Thermo Chapter - 1 - Lecture PDF
Thermo Chapter - 1 - Lecture PDF
Thermo Chapter - 1 - Lecture PDF
DAM 20503
SEM I 2017/2018
1
Chapter 1
BASIC CONCEPTS AND
DEFINITIONS
Chapter 1.0 Basic Concepts And Definitions
Sub-topic :
1.1 Introduction;
1.2 Laws of thermodynamics;
1.3 System, boundary and surrounding;
1.4 Closed systems and open systems;
1.5 Process, state and thermodynamic properties;
1.6 The working fluid, the types of properties,
properties as a function of the state, a state diagram, the
types of processes;
1.7 The pressure, volume and temperature, and
measurement units.
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1.2 Laws of thermodynamics
Conservation of
energy principle:
During an interaction,
energy can change
from one form to
another but the total
amount of energy
remains constant.
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1.2 Laws of thermodynamics
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Automotive Engine
Electrical Power Plant
Air Craft Propulsion
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IMPORTANCE OF DIMENSIONS AND UNITS
Any physical quantity can be characterized by dimensions.
The magnitudes assigned to the dimensions are called
units.
Some basic dimensions such as mass m, length L, time t,
and temperature T are selected as primary or fundamental
dimensions,
Primary or fundamental dimensions:
mass m, length L, time t, and temperature T
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IMPORTANCE OF DIMENSIONS AND UNITS
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IMPORTANCE OF DIMENSIONS AND UNITS
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Some SI and English Units
The SI unit prefixes are used in all branches of engineering
Ref. :
[1] R. Zucker, O. Biblarz (2002). Fundamentals of Gas Dynamics. Hoboken, New Jersey: John Wiley & Sons, Inc. ISBN 0-
471-05967-6.
[2] International Bureau of Weights and Measures (2006), The International System of Units (SI) (PDF) (8th ed.), ISBN 92-
822-2213-6, archived (PDF) from the original on 2017-08-14 18
Some SI and English Units
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The relative magnitudes of the force units
newton (N), kilogram-force (kgf), and pound-force (lbf).
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A body weighing
60 kgf on earth W weight (N)
will weight only m mass (kg)
10 kgf on the g gravitational acceleration
moon.
(m/s2)
[ kg. m/s2 = N ]
The weight of a
unit mass at sea
level.
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Dimensional homogeneity
All equations must be dimensionally homogeneous.
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1.4 Closed, Open, and Isolated Systems
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An open system, or control volume, has mass as well
as energy crossing the boundary, called a control
surface. Examples of open systems are pumps,
nozzles, diffusers, compressors, turbines, throttling
valves, mixing chambers, pipe, duct flow and heat
exchangers.
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Figure 11 : An open system (a control volume) with one inlet and one exit
OPEN SYSTEMS
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Open system (control
volume): A properly
selected region in space.
It usually encloses a device
that involves mass flow
such as a compressor,
turbine, or nozzle.
Both mass and energy can
cross the boundary of a
control volume.
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An isolated system is a general system of fixed mass where no
heat or work may cross the boundaries. An isolated system is a
closed system with no energy crossing the boundaries and is
normally a collection of a main system and its surroundings that
are exchanging mass and energy among themselves and no
other system.
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33
1.5 Process, state and
thermodynamic
properties;
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PROPERTIES OF A SYSTEM
Property: Any
characteristic of a
system.
Some familiar
properties are
pressure P,
temperature T, volume
V, and mass m.
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PROPERTIES
OF A SYSTEM
Properties are considered to
be either intensive or
extensive.
Intensive properties: Those
that are independent of the
mass of a system, such as
temperature, pressure, and
density.
Extensive properties: Those
whose values depend on the
sizeor extentof the
system.
Specific properties: Criterion to differentiate intensive
and extensive properties.
Extensive properties per unit 36
mass.
Since some of the thermodynamic relations that are applicable to closed and
open systems are different, it is extremely important that we recognize the type
of system we have before we start analyzing it.
Properties of a System
a. temperature, T
b. pressure, P
c. density,
c. age
d. color
e. any mass independent property
Volume V m 3
v
mass m kg
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DENSITY AND SPECIFIC GRAVITY
Density
Sample of calculations :
Specific volume
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DENSITY AND SPECIFIC GRAVITY
Specific gravity: The ratio of the density of a substance
to the density of some standard substance at a specified
temperature (usually water at 4C).
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STATE AND EQUILIBRIUM
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Thermodynamics deals
with equilibrium states.
Equilibrium: A state
of balance.
In an equilibrium state
there are no
unbalanced potentials
(or driving forces)
within the system.
A closed system
reaching thermal
equilibrium. 43
A system at two different states.
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TYPES OF EQUILIBRIUM
Thermal equilibrium: If the temperature is the
same throughout the entire system.
Mechanical equilibrium: If there is no change
in pressure at any point of the system with time.
Phase equilibrium: If a system involves two
phases and when the mass of each phase
reaches an equilibrium level and stays there.
Chemical equilibrium: If the chemical
composition of a system does not change with
time, that is, no chemical reactions occur.
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The State Postulate
The number of properties
required to fix the state of a
system is given by the state
postulate:
The state of a simple
compressible system is
completely specified by
two independent, The state of nitrogen is fixed
intensive properties. by two independent,
Simple compressible intensive properties.
system: If a system involves
no electrical, magnetic,
gravitational, motion, and
surface tension effects.
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PROCESSES AND CYCLES
Process: Any change that a system undergoes from one equilibrium state to
another.
Path: The series of states through which a system passes during a process.
To describe a process completely, one should specify the initial and final states,
as well as the path it follows, and the interactions with the surroundings.
Quasistatic or quasi-equilibrium process: When a process proceeds in such
a manner that the system remains infinitesimally close to an equilibrium state
at all times.
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Process diagrams plotted by
employing thermodynamic properties
as coordinates are very useful in
visualizing the processes.
Some common properties that are
used as coordinates are temperature
T, pressure P, and volume V (or
specific volume v).
The prefix iso- is often used to
designate a process for which a
particularproperty remains constant.
Isothermal process: A process
during which the temperature T
remains constant.
Isobaric process: A process during
which the pressure P remains
constant.
Isochoric (or isometric) process: A
process during which the specific The P-V diagram of a compression
volume v remains constant. process.
Cycle: A process during which the
initial and final states are identical.
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1.6 The working fluid,
the types of properties,
properties as a function
of the state, a state
diagram, the types of
processes;
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The Steady-Flow Process
The term steady implies no
change with time. The
opposite of steady is
unsteady, or transient.
A large number of During a steady-
engineering devices operate flow process, fluid
for long periods of time properties within
under the same conditions, the control
and they are classified as volume may
steady-flow devices. change with
Steady-flow process: A position but not
process during which a fluid with time.
flows through a control
volume steadily.
Steady-flow conditions can
be closely approximated by
devices that are intended for
continuous operation such
as turbines, pumps,
boilers, condensers, and
heat exchangers or power Under steady-flow conditions, the mass
plants or refrigeration and energy contents of a control volume 50
systems. remain constant.
The Steady-Flow Process
During a steady-flow process, fluid properties within the control
volume may change with position but not with time.
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The Steady-Flow Process
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TEMPERATURE AND THE ZEROTH LAW OF
THERMODYNAMICS
The zeroth law of thermodynamics: If two bodies are in thermal
equilibrium with a third body, they are also in thermal equilibrium with
each other.
By replacing the third body with a thermometer, the zeroth law can
be restated as two bodies are in thermal equilibrium if both have the
same temperature reading even if they are not in contact.
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Temperature Scales
P versus T plots
All temperature scales are based on
some easily reproducible states such as of the
the freezing and boiling points of water: experimental
the ice point and the steam point. data obtained
Ice point: A mixture of ice and water from a constant-
that is in equilibrium with air saturated volume gas
with vapor at 1 atm pressure (0C or thermometer
32F). using four
Steam point: A mixture of liquid water different gases
and water vapor (with no air) in at different (but
equilibrium at 1 atm pressure (100C or low) pressures.
212F).
Celsius scale: in SI unit system
Fahrenheit scale: in English unit
system
Thermodynamic temperature scale: A
temperature scale that is independent of
the properties of any substance.
Kelvin scale (SI) Rankine scale (E)
A temperature scale nearly identical to
the Kelvin scale is the ideal-gas
temperature scale. The temperatures
on this scale are measured using a A constant-volume gas thermometer would
constant-volume gas thermometer. 55
read 273.15C at absolute zero pressure.
Comparison of
temperature
scales.
Comparison of
magnitudes of
various
temperature
units.
The reference temperature in the original Kelvin scale was the ice point,
273.15 K, which is the temperature at which water freezes (or ice melts).
The reference point was changed to a much more precisely reproducible
point, the triple point of water (the state at which all three phases of water
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coexist in equilibrium), which is assigned the value 273.16 K.
PRESSURE
68 kg 136 kg
Pressure: A normal force exerted
by a fluid per unit area
Afeet=300cm2
Some
basic
pressure
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gages.
Absolute pressure: The actual pressure at a given position. It is
measured relative to absolute vacuum (i.e., absolute zero pressure).
Gage pressure: The difference between the absolute pressure and
the local atmospheric pressure. Most pressure-measuring devices are
calibrated to read zero in the atmosphere, and so they indicate gage
pressure.
Vacuum pressures: Pressures below atmospheric pressure.
Throughout
this text, the
pressure P
will denote
absolute
pressure
unless
specified
otherwise.
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Variation of Pressure with Depth
When the variation of density
with elevation is known
Pressure in a liquid
at rest increases
linearly with
distance from the
free surface.
The pressure is the
same at all points on
a horizontal plane in
a given fluid
regardless of
geometry, provided
that the points are
interconnected by
the same fluid.
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Pascals law: The pressure applied to a
confined fluid increases the pressure
throughout by the same amount.
The basic
manometer.