Guide to EN 1990
(Clause 1.3: 1991-1-6).
182
Introductory advice for using this EN 1991-1-6 for the design of buildings
The guidance given in this part of the Designers Guide is based on EN 1991-1-6 which
gives guidance for the determination of actions for the design or verication of structures
during their execution stages. It gives rules also for the determination of actions to be used
for the design of auxiliary construction works, as well as for the design of structures in
transient design situations, as dened in EN 1990, such as refurbishment, reconstruction
and partial or total demolition. Auxiliary construction works include those that are
sometimes known as temporary structures. The scope of EN 1991-1-6 is wide and it is
the rst such code in Europe and will benet many, including clients, designers and
contractors of dierent disciplines. Among all the many dened actions, particular
attention is paid to the introduction of a number of dierent types of construction
loads, which may typically be present during execution stages but which are unlikely to
be present after completion of the structure.
183
Classication of actions
This chapter is concerned with the classication of the actions in EN 1991-1-6: Eurocode 1
Actions on Structures: Part 1.6: General Actions Actions during execution. The material
described in this chapter is covered in the following clauses:
. General Clause 2.1: 1991-1-6
. Construction loads Clause 2.2: 1991-1-6
2.1. General
EN 1991-1-6 classies two sets of action types that occur during execution. The rst set of cl.2.1(1): 1991-1-6
actions are the general actions (e.g. snow loads, wind actions, thermal actions, self-weight)
that occur during the executing process. The second set of actions are the construction
loads (due to the operations of the execution process) which may typically be present
during execution stages but which are unlikely to be present after completion of the struc-
ture.
The general actions that occur during the execution process are classied in accordance cl.2.1(1): 1991-1-6
with EN 1990: 2002, Clause 4.1.1, and explained in the Designers Guide to EN 1990.
Table 2.1 of EN 1991-1-6 gives the recommended classications of actions for the general Table 2.1 of
actions, appropriate for buildings with respect to their variation in time (permanent/vari- EN 1991-1-6
able/accidental), origin (direct/indirect), their spatial variation (xed/free), by their nature
or structural response (static/dynamic). Note 1 of cl.2.1(1):
Actions not necessarily relevant for buildings are shown shaded in Table 2.1. 1991-1-6
Account should be taken of the fact that during the execution stages, as well as
after completion of a structure, some of the actions may have to be reclassied. A typical
example is the prestressing action applied to a concrete beam, which is to be regarded as a
permanent action for the completed structure, but may have to be taken into account as a
variable action for the design of anchorage areas during the execution phase for the jacking
process.
Table 2.1. Classication of actions (other than construction loads) during execution stages (from EN 1991-1-6 Table 2.1)
Classication
Note 1 of Table Section 4.11.1 and Table 4.2 of this Designers Guide give a comprehensive description of
2.2: 1991-1-6 the various types of construction loads.
Note 1 of Table Construction loads, which are caused by cranes, equipment, auxiliary construction works
2.2: 1991-1-6 or structures, may be classied as xed or free actions depending on their possible positions
for use. See Section 4.11 below.
cl.2.2(3): 1991-1-6 Where the construction loads are classied as xed, then tolerances for possible deviations
from the theoretical assumed position should be dened. This will normally be for the
individual project.
cl.2.2(4): 1991-1-6 Where the construction loads are classied as free, then the limits of the area where they
may be moved or positioned should be determined. EN 1991-1-6 allows these limits to be
Note 1 to cl.2.2(4): dened in the National Annex and also for the individual project. In the UK National
1991-1-6 Annex the limits of movement for construction loads classied as free, need to be dened
for the individual project.
186
In accordance with EN 1990: 2002, 1.3(2), and Annex B of EN 1990, control measures cl.1.3(2): EN 1990
should be adopted, in particular to structures that fall within Consequence Classes CC2 Table B1: EN 1990
and CC3 in accordance with Table B1 from Annex B of EN 1990 to verify the conformity Note 2 to cl.2.2(4):
of the position and moving of construction loads with the design assumptions. 1991-1-6
Classication
187
This chapter is concerned with the design situations and limit states in EN 1991-1-6:
Eurocode 1 Actions on Structures: Part 1.6: General Actions Actions during execution.
The material described in this chapter is covered in the following clauses:
. General Identication of design situations Clause 3.1: 1991-1-6
. Ultimate limit states Clause 3.2: 1991-1-6
. Serviceability limit states Clause 3.3: 1991-1-6
cl.3.1(4)P: Additionally the selected design situations need to be in accordance with the execution
1991-1-6 processes anticipated and need to take account of any revisions to the execution
processes.
cl.3.1(5): 1991-1-6 The expected time period or duration of a particular stage of execution may be asso-
ciated with a nominal duration of the selected design situation, thus enabling dierent
return periods of climatic actions to be taken into account. The nominal duration is
intended to be equal to or greater than the anticipated duration of the stage of execution
under consideration. Four ranges of return periods are recommended in EN 1991-1-6 as
indicated in Table 3.1 below.
Regarding the nominal duration of three days, that is chosen for short execution
phases, this corresponds to the extent in time of reliable meteorological predictions for the
location of the site. Therefore in determining on the actions and their values, reliable
meteorological predictions can be used instead in accordance with EN 1991-1-6. This
choice may be kept for a slightly longer execution phase if appropriate organisational
measures are taken. Generally, the concept of mean return period is generally not
190
Table 3.1. Recommended return periods for the assessment of the characteristic values of climatic
actions Qk depending on nominal duration of execution phase
appropriate for short-term duration. However there may be situations when the time of Note (a) to Table
the short execution phase cannot be predicted, and in those cases a return period of two 3.1: 1991-1-6
years will give a reasonable value to be used.
Regarding the nominal duration of up to three months, actions may be determined
taking into account appropriate seasonal and shorter-term meteorological climatic
variations. For example, if for 3 days < t 3 months, the period of the year under Note (a) to Table
consideration is between June and the end of August, the likelihood of snow is very low. 3.1: 1991-1-6
However there may be situations when the time of the execution phase cannot be
predicted, and in those cases a return period of ve years will give a reasonable value to
be used.
EN 1991-1-6 allows for the return periods for the determination of characteristic values Note to cl.3.1(5):
of variable actions during execution to be dened in the National Annex or for the 1991-1-6
individual project. The UK National Annex, for example, species that these are dened
for the individual project, using the recommended values as a minimum.
where:
Tmax;50 =Tmin;50 is the maximum/minimum shade air temperature for 50 years return period
and
Tmax;R =Tmin;R for n years return period, and the coecients k1 0:781, k2 0:056,
k3 0:393, k4 0:156 may be used in case of lack of specic information
on the coecient of variation of temperature records.
See also the parts of this Designers Guide dealing with EN 1991-1-5.
191
Table 3.2. Reduction coecient k of actions Qk;R for dierent return periods R
Reduction coecient k
Return period
(years) p For thermal Tmax;R For thermal Tmin;R For snow sn;R For wind vb;R
where:
sk;50 is the characteristic snow load on the ground for a 50-year return period, and
sk;R for n years return period, and
V is the coecient of variation of annual maximum snow load,
p is the probability of exceedance during the reference period of n years, and it may be
taken approximately equal to 1=n.
See also the Parts of this Designers Guide dealing with EN 1991-1-3.
192
Example 3.1
The determination of characteristic values of variable actions Qk;R for four dierent return
periods (R can be seen below in Table 3.3 based on the k values given in Table 3.2.
This is for considered selected (2, 5 and 10 years) characteristic values of:
(a) For thermal actions a maximum shade air temperature Tmax;50 328C.
(b) For thermal actions a minimum shade air temperature Tmin;50 308C.
(c) For snow load on the ground sn;50 1:5 kN/m2.
(d) For basic wind velocity vb 26 m/s for a 50-year return period.
Table 3.3. Example of determination of climatic actions Qk;R for return periods R (2, 5 and 10 years)
Return period (a) For thermal (b) For thermal (c) For snow (d) For wind
R (years) p Tmax;R (8C) Tmin;R (8C) sn;R (kN/m2) vb;R (m/s)
193
194
The criteria associated with the serviceability limit states to be checked during execution Note to cl.3.3(2):
may be dened in the National Annex and EN 1992 to EN 1999, but in many cases will 1991-1-6
need to be specied for the individual project.
Load eects due to shrinkage, elastic shortening (post-tensioned concrete) and tem- cl.3.3(5): 1991-1-6
perature need to be taken into account, generally by using the quasi-permanent load
combination, in the design where appropriate, and should be minimised in the design by
appropriate detailing.
Where relevant, serviceability requirements for auxiliary construction works need to be cl.3.3(6): 1991-1-6
dened in order to avoid any unintentional deformations and displacements which aect
the appearance or eective use of the structure or cause damage to nishes or non-
structural members.
These requirements may be dened in the National Annex or for the individual project. Note to cl.3.3(6):
Further guidance may be obtained from EN 12810,5 EN 12811,6 BS EN 12812,7 and BS 1991-1-6
EN 12813.8
195
Representation of actions
4.1. General
The determination of representative values of actions during execution need to be cl.4.1(1)P:
determined in accordance with EN 1990, EN 1991, EN 1997 and EN 1998 as appropriate. 1991-1-6
The characteristic value Fk for the design situations during execution is a main
representative value of a permanent or variable action. In accordance with EN 1990, the
value of Fk needs to be specied as a mean, an upper or lower value, or a nominal value.
If these values are specied for the individual project it must be ensured that consistency
is achieved with methods given in the Eurocodes.
For variable actions, the two other representative values of actions Frep that in common
cases need to be considered for design for the execution phase are:
1. the combination value, represented as a product 0 Qk , used for the verication of the
ultimate limit states and irreversible serviceability limit states
2. the quasi-permanent value, represented as a product 2 Qk , used for the verication of
ultimate limit states, involving accidental actions and for verication of reversible
serviceability limit states, for appearance etc.
Note 1 to cl.4.1(1)P: The representative values of the actions (that also apply for the completed structure)
1991-1-6 during execution may be dierent from those used in the design of the completed struc-
Note 2 and 3 to ture. As explained in Section 3.1 of this guide, this may be due to the shorter duration of
cl.4.1(1)P: 1991-1-6 actions compared to the design working life of the structure.
No further guidance is necessary to Notes 2 and 3 of Clause 4.1(1)P (Note 1 to Clause
4.1(1)P: 1991-1-6) and (Note 2 to Clause 4.1(1)P: 1991-1-6).
cl.4.1(2): 1991-1-6 The determination of the representative values of construction loads will often depend
on the specic process and period of execution as described in Section 3.1 of this
Designers Guide. In some cases it may be more appropriate to specify the values for the
factors, in some cases, for the individual project.
Regarding the values for construction loads, Annex A1 of EN 1991-1-6 recommends
factors of construction loads for:
.
0 0:6 to 1.0, and
.
2 0:2
for building structures. It should be noted that 1 does not normally apply to construction
loads during execution.
cl.4.1(3): 1991-1-6 Interaction eects between structures and parts of structures need to be taken into
account during execution. Such structures also include structures that form part of the
auxiliary construction works.
cl.4.1(4)P: When parts of a structure are braced or supported by other parts of a structure (e.g. by
1991-1-6 propping oor beams for concreting), the actions on these parts resulting from bracing or
supporting have to be taken into account.
198
Fig. 4.1. The slab of the lower level is supporting the casting weight of the upper one
Depending on the construction procedures, the supporting parts of the structure may Note 1 to cl.4.1(4)P:
be subjected to loads greater than the imposed loads for which they are designed for the 1991-1-6
persistent design situation, and this has to be checked. Additionally, concrete elements
(e.g. supporting slabs) may not have developed their full strength capacities.
Figure 4.1 shows an example where the already constructed lower level is supporting
the casting weight of the oor above.
Clause 4.1(4)P of EN 1991-1-6 is of particular relevance. Many collapses have occurred
for reasons directly linked to the underestimation of the resistance of lower oors during
the casting phases. As an example, Fig. 4.2 shows the collapse that occurred in the US10
during the casting of concrete in the building where the lower supporting slabs had not
developed their full strength. In the construction of the 26-storey building, concrete was
being placed on the 24th oor and shorings were simultaneously being removed at the
22nd oor cast two weeks before and insucient shear resistance of concrete caused
progressive collapse. Note 2 to cl.4.1(4)P:
No further guidance is necessary to Note 2 of Clause 4.1(4)P. 1991-1-6
Clause 4.1(5) may not generally have an application for buildings. However, where
appropriate, any horizontal actions from friction eects need to be determined and based cl.4.1(5): 1991-1-6
on the use of appropriate values of friction coecients.
In the assessment, the lower and upper bounds of friction coecients may have to be Note 1 to cl.4.1(5):
taken into account. Friction coecients may be dened for the individual project. 1991-1-6
199
cl.4.2(2): 1991-1-6 Where necessary, the dynamic or inertia eects of self-weight of structural and non-
structural members will need to be taken into account. This will depend upon the indivi-
dual project but further information may be found in EN 1991-1-1.
Clauses 4.2(3) and 4.2(4) regarding:
cl.4.2(3): 1991-1-6 . actions on attachments for hoisting elements and materials and
cl.4.2(4): 1991-1-6 . actions on structural and non-structural members due to support positions and
conditions during hoisting, transporting or storage for which account needs to be
taken, where appropriate of the actual support conditions and dynamic or inertia
eects due to vertical and horizontal accelerations.
200
are generally more applicable to bridge structures, and reference should be made to the Note 1 to cl.4.2(2):
Designers Guide on Actions on Bridges. 1991-1-6
4.5. Predeformations
The treatments of the eects of predeformations need to be in conformity with the cl.4.5(1)P: 1991-1-6
relevant design Eurocode (from EN 1992 to EN 1999). Note to cl.4.5(1)P:
Predeformations can result from displacements of supports, for example hangers and 1991-1-6
supports for oors.
Action eects from execution processes should be taken into account, especially where cl.4.5(2): 1991-1-6
predeformations (precamber or preset) are applied to a particular structural element
in order to generate action eects for improving its nal behaviour, particularly for
structural safety and serviceability requirements.
A typical example is the self-weight distribution in concrete slabs poured over precast
beams or oor elements with precamber, where the nal appearance of the oor should be
at, see Fig. 4.3.
201
Cast-in-situ topping
H1
H2
H1 H2
Supporting beams Precast RC floor with precamber
Fig. 4.3. Cast-in-situ topping over a precast prestressed reinforced concrete oor, with precamber
cl.4.7(1): 1991-1-6 Clause 4.7(1) will not apply to the majority of building structures. However, for
Note to cl.4.7(1): dynamically sensitive buildings and structural elements such as slender columns or
1991-1-6 chimneys, the need for a dynamic response design procedure for wind actions should be
determined for the execution stages, taking into account the degree of completeness and
stability of the structure and its various elements. The criteria and procedures have to be
dened for the individual project.
202
The characteristic values of static wind forces QW should be determined according to cl.4.7(2): 1991-1-6
EN 1991-1-4 and its Designers Guide and the chapter on wind actions in this manual, for Note to cl.4.7(2):
the appropriate return period. The appropriate return periods have been explained and 1991-1-6
specied in Section 3.1 of this Part of this Designers Guide.
For lifting and moving operations or other construction phases that are of short cl.4.7(3): 1991-1-6
duration, the maximum acceptable wind speed for the operations should be specied, in Note to cl.4.7(3):
accordance with Section 3.1 of this Part of this Designers Guide. 1991-1-6
Clause 4.7(1) will not apply to the majority of building structures and no further cl.4.7(4): 1991-1-6
guidance is provided here. The reader is referred to EN 1991-1-4 and its Designers Guide.
Wind actions on parts of the structure that are intended to be internal parts after its cl.4.7(5): 1991-1-6
completion (e.g. internal walls) should be taken into account for execution processes. In Note to cl.4.7(5):
such cases, the external pressure coecients cpe may have to be applied (e.g. for free- 1991-1-6
standing walls).
When determining wind forces, the areas of equipment, falsework and other cl.4.7(6): 1991-1-6
auxiliary construction works that are loaded should be taken into account.
203
Table 4.1. Observed mean structural loads, transformed into an equivalent uniformly distributed
load, for 10%, 1% and 0.5% fractiles
As an example, the 5% fractile value for the 9.25 m2 grid size is 1.23 kN/m2 (Gumbel
distribution of the random variable is assumed).
From Table 4.1 it can be seen that the mean load is independent of the loaded area
and its magnitude is low. But the coecient of variation is very high, ranging from about
1.00 to 2.00, which explains the high values corresponding to fractiles of 10, 1 and 0.5%.
Other studies, e.g. Partial Factor Design for Reinforced Concrete Buildings during
Construction13 have suggested higher mean construction variable actions, but with a
lower value of the coecient of variation.
From the above it is suggested that:
. the order of magnitude of the characteristic vertical uniformly distributed load on
oors during execution of buildings is close to 1 kN/m2
. the geometrical variability of loads during execution should be covered by an over-
loading on a limited area.
204
4.11.1. General
Construction loads (Qc may be represented in the appropriate design situations in
accordance with EN 1990 and Sections 3.2 and 3.3 of this Part of this Designers Guide
either, as
. one single variable action, or
. where appropriate, dierent types of construction loads may be grouped and applied as a
single variable action.
In the appropriate combination of action expressions (see Sections 3.2 and 3.3 above), cl.4.11.1(1):
single and/or a grouping of construction loads need to be considered to act simultaneously 1991-1-6
with non-construction loads as appropriate.
Advice on simultaneity of non-construction loads, that can also apply when combining Note 1 to
non-construction and construction loads, are given in EN 1990 and EN 1991. cl.4.11.1(1):
Six types of construction loads (see Table 4.2) have been introduced in EN 1991-1-6 and 1991-1-6
the groupings of these loads that are to be taken into account as appropriate during Note 1 to
execution are dependent on the individual project. cl.4.11.1(1):
No further guidance is required on Note 3 to Clause 4.11.1(1). 1991-1-6
The dierent construction loads Qca , Qcb , Qcc , Qcd , Qce and Qcf that have to be taken Note 3 to
into account as appropriate are given in Table 4.2. cl.4.11.1(1):
Each will then be described with regard to the representation of the action together 1991-1-6
with remarks that include the values of loads to be used. cl.4.11.1(2):
1991-1-6
Qca : Personnel and handtools
Qca , covering personnel (site sta and visitors) and handtools (see Fig. 4.4) is modelled
as a uniformly distributed load qca and applied as to obtain the most unfavourable
eects.
The recommended characteristic value qca;k of the uniformly distributed load I
EN 1991-1-6 which may be dened in the National Annex or for the individual project is
1.0 kN/m2.
Personnel and handtools Qca Working personnel, sta and visitors, possibly with handtools or other
small site equipment
Storage of movable items Qcb Storage of moveable items, e.g.:
. building and construction materials, precast elements, and
. equipment
Non-permanent Qcc Non-permanent equipment in position for use during execution, either:
equipment . static (e.g. formwork panels, scaolding, falsework, machinery,
containers), or
. during movement (e.g. travelling forms, launching girders and nose,
counterweights)
Movable heavy machinery Qcd Movable heavy machinery and equipment, usually wheeled or tracked
and equipment (e.g. cranes, lifts, vehicles, lift-trucks, power installations, jacks, heavy
lifting devices)
Accumulation of waste Qce Accumulation of waste materials (e.g. surplus construction materials,
materials excavated soil, or demolition materials)
Loads from parts of a Qcf Loads from parts of a structure in temporary states (under execution)
structure in temporary before the nal design actions take eect, such as loads from lifting
states operations
205
Table 4.1: The UK National Annex states the characteristic value qca;k of the uniformly distributed
1991-1-6 load may be dened for the individual project and a minimum value of 1.00 is
recommended.
206
Fig. 4.5(a) and (b). Examples of storage of building and construction materials
These loads may vary signicantly, and over short time periods, depending on types of
materials, climatic conditions, build-up and clearance rates.
207
Fig. 4.6. Example of non-permanent static equipment (formwork panels, scaolding, and falsework)
Qcf is taken into account and modelled according to the planned execution sequences,
Table 4.1: including consequences of those sequences, for example loads and reverse load eects due
1991-1-6 to particular processes of construction, such as assemblage.
cl.4.11.1(3)P: See Section 4.11.2 of this guide for additional loads due to concrete being fresh.
1991-1-6 No further guidance is necessary for Clause 4.11.1(3)P.
Note 1 to Recommended values of factors for construction loads which are given in Annex A1
cl.4.11.1(3)P: of EN 1991-1-6 for buildings, have been explained in Section 4.1 of this Designers Guide.
1991-1-6
208
Note 2 to
cl.4.11.1(3)P:
1991-1-6
No further guidance is necessary for Note 2 to Clause 4.11.1(3)P.
In case of heavy equipment or for other specic construction materials, the nominal
cl.4.11.1(4)P:
values supplied by the producers may be assumed as characteristic.
1991-1-6
No further guidance is necessary for Clause 4.11.1(4)P.
cl.4.11.1(5)P:
No further guidance necessary for Clause 4.11.1(5)P.
1991-1-6
209
Table 4.3. Recommended characteristic values of actions due to construction loads during casting of
concrete
(a) Inside the working area 3 m 3 m (or the span 10% of the self-weight of the fresh concrete for
length if less) the design thickness but not less than 0.75 kN/m2
and not more than 1.5 kN/m2
Includes Qca and Qcf
(b) Outside the working area 0.75 kN/m2 covering Qca
(c) Actual area Self-weight of the formwork, load-bearing
element (Qcc and the weight of the fresh
concrete for the design thickness (Qcf
3000 mm 3000 mm
Note: For action (b) a lower value of Qca than the one in Table 4.1 of EN 1991-1-6. This takes into account the fact that
most site personnel will be in area (a) where the main construction activities are taking place.
Note 3 to Other values may have to be dened, for example when using self-levelling concrete or
cl.4.11.2(1): precast products.
1991-1-6 Horizontal actions of fresh concrete may need to be taken into account where
appropriate.
210
1. 2.5 kN applied over an area 200 mm 200 mm, to account for stumbling eects
2. 6.0 kN applied over an area 300 mm 300 mm, to account for falling eects.
The eects of the accidental actions described in this section should be assessed to cl.4.12(4):
determine the potential for inducing movement in the structure. The extent and eect of 1991-1-6
any such movement should be determined, and the potential for progressive collapse
assessed.
Additional information may be obtained from EN 1991-1-7 and the chapter in this Note to cl.4.12(3):
Designers Guide relating to accidental actions. 1991-1-6
Accidental actions used for design situations should be taken into account for any
changes of the execution process. To ensure that the appropriate design criteria are cl.4.12(5):
applied at all times, corrective measures need to be taken as work proceeds. 1991-1-6
No further guidance required on the statement in Clause 4.12(6) Fire actions should be
taken into account, where appropriate. However, more information may be obtained from cl.4.12(5):
EN 1991-1-2 and its Thomas Telford Designers Guide1 and EN 1991-1-7 and the chapter 1991-1-6
in this Designers Guide relating to accidental actions.
211
This chapter is concerned with the Annex A1 (normative) Supplementary rules for buildings
in EN 1991-1-6: Eurocode 1 Actions on Structures: Part 1.6: General Actions Actions
during execution. The material described in this chapter which concern basis of structural
design rules during execution is covered in the following clauses:
. Ultimate limit states Clause A1.1: 1991-1-6
. Serviceability limit states Clause A1.2: 1991-1-6
. Horizontal actions Clause A1.3: 1991-1-6
Note to cl.A1.2(1): The guidance given in Section A1.1 of this guide for values of factors are also applicable
1991-1-6 for serviceability limit state verications.
214
No guidance is given in the Designers Guide for Annex A2 (normative) Supplementary rules Annex A2:
for bridges. Information can be found in the Designers Guide for Actions on Bridges. 1991-1-6
No additional guidance is considered necessary in this Designers Guide for Annex B Annex B: 1991-1-6
(informative) Actions on structures during alteration, reconstruction or demolition.
218
General
This chapter is concerned with the general aspects of EN 1991-1-7: Eurocode 1 Actions
on Structures: Part 1.7: General Actions Accidental actions.1 The material described in
this chapter is covered in the following clauses:
. Scope Clause 1.1: 1991-1-7
. Normative references Clause 1.2: 1991-1-7
. Assumptions Clause 1.3: 1991-1-7
. Distinction between Principles and Application Rules Clause 1.4: 1991-1-7
. Terms and denitions Clause 1.5: 1991-1-7
. Symbols Clause 1.6: 1991-1-7
1.1. Scope
EN 1991-1-7: Eurocode 1 Actions on Structures: Part 1.7: General Actions Accidental cl.1.1(1): 1991-1-7
actions is one of the ten Parts of EN 1991. It gives strategies and rules for safeguarding
buildings and other civil engineering works (e.g. bridges) against identiable and unidenti-
able accidental actions.
EN 1991-1-7 denes the strategies based on: cl.1.1(2): 1991-1-7
. identied accidental actions, and
. limiting the extent of localised failure (e.g. when the accidental action is unidentied).
Typical examples of accidental actions that can be identied include re, some explosions,
earthquakes, impacts, oods, avalanches and landslides.
Next to these identied accidental actions, structural members may get damaged for a
variety of less identiable reasons such as human errors in design and construction,
improper use, exposure to aggressive agencies, failure of equipment, malicious attacks
(e.g. terrorist attacks), warfare and so on.
EN 1991-1-7 gives general guidelines on dealing with the eects of identied and uniden-
tied accidental actions. Because of the nature of accidental loads the design approach is
dierent from that for normal loads (e.g. imposed loads and climatic actions). Local
damage may be acceptable and non-structural measures (e.g. sprinkler installations or
vent openings) may prove to be more cost-eective than structural ones.
EN 1991-1-7 comprehensively deals with many topics including: cl.1.1(3): 1991-1-7
. impact (in Section 4 of EN 1991-1-7)
. explosions (in Section 5 of EN 1991-1-7).
The code includes a number of key informative annexes on the following:
. Design for the consequences of localised failure in buildings from an unspecied cause (in
Annex A of EN 1991-1-7).
. Information on risk assessment which may have to be used for eects giving rise to high
consequences of failure are given in Annex B of EN 1991-1-7.
. Dynamic design for impact. Section 4 gives values of actions due to impact from trac,
trains etc. As an alternative these can be directly obtained using Annex C of EN 1991-1-7.
. Internal explosions (in Annex D of EN 1991-1-7).
cl.1.1(4): 1991-1-7 No additional comment is required for Clauses 1.1(4) and (1.1.5).
cl.1.1(5): 1991-1-7 Although EN 1991-1-7 does not specically deal with accidental actions caused by
cl.1.1(6): 1991-1-7 external explosions, warfare and terrorist activities, this clause does refer to Clause 3.1(2)
Note 3 of cl.3.1(2): of EN 1991-1-7, which in its Note 3 states:
1991-1-7
Strategies based on unidentied accidental actions cover a wide range of possible events and are
related to strategies based on limiting the extent of localised failure. The adoption of strategies for
limiting the extent of localised failure may provide adequate robustness against those accidental
actions identied in 1.1(6), . . . .
cl.1.1(6): 1991-1-7 In addition EN 1991-1-7 does not deal with the residual stability of buildings or other
civil engineering works damaged by seismic action or re, etc. Fire and earthquakes are
dealt with in specic parts in the Eurocode system.
Events, which are generally denoted as accidents, such as persons falling through
windows or roofs, are outside the scope of EN 1991-1-7. The reason is this type of acci-
dent has no potential for damaging the structural system.
This Designers Guide will only give guidance on the parts of EN 1991-1-7 dealing with
buildings. Bridges are covered by the Thomas Telford Designers Guide on Actions on
Bridges.2
222
. avoiding as far as possible structural systems that can collapse without warning
. tying the structural members together.
2.2(3) The choice of the levels of reliability for a particular structure should take account
of the relevant factors, including:
. the possible cause and/or mode of attaining a limit state
. the possible consequences of failure in terms of risk of life, injury, potential economical
losses
. public aversion to failure
. the expense and procedures necessary to reduce the risk of failure.
1.3. Assumptions
EN 1991-1-7 (Clause 1.3: 1991-1-7) directly references EN 1990 Clause 1.3. cl.1.3: 1991-1-7
The statements and assumptions given in EN 1990 Clause 1.3 apply to all the Eurocode
parts, and designers guidance for these are given in the Thomas Telford Designers Guide
to EN 1990.3
223
Note: An accidental action can be expected in many cases to cause severe consequences
unless appropriate measures are taken.
cl.1.5.2: 1991-1-7 (b) A denition is given for consequence class as follows.
Classication of the consequences of failure of the structure or part of it.
Note that the concept of consequence classes is introduced in Annex B of EN 1990, and
is discussed in the Thomas Telford Designers Guide to EN 1990.
cl.1.5.14: 1991-1-7 (c) A denition is given for robustness as follows.
The ability of a structure to withstand events like re, explosions, impact or the consequences of
human error, without being damaged to an extent disproportionate to the original cause.
To help with the better appreciation of this denition for robustness, the denition for
progressive collapse is given below.
A chain reaction of failures following damage to a relatively small portion of a structure. The
damage resulting from progressive collapse is disproportionate to the damage that initiated the
collapse.
Note that in extreme circumstances if the accidental event is massive then progressive
collapse may be considered proportionate.
An example of a disproportionate collapse is the collapse of Ronan Point shown in
Fig. 1.1.
224
The concrete panel building was subjected to an accidental event on 16 May 1968,
caused by a gas explosion which occurred at 5.45 a.m. in the kitchen of a at located
at the 18th oor. The explosion caused a progressive collapse with a domino eect,
involving the south-east corner of the building.
(d) The denitions for substructure and superstructure can be the cause of confusion,
because the denitions are dierent for buildings and bridges. The denitions are repro-
duced below but with the denition for buildings given in bold italics.
substructure
That part of a building structure that supports the superstructure. In the case of buildings this cl.1.5.15: 1991-1-7
usually relates to the foundations and other construction work below ground level. In the case of
bridges this usually relates to foundations, abutments, piers and columns etc.
superstructure
That part of a building structure that is supported by the substructure. In the case of buildings cl.1.5.16: 1991-1-7
this usually relates to the above ground construction. In the case of bridges this usually relates to
the bridge deck.
1.6. Symbols
The notation in Clause 1.6: EN 1991-1-7 is based on ISO 3898. cl.1.6(1): 1991-1-7
EN 1990 Clause 1.6 provides a comprehensive list of symbols, some of which may be
appropriate for use with EN 1991-1-7. The symbols given in Clause 1.6(1): 1991-1-7 are
additional notations specic to this part of EN 1991-1-7.
225
Classication of actions
This chapter is concerned with the rules relating to classication of the actions in EN 1991-1-
7: Eurocode 1 Actions on Structures: Part 1.7: General Actions Accidental actions. The
material described in this chapter is covered in the following clause:
. Classication of actions Clause 2.1: 1991-1-7
Clause 2.1(1)P gives a table which species the relevant clauses and sub-clauses in cl.2.1(1)P:
EN 1990, which apply to the design of a structure subjected to Accidental actions, including 1991-1-7
the following:
(a) EN 1990 Clause 4.1.2(8) states that for accidental actions the design value Ad should be
specied for individual projects.
. where A is an accidental action, and
. Ad is the design value of an accidental action.
(b) The combination of actions for the accidental design situation is given by Clause 6.4.3.3
of EN 1990 as:
X X
Gk; j 00 00 P 00 00 Ad 00 00 1;1 or 2;1 Qk;1 00 00 2;i Qk;i 6.11b/EN 1990
j1 i>1
The choice between 1;1 Qk;1 or 2;1 Qk;1 should be related to the relevant accidental
design situation (impact, re or survival after an accidental event or situation). In the
UK National Annex for EN 1990, 1;1 Qk;1 should only be used.
(c) In accordance with EN 1990 Clause A1.3.2. The partial factors for actions for the
ultimate limit states in the accidental design situations should be 1.0.
EN 1991-1-7 classies Accidental actions due to impact as free actions unless cl.2.1(1)P:
otherwise specied. 1991-1-7
It does not classify accidental actions due to explosions which may in some cases be
treated as xed action at the point of consideration (e.g. on a key element dened in cl.1.5.10:
EN 1991-1-7 as a structural member upon which the stability of the remainder of the 1991-1-7
structure depends.
Force
Force
Time Time
(a) (b)
Fig. 2.1. Typical time characteristics of (a) accidental and (b) variable load
A typical accidental action (Fig. 2.1(a)) will most probably not occur during the design
working life of the structure. If it does occur, it will normally last only a short time, varying
from a few seconds (for explosions) to some days (for oods).
A variable action (Fig. 2.1(b)) is nearly always present, although its value may be small for
a substantial part of the time. However, signicant high values will in most cases (e.g. wind,
snow) occur many times during the design life of the structure.
Another dierence between a variable and an accidental action is the action intensity. The
accidental action is so intense that it is considered an extremely rare event, unlikely to occur
during normal use of the structure.
228
Design situations
This chapter is concerned with the general concepts of design situations relating to
EN 1991-1-7: Eurocode 1 Actions on Structures: Part 1.7: General Actions Accidental
actions. The material described in this chapter is covered in the following clauses:
. General Clause 3.1: 1991-1-7
. Accidental design situations strategies for identied
accidental actions Clause 3.2: 1991-1-7
. Accidental design situations strategies for limiting the extent
of localised failure Clause 3.3: 1991-1-7
. Accidental design situations use of consequence classes Clause 3.4: 1991-1-7
3.1. General
In accordance with Clause 3.2 of EN 1990, the term design situation is dened to mean the
circumstances in which the structure may be required to full its function. The selected
design situations have to be suciently severe and varied enough to encompass all condi-
tions that can reasonably be foreseen to occur during the execution and use of the structure.
The phrase which can reasonably be foreseen is somewhat ambiguous in the case of
accidental situations, the characteristics of which are that they cannot easily be foreseen in
detail or maybe not at all. In EN 1991-1-7 therefore a distinction is made between so-
called identied and unidentied actions. See Section 3.2 of this Part of this Designers
Guide.
EN 1990 Clause 3.2 identies the following design situations for the verication of cl.3.1(1)P:
ultimate limit states: 1991-1-7
. persistent design situations, which refer to the conditions of normal use
. transient design situations, which refer to temporary conditions applicable to the
structure, e.g. during execution or repair
. accidental design situations, which refer to exceptional conditions applicable to the
structure or to its exposure, e.g. explosions
. seismic design situations.
Each of these design situations is linked to a particular expression for the combination
of action eects as follows:
. persistent and transient design situations, which refer to expressions (6.10), or (6.10a)
and (6.10b) in EN 1990
. accidental design situations, which refers to expression (6.11b) in EN 1990
. seismic design situations, which refers to expression (6.12b) in EN 1990.
230
Strategies based on identified accidental actions Strategies based on limiting the extent
e.g. explosions and impact of localised failure
Design the Preventing or Design structure Enhanced Key element Prescriptive rules
structure to have reducing the to sustain the redundancy designed to e.g. integrity
sufficient action e.g. action e.g. alternative sustain notional and ductility
robustness protective load paths accidental
measures action Ad
Most of the rules in EN 1991-1-7 for limiting the extent of localised failure and thus
helping ensure against disproportionate collapse are based on the UK Codes of Practice
BS 8110,7 BS 59508 and BS 56289 and other ocial guidance on meeting the Building
Regulations in the UK. These rules have proved satisfactory over the past three decades.
Their eciency was dramatically demonstrated during the IRA bomb attacks that
occurred in the City of London in 1992 and 1993. Although the rules were not intended
to safeguard buildings against terrorist attack, the damage sustained by those buildings
close to the seat of the explosions that were designed to meet the regulatory requirement
relating to disproportionate collapse was found to be far less compared with other build-
ings that were subjected to a similar level of abuse.
For the strategy based on identied accidental actions, notional values for identied Note 4 to cl.3.1(2):
accidental actions (e.g. for certain impacts) are given in EN 1991-1-7. These values which 1991-1-7
are discussed in Chapter 4 of this Part of this Designers Guide may be altered in the
National Annex or for an individual project and agreed for the design by the client and
the relevant authority.
For some structures subjected to accidental actions from which there is no risk to Note 5 to cl.3.1(2):
human life, and where economic, social or environmental consequences are negligible (e.g. 1991-1-7
a rural agricultural building where people do not normally enter), the complete collapse of
the structure caused by an extreme event may be acceptable. The circumstances when such
a collapse is acceptable may be agreed for the individual project with the client and the
relevant authority.
Crash of a helicopter
Heavy snow
Internal gas
explosion
231
CC3 High consequence for loss of human life, or Grandstands, public buildings where
economic, social or environmental consequences of failure are high (e.g. a
consequences very great concert hall)
CC2 Medium consequence for loss of human life, Residential and oce buildings, public
economic, social or environmental buildings where consequences of failure are
consequences considerable medium (e.g. an oce building)
CC1 Low consequence for loss of human life, and Agricultural buildings where people do not
economic, social or environmental normally enter (e.g. storage buildings,
consequences small or negligible greenhouses)
232
Risk Risk
Hazard (106 p.a.)* Hazard (106 p.a.)*
For building structures, such emergency measures can involve the safe evacuation of Note 1 of cl.3.2(2):
persons from the premises and its surroundings immediately after the accidental action 1991-1-7
has occurred.
No comment is necessary on Note 2 of Clause 3.2(2): 1991-1-7, as this has been Note 2 of cl.3.2(2):
described in the Thomas Telford Guide for Actions on Bridges. 1991-1-7
Within the strategy based on identied accidental actions, measures should be taken to
mitigate the risk of accidental actions. In accordance with EN 1991-1-7 these measures cl.3.2(3): 1991-1-7
can include, as appropriate, one or more of the following:
(a) By preventing the action from occurring, e.g. in the case of building over a road by
providing adequate clearances between the tracked lanes and the structure. Or redu-
cing the magnitude of the action to an acceptable level through the structural design
process, e.g. in the case of buildings by providing sacricial venting components with
a low mass and strength to reduce the eect of explosions;
(b) Protecting the structure against the eects of an accidental action by reducing the eects
of the action on the structure, e.g. by providing protective bollards, safety barriers or
continuous protection in the form of heavy elements built into the ground.
(c) Providing sucient robustness to the structure by adopting one or more of the following
approaches:
. By designing certain components of the structure upon which stability depends as
key elements (see Sections A.4 to A.8 of this Part of this Designers Guide) to
increase the likelihood of the structures survival following an accidental event.
. Designing structural members, and selecting materials, to have sucient ductility
capable of absorbing signicant strain energy without rupture.
. Incorporating sucient redundancy in the structure to facilitate the transfer of
actions to alternative load paths following an accidental event.
233
Note 1 of cl.3.2(3): It may not always be possible to protect the structure by reducing the eects of an
1991-1-7 accidental action, or preventing an action from occurring. This is because an action is
dependent upon factors which, over the design working life of the structure, may not
necessarily be part of the design assumptions. Preventative measures may involve periodic
inspection and maintenance during the design working life of the structure.
No further comment is necessary on Note 2 of Clause 3.2(3): 1991-1-7.
The design philosophy necessitates that accidental actions are treated in a special
manner with respect to partial safety factors for actions and load combinations. Partial
load factors to be applied are dened in EN 1990 to be 1.0 for all actions (permanent,
variable and accidental).
cl.3.2(4)P: Hence, accidental actions need to, where appropriate, be applied simultaneously in
1991-1-7 combination with permanent and other variable actions in accordance with EN 1990,
6.4.3.3, using the following expression:
X X
Gk; j 00 00 P 00 00 Ad 00 00 1;1 or 2;1 Qk;1 00 00 2;i Qk;i
j1 i>1
Note to cl.3.2(4)P: For , values for variable actions may be obtained from Annex A of EN 1990 or the
1991-1-7 appropriate national Annex.
Clause 3.2(5)P: EN 1991-1-7 requires that the safety of the structure immediately following the occur-
1991-1-7 rence of the accidental action needs to be taken into account.
Note to cl.3.2(5)P: The expression given above applies with the following qualication in: Combinations
1991-1-7 for accidental design situations either involve an explicit accidental action Ad (e.g. an
impact) or refer to a situation after an accidental event with Ad 0.
After an accidental event the structure will normally not have the required strength in
persistent and transient design situations and will have to be strengthened for a possible
continued application. In temporary phases there may be reasons for a relaxation of the
requirements, e.g. by allowing wind or wave loads for shorter return periods to be applied
in the analysis after an accidental event.
234
(A)
(B)
(B)
(a) (b)
Key
(A) Local damage not exceeding 100 m2 or 15% of floor area whichever is less
in each of two adjacent storeys.
(B) Column to be notionally removed.
(a) Plan (b) Section
Example 3.1
Considering Clauses 3.3(2)a, b and c: 1991-1-7 a design may provide eective hori-
zontal and vertical ties in accordance with the BSI structural codes of practice.
Where such provisions cannot be made, it is recommended that the structure be
designed to bridge over the limited, localised area of collapse caused by the notional
loss of member.
If this is not possible, such a member should be designed as a protected (or key)
element capable of sustaining additional loads related to a pressure of 34 kN/m2 as
described in Clause 3.3(2)a: 1991-1-7.
235
Note 3 to The National Annex may state which of the approaches given in Section 3.3 are to be
cl.3.3(2)b: considered for various structures. Examples for buildings are discussed in Chapter 6 in
1991-1-7 this Part of this Designers Guide.
Figure 3.4 shows an example of a collapse, caused by an accidental action due to a
collapsed crane. This action would not normally have been identied at the time of the
design for the damaged older buildings.
236
The National Annex can provide a categorisation of structures according to the Note 4 to cl.3.4(1):
consequence classes mentioned above. A suggested classication of consequence classes 1991-1-7
relating to buildings is provided in Chapter 6.
The accidental design situations for the dierent consequence classes given above may cl.3.4(2): 1991-1-7
be considered in the design as follows:
. For structures under CC1 (e.g. greenhouses, single-occupancy dwellings): no specic
consideration is necessary for accidental actions provided that the robustness and
stability rules given in EN 1990 to EN 1999, as applicable to CC1 structures, are met
(see Chapter 6 of this Part).
. For structures under CC2 (e.g. oces), depending upon the specic circumstances of the
structure, a simplied analysis by static equivalent action models may be adopted or
prescriptive design/detailing rules may be applied (see Chapter 6 of this Part).
. For structures under CC3 (e.g. major grandstands, concert halls) an examination of the
specic case will need to be carried out to determine the level of reliability and the depth
of structural analyses required. This may require a risk analysis to be carried out and the
use of rened methods such as dynamic analyses, non-linear models and interaction
between the load and the structure (see Chapter 6 of this Part).
Examples have been given above for CC1, CC2 and CC3. However, the National Note to cl.3.4(2):
Annex can give reference to, as non-conicting, complementary information, appropriate 1991-1-7
design approaches for higher and lower consequence classes.
237
Impact
This chapter is concerned with the rules relating to accidental actions due to impact in
EN 1991-1-7: Eurocode 1 Actions on Structures: Part 1.7: General Actions Accidental
actions. The material described in this chapter is covered in the following clauses:
. Impact from road vehicles. EN 1991-1-6 excludes guidance on collisions on lightweight Note 1 to cl.4.1(1):
structures and gives the following examples of lightweight structures: footbridges, 1991-1-7
lighting columns. See Section 4.3 of this Part of this Designers Guide.
. Impact from forklift trucks which is described in Section 4.4 of this Part of this
Designers Guide.
. Impact from trains with exclusions on lightweight structures which is described in
Section 4.5 of this Part of this Designers Guide.
. Impact from ships.
. The hard landing of helicopters on roofs of buildings which is described in Section 4.7
of this Part of this Designers Guide.
The guidance in this Designers Guide is limited to accidental actions due to impact on Note 2 to cl.4.1(1):
buildings. The Thomas Telford Designers Guide relating to Actions on Bridges covers 1991-1-7
accidental actions due to impact on bridges. Note 3 to cl.4.1(1):
No further guidance is required on Notes 2 and 3 of Clause 4.1. 1991-1-7
For buildings, actions due to impact need to be taken into account for the following: cl.4.1(2)P: 1991-1-7
. buildings used for car parking, where information is given on impact due to smaller
collision forces (i.e. private vehicles or light vans) in EN 1991-1-1 Annex B and
described in Part 1, Chapter 8 of this Designers Guide
. buildings in which vehicles or forklift trucks are permitted (see Section 4.4)
. buildings that are located adjacent to either road or railway trac (see Sections 4.3
and 4.5), and
cl.4.1(4)P: 1991-1-7 . buildings where the roof contains a designated helicopter landing pad (see Section 4.7).
cl.4.1(3): 1991-1-7 Clause 4.1(3) is meant for bridges, but the part of the guidance given in this clause is
also applicable for buildings. In particular the actions due to impact should consider any
mitigating measures provided, the type of trac (e.g. delivery lorries near a hypermarket)
and the consequences of the impact.
F a
b
Key
a Static equivalent force
b Dynamic force
c Structural response
t
Fig. 4.1. Denitions related to actions due to impact (EN 1991-1-7, Fig. 1.1)
240
Annex C of EN 1991-1-7 gives detailed procedures for considering soft impacts (Annex Annex C: 1991-1-7
C: 1991-1-7).
Hard impact corresponds to collision eects in the case of structures for which the cl.4.2(5): 1991-1-7
energy is mainly dissipated by the impacting body. The impact forces given in Section 4 of
EN 1991-1-7 assume the phenomona of hard impact and hence the dynamic or equivalent
static forces may be determined from the guidance given in the rest of this chapter of this
Designers Guide.
In actual practice, collision eects are intermediate between hard and soft impact as cl.4.2(3): 1991-1-7
shown in the example of Fig. 8.1 in Part 1 of this Designers Guide. However, for simpli-
city, the impact load is determined using the rigid structure assumption, i.e. using a hard
impact model. The impacting force may be represented by an equivalent static force. This
simplied model may be used for the verication of static equilibrium, for strength
verications and for the determination of deformations of the impacted structure.
Annex C of EN 1991-1-7 gives information on design values for masses and velocities of Annex C: 1991-1-7
colliding objects as a basis for a dynamic analysis.
241
Table 4.1. Indicative equivalent static design forces due to vehicular impact on members supporting
structures over or adjacent to roadways
Note 2 to
cl.4.3.1(1): The force given in Table 4.1 may be given in the National Annex as a function of the
1991-1-7 distance s of the centreline of the tracked lanes nearest to the structural member.
In accordance with the UK National Annex for buildings where the distance s of the
cl.NA 12: UK NA centreline of the tracked lane nearest to the structural member is greater than 10 m, the
1991-1-7 equivalent static design force due to vehicle impact need not be considered.
The National Annex may dene types or elements of the structure that may not need to
Note 3 to be considered for vehicular collision. If a risk analysis is needed to dene these elements,
cl.4.3.1(1): guidance on risk analysis is given in Annex B of EN 1991-1-7.
1991-1-7 The UK National Annex also states that vehicle collision need not be considered for
buildings in CC1 and CC2 (see Tables 3.1 and A1) provided that the Annex A of
cl.NA 13: UK NA EN 1991-1-7 is used. However, where required by the client or the competent authority,
1991-1-7 consideration of impacts on particular buildings (e.g. a large supermarket or a high-prole
oce building) caused by road vehicles, Table 4.1 of EN 1991-1-7 should be used.
cl.NA 2-11-1: In accordance with the UK National Annex for buildings, the equivalent static design
UK NA 1991-1-7 force due to vehicular impact given in Table NA1 of the National Annex to EN 1991-1-7:
2006 should be used in category CC3 (see Tables 3.1 and A1) in the absence of mitigating
measures. The values in Table NA1 are about 50% greater than those given in Table 4.1
of EN 1991-1-7 and this Designers Guide.
Note 4 to No further guidance is required for Notes 4 and 5 of Clause 4.3.1(1) as these concern
cl.4.3.1(1): road and rail bridge trac matters respectively and are covered in the Thomas Telford
1991-1-7 Designers Guide relating to Actions on Bridges.
Note 5 to Rules for the application of Fdx and Fdy may be dened in the National Annex or for
cl.4.3.1(1): the individual project. It is generally recommended that Fdx does not act simultaneously
1991-1-7 with Fdy .
cl.4.3.1(2): The National Annex may dene the conditions of impact from road vehicles. The
1991-1-7 recommended conditions in EN 1991-1-7 are as follows (see Fig. 4.3):
cl.4.3.1(3): . For impact from lorries the collision force F may be applied at any height h
1991-1-7
between 0.5 m to 1.5 m above the level of the carriageway. The recommended applica-
tion area is a 0:5 m (height) by 1.50 m (width) or the member width, whichever is the
smaller.
. For impact from cars the collision force F may be applied at h 0:50 m above the
level of the carriageway. The recommended application area is a 0:25 m (height) by
1.50 m (width) or the member width, whichever is the smaller.
242
Key
a is the height of the recommended force application area.
Ranges from 0.25 m (cars) to 0.50 m (lorries).
h is the location of the resulting collision force F, i.e. the
a height above the level of the carriageway. Ranges from
h 0.50 m (cars) to 1.50 m (lorries).
x is the centre of the lane.
The design values for actions due to impact together with the values for adequate clear- Note 1 to
ances may be dened in the National Annex. The indicative equivalent static design forces cl.4.3.1(2):
are given in Table 4.2. The recommended value for adequate clearance, excluding future 1991-1-7
re-surfacing of the roadway under the bridge, to avoid impact given in EN 1991-1-7 is
h0 5:0 m. No impact need be considered for a vertical clearance beyond an upper limit
equal to h0 b, b being dened at the national level. The recommended value is b 1 m.
See Fig. 4.5.
The choice of the values may take account of the consequences of the impact, the Note 2 to
expected volume and type of trac, and any mitigating (protective and preventative) cl.4.3.1(2):
measures provided. 1991-1-7
For h0 h h1 h0 b (see Fig. 4.5) the magnitude of the impact force given in
Table 4.2 may be reduced linearly. Figure 4.5, reproduced from Fig. 4.2 of EN 1991-1-7,
243
Table 4.2. Indicative equivalent static design forces due to impact on superstructures
rF
b
1.0
F
h1 (=h0 + b)
h h0
0
h = h0 h = h1 h
h is the physical clearance between the road surface and the underside of the bridge deck
h0 is the minimum height of clearance between the road surface and the underside of the bridge deck
below which an impact on the superstructure need to be taken into account. The recommended value
of h0 in EN 1991-1-6 is 5.0 m
h1 is the value of the clearance between the road surface and the underside of the bridge deck.
For values of h1 and above, the impact force F need not be considered. The recommended value of
h1 is 6.0 m (+ allowances for future re-surfacing, vertical sag curve and deflection of bridge)
b is the difference in height between h1 and h0, i.e. b = h1 h0. The recommended value for b in EN 1991-1-6
is 1.0 m. A reduction factor for F is allowed for values of b between 0 and 1 m, i.e. between h0 and h1
Fig. 4.5. Recommended value of the factor rF for vehicular collision forces on horizontal structural
members above roadways, depending on the clearance height h
Note 3 to
cl.4.3.1(2): shows the conditions of the recommended reduction factor rF applicable to Fdx between
1991-1-7 h0 and h1 .
Figure 4.6 gives a representation of the impact force based on the recommended values
cl.NA 2-17: of the Eurocode.
UK NA 1991-1-7 The UK National Annex recommends that h0 h 5:7 m.
EN 1991-1-7 recommends that account be taken of the impact loads Fdx given in Table
Note 4 cl.4.3.2(1): 4.2 acting with an upward inclination, the recommended value of upward inclination
1991-1-7 being 108, on the underside surfaces of the structural member as shown in Fig. 4.7. This
rule is intended to cover the risk of lifting of a crane under a structural member. See
Fig. 4.3.
Fdx
Fdx
5m 6m h
Fig. 4.6. Recommended values in EN 1991-1-7 for Fdx for clearance of underside of a structure over
a road surface
244
F 10 10
h
h
x x Direction of traffic
h Height of the soffit or the structural members
245
1991-1-7, Table 4.3. Classes of structures subject to impact from derailed railway trac (from EN 1991-1-7,
Table 4.3 Table 4.3)
Class A Structures that span across or near to the operational railway that are either permanently
occupied or serve as a temporary gathering place for people (such as waiting rooms) or consist
of more than one storey (such as car parks and warehouses).
Class B Massive structures that span across the operational railway such as bridges carrying vehicular
trac or single-storey buildings that are not permanently occupied or do not serve as a
temporary gathering place for people.
246
Further information and background on this classication system given in Table 4.3 is Note 3 to
given in relevant International Union of Railways (UIC)-documents. cl.4.5.1.2(1):
The UK National Annex gives broadly the above advice (i.e. to be decided by the 1991-1-7
individual project) for the above in Clauses NA 2-23: EN 1991-1-7 and NA 2-24: cl. UK NA 2.23
EN 1991-1-7. and 2.24:
UK NA 1991-1-7
4.5.1.3. Accidental design situations in relation to the classes of structure
The consideration of situations involving the derailment of rail trac under or on the cl.4.5.1.3(1):
approach to a structure classied as Class A or B should be taken into account as an 1991-1-7
accidental design situation, in accordance with EN 1990. cl.4.5.1.3(2):
No additional guidance is required for Clause 4.5.1.3(2). 1991-1-7
247
cl.4.5.1.4(5): The values for Fdx and Fdy , given in Table 4.4, correspond to impact due to derailment
1991-1-7 at lower speeds. They do not cover a direct impact by a high-speed train derailing at full
velocity. Where the maximum permitted speed of rail trac at the location is greater than
120 km/h, EN 1991-1-7 Clause 4.5.1.4(5) recommends the provision of preventative and/or
protective measures and to determine equivalent static forces assuming that consequence
class CC3 applies.
Note to The values for Fdx and Fdy , which may take into account additional preventative and/or
cl.4.5.1.4(1): protective measures, may be given in the National Annex or for the individual project.
1991-1-7 This recommended guidance is specied in the UK National Annex.
UK NA 2-29:
1991-1-7 4.5.1.5. Class B structures
cl.4.5.1.5(1): For class B structures, particular requirements need to be specied in the National Annex or
1991-1-7 for the individual project. These particular requirements may be based on a risk assessment.
Note to Clause The UK National Annex states that the requirements for the factors and measures to
4.5.1.5(1): be considered within the risk assessment should be agreed for the individual project.
1991-1-7
UK NA 2-30:
4.5.2. Structures located in areas beyond track ends
1991-1-7
Actions caused by overrunning of rail trac beyond the end of a track or tracks (for
example at a terminal station) should be taken into account as an accidental design situa-
cl.4.5.2(1):
tion in accordance with EN 1990 when the structure or its supports are located in the area
1991-1-7
immediately beyond the track ends.
The area immediately beyond the track ends may be specied either in the National
Annex or for the individual project (Note to Clause 4.5.2(1): EN 1991-1-7).
As an example in the UK National Annex, permanent new structures, including build-
ings and columns supporting structures, should not be located within a zone extending
20 m behind the face of the buer stop and 5 m either side of the projected centreline of
cl.4.5.2(3): the track approaching the buer stop (NA 2-31: EN 1991-1-7).
1991-1-7 No additional guidance is required for Clause 4.5.2(3).
cl.4.5.2(4): No additional guidance is required for Clause 4.5.2(4).
1991-1-7 Where supporting structural members are required to be located near to track ends, an
end impact wall should be provided in the area immediately beyond the track ends in
cl.4.5.2(5): addition to any buer stop. Values of static equivalent forces due to impact onto an end
1991-1-7 impact wall should be specied.
Particular measures and alternative design values for the static equivalent force due to
impact may be specied in the National Annex or for the individual project. The Note to
Note to cl.4.5.2(5): Clause 4.5.2(5) recommends design values for the static equivalent force due to impact on
1991-1-7 the end impact wall of Fdx 5000 kN for passenger trains and Fdx 10 000 kN for
shunting and marshalling trains. The Note to Clause 4.5.2(5) further recommends that
these forces are applied horizontally and at a level of 1.0 m above track level.
UK NA 2-31: The UK National Annex species the above recommended values.
1991-1-7
248
Clause 4.7(1) gives the following expression (4.3) for determining the vertical equivalent
static design force Fd:
p
Fd C m (4.3 of EN 1991-1-7)
where:
C is 3 kN kg0:5
m is the mass of the helicopter (kg).
The force due to impact should be considered as acting on any part of the landing pad cl.4.7(2):
as well as on the roof structure within a maximum distance of 7 m from the edge of the 1991-1-7
landing pad. The area of impact should be taken as 2 m 2 m.
249
Internal explosions
This chapter is concerned with the rules relating to accidental actions due to internal
explosions in EN 1991-1-7: Eurocode 1 Actions on structures: Part 1.7: General Actions
Accidental actions. The material described in this chapter is covered in the following clauses:
. Field of application Clause 5.1: 1991-1-7
. Representation of actions Clause 2.2: 1991-1-7
. Principles of design Clause 4.3: 1991-1-7
Gas explosions
Gas explosions account for the majority of accidental explosions in buildings. Gas is
widely used and, excluding vehicular impact, the incidence of occurrence of gas explosions
in buildings is an order of magnitude higher than other accidental loads causing medium
or severe damage that may lead to progressive collapse.
Many gas explosions within buildings occur from leakage into the building from
external mains. According to Mainstone et al., in their 1978 BRE Report Structural
Damage in Buildings caused by Gaseous Explosions and Other Accidental Loadings,12
There should be no relaxation . . . for buildings without a piped gas supply, since a risk
would usually remain of gas leaking into the building from outside. It would be impractical
in most circumstances to ensure gas will not be a hazard to any particular building. There-
fore a gas explosion is taken as the principal design accidental action, together with
impact.
In this context an explosion is dened as rapid chemical reaction of dust or gas in air. It
results in high temperatures and high overpressure. Explosion pressures propagate as
pressure waves.
252
The methods given in Annex A gives information for the design against explosions for Note 1 to cl.5.2(3):
construction works classied as CC1, CC2 and CC3. The reader may also nd additional 1991-1-7
information in Annex D of EN 1991-1-6 Chapter 9.
Advanced design for explosions which will normally be needed for Construction Works Note 2 to cl.5.2(3):
classied as CC3 will include one or more of the following aspects as appropriate: 1991-1-7
. explosion pressure calculations, including the eects of connements and venting panels
. dynamic non-linear structural calculations
. probabilistic aspects and analysis of consequences
. economic optimisation of mitigating measures.
Advice in EN 1991-1-7 on explosive pressures, designing and locating venting panels, etc.
The explosive pressure should be assumed to act eectively simultaneously on all of the cl.5.3(4): 1991-1-7
bounding surfaces of the enclosure in which the explosion occurs.
If the possible ignition source is known and/or where pressures may be higher, the venting
panels should be placed close to these positions. However it needs to be ensured that:
. the location of venting panels is such that their failure will not endanger personnel or
ignite other material, and
. a venting panel is restrained so that it does not become a missile in the event of an
explosion.
In addition, the design should limit the possibilities that the eects of the re cause any cl.5.3(5): 1991-1-7
impairment of the surroundings or initiates an explosion in an adjacent room.
Specically for the design of venting panels, they should be opened at a low pressure and cl.5.3(6): 1991-1-7
should be as light as possible. In determining the capacity of the venting panel, account needs cl.5.3(7)P:
to be taken of the dimensioning and construction of the supporting frame of the panel. 1991-1-7
Where windows are used as venting panels the risk of injury to persons from glass fragments
253
Note to cl.5.3(6): or other structural members needs to be taken into account. Windows respond in a brittle
1991-1-7 manner because the thinness of the glass makes very little deformation possible before
there is complete disintegration. For this reason, coupled with their relatively light weight
and low static strengths, they make good explosion vents.
cl.5.3(6): In the phenomena for internal explosions, after the rst positive phase of the explosion
1991-1-7 with an overpressure, a second phase follows with an underpressure. No further information
Note to cl.5.3(6): is given in this Designers Guide but this eect should be considered in the design where
1991-1-7 relevant. Assistance by specialists is recommended.
254
This chapter is concerned with the rules relating to the accidental actions due to design of
consequences of localised failures in buildings from an unspecied cause in Annex A of
EN 1991-1-7: Eurocode 1 Actions on Structures: Part 1.7: General Actions Accidental
actions. The material described in this chapter is covered in the following clauses:
. Scope Clause A.1: 1991-1-7
. Introduction Clause A.2: 1991-1-7
. Consequence classes of buildings Clause A.3: 1991-1-7
. Recommended strategies Clause A.4: 1991-1-7
. Horizontal ties Clause A.5: 1991-1-7
. Vertical ties Clause A.6: 1991-1-7
. Nominal section of load-bearing wall Clause A.7: 1991-1-7
. Key elements Clause A.8: 1991-1-7
Introduction
Annex A1 of EN 1991-1-7 has been written to accord with the Requirements in
EN 1990: 2002 Eurocode Basis of Structural Design to provide robustness, and relia-
bility dierentiation.
Annex A of EN 1991-1-7 provides informative rules and methods for designing
buildings to sustain an extent of localised failure from an undened cause without
disproportionate collapse.
The Annex also provides an example of how the consequences of building failure
may be classied into Consequence Classes in accordance with EN 1990 corresponding
to reliability levels of robustness.
This classication of consequences has been partly derived from the outcome of a
research study commissioned by the Department for Communities and Local Govern-
ment (CLG) to Allott & Lomax14, whose report Proposals for Amending Part A
Structure. A Consultation Package Available to the ODPM9 recommended the use of a
risk-based analysis consistent with the philosophy adopted by EN 1990 and EN 1991-1-7.
The resulting recommendations produced from the study were subsequently calibrated
against current UK practice by the Building Research Establishment and rened accord-
ingly. The rules were further rened following the proposal being subjected to public
consultation in the autumn of 2001.
A.1. Scope
cl.A1: 1991-1-7 Annex A of EN 1991-1-7 gives rules and methods for designing buildings, to sustain an
extent of localised failure from an unspecied cause without disproportionate collapse.
Other approaches may be equally valid, but adoption of this strategy is likely to ensure
that a building, depending upon the consequence class (see Section 3.4 of this Part of this
Designers Guide), is suciently robust to sustain a limited extent of damage or failure
without collapse.
A.2. Introduction
cl.1.5.12: 1991-1-7 In accordance with strategies based on limiting the extent of localised failure, see Section
3.1 and Fig. 3.1 of this Part of this Designers Guide, a building can be designed so that
cl.A2(1): 1991-1-7 neither the whole building nor a signicant part of it will collapse if localised failure were
sustained. A localised failure is dened as that part of a structure that is assumed to have
collapsed, or been severely disabled, by an accidental event. Adopting this strategy should
provide a building with sucient robustness to survive a reasonable range of undened
accidental actions.
cl.A2(2): 1991-1-7 The design should take into account the requirement that a building needs to survive a
minimum period following an accident in order to facilitate the safe evacuation and rescue
of personnel from the building and its surroundings. For certain types of occupancy, e.g.
for buildings used for handling hazardous materials, provision of essential services, or for
national security reasons, longer periods of survival will probably be required, and this
should be agreed with the competent authority.
The rules in Annex A of EN 1991-1-7 are based on UK Codes of Practice (e.g. BS 8110,
BS 5950 and BS 5628) and Regulatory requirements introduced in the early 1970s
following the collapse of Ronan Point caused by a gas explosion.
256
CC1 Low consequences for loss of human life; Agricultural buildings where people do not
economic, social or environmental normally enter (e.g. storage buildings,
consequences small or negligible greenhouses)
CC2 Medium consequences for loss of human Residential and oce buildings, public
life; economic, social or environmental buildings where consequences of failure are
consequences considerable medium
CC3 High consequences for loss of human life; or Grandstands, public buildings where
economic, social or environmental consequences of failure are high
consequences very great
257
Table 6.2. Dierences in consequence class denitions between EN 1991-1-7 and the UK
1 Single occupancy houses not exceeding 4 storeys Houses not exceeding 4 storeys
2A Retailing premises not exceeding 3 storeys of less Retailing premises not exceeding 3 storeys of
than 1000 m2 oor area at each storey less than 2000 m2 oor area at each storey
3 Stadia accommodating more than 5000 spectators Grandstands accommodating more than 5000
spectators
Buildings containing hazardous substances and/
or processes
Consequence
class Example of categorisation of building type and occupancy
258
Table 6.3. Recommended strategies for Consequence Classes CC1, CC2 and CC3
For buildings in Consequence Class 2a, details of eective anchorage may be given in Note 1 to cl.A(4):
the National Annex. 1991-1-7
For buildings in Consequence Class 3, some guidance on risk analysis is included in Note 2 to cl.A(4):
Annex B of this Designers Guide. For more comprehensive guidance see Annex B of 1991-1-7
EN 1991-1-7 and Chapter 7.
For buildings the limit of admissible local failure may be dierent for each type Note 3 to cl.A(4):
of building. The recommended value is 15% of the oor, or 100 m2, whichever is 1991-1-7
smaller, in each of two adjacent storeys. See Fig. A.1 (reproduced below as Fig. 6.1). In
the UK, the Approved Document A of the Building Regulations species 70 m2 instead
of 100 m2.
259
(A)
(B)
(B)
(a) (b)
Key
(A) Local damage not exceeding 15% of floor area or 100 m2, whichever is the smaller,
in each of two adjacent storeys
(B) Column to be notionally removed
(a) Plan (b) Section
2m 2m 3m
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
Key
(a) 6 m span beam as internal tie
(b) All beams designed to act as ties
(c) Perimeter ties
(d) Tie anchored to a column
(e) Edge column
260
. a design tensile load of Ti for the accidental limit state in the case of internal ties, and
. Tp , in the case of perimeter ties (see Fig. 6.2)
equal to the following values.
For internal ties:
Ti 0:8gk qk sL or 75 kN, whichever is the greater A:1
For perimeter ties:
Tp 0:4gk qk sL or 75 kN, whichever is the greater A:2
where:
s is the spacing of ties
L is the span of the tie (e.g. see Fig. A.2)
is the relevant factor in the expression for combination of action eects for the cl.A5.1(3):
accidental design situation (i.e. 1 in accordance with expression (6.11b) of EN 1990 1991-1-7
given in EN 1990, and is normally taken as 0.5).
EN 1991-1-7 does not make any dierentiation for lightweight building structures (e.g. cl.NA3.1: UK NA
those whose primary structure is timber or cold-formed thin gauge steel). This is made in to BS 1991-1-7
the UK NA, where in the case of lightweight building structures the values for minimum
horizontal tie forces in expressions A.1 and A.2 should be taken as 15 kN and 7.5 kN
respectively.
In the design of ties any members that are being used for sustaining actions other than cl.A5.1(4):
accidental actions, may be utilised. 1991-1-7
Internal ties
Perimeter tie
261
z
(a)
Key
H H (a) Plan
(b) Section: flat slab
(c) Section: beam and slab
(b) (c)
cl.A5.2(2): For Class 2 buildings (Upper Risk Group) (see Table A.1), in load-bearing construction,
1991-1-7 continuous horizontal ties are required in the oors to achieve the appropriate robustness.
These should be internal ties which need to be uniformly distributed throughout the
oors in both orthogonal directions and peripheral ties extending around the perimeter of
the oor slabs within a 1.2 m width of the slab. The design tensile load in the ties should
be determined as follows.
For internal ties:
Ft gk qk z
TI the greater of Ft kN=m or kN=m A:3
7:5 5
For peripheral ties:
Tp Ft A:4
where:
Ft is 60 kN/m or 20 4ns kN/m, whichever is less
ns is the number of storeys
z is the lesser of:
. 5 times the clear storey height H, or
. the greatest distance in metres in the direction of the tie, between the centres of the
columns or other vertical load-bearing members whether this distance is spanned by:
k a single slab, or
k a system of beams and slabs.
262
263
iii. if they are designed to sustain the following vertical tie force T:
34A H 2
T N, or 100 kN/m of wall, whichever is the greater A:5
8000 t
where:
A is the cross-sectional area in mm2 of the wall measured on plan, excluding the non-
load-bearing leaf of a cavity wall.
cl.A.6(3): 1991-1-7 iv. the vertical ties are grouped at 5 m maximum centres along the wall and occur no further
than 2.5 m from an unrestrained end of the wall.
264
Annex B (informative):
Information on Risk Analysis
This chapter is concerned with the rules relating to information on risk analysis in Annex B
of EN 1991-1-7: Eurocode 1 Actions on Structures: Part 1.7: General Actions Accidental
actions. The material described in this chapter is covered in the following clauses:
. Introduction Clause B.1: 1991-1-7
. Denitions Clause B.2: 1991-1-7
. Description of the scope of risk analysis Clause B.3: 1991-1-7
. Methods of risk analysis Clause B.4: 1991-1-7
. Risk acceptance and mitigating measures Clause B.5: 1991-1-7
. Risk mitigating measures Clause B.6: 1991-1-7
. Reconsideration Clause B.7: 1991-1-7
. Communication of results and conclusions Clause B.8: 1991-1-7
. Application to buildings and civil engineering structures Clause B.9: 1991-1-7
B.1. Introduction
Risk analysis is the topic discussed in Annex B of EN 1991-1-7 which gives guidance for the
planning and execution of risk assessment in the eld of buildings and civil engineering
Risk evaluation
Risk treatment
Accept risk
Risk communication
cl.B.1(1): 1991-1-7 structures. In Clause B.1 a pictorial overview of the envisaged risk analysis is given. This is
reproduced below as Fig. 7.1.
266
. objectives.
All:
. technical
. environmental
. organisational, and
. human circumstances that are relevant to the activity and the problem being analysed
need to be stated in sucient detail.
All:
. presuppositions
. assumptions, and
. simplications
made in connection with the risk analysis should be stated. cl.B.3: 1991-1-7
267
In some situations there may be conicting requirements for dierent hazards and these
should be considered carefully. For example, the use of laminated windows may reduce
the damage to external explosions (usually detonations) but serve to increase the pressures
in internal gas explosions (deagrations).
The results of the risk analysis should be presented as a list of consequences and probabil-
ities and their degree of acceptance should be discussed. The probabilities may need to be
expressed in relative terms, i.e. high, moderate, low, unless more detailed information is
available. Recommendations for measures to mitigate risk that naturally arise from the
risk analysis should be stated.
It is necessary to compile the results of the work and reasons for the various decisions, in a
written report which may need to be reviewed by another expert. The report may need to be
re-evaluated periodically or when there is a change in circumstances which may aect specic
hazards and thereby require dierent mitigation measures.
268
Severe
High
Medium
Low
Very low
consequence
Fig. 7.2. Possible presentation diagram for the outcome of a quantitative risk analysis
for this important accidental action hazard, it is not yet sensible to place any condence in a
quantitative analysis. The quantity and quality of data for use in such analyses are a prime
consideration.
The assumptions upon which the quantitative risk analysis is based should be reconsidered
when the results of the analysis are available. Sensitivities of factors used in the analysis
should be quantied.
269
Severe
High
Medium
Low
Very low
consequences
Very low Low Medium High Very high
probability
Fig. 7.3. Risk matrix for the outcome of a qualitative risk analysis. (Note: The severity of potential failure
is identical to the one given in Fig. 7.2. The probabilities could be the same (on a yearly or event basis).)
2. The socially acceptable level of risk: the social acceptance of risk to human life, which
may vary with time, is often presented as an FN curve, indicating a maximum yearly
probability F of having an accident with more than N casualties.
Alternatively, concepts such as:
. value for prevented fatality (VPF), or
. quality index of life
may be used.
Risk acceptance levels will normally have to be specied for the appropriate individual
project and may be determined from:
. particular national regulations and requirements
. particular codes and standards, or
. from experience and/or theoretical knowledge that may be used as a basis for decisions
on acceptable risk.
Note to cl.B.5.1(4):
1991-1-7 The risk acceptance criteria may be expressed qualitatively or numerically (quantitatively).
cl.B.5.1(5): In the case of a qualitative risk analysis the following criteria may be used:
1991-1-7 . The general aim should be to minimise the risk without incurring a substantial cost
penalty.
. For the consequences within the vertically hatched area of Fig. 7.3, the risks associated
with the scenario can normally be accepted.
. For the consequences within the diagonally hatched area of Fig. 7.3, a decision on
whether the risk of the scenario can be accepted and whether risk mitigation measures
can be adopted at an acceptable cost will need to be made.
. For the consequences considered to be unacceptable (those falling within the horizontally
hatched area of Fig. 7.3 are likely to be unacceptable), appropriate risk mitigation
measures (see Section B.6) should be taken.
270
. By-passing the hazard. This may be achieved by changing the design concepts or
occupancy, for example through the protection of the structure, provision of sprinkler
system, etc.
. Controlling the hazard. This may be achieved by controlled checks, warning systems or
monitoring.
. Overcoming the hazard. This may be achieved by providing increased reserves of strength
or robustness, availability of alternative load paths through structural redundancy, or
resistance to degradation, etc.
. Permitting controlled collapse of a structure where the probability of injury or fatality may
be reduced, for example for impact on lighting columns or signal posts.
B.7. Reconsideration
As indicated by Fig. B.1 (see Fig. 7.1) for the results of the risk analysis to become cl.B.7.1(1):
acceptable, the scope, design and assumptions may have to be revised and re-evaluated 1991-1-7
against the scenarios until it is possible to accept the structure with the selected mitigation
measures.
B.9.1. General
To mitigate the risk in relation to extreme events in buildings (and civil engineering cl.B.9.1(1):
structures) the design should consider one or more of the following measures: 1991-1-7
(a) Structural measures, where the structure and the structural members have been designed
to have reserves of strength or alternative load paths in case of local failures (i.e. the
strategy based on limiting the extent of localised failure as described in Sections 3.1 of
both this Designers Guide and EN 1991-1-7).
(b) Non-structural measures, which can include the reduction of:
. the probability of the event occurring
. the action intensity, or
. the consequences of failure.
271
cl.B.9.1(2): The probability of occurrence of all accidental and extreme actions (e.g. actions due to re,
1991-1-7 earthquake, impact, explosion, extreme climatic actions) should be considered for a suitable
set of possible hazard scenarios. The consequences for each should then be estimated in terms
of the number of casualties and economic losses. Detailed information is presented in
Sections B.9.2 and B.9.3 below.
cl.B.9.1(3): The above approach (Section B9.2) is generally more suitable for those accidental and
1991-1-7 extreme events that constitute foreseeable hazards. The approach is less suitable for
unforeseeable hazards arising from, for example, design or construction errors and
unexpected deterioration. It is for this reason that more global damage tolerance design
strategies have been developed (see Annex A), e.g. the requirements on sucient ductility
and tying of elements.
cl.B.9.1(3): In this respect consider the situation whereby a structural member (e.g. a beam, a column)
1991-1-7 has been damaged by an event, to such an extent that the member has lost its normal load-
bearing capacity. By applying the strategy based on limiting the extent of localised failure as
described in Section 3.1, the remaining part of the structure is (for a relatively short period of
time dened as the repair period T) to withstand the normal loads with some prescribed
reliability as shown probabilistically in expression (B.1):
P(R < E in T | one element removed) < ptarget (B.1)
where R is the resistance of the member and E is the eects of the Actions.
The target reliability ptarget depends upon:
. the normal safety target for the building
. the period under consideration (hours, days or months), and
. the probability that the element under consideration is removed (by causes other than
those already considered in design).
cl.B.9.1(4): For conventional structures (e.g. using traditional materials and the types of buildings
1991-1-7 generally in Classications 1 and 2a and 2b in Table A1 of Annex A) all relevant collapse
possibilities should be included in the design. Where this can be justied, and for some
cases in agreement with the client and the controlling authority, failure causes that have
only a remote likelihood of occurring may be disregarded. The approach given in B.9.1(2)
should be taken into account. In many cases, and in order to avoid complicated analyses,
the strategy given in B.9.1(3) may be investigated.
cl.B.9.1(5): For unconventional structures (e.g. very large structures, those with new design concepts,
1991-1-7 those using new materials) the probability of having some unspecied cause of failure should
be considered as substantial. A combined approach of the methods described in B.9.1(2) and
B.9.1(3) should be taken into account.
272
Fig. 7.4. Illustration of steps in risk analysis of structures subject to accidental actions
where:
. it is assumed that the structure is subjected to NH dierent hazards, and
. that the hazards may damage the structure in ND dierent ways (can be dependent on the
considered hazards), and
. that the performance of the damaged structure can be discretised into NS adverse states
SK with corresponding consequences C(Sk)
. P(Hi) is the probability of occurrence (within a reference time interval) of the ith hazard
. P(Dj|Hi) is the conditional probability of the jth damage state of the structure given the
jth hazard, and
. PSk|Dj| is the conditional probability of the kth adverse overall structural performance S
given the ith damage state.
P(Sk|Dj) and C(Sk) can be highly dependent on time (e.g. in case of re and evacuation, Note 1 to
respectively) and the overall risk needs to be assessed and compared to acceptable risks cl.B.9.2(2):
accordingly. 1991-1-7
Expression (B.2), although it is primarily the basis for the risk assessment of structures Note 2 to
subject to rare and accidental loads, but it can be applied to structures subjected to ordinary cl.B.9.2(2):
loads. 1991-1-7
The economic feasibility of a risk assessment can be taken into account by having dierent
strategies for risk control and risk reduction. For example:
. The risk may be reduced by the reduction of the probability that the hazards will occur,
i.e. by reducing P(H). The risk of explosions in buildings might be reduced by removing
explosive materials from the building.
. The risk may be reduced by reducing the probability of signicant damages for given
hazards, i.e. P(D|H). For example, damage which might follow as a consequence of
the initiation of res can be mitigated by passive and active re control measures (e.g.
foam protection of steel members and sprinkler systems).
. The risk may be reduced by reducing the probability of adverse structural performance cl.B.9.2(3):
given structural damage, i.e. P(S|D). This might be undertaken by designing the 1991-1-7
structures with a sucient degree of redundancy, thus allowing for alternative load
transfer should the static system change due to damage.
273
x2 *H
S: Structure
H: Hazard event with magnitude M at time t
S x1
where:
N T is the total number of relevant initiating events in the considered period of time
fM(m) is the probability density function of the random magnitude M of the hazard.
The probability of failure can depend on the distance between the structure and the loca-
tion of the event. In that case an explicit integration over the area or volume of interest is
necessary.
B.9.4. Guidance for application of risk analysis related to impact from rail
trac
Clause B.9.4(1) gives a very comprehensive list of issues which should be taken into account
when assessing the risk to people from derailed trains on the approach to Class A structures,
where the maximum permitted line speed is over 120 km/h, and Class B structures. Class A
cl.B.9.4(1): and Class B structures are dened in Table 4.3 of EN 1991-1-7 and this Designers Guide. No
1991-1-7 further guidance is necessary on the listed factors.
274
Clause B.9.4(2) gives a very comprehensive list of issues which should be taken into
account for Class B structures either singly or in combination in determining the appropriate
measures to reduce the risk to people from a derailed train on the approach to a structure.
Class B structures are dened in Table 4.3 of EN 1991-1-7 and this Designers Guide. No cl.B.9.4(2):
further guidance is necessary on the listed factors. 1991-1-7
275
Annex C (informative):
Dynamic design for impact
This chapter is concerned with the rules relating to information on the dynamic design for
impact in Annex B of EN 1991-1-7: Eurocode 1 Actions on Structures: Part 1.7: General
Actions Accidental actions. The material described in this Chapter is covered in the
following clauses:
. General Clause C.1: 1991-1-7
. Impact dynamics Clause C.2: 1991-1-7
. Impact from aberrant road vehicles Clause C.3: 1991-1-7
. Impact from ships Clause C.4: 1991-1-7
C.1. General
Impact, in the context of EN 1991-1-7, is an interaction phenomenon between a moving
object and a structure, in which the kinetic energy of the object is suddenly transformed
into energy of deformation. To determine the dynamic interaction forces, the mechanical
properties of both the object and the structure should be determined.
In many cases static equivalent forces (e.g. those in Chapter 4 of EN 1991-1-7 and this cl.C.1(1): 1991-1-7
Designers Guide) are commonly used in design.
Advanced design of structures to sustain actions due to impact may include explicitly one
or both of the following aspects:
. dynamic eects
. non-linear material behaviour.
In this Annex guidance is only given for dynamic eects. cl.C.1(2): 1991-1-7
Information on the probabilistic aspects and the analysis of consequences can be obtained Note to cl.C.1(2):
from Annex C. 1991-1-7
cl.C.1(3): 1991-1-7 No further information is given in this Designers Guide on Clause C.1(3), as this clause is
applicable primarily for bridges and guidance may be obtained from the Thomas Telford
Designers Guide on Actions on Bridges.
The force due to impact may be considered as a rectangular pulse on the surface of the
structure. In that case the duration of the pulse follows from:
p
Ft mv or t m=k C:2
If relevant, a non-zero rise time can be applied (see Fig. C.1).
When the colliding object is modelled as an equivalent impacting object of uniform cross-
section (see Fig. 8.1), expressions (C.3) and (C.4) should be used to determine k and m:
k EA=L C:3
m AL C:4
P, A, E, L vr km
vr
F = dynamic interaction force
t
Rise time
t = mlk
278
where:
L is the length of the impacting object
A is the cross-sectional area
E is the modulus of elasticity
is the mass density of the impacting object.
cl.C.2.1(3):
No additional information is required for Clause C2.1 (3). 1991-1-7
For the case of rigid-plastic response of the structure, the above requirement is satised by
the condition of expression (C.5):
1 2
2 mvr Fo yo C:5
where:
Fo is the plastic strength of the structure, i.e. the limit value of the static force F
yo is its deformation capacity, i.e. the displacement of the point of impact that the structure cl.C.2.2(2):
can undergo. 1991-1-7
No additional information is required for the note to Clause C2.2 (2). Note to cl.C.2.2(2):
1991-1-7
279
Annex D (informative):
Internal explosions
This chapter is concerned with the rules relating to internal explosions in Annex D of
EN 1991-1-7: Eurocode 1 Actions on Structures: Part 1.7: General Actions Accidental
actions. The material described in this chapter is covered in the following clauses:
. Dust explosions in rooms, vessels and bunkers Clause D.1: 1991-1-7
. Natural gas explosions Clause D.2: 1991-1-7
. Explosions in road and rail tunnels Clause D.3: 1991-1-7
Introduction to Annex D
The following denitions are used in this chapter on Annex D.
. Deagration which is dened as the propagation of a combustion zone at a velocity cl.1.5.3: 1991-1-7
that is less than the speed of sound in the unreacted medium.
. Detonation which is dened as the propagation of a combustion zone at a velocity cl.1.5.4: 1991-1-7
that is greater than the speed of sound in the unreacted medium.
. Venting panel which is dened as a non-structural part of the enclosure (wall, cl.1.5.17: 1991-1-7
oor, ceiling) with limited resistance that is intended to relieve the developing
pressure from deagration in order to reduce pressure on structural parts of the
building.
Note 3 to cl.D.1(1):
1991-1-7 No further guidance is required for Note 3 of Clause D.4(1).
Clause D.1(2) gives an expression (D.1), which is not reproduced here, to determine the
venting area (A) of cubic and elongated rooms, vessels, and bunkers for dust explosions
within a single room. The venting area (A) is dependent upon the parameters below when
it is determined using expression (D.1):
When using expression (D.1) it should be remembered that it is only valid with restric-
tions which are comprehensively listed in Clause D.1(2) of Annex D of EN 1991-1-7.
cl.D.1(2): 1991-1-7 Furthermore, when determining the venting area A using expression (D.1), care needs
to be observed regarding the units for the various parameters that are used.
Clause D.1(3) gives an expression (D.2), which is not reproduced here, to determine the
venting area (A) of rectangular enclosures. The venting area (A) is dependent upon the
parameters below when it is determined using expression (D.2):
When using expression (D.2) it should be remembered that it is only valid with restric-
tions which are comprehensively listed in Clause D.1(3) of Annex D of EN 1991-1-7.
cl.D.1(3): 1991-1-7 Furthermore when determining the venting area A using expression (D.2), care needs to
be observed regarding the units for the various parameters that are used.
cl.D.1(4): 1991-1-7 Clause D.1(4) should be used for elongated rooms to determine the increase in the
venting area for the geometric parameters given in the Clause.
282
pd 3 pstat D:4
or
pd 3 pstat =2 0:04=Av =V2 D:5
whichever is the greater,
where:
pstat is the uniformly distributed static pressure at which venting components will fail, in
(kN/m)
Av is the area of venting components, in m2
V is the volume of rectangular enclosure (m3).
Expressions (D.4) and (D.5) are valid for a room up to 1000 m3 total volume. cl.D.2(1): 1991-1-7
The pressure due to deagration can be taken to act eectively simultaneously on all of Note to cl.D.2(1):
the bounding surfaces of the room. 1991-1-7
For rooms in buildings which have dierent venting components with dierent pstat
values, the largest value of pstat should be used in the design.
If the value for pd is determined to be greater than 50 kN/m2 it does not need to be cl.D.2(2): 1991-1-7
taken into account, and thus the value of 50 kN/m2 can be used.
When using expressions (D.4) and (D.5) the ratio of the area of venting components cl.D.2(3): 1991-1-7
(Av) and the volume (V) should comply with expression (D.6) below:
0.05(1/m) Av/V 0.15 (D.6)
283
284
286
287
288
289
290
291
292
293
294