Unep DRC Pcea en PDF

The Democratic Republic
of the Congo
Post-Conflict Environmental Assessment
Synthesis for Policy Makers
United Nations Environment Programme

First published in 2011 by the United Nations Environment Programme
2011, United Nations Environment Programme
ISBN: 978-92-807-3226-9
Job No.: DEP/1467/GE

P.O. Box 30552
Nairobi, KENYA
Tel: +254 (0)20 762 1234
Fax: +254 (0)20 762 3927
E-mail: [email protected]
Web: http://www.unep.org
About the Post-Conict Environmental Assessment

In response to a request from the Government of the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC), in 2009 the United Nations
Environment Programme (UNEP) initiated a national, multi-thematic assessment of priority environmental issues facing the
country.Within the context of the DRCs ongoing peace consolidation and economic reconstruction, the main objectives of this
assessment were to: (i) provide insight into and raise awareness of the key environmental and natural resource management
challenges; and (ii) inform rational planning and help catalyse investments by the government and the international
community. UNEP plans to follow up on its comprehensive DRC assessment by developing a country programme which will
guide future interventions; this is a successful model implemented in over 10 post-conict countries since 1999.
Following the preparation of detailed scoping and desk studies, 14 separate reconnaissance eld visits covering all
provinces and eco-regions of the DRC were carried out by a joint UNEP- Ministry of Environment, Nature Conservation and
Tourism (MECNT) team. The signicant investment in eldwork covering the whole country is one of the dening features
of this assessment, which comprised extensive interviews and focus group discussions, site visits, photographic and video
documentation, remote sensing and mapping, and in-situ eld measurements as well as sampling for laboratory analysis.
Despite security constraints and the physical isolation of whole regions, the assessment team still managed to cover the
entire country. A lack of reliable environmental baseline data created important gaps, but it was nevertheless possible to
compile considerable information through eldwork.
Consultations with national and development partners were an integral part of the assessment process. Several workshops
involving a wide range of stakeholders were organised both during the design and scoping of the assessment and to review
its ndings, conclusions and recommendations. As such, the assessment has been reviewed and endorsed by the main
government counterpart (MECNT) and relevant government line ministries and agencies.
The technical basis for this Synthesis for Policy Makers is the nalised draft of the main report, The Democratic Republic of
Congo Post-Conict Environmental Assessment. Focusing on policy-level issues, this synthesis report is primarily targeted
at decision-makers and underlines structural challenges and strategic opportunities that are transformative in nature. Other
key outputs from UNEPs post-conict assessment project include a series of thematic technical reports, a lm documentary,
a photographic database and a website at: www.unep.org/drcongo
Note: Reference sources for this synthesis are provided in the main report.
Layout: Matija Potocnik

Maps and Remote Sensing: Yves Barthlemy and Dominique del Pietro
Cover Image: Hassan Partow The mighty Congo River embodies the
cultural spirit of the Congolese and forms the economic lifeline of this
UNEP promotes
vast and environmentally diverse African nation. environmentally sound practices
Printed on Recycled Paper globally and in its own activities. This
publication is printed on recycled paper
using vegetable-based inks and other eco-
friendly practices. Our distribution policy
aims to reduce UNEPs carbon footprint.
The Democratic Republic
of the Congo
Post-Conict Environmental Assessment
Synthesis for Policy Makers
This report by the United Nations Environment Programme was made possible
by the generous contribution of the Government of Norway
Table of contents
Acronyms and abbreviations 4
Acknowledgements 5
1. Overview: from crisis to opportunity 6

1.1 Assessment approach ........................................................................................................................................8
1.2 Development vision..........................................................................................................................................9
1.3 Limitations of the concession system ................................................................................................................9
2. Key policy actions 13

2.1 Capitalise on the DRCs emerging social economy and small-scale sector to generate employment
and support inclusive growth and peace building............................................................................................13
2.2 Maximise synergies through area-based development programming ...............................................................16
2.3 Integrate economic valuation of ecosystem services into all development planning .........................................18
2.4 Engage in a green economy transition to achieve sustainable development .....................................................19
3. The importance and fate of the DRCs natural capital 22
4. Role and consequences of natural resources in conflict 24

4.1 Natural resources nancing and sustaining conict.........................................................................................24
4.2 Major environmental consequences of protracted conict ..............................................................................26
5. Post-conflict challenges to environmental and natural resource management 29

5.1 The geography and dynamics of environmental degradation ...........................................................................29
5.2 Synopsis of priority issues by sector/theme .....................................................................................................32
Mineral resources ...........................................................................................................................................32
Forestry resources ...........................................................................................................................................36
Land ...............................................................................................................................................................37
Agriculture .....................................................................................................................................................38
Biodiversity and protected areas......................................................................................................................40
Water resources ..............................................................................................................................................41
Fisheries .........................................................................................................................................................42
Climate change...............................................................................................................................................43
Industry..........................................................................................................................................................44
Urbanisation...................................................................................................................................................45
Transport........................................................................................................................................................47
Energy ............................................................................................................................................................47
Natural hazards ..............................................................................................................................................48
6. Underlying structural constraints to environmentally sustainable development 49

6.1 Informalisation of the economy ......................................................................................................................49
6.2 Survival-based foraging livelihoods .................................................................................................................52
6.3 Deep de-industrialisation and de-mechanisation: a low-productivity trap .......................................................54
6.4 Emerging social enterprises constrained by weak governance ..........................................................................54
6.5 Small and medium-sized enterprises handicapped by an unfriendly business environment .............................55
6.6 Breakdown of the banking system undercuts revenue generation and economic accumulation
from natural resources ....................................................................................................................................56
6.7 Geographic isolation and dynamic border regions: dierent patterns of environmental degradation ...............57
6.8 Ambiguities over land tenure and weak land management ..............................................................................57
6.9 Data vacuum ..................................................................................................................................................59
6.10 Nascent environmental policy and institutional framework ............................................................................59
7. Opportunities for sustainable development, good governance and peace consolidation 60
7.1 Build on success stories to create a virtuous circle of development.................................................................60
7.2 Positive reform of environmental governance..................................................................................................62
7.3 Enhancement of regional environmental and natural resources cooperation ...................................................63
7.4 Decentralisation of environmental management .............................................................................................64
8. Recommendations 65
1) Strengthen environmental governance and invest in capacity building ............................................................65
2) Mobilise the social economy to create jobs and enhance sustainable growth ...................................................65
3) Target smart green investments and build on success stories ...........................................................................66
4) Strengthen regional governance and cooperation ............................................................................................66
5) Prioritise the environmental sustainability of humanitarian action ..................................................................66
9. Financing the recommendations 67

9.1 Addressing a critical funding gap ....................................................................................................................67
Harnessing global market-based instruments on ecosystem services ................................................................67
Green schemes................................................................................................................................................67
Doubling Ocial Development Assistance (ODA) to the DRC .....................................................................68
Increasing public nancing and reform of taxation policies to open the space
for local level nancing through collective action............................................................................................68
10. Way forward 69
Annex: Table of sectoral and thematic recommendations 70

Acronyms and abbreviations
ADF ..........................Allied Democratic Forces
ADIR ........................Action pour le Dveloppement des Infrastructures en milieu Rural
ANEE .......................National Association for Environmental Assessment
ASM .........................artisanal and small scale mining
BGR..........................German Federal Geoscience and Natural Resources Bureau
BTC ..........................Belgian Development Agency
CARPE .....................Central African Regional Program for the Environment (USAID)
CBNRM ...................Community Based Natural Resource Management
CDM ........................Clean Development Mechanism
CICOS .....................International Commission for the Congo-Oubangui-Sangha Basin
CITES ......................Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora
CNAEA ....................National Water and Sanitation Committee
CTC .........................Certied Trading Chains
DDR .........................Disarmament, Demobilization and Re-integration
DFID ........................UK Department for International Development
DRC .........................The Democratic Republic of the Congo
EITI ..........................Extractive Industry Transparency Initiative
FAO ..........................Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations
FARDC.....................Armed Forces of the Democratic Republic of Congo
FDLR .......................Democratic Forces for the Liberation of Rwanda
FLEGT .....................Forest Law Enforcement, Governance and Trade scheme of the European Union
FSC...........................Forest Stewardship Council
GDP .........................Gross Domestic Product
GECAMINES...........Gnrale des Carrires et des Mines
GT 18 .......................Thematic Group on Environment
GTZ .........................German Technical Cooperation
HIPC ........................Heavily Indebted Poor Countries Initiative
IBCSP .......................Ibi Batk carbon sink plantation
ICCN .......................Institut Congolais pour la conservation de la nature (Congolese Wildlife Authority)
ICGLR......................International Conference on the Great Lakes Region
IDP ...........................internally displaced person
IPCC ........................Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
IUCN .......................International Union for Conservation of Nature
LRA ..........................Lords Resistance Army
MECNT ...................Ministry of Environment, Nature Conservation and Tourism
METTELSAT ...........National Agency for Meteorology and Satellite Remote Sensing
MIBA........................Societ Minire de Bakwanga
MONUSCO .............United Nations Organization Stabilization Mission in the Democratic Republic of Congo
NALU .......................National Army for the Liberation of Uganda
NBI...........................Nile Basin Initiative
NGO ........................non-governmental organization
NTFP .......................Non-Timber Forest Products
OCHA ......................United Nations Oce for the Coordination of Humanitarian Aairs
ODA .........................Ocial Development Assistance
OKIMO ...................Oce dOr de Kilo-Moto
PES ...........................Payment for Ecosystem Services
PRGSP ......................Poverty Reduction and Growth Strategy Papers
REGIDESO ..............State water utility company
REDD+ ....................Reducing Emissions from deforestation and forest degradation in developing countries;
and the role of conservation, sustainable management of forests and enhancement
of forest carbon stocks in developing countries
SAESSCAM ..............Small-scale-mining technical assistance and training service
SAKIMA ...................Socit Aurifre de Kivu-Maniema
SME..........................small and medium-sized enterprise
SNEL ........................State electricity utility company
SNHR.......................National Rural Water Service
SOMINKI ................Socit Minire du Kivu
UN ...........................United Nations
UNDP ......................United Nations Development Programme
UNDSS ....................United Nations Department of Safety and Security
UNEP .......................United Nations Environment Programme
UNESCO .................United Nations Educational, Scientic and Cultural Organization
UNHCR ...................United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees
UNICEF ...................United Nations Childrens Fund
UNIDO ....................United Nations Industrial Development Organization
UN-REDD ...............The United Nations Collaborative Programme on Reducing Emissions from Deforestation
and Forest Degradation in developing countries
USAID......................United States Agency for International Development
UXO .........................Unexploded Ordnance
WUA ........................Water User Associations
WFP .........................World Food Programme
WWF ........................Worldwide Fund for Nature
4 s5NITED.ATIONS%NVIRONMENT0ROGRAMMEs5NITED.ATIONS%NVIRONMENT0ROGRAMMEs5NITED.ATIONS%NVIRONMENT0ROGRAMMEs
Acknowledgements USAID-CARPE, Belgian Development Agency
(BTC), German Technical Cooperation (GTZ)
A wide range of organizations and individuals and UK Department of International Development
provided invaluable assistance for the Post- (DFID); (v) national NGOs: ANEE, Projet dtude
Conflict Environmental Assessment of the des Eets Environnementaux des Conits Arms
Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC) en RDC (PCA-RDC), Rseau des Ressources
conducted by the United Nations Environment Naturelles and Action pour le Dveloppement
Programme (UNEP), including giving their des Infrastructures en milieu Rural (ADIR); (vi)
time for consultations and interviews; providing regional bodies: International Commission for the
substantive contributions and reviews; and Congo-Oubangui-Sangha Basin (CICOS) and the
facilitating eldwork and logistics. Unfortunately, Nile Basin Initiative (NBI); and (vii) other partners:
it is not possible to list them all here. University of Kinshasa, University of Kisangani,
University of Lubumbashi and Spiez Laboratory
UNEPs assessment project was conducted in (Switzerland).
close collaboration with the DRCs Ministry of
Environment, Nature Conservation and Tourism The Synthesis for Policy Makers is based on the
(MECNT), including its provincial environment main report, The Democratic Republic of the Congo
coordination oces and the Congolese Wildlife Post-Conflict Environmental Assessment. This
Authority (ICCN). The work was funded by the synthesis report was prepared by Hassan Partow,
Government of Norway. DRC Programme Manager, UNEP, under the
overall guidance of Henrik Slotte, Chief, Post-
UNEP also wishes to highlight the contributions Conflict and Disaster Management Branch,
of the following key partners: UNEP, and Ibrahim Thiaw, Director, Division
of Environmental Policy Implementation,
(i) UN agencies: UN Stabilization Mission in UNEP. Substantive contributions were provided
DRC (MONUSCO), UNDP, FAO, UNESCO, by Stephanie Mansourian-Stephenson, Michel
UNHCR, UNIDO, UNICEF, UN Group of A. Bouchard, Dieudonn Musibono, Andrew
Experts on the DRC, WFP, OCHA and UNDSS; Morton, Rn Abedi, Denis Mahonghol, Altan
(ii) DRC national ministries and agencies: Ministry Butt, Robert Kasisi, Marisol Estrella, Mario Burger,
of Mines (including SAESSCAM), Ministry of Alfred Jacob, Renard Sexton, Henri Esseqqat and
Rural Development (including SNHR), Ministry Catherine Sullivan. Special appreciation also goes
of Agriculture, Fisheries and Livestock, Ministry to Stephanie Wolters and Julie Marks for their
of Energy (including REGIDESO and SNEL), review and editing of the report.
Ministry of Health, Ministry of Industry, Ministry
of Transportation (including METTELSAT, Thanks are also due to Jeanette Clover, David
RVF, RVM), National Water and Sanitation Jensen, Michel Gerkens, Frank Turyatunga,
Committee (CNAEA), National Commission on Johannes Resch, Wahida Patwa-Shah, Moustapha
Energy, and state mining enterprises including Gueye, Thomas Chiramba, Franoise dEstais,
GECAMINES, OKIMO, MIBA and SAKIMA; Marceil Yeater and Stephen Nash, for their
(iii) international NGOs and network organisations: important review and comments. Also to be
Adelphi, Conservation International, International acknowledged is the research and translation
Peace Information Service, International Union for assistance provided by Hannoa Guillaume, and
Conservation of Nature (IUCN), ProAct Network, Dawit Yared, Vidon Baya and Tshitshi Munene
Worldwide Fund for Nature (WWF), and for administrative and logistical support. Full
Wildlife Conservation Society; (iv) international acknowledgments of contributors and reviewers
development banks and agencies: The World Bank, are provided in the main assessment report.
s5NITED.ATIONS%NVIRONMENT0ROGRAMMEs5NITED.ATIONS%NVIRONMENT0ROGRAMMEs5NITED.ATIONS%NVIRONMENT0ROGRAMMEs 5
THE DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC OF THE CONGO
POST-CONFLICT ENVIRONMENTAL ASSESSMENT
have been made in the security sector, there is

Synthesis for continued instability in the eastern part of the
Policy Makers DRC and the situation remains fragile. Second
generation post-conict elections scheduled in
November 2011 will be critical for consolidating
1. Overview: from crisis the DRCs hard-won peace.
to opportunity
It is important to recognise that, since 2004, the
Since the 2002 peace accords, the Democratic DRC has succeeded in halting declining trends
Republic of the Congo (DRC) has been emerging on social and economic issues, and is registering
from a long period of State decline and protracted progress, albeit slow, in key areas. Although
crisis, the roots of which go back to at least the development indicators remain low and generally
mid-1970s. Today most of the country is at peace below pre-conict levels, important improvements
and experiencing a burst of economic rebound have been made in terms of macroeconomic
activity. Nevertheless, the DRC is still a fragile management, raising primary education enrolment,
post-conflict country with enormous needs reducing infant and maternal mortality, improving
for reconstruction and economic growth. The drinking water supply, alleviating malnutrition,
opportunities are huge - the countrys vast natural increasing the land area under formal protection,
and mineral wealth is one of the richest on Earth. and re-launching ecotourism. For example, real
With its immense potential, the DRC could have gross domestic product GDP growth has averaged
a bright future as a leading powerhouse of African between 5-6 percent, drinking water access in
growth and development. rural areas increased from 12 to 17 percent, while
the protected area has increased from 9 to 12
Since 2003, progress has been made in rebuilding percent of national territory. Equally important
the Congolese State, including the holding has been the remarkable re-emergence of people-
of national elections in 2006, the passing based social enterprises as an integral part of a
of key constitutional and legal reforms, and Congolese bottom-up phenomenon, and the rapid
the establishment of new institutions such as take-o of new information and communication
provincial assemblies. Although some advances technologies.
The DRCs rich resource base should make it an engine of African growth and development
SYNTHESIS FOR POLICY MAKERS
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6 Bomongo 2 Lukula
7 Makanza 3 Dimbelenge LUALABA Mitwaba Lake
3 Tshela Mweru
8 Bongandanga 4 Seke-Banza KASA-ORIENTAL Sandoa KATANGA
9 Bolomba 5 Luozi 1 Kabeya-Kamwanga Lubudi
10o 10 Lukolela 6 Songololo 2 Lupatapata
11 Bikoro Dilolo K O L W E Z I Kasenga
O C E A N
7 Mbanza-Ngungu 3 Miabi Mutshatsha

ORIENTALE 8 Kasangulu 4 Tshilenge LIKASI
1 Bambesa 9 Madimba 5 Katanda KOLWEZI
2 Rungu
3 Mahagi
10 Kimvula 6 Kamiji
7 Luilu
Lubumbashi
BANDUNDU Kambove LU 3
8 Ngandajika BU
NORD-KIVU 1 Yumbi 9 Kabinda SUD-KIVU
1 Butembo 2 Bolobo 1 Shabunda M BA
10 Lubao SH
2 Beni 3 Mushie 2 Kalehe I
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3 Oicha 4 Kwamouth KATANGA 3 Idjwi Sakania
4 Masisi 5 Popokabaka 1 Kaniama 4 Kabare
5 Rutshuru 6 Masi-Manimba 2 Malemba-Nkulu 5 Walungu
6 Nyiragongo 7 Bulungu 3 Kipushi 6 Uvira
DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC OF THE CONGO Kilometres

0 100 200 300 400 500
International boundary
Azimuthal Equidistant Projection
Province boundary
District boundary
Sources:
GOMA District (city)
International Boundaries, UNCS;
Territory boundary rdc-humanitaire.net, OCHA/RDC;
National capital SALB, WHO;
VMAP0, NGA;
Province capital various maps and atlases.
The boundaries and names shown and the designations used on this map do not imply official endorsement or acceptance by the United Nations. UNEP/DEWA/GRID-Europe 2009
UNEP/Spiez Laboratory team carrying out a sampling survey of mining pollution in Katanga
UNEPs post-conict environmental assessment assessment projects a positive and hopeful future
aims to provide a better understanding of the for the DRC.
underlying challenges facing the DRC and to
help identify and develop promising opportunities At the same time, the assessment proposes
to support sustainable economic reconstruction key policy actions as well as a set of priority
and national peacebuilding. While this report recommendations - both at the global and sectoral
does not lay out a new development pathway for levels - that are primarily aimed at the DRCs
the DRC, it does hope to galvanise and inform policy- and decision-makers and its development
the ongoing debate between the Congolese and partners. A central question is how the proposed
their partners on environmentally sustainable interventions with a tentative cost estimate of
development planning, employment creation, at least USD 200 million per annum, equivalent
governance reforms and options for leveraging to approximately 2 percent of national GDP -
necessary funding. will be nanced. Notwithstanding the critical
importance of conventional aid, current levels
1.1 Assessment approach of Official Development Assistance (ODA)
simply do not match the scale of the challenge.
This multi-disciplinary assessment is problem- Although the DRCs successful completion of
driven, focusing on the most urgent environmental the Heavily Indebted Poor Countries Initiative
and natural resource management issues (HIPC) in 2010, and the increased revenue
confronting the DRC. The aim of this issues-based from rising commodity prices should provide
approach is to identify structural constraints and, an important opportunity to increase national
to the extent possible, innovatively transform these budget spending on environment and natural
constraints into opportunities, as well as build on resource management. However, given the many
successful initiatives. UNEPs environmental competing priorities, it will take time for this to
assessment underlines the DRCs exceptional happen. Meanwhile, galloping population growth
human, cultural and natural assets. By supporting and corresponding development needs signify
the ongoing consolidation of peace and the initial that environmental degradation will continue
post-conict economic rebound with policies unabated. Consequently, bridging this funding
and investments promoting sustainability, this gap remains a key question.
1.2 Development vision 1.3 Limitations of the

concession system
The DRCs national development vision as set out in
its Poverty Reduction and Growth Strategy Papers During this critical peacebuilding phase, UNEPs
(PRGSP 1 & 2) is to stimulate economic recovery assessment advocates for a fundamental rethinking
and alleviate poverty through a growth focused of the DRCs business-as-usual frontier approach
strategy. It emphasises generating economic growth to the development of its natural resources. This
by attracting large-scale infrastructure investments frontier mindset, which has driven much of the
and leasing industrial concessions to extract the DRCs development in the 20th century and prevails
countrys vast natural capital. Specically, over to this day, is based on generating nancial resources
the period 2011-2015, the PRGSP2 aims to through a concession system. Conventionally,
accelerate growth in extractive industries and these large-scale commercial concessions have been
infrastructure investments to an average of between granted in the mining and forestry sectors but have
8-9 percent. In fact, the key natural resource also more recently extended to oil and gas exploration
sectors - mining, forestry, oil and gas have been and land acquisitions for agriculture and biofuels.
experiencing rapid growth over the past decade. Also included under the concession category
The key question is how to promote and maximise are a range of resource barter and infrastructure
broad-based benets from the development of construction arrangements, some of which have
the DRCs natural assets given the States limited been concluded outside the legal framework. As a
institutional capacity for controlling fraud and result, today, more than half of the DRCs immense
corruption, and managing wealth redistribution territory is covered with mining, forestry and oil
and social service provision. Specically, which exploitation and exploration permits that sometimes
development models should the DRC consider to overlap not only with each other causing serious
ensure that the harnessing of its natural resources commercial disputes - but also with protected areas
is socially inclusive, environmentally sustainable including natural World Heritage Sites (see map 2).
and supports peace consolidation? This extractive concession-based development
Less than a third of industrial timber is processed in local plants, with the majority exported as logs
approach rooted in virtually limitless natural rent improving the normative framework of concession
capture, however, has not succeeded in reducing governance. This includes establishing a new legal
poverty and creating employment. Moreover, it has regime (Forestry Code 2002, Mining Code 2002,
generated social conict, depleted the DRCs natural Environment Law 2011) as well as a complex
capital and damaged ecosystem services on which process of reviewing, forestry and mining concession
the poor are most dependent for their livelihoods. licences. Nevertheless, the governments limited
As such, it is neither socially nor environmentally capacity to curb predatory investments, negotiate
sustainable. win-win agreements, and enforce compliance needs
to be considerably strengthened. The benets of
At the same time, it is important to recognize many concession agreements continue to be one-
and applaud the substantial progress made by sided, while persistent reports of underhanded
the DRC in strengthening the administration deals, particularly in the mining and oil industries
of its natural resources, and particularly in are a worrisome indicator for the future.
The head of Kasai Occidentals Mining Division with a concession map showing most
of the province demarcated into mining blocks
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Kilometres
Oil, Mining and Forest Concessions 0 100 200 300 400 500
Mineral mining (gold, copper, cobalt, etc.) GCS: WGS 84
Non-mineral mining (sand, stone, etc.)
Mining exploration Sources:

Administrative: RGC, ESRI, Geonames.
Mines: Cadastre Minier, IPIS.
Oil concessions Forest concessions: FORAF.
Forest concessions
The boundaries and names shown and the designations used on this map do not imply official endorsement by the United Nations. UNEP - 2011
While large-scale concessions such as Tenke Fungurume Mining, the DRCs largest private investment,
use cutting-edge technology and follow international standards, they create limited employment
This assessment asserts that even if governance Various initiatives to promote socially and
and transparency standards were more rigorously environmentally responsible investments in
applied, improved governance of natural resource the natural resource sector, including through
concessions alone will not be able to deliver the due diligence, transparency and certification
development dividends necessary to stimulate schemes, are a welcome development. Even so,
the levels of economic growth necessary to these novel technical mechanisms to improve
lift the majority of Congolese out of poverty. accountability are unlikely to have the desired
Despite the advantages that these extractive eect on development as they do not address
concessions may provide particularly fiscal the central question of generating employment
revenue and infrastructure development so far on the necessary scale. Moreover, from a social
they have for the most part remained isolated welfare perspective, state mining enterprises
investment enclaves with limited trickle down such as GECAMINES, MIBA, OKIMO and
eect. Notably, they have provided limited work SOMINKI used to provide their sta and families
opportunities and have had little impact on the with a whole range of social benets as well as
well-being of the majority of Congos population, services to urban centres. With the disintegration
including local communities. For example, the of these flagship companies, however, these
largest private investment in the countrys history services were never replaced and have resulted in
of over USD 2 billion to develop the huge copper- important social problems. Furthermore, the risk
cobalt reserves in Tenke Fungurume has employed of concession-based development is signicantly
around 2,900 people. At this rate, trillions of aggravated by the historical vulnerability of a
dollars of investment would be required to develop natural resource export economy to commodity
the DRC, clearly not a practical option. Moreover, boom and bust cycles. There is a critical need
large investments in industrial mining have been to examine additional avenues of development
limited to stable mining regions, and there have which prioritise job creation and improving the
been only minor projects in other provinces, livelihoods and living conditions for the majority
particularly those emerging from conict. of the Congolese population.
2. Key policy actions 2.1 Capitalise on the DRCs emerging

social economy and small-scale sector
Based on the challenges and opportunities to generate employment and support
identied in this assessment, UNEP proposes
that the Government of the DRC consider four inclusive growth and peace building
policy actions to promote sustainable wealth UNEPs assessment calls for enlarging and
creation, poverty alleviation and long-term peace diversifying the DRCs development model
building. These options include: (i) capitalising beyond its present focus on infrastructure
on the DRCs emerging social economy to investments and industrial concessions. It makes
generate employment; (ii) maximising synergies the case for a complementary development
through area-based development programming; pathway based on promoting the social economy.1
(iii) integrating economic valuation of ecosystem The social economy is an integral part of the
services into all development planning and (iv) Congolese reality involving a vibrant and growing
engaging in a green economy transition to group of actors that have emerged from the
achieve sustainable development. DRCs vast informal and artisanal sector. This
group comprises nascent grassroots initiatives
that can take a wide array of organisational forms
Main message to policy makers:BROADEN including: (i) associations and proto-cooperatives;
THE DEVELOPMENT PARADIGM TO HARNESS THE (ii) small and medium-sized enterprises (SME);
POTENTIALOFTHE$2#SEMERGINGSOCIALECONOMY and (iii) local development and community-based
AND SMALL SCALE SECTOR FOR JOB CREATION natural resource management initiatives. These
SUSTAINABLE NATURAL RESOURCES MANAGEMENT emerging forms of social enterprises and collective
AND PEACE CONSOLIDATION 0RIORITY SHOULD BE
GIVENTOCREATINGANENABLINGPOLICYFRAMEWORK
action have the potential to become a major
AND SUPPORT STRUCTURES INCLUDING FINANCIAL foundation for national economic development.
SERVICESFORSOCIALENTERPRISESTODEVELOPINA
COHERENTANDSUSTAINABLEFASHION The development of the DRCs embryonic social
economy was sparked by the unravelling of the
+EY SECTORS MINING FORESTRY AGRICULTURE State, the informalisation of the economy and
lSHERIESANDWATERSUPPLY
the collapse of social services, which led to the
spontaneous creation of associations. These self-
help solidarity networks are found across natural
resource based sectors agriculture, mining,
forestry, sheries and water and continue to
thrive to this day. They were created by Congolese
people who used their proper resources to deal
pragmatically with their own development
priorities.
Feasibility studies are needed to develop and

formalise social economy organisational models
and determine how they can be strengthened to
meet the development needs of Congolese. At
the same time, the conguration of these social
enterprises will need to be tailored to specic local
social systems, land tenure arrangements, the
needs of vulnerable groups and natural resource
4HE),/DElNESTHESOCIALECONOMYASACONCEPThDESIGNATINGENTERPRISES
AND ORGANIZATIONS IN PARTICULAR COOPERATIVES MUTUAL BENEFIT SOCIETIES
Water user associations are a positive example of ASSOCIATIONS FOUNDATIONS AND SOCIAL ENTERPRISES WHICH HAVE THE SPECIlC
FEATURE OF PRODUCING GOODS SERVICES AND KNOWLEDGE WHILE PURSUING BOTH
the DRCs emerging social economy which has ECONOMICANDSOCIALAIMSANDFOSTERINGSOLIDARITYv),/Plan of Action for
considerable potential for job creation the Promotion of Social Economy Enterprises and Organisations in Africa
type (e.g. minerals: diamonds, gold, tin, etc., amalgamated under the non-prot and charity
forestry, water, sheries, etc.). In this process, such organisations category, and as a result have
social enterprises have numerous opportunities to not been able to emerge as fully-edged social
integrate sustainable development objectives and enterprises. This categorisation must be addressed
to create green jobs. by a policy review with the aim of facilitating
legal identity, removing red tape and allowing
The social economy is identied as a key driving social enterprises access to nance. At the same
force capable of catalyzing successful transformative time, it is important to develop policies that
change by marshalling employment-led economic encourage linking the employment generation
development. The social economy concept potential of social enterprises with the massive
can also help anchor peace in the DRC by value-added transformation capacity of large
contributing to the reintegration component enterprises and multinational corporations. For
of Congolese ex-combatants under the national example, Tenke Fungurume Mining in Katanga
programme for Disarmament, Demobilization is providing micro-credit loan-guarantees for
and Re-integration (DDR). SMEs and job creation opportunities for non-
company employees in the area around its mine.
Practically, social enterprises must be supported Finally, it is noteworthy that most of the success
at the level of public policies and improved access stories reported involve nascent social economy
to resources including micro-nance. Today, these organisations and micro-investments, which
associations and proto-cooperatives are, however, typically have a signicant impact on a large
facing important challenges, as they have been population base.
To help ex-combatants reintegrate into society and earn a living, UNDP assisted them to organize
into shing associations such as the one above in Kasenyi, Ituri district
The farmer association in Imbongo, Bandundu Province, experiments for the rst time with
planting improved sorghum on grassland savanna to relieve pressure on gallery forests
Box 1. Farmers associations: a growing movement

'IVENTHEWEAKNESSOFSTATESTRUCTURESANDTHELIMITEDNUMBEROFINTERMEDIARIESONEAREAOFGROWING
IMPORTANCEISTHEEXPANSIONOFFARMERORGANISATIONSINTHE$2#4HEMOMENTUMBYFARMERSTOORGANISE
THEMSELVESINTOASSOCIATIONSTOINCREASEAGRICULTURALPRODUCTIVITYANDINCOMETHROUGHIMPROVEDPRODUCTION
MARKETINGANDLOCALPROCESSINGACTIVITIESREPRESENTSACRITICALSTEPFORWARD4HESEFARMERASSOCIATIONS
OFFERANIMPORTANTOPPORTUNITYTOCHANNELSUSTAINABLEAGRICULTURALPRACTICESTHATCOULDRAISEPRODUCTIVITY
)N "ANDUNDU 0ROVINCE FOR EXAMPLE THERE ARE NOW FARMER ORGANISATIONS GROUPED UNDER
hcoordinationsvCOORDINATIONBODIES WHICHAREFEDERATEDUNDERhFATIREvPLATFORMSONEBYTERRITORY
ANDREPRESENTEDBYACOMMERCIALAGENCYBASEDIN+INSHASA4HECREATIONOFALEGALFRAMEWORKTOFACILITATE
THEGROWTHOFFARMERORGANISATIONSANDLONG TERMCAPACITYBUILDINGSUPPORTHOWEVERISCRITICALLYNEEDED
TOENSURETHESUCCESSOFTHISGRASS ROOTMODEL
The Batk Plateau, the hinterland area supplying Kinshasa with most of its charcoal energy needs,
is a promising region for applying an integrated development approach
2.2 Maximise synergies through area- The area-based approach also ts well with the
based development programming DRCs ongoing decentralisation process, and the
new PRGSPs focus on the development of growth
In view of the enormous size of the DRC, regional poles. Furthermore, it is in line with the One
disparities, variable security conditions, internal UN approach and the recent designation of Area
geographic isolation and limited government Coordinators in those parts of the country that
reach, practical action projects and programmes are still in a post-peacekeeping phase. As part of
should be designed and implemented using an this strategy, the latter are mandated to plan and
area-based approach. The underlying premise of integrate the activities of the UN system and its
this strategy is that in determining the best course partners at provincial and sub-national levels. While
of action, the geographic area and its specific sectoral policies and regulations should typically be
set of inter-related problems is generally a more developed at the national level, ideally these should
appropriate entry point than a single issue or sector. be informed by and draw upon lessons learned
The spatial scale for intervention can be set at the from area-based development programmes.
territorial-administrative level (province, district,
urban commune, etc.) and/or by physical region The process of selecting geographic areas for
(e.g. Batk Plateau, Katanga Copperbelt, Ituri intervention would also need to consider
Forest, Lake Albert, Lukunga micro-catchment, emerging poles of growth, particularly given the
etc.). In the case of the DRC, the most appropriate environmental pressures that they are likely to exert
intervention scale is in many cases likely to be at on their hinterland regions. It should also take into
the provincial and territory levels. By grouping account environmental degradation hot spots
multi-stakeholder and multi-sector development identied during the course of this assessment,
eorts within a dened geographic zone, it should many of which are in fact associated with spheres
be possible to maximise their eectiveness and of dynamic economic activity, particularly around
synergistic impact. Demonstration areas should urban centres (see map 3). Transboundary aspects
provide examples of the credibility and value of of border zones will also need to be considered in
this approach to decision-makers and prompt their area-based programming; these may need to be
replication and expansion. embedded under existing regional arrangements.
-AP 0RIORITYHOTSPOTSFORAREA BASEDINTEGRATEDDEVELOPMENT

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2.3 Integrate economic valuation process. It is anticipated that REDD+ projects

of ecosystem services into all could potentially generate up to USD 900 million
development planning in revenue per year for the country between 2010
and 2030. A national REDD+ strategy with a time
An economic valuation of the DRCs natural capital horizon until 2030 is currently under development
and ecosystem services would make a strong case and should be ready for implementation in 2013.
for integrating the environment into national The DRC will need to create a robust REDD+
accounting and economic decision-making. While monitoring system that meets international carbon
a precise economic assessment of the countrys trading standards and to build capacity to enable
massive natural resource endowment is necessary, eective implementation of a national emission
it is already known that the estimated 1.55 million reduction programme.
square kilometres of forests currently provide the
most signicant opportunity for revenue generation Meanwhile to speed up the implementation
through the growing carbon market. The most phase, the DRCs REDD National Coordination
important instruments are the Reducing Emissions has developed six early action programmes for
from Deforestation and Forest Degradation investment for which it has so far succeeded
(REDD) scheme and the Kyoto Protocols Clean in mobilizing up to USD 60 million from the
Development Mechanism (CDM). World Banks Forest Investment Programme. In
addition to forest conservation and climate change
As the country with the second largest forest mitigation benefits, participating in a future
carbon stock in the tropical world, the DRC clearly REDD+ initiative could help catalyse considerable
has a major stake in the carbon market and has funding to improve livelihoods and address the
engaged intensively in the REDD+ preparatory DRCs multiple environmental challenges.
The DRCs immense forest reserves provide a huge opportunity to tap into the growing carbon market
with REDD+ projects potentially mobilising up to USD 900 million per year
Artisanal miners working under desperate conditions. A green transition in the DRC should
primarily focus on sustainable job creation, particularly for youth
2.4 Engage in a green economy Successful green transformation in the DRC should
transition to achieve sustainable therefore primarily focus on creating decent work
development particularly for youth and women - by building
on the countrys embryonic social economy and
UNEP believes that the ongoing global dialogue on promoting green jobs, including for demobilised
the green economy oers an innovative conceptual former combatants. By prioritizing concrete and
umbrella which the DRC can adapt to its specic environmentally-friendly job creation, a green
context to support economic reconstruction and economy would help ensure inclusive economic and
peace consolidation. UNEP denes a green economy social development and strengthen the foundations
as one that results in improved human well-being for a lasting peace in the DRC while maintaining
and social equity, while significantly reducing the countrys exceptional natural capital.
environmental risks and ecological scarcities.2 It is
an economy that values natural capital and invests In addition, as the country rebuilds its highly
in people by creating decent, well-paying jobs. degraded infrastructure and industries after years
of de-mechanisation, enhancing resource, material
That said, the DRC is embarking on the immense and energy eciency will provide the DRC with
challenge of rebuilding its devastated economy a cost-eective way to expand its development
from a low point, and will need to dene a green opportunities while reducing resource use and
economy model that is tailored to its own post- waste. Finally, by gaining greater value from its vast
natural resources including through schemes such
conict challenges and will maximise its many
as REDD as well as related Payment for Ecosystem
unique opportunities. A green economic transition
Services (PES) instruments - the DRC would be
in the DRC will need to confront the root
better placed to achieve economic diversication
causes of poverty, poor governance and political
and reduce the countrys dependence on primary
instability which have played a major role in driving
commodity exports, and to invest in developing its
environmental destruction.
service industries, particularly eco-tourism.
The recommendations from this assessment aim to

5.%0 Towards a Green Economy: Pathways to Sustainable
Development and Poverty Eradication - A Synthesis for Policy MakersWWW
support the creation of enabling conditions for the
UNEPORGGREENECONOMY DRCs green economy transition (see section 8).
New investments are aiming to exploit the copper-loaded tailings held in Kulumaziba River
and in the process clean-up the environment
Box 2. Using resource efcient technologies to clean-up Katangas mining environment

/VERTHEPASTDECADESMININGTECHNOLOGYUSEDIN+ATANGAS#OPPERBELTWASNOTEFlCIENTANDTHERESULTING
WASTETAILINGSSTILLCONTAINEDARELATIVELYHIGHLEVELOFMETALS#ONSEQUENTLYOPERATORSTENDEDTOhSTOCKPILEv
THESERICHTAILINGSBEHINDSMALLDAMSINVALLEYSFORLATERREPROCESSING-EANWHILETHETAILINGSBECAMEA
CONSTANTSOURCEFORRELEASINGLEACHEDMETALSINTOSURFACEWATERSANDMOSTLIKELYGROUNDWATERASWELL
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OFYESTERYEARSAREAPROMISINGINVESTMENTTHATISALREADYBEARINGFRUITONTHEGROUND!CASEINPOINTIS
THETAILINGSFROM'CAMINES-UTOSHICOPPERPROCESSINGFACILITYNEAR+OLWEZIWHICHAREUNIQUEINTHATIT
WASDISCHARGEDDIRECTLYINTOTHE+ULUMAZIBA2IVER%XTENDINGDOWNSTREAMOVERADISTANCEOFAROUND
KILOMETRESANDADEPTHOFUPTOTHREEMETERSTHESETAILINGSHOLDACOARSEHIGHGRADEMALACHITECONCENTRATE
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&IGURE 2EPROCESSINGTHE-UTOSHIMINETAILINGSAPOTENTIALENVIRONMENTALRECLAMATIONPROJECT
Artisanal mining of tailings
Tailing appears
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Kilometres
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Inset Map
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Inset Map
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(1 Mutoshi flooded pit Industrial reprocessing of tailings
Kilometres
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3. The importance and fate of safe drinking water, one of the lowest supply
the DRCs natural capital rates on the continent. Similarly, access to
electrication is estimated at 9 percent in a
The DRCs natural capital is one of the planets country with vast energy resources.
most important. At present, its natural wealth is still
relatively intact and in good condition. Yet, a rapidly 5) With 80 million hectares of arable land,
growing population, projected to reach almost the DRC has the potential to be Africas
110 million people in 2030, coupled with intense granary but only around 3 percent of this
international resource competition for raw materials land is presently under cultivation, mainly
is placing multiple pressures on the countrys by subsistence farmers. Consequently, the
natural resource base. Under these circumstances, DRC has the highest level of food insecurity
the DRCs future outlook gives cause for serious in the world, with an undernourishment rate
concern. If these trends are left unchecked, it will of nearly 70 percent.
be dicult for the country to successfully pursue a
sustainable development course. 6) The Congo basin has the highest sh diversity of
any African river and supports the largest inland
1) The DRC is one of the main mining centres sheries on the continent, with an estimated
in the world. Its considerable untapped potential production of 520,000 tonnes per
mineral reserves are of strategic importance year. While at the national level this resource
to the global economy (estimated to be worth is under-exploited with imports accounting
USD 24 trillion). Yet the legacy of a century for around 30 percent of sh consumption,
of mining in various parts of the country, uncontrolled exploitation has led to serious
and particularly in Katanga, has created overshing pressures at the local level.
considerable environmental liabilities and a
new modern approach to mining is required.
2) The DRCs tropical rainforest extends over

1.55 million square kilometres and accounts
for more than half of Africas forest resources.
As the tropical worlds second largest forest
carbon sink, the DRCs forests are a critical
global ecosystem service provider. The rate of
forest loss estimated at 0.2 percent per annum
remains relatively low, but is a growing problem
in certain areas.
3) The DRC possesses an outstanding mega-

biodiversity reservoir that ranks fifth in
importance at the global level and is unequalled
in Africa. It boasts ve natural World Heritage
Sites and many agship and endemic species.
While not quantied, species depletion from
uncontrolled hunting and increasing habitat
fragmentation is a major concern as it may lead
to irreversible losses. The conict has threatened
protected areas, and ecotourism, once a
booming industry, is almost non-existent.
4) Over half of Africas water resources and 13

percent of global hydropower potential ows Over half of Africas surface waters ow through
through the DRC. Yet, only an estimated 26 the DRC. The Congo River north of Mbandaka,
percent of the DRCs population has access to Equateur Province
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International boundary Height Kilometres

in metres
Lake and reservoir 0 100 200 300 400 500
2000 Azimuthal Equidistant Projection
Marsh 1500
River 1000
Sources:
National capital 750 International Boundaries, UNCS;
Summit 500 Hole-filled seamless SRTM data V4, CIAT;
Volcano 350 rdc-humanitaire.net, OCHA/RDC;
VMAP0, NGA;
0 various maps and atlases.
The boundaries and names shown and the designations used on this map do not imply official endorsement or acceptance by the United Nations. UNEP/DEWA/GRID-Europe 2009
4. Role and consequences of particularly in the Kivus and Ituri and more recently
natural resources in conict in western Equateur Province. The conicts have in
turn created situations whereby unsustainable use of
4.1 Natural resources nancing natural resources is frequently a matter of survival.
and sustaining conict
It is important to distinguish the limited role
Natural resources are widely acknowledged to of natural resources in instigating the outbreak
have played a key role in the DRCs complex of conflict with documented evidence of its
cycle of conflict. Heavily inter-linked with substantial contribution to nancing, sustaining
regional conflicts, the conflicts in the DRC and perpetuating conict. As most armed groups
have been termed Africas World War due to lack a reliable nancial sponsor, they depend
the involvement of a large number of countries on a wide range of sources to generate funds
- both directly and by proxy and the high cost and stay in business, including easily plundered
in human lives estimated at 5.4 million people. natural resources. Minerals (tin, gold, niobium
Active combat in the DRC is currently centred and tantalum -coltan, and tungsten) are the
in the eastern part of the country (the Kivus and main conict resources fuelling a multi-million
north-eastern Orientale), where around 20 armed dollar international trade. According to the UN
groups remain active. It continues to be primarily Group of Experts on the DRC (2010) virtually all
waged by militias originating from neighbouring mining sites in the Kivus are under the control of
countries, particularly the Democratic Forces
for the Liberation of Rwanda (FDLR), the
Lords Resistance Army (LRA, Uganda) and the
Allied Democratic Forces/National Army for the
Liberation of Uganda (ADF/NALU). A slew of
small and medium-sized armed groups including
local defence militias known as Mai-Mai as well as
the Congolese army itself, however, contribute to
high levels of insecurity and ongoing conict.
The link between natural resource plundering and
conicts both within the DRC and at the regional
level has been established in UN investigations3 and
other studies. It has also been explicitly recognised
at the highest political levels, including in UN
Security Council resolutions; in the mandate of the
United Nations Organization Stabilization Mission
in the DRC (MONUSCO); and in the Lusaka
Declaration of the International Conference on the
Great Lakes Region (ICGLR) signed by 11 Heads
of State. It is therefore important not to isolate
the role of natural resources from other drivers of
conict particularly as it is deeply intertwined with
multiple fundamental issues of political power,
economic livelihoods, ethnic identities, extensive
informal trading networks linked to global markets
and both national and regional rivalries. At the local
level, access to arable land and shing grounds,
has been an important source of violent clashes,
With guns slung over their shoulders and dressed
in civilian clothes, police and soldiers often
Final Report of the Panel of Experts on the Illegal Exploitation of Natural
Resources and Other Forms of Wealth of the Democratic Republic of Congo
become a law unto themselves in many of
5.3ECURITY#OUNCIL the DRCs remote mining sites
Gorillas have also fallen victim to the DRCs violent conicts
an armed force. Militarised resource extraction is Bureau (BGR) Certied Trading Chains (CTC)
occurring with the involvement of both national in Mineral Production and MONUSCOs Centre
and foreign militias as well as Congolese army des Ngoce. One of the potentially most important
units (FARDC). Other resources implicated in initiatives is the Minerals Tracking and Certication
conflict financing include high-value timber, System ocially adopted at the ICGLRs Lusaka
charcoal, ivory, and sheries which are mainly Summit in 2010. It provides a regional framework
supplied to regional markets. Signicantly, armed to harmonise, monitor and control the illegal
groups also raise substantial funds by levying exploitation of and trade in natural resources,
taxes on mining and other activities, including which endorses and draws on the Extractive
transport, marketing and cross-border tracking. Industry Transparency Initiative (EITI) and OECD
While bushmeat trade and illegal export of live guidelines.4 Finally, due diligence legislation has
species (e.g. primates, reptiles, parrots) has been recently been adopted, notably the United States
exacerbated by the conict, this commerce is not Dodd-Frank Act (2010), to increase transparency
reported to be an important source of funding and accountability in the minerals market. The
for armed groups. eectiveness of these initiatives in controlling the
illegal mineral trade, however, remains limited,
Several initiatives have been launched to track and despite their critical importance they have
and vet the minerals supply chain. These include also had unintended, negative consequences on
industry-led certification schemes, such as local economies.
the Kimberley Process and ITRI Tin Supply
Chain Initiative, as well as government and
internationally-supported schemes such as the /%#$Due Diligence Guidance for Responsible Supply Chains
German Federal Geoscience and Natural Resources of Minerals from Conict-Affected and High-Risk Areas
Living conditions in overcrowded camps are difcult (Mungote IDP camp in Kitchanga area, North Kivu)
4.2 Major environmental humanitarian response programme. Given the

consequences of protracted conict size and high mobility of IDPs in eastern DRC,
large-scale environmental degradation as well as
Large-scale population displacement resource scarcity and competition have emerged as
Conict-induced population displacement, both serious issues. The most pronounced environmental
internally within the DRC and refugee ows from impact has been deforestation by displaced people
neighbouring countries, has had a considerable to meet their energy (fuelwood and charcoal) and
negative environmental impact. Several major housing needs. In addition, many IDPs are actively
waves of population displacement have occurred engaged in the informal charcoal trade as a way to
since the mid-1990s, with many groups being earn money. With four of the countrys ve national
displaced multiple times. Despite the formal end parks listed as World Heritage Sites and located in
of the Second Congo War (1998-2002) with the the eastern conict zone, substantial encroachment
signing of peace agreements between the DRC, and wildlife poaching has occurred as displaced
Rwanda, Uganda and warring groups in 2002, people ee into protected areas. Informal IDP
more than 2.4 million people have been displaced camps have been established both around and
from their homes since then, mainly in eastern within park boundaries and one recent survey, for
DRC. More recently in 2009, ghting in western example, estimated that the Virunga National Park
DRC has caused over 110,000 people to ee into was losing at the peak of the crisis the equivalent of
the neighbouring Republic of Congo. 89 hectares of forest each day due to illegal fuelwood
harvesting. Tensions between park authorities and
One of the key characteristics of displacement in IDPs remain high, and are a growing ashpoint
the DRC is that over 90 percent of all internally of conict. Conict-induced migrations have also
displaced persons (IDPs) live with host communities been an important driver of the DRCs rapid and
or in rudimentary shelters in makeshift camps. unplanned urbanisation, straining basic services and
Only in parts of North Kivu have organised camps exacerbating the solid waste management problem
been established and receive regular, although in urban centres, as observed for example in Goma,
inadequate, relief services through a major the capital of North Kivu province.
Environmental footprint of humanitarian sustainability through the systematic integration of

operations appropriate, environmentally-sound technologies
With an estimated 10 million people requiring and best practices based on existing guidelines.
humanitarian assistance, the DRC is served by one Priority areas requiring support include provision of
of the United Nations largest and most complex sustainable energy, shelter, water, waste management
peacekeeping and emergency programmes, and sanitation. In addition, a specic challenge
costing over USD 1.5 billion per annum. Despite exists in the eastern region where there is a marked
the protracted nature of the crisis, humanitarian communication gap between the key stakeholders in
planning and action has had a short-term orientation the environment, development, humanitarian and
which has relegated environmental sustainability peacekeeping groups which needs to be addressed
to a lower priority. While some UN agencies through the creation of appropriate dialogue
and non-governmental organizations (NGOs) platforms.
have made some progress in addressing the
environmental footprint of displaced populations
(e.g. by introducing fuel efficient stoves and
fuelwood plantations), the scale of the need vastly
outstrips supply capacity and available resources.
Important priorities are improved planning and
governance of IDP camps, ocial and unocial, as
well as investing in rehabilitating abandoned camps.
Critical services provided as part of the overall
relief eort, such as drinking water, have been
inadequately coordinated and typically comprise
once-o activities with limited quality control and
maintenance. For example, due to the generally
poor construction of water supply structures, a To reduce fuelwood use, organisations such as
large part of this humanitarian infrastructure has Mercy Corps and WWF are training rural people
fallen into disrepair. As humanitarian operations and internally displaced persons to build fuel
are expected to persist in the coming years, there efcient cooking stoves and manufacture bio-
is an urgent need to enhance their environmental briquettes (Rugari, North Kivu)
A thriving charcoal market inside the Virunga National Park, which reportedly supplies
up to 80 percent of Gomas charcoal consumption
A demining operation on the outskirts of Kisangani, Orientale Province
Direct physical impacts from armed conict more sites have not yet been reported, mostly
Direct environmental impacts of sporadic but from areas that were previously inaccessible for
intense ghting over the last 15 years in the DRC security reasons.
have largely been the result of occasional battles Although pre-dating the Congo wars, large-scale
in forests and protected areas, the movement rioting and pillaging by an unpaid Congolese
of armed forces, and most signicantly, from Army from 1990-1993, particularly in Kinshasa
landmines and other unexploded ordnance but also elsewhere in the DRC, had a devastating
(UXO) that still dot the landscape. According impact on the countrys infrastructure and
to the UN Mine Action Service, the Kivus, environment. For example, over 10 percent
Equateur, Orientale and Katanga provinces are of the public water utility REGIDESOs 94
the most impacted. Of the DRCs estimated 884 water treatment centres were sabotaged and
mined sites, only 72 have been cleared, while much of the protected area infrastructure and
438 of the 1,342 UXO locations have been environmental monitoring equipment were lost
neutralised. Landmine experts suggest that many during this period.
5. Post-conict challenges to
environmental and natural
resource management
5.1 The geography and dynamics
of environmental degradation
As large swathes of the DRC open up to resource
exploitation after many years of physical isolation,
a discernible pattern of environmental degradation
in a series of sequential waves is emerging around
several economic growth poles. These development
hot spots occur around three main areas: rapidly
growing urban centres, rehabilitated and newly
opened roads, and corridor border regions with
dynamic transboundary trade. Despite the important
development opportunities that such developments
represent for marginalised regions, there is concern
that it is occurring in a context of weak or absent
environmental governance, especially in areas controlled
by armed groups. Under such circumstances, the Wearing a jeweller loupe, with an electronic scale
presence of demand centres and physical accessibility and calculator at hand, a diamond dealer is ready
have emerged as two key degradation drivers. for business in Demba, Kasai Occidental
Artisanal forestry, charcoal production and mining are

the principal resource utilisation activities fuelling this value timber for the domestic market, then felling for
degradation process, but it is also visible in unmanaged charcoal production and clearance for agricultural
sheries, such as in Lake Albert. In the case of artisanal cultivation. Although sequential resource targeting
forestry, the degradation cycle starts with logging of is highly variable and situation-specic, there is a
high-value timber, mainly for export. This is followed pattern of selective removal starting with high value
by a wave of unmanaged exploitation directed at mid- resources and ending with indiscriminate resource
harvesting of low value products. Spreading from
growth poles, the waves travel along roads, particularly
newly opened and rehabilitated segments, depending
on the transport and workforce capacity available.
Once exploitation inwards from a road - typically up
to 10 km - becomes dicult, mainly due to access
and labour constraints, it either moves further along
the road or shifts to a lower grade resource.
In terms of livelihoods and long-term economic

development, the above-mentioned degradation
pattern usually triggers an unregulated boom and
bust cycle. While the initial stage of high-value logging
and artisanal mining rush generates quick benets,
these gains are not sustained, as people shift to charcoal
The Bunia-Mambasa road through the Ituri production and subsistence agriculture. A well-
rainforest is a prime deforestation frontier, where established artisanal mining camp typically turns into
high-value red woods are coveted. Despite a village dependent on subsistence farming. Once the
ofcial check points, controlling illegal timber initial boom from a new mining site or deforestation
exports to neighbouring Uganda and Kenya has frontier subsides, the population typically slips into a
proven difcult vicious circle of resource overuse and poverty.
&IGURE $EFORESTATIONFRONTIEREXPANSIONAROUND-BUJI -AYI+ASAI/RIENTAL

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(
&IGURE $IAMONDMININGRUSHONTHE3ANKURU2IVER+ASAI/RIENTAL

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5.2 Synopsis of priority issues land and landscape degradation. An environmental

by sector/theme sampling survey in Katangas Copperbelt region
carried out in 2010 by UNEP in collaboration
The primary challenges to sustainable environmental with the Swiss Spiez Laboratory showed that surface
and natural resource management in the DRC water pollution close to tailing and waste sources
identified by this post-conflict environmental is extensive, with the main concerns arising from
assessment are summarised below by economic cobalt and copper. Equally dust particles of less
sector and/or environmental theme (see full DRC than 10 micrometre particles were found to be
assessment report for details). relatively rich in cobalt and lead, and are suspected
to be a major source of human exposure. A recent
Mineral resources biomonitoring study in the Copperbelt has shown
The DRC is one of the worlds most important substantial exposure to several metals, especially
mining countries. The sector is divided into large- in children. Urinary cobalt concentration in the
scale industrial mining, which characterised mining sampled population is the highest recorded for a
activity up to the late 1980s, and artisanal and small general population.
scale mining (ASM). With the decline of State mining
conglomerates (GECAMINES, MIBA, OKIMO, Furthermore, some of the mineral deposits in
SAKIMA), ASM has emerged as the most widespread Katangas Copperbelt region contain uranium
form of mineral exploitation since the early 1990s, associated with copper-cobalt mineralisation,
accounting for around 90 percent of production. and may eventually pose radiation health risks
An estimated 1.8 to two million ASM workers are to workers and surrounding communities.
involved in mineral extraction, and as many as twelve Specically, radioactive contamination is a concern
million people - 18 percent of the population - are at the Shinkolobwe uranium mine, where high
dependent directly or indirectly on artisanal mining. levels of radiation were measured by UNEP.
This assessment identied the following environmental

issues associated with large scale mining: landscape
degradation; water and air pollution; radioactive
contamination; and deterioration of social welfare.
For small-scale and artisanal mining the priority
issues are: mercury contamination; bio-physical
degradation; health hazards; human rights abuses;
child labour; lack of access to funding and markets;
and impacts on forests, biodiversity and protected
areas.
Mining contracts awarded under opaque
circumstances during the conict period have been
renegotiated or cancelled by an inter-ministerial
Revisitation Commission. Nevertheless, the overall
state of contract transparency remains wanting as
the number and status of un-revisited contracts are
unknown and few of the renegotiated agreements
are in the public domain. Moreover, controversy
surrounds the terms of several new mining
contracts. Also, disputes involving artisanal miners
and local communities occupying concession areas
for which industrial companies have obtained legal
titles remain an issue.
Most mining operations in Katanga, the DRCs main Mercury is widely available in the gold mining
mining centre, are open pit mining, causing extensive town of Mongbwalu, Ituri district
Toxic cobalt salts, with concentrations slightly above 10 percent, form an attractive pink colour on
the river beds drawing the interest of both humans and animals
Box 3. Pink poisons threaten Katangas rivers and groundwater

2EMARKABLYHIGHLEVELSOFHEAVYMETALCONTAMINATIONALONGRIVERBEDSWEREMEASUREDDURING5.%0S
ENVIRONMENTALSAMPLINGSURVEYINTHE+ATANGA#OPPERBELTREGION#OBALTZINCANDCOPPERSALTSACCUMULATE
THROUGHCAPILLARYEFFECTSFROMTHERIVERTOTHERIVERBANKSURFACEDURINGTHEDRYSEASON4HESESALTSFORM
AVERYSOLUBLELAYEROFALMOSTPURECOBALT ZINCSULPHATETHATISWASHEDBACKINTOTHESYSTEMDURINGTHE
RAINYSEASON4HESE@PINKSALTSCANBECONSIDEREDTOBE@PUREPOISONANDPRESENTAHIGHHEALTHRISKTO
HUMANS#OBALTTOXICITYCANCAUSEHEARTANDTHYROIDDAMAGECONTACTDERMATITISASTHMAANDHARD METAL
LUNGDISEASE%PIDEMIOLOGICALSTUDIESAREUNDERWAYTODETERMINETHEHEALTHIMPACTSOFSUCHEXPOSURE
ON+ATANGASPOPULATION4HEHIGHHEAVYMETALCONCENTRATIONSAREEQUALLYATHREATTOLIVESTOCKAQUATIC
SPECIESANDOTHERWILDLIFE
The small-scale and artisanal mining sector

brings with it additional concerns. In particular,
UNEP observed widespread and dangerous use of
mercury in artisanal gold processing in Ituri. An
estimated 15 tonnes of mercury are used annually
in ASM gold mining in the DRC, making it the
second largest source of mercury emissions in
Africa. Land degradation with direct disturbance
of water bodies, oodplains and river banks is also
common. In addition, among the impacts of the
ASM sector on forests, biodiversity and protected
areas are deforestation, illegal poaching and park
encroachment, related to the ad hoc establishment
of settlement camps by the miners as well as the
actual mining operations.
In terms of social concerns, the ASM sector usually

does not comply with minimum health and safety
standards. As a result, artisanal miners are exposed
to accidents, poor working conditions, inadequate
hygiene and sanitation. The ASM sector in
the DRC is vulnerable to violations of human
rights such as the use of child labour, which is A gold dealer heats a clump of mercury
widespread. Financing and greater market access, containing gold amalgam on the roadside beside
which could introduce economies of scale, are his shop. As the burning is done in the open air,
very limited, and act as a major constraint to toxic mercury vapours spill directly on streets
improvements in the sub-sector. crowded with people and children
Artisanal mining causes extensive damage to landscapes due to mass deforestation and rampant
excavation. Alluvial diamond mining along the Tshibungu River in Kasai Occidental
&IGURE %XTENSIVEENVIRONMENTALFOOTPRINTOFLARGE SCALEINDUSTRIALMININGIN+OLWEZI+ATANGA

Kolwezi overview !
(1 Industrial effluent
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Lu
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A large Irico tree (Chlorophora excelsa) is felled by artisanal loggers in less than one hour using a chainsaw
Forestry Resources order of priority: (i) slash and burn agriculture

Overall, the DRCs extensive forest resources are in with reduced fallow periods; (ii) fuelwood
good condition, but they are being lost and degraded and charcoal collection which accounts for 95
at an increasing rate, particularly in critical areas percent of the populations energy needs; (iii)
such as gallery forests in the west and hilly landscapes unregulated artisanal and small-scale logging
in the east. While the overall national deforestation which is estimated to represent 75 percent of
rate remains relatively low, at 0.2 percent, in some total timber exports from the DRC; and nally,
parts of the country, notably in the north and south (iv) road infrastructure opening previously
savanna plateaus and gallery forests, deforestation pristine areas up to human activities.
rates are much higher. Under the current status quo,
it is estimated that by 2030 the deforested area could While the DRC has a potential for timber
reach 12-13 million hectares, or the equivalent of exploitation estimated at 10 million m3/year,
8-9 percent of DRCs total forest area, while forest official timber exploitation (mainly industrial
degradation could aect 21-23 million hectares or production) amounted to just 310,000 m3 in
14.5-16 percent of the countrys forest. Such levels 2006. In contrast, artisanal and illegal logging
of deforestation and forest degradation would more was calculated as totalling approximately
than double the DRCs current carbon emissions to 1.5-2.4 million m3 in 2003 up to eightfold
390-410 million tonnes. official figures. Both artisanal and industrial
logging are overshadowed by annual fuelwood
UNEP has identied the key drivers of forest and charcoal production, estimated at 72
degradation and deforestation in the following million m3.
The allocation of timber concessions has been Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES), further expanding
haphazard, and a moratorium was nally established and formalising the sustainable management and
in 2002. In 2011, 80 of 156 contracts were cancelled trade in NTFPs could represent an important
bringing the total area under timber concessions opportunity for the DRC.
(mainly by European operators) to 12.2 million ha.
To strengthen management of large-scale timber Land
operations, voluntary certication schemes, such Land management is an underlying challenge
as the Forest Stewardship Council (FSC), provide in post-conflict DRC. An ambiguous land
a market-based tool to establish sustainability tenure system, weak land use planning and land
standards in the sector. In the case of the DRC,
degradation are the three main issues. Land
progress is still needed to reach certication status
degradation is primarily caused by vegetation
but eorts are under way to improve governance
in the sector. One of the notable initiatives in this removal for subsistence agriculture and fuel wood
regard is the ongoing discussions between the DRC collection. In several urban centres, severe gully
government and the European Commission to erosion from unplanned construction and lack of
formalise a Voluntary Partnership Agreement under drainage systems has reached a critical point. In part,
the EUs Forest Law Enforcement, Governance and land degradation is accentuated by the ambiguity
Trade (FLEGT) scheme. created by the prevailing dual tenure system of
customary rights which prevails over 97 percent of
In the context of the establishment of a green the DRC and modern laws. Even in urban centres
economy, the valuation of the DRCs non-timber such as Kinshasa, only an estimated 30 percent of
forest assets is another key issue. Non-Timber land has recognised property deeds.
Forest Products (NTFPs), such as medicinal plants
and foods, are of particular importance to a large Weak land use planning is a national problem,
majority of the Congolese population and the exacerbated in urban areas by the inux of large
international community as a whole. While some numbers of displaced people and rapid outward
trade is already regulated under the Convention migration from rural areas due to the collapse of
on International Trade in Endangered Species of agriculture.
Non-timber products such as edible forest Several participatory mapping initiatives

fruits sold by this woman in Libenge, Equateur, to assist communities in land and resource
provide a substantial share of poor households decision-making are currently under way
livelihoods and income in the DRC
Agriculture farmers live more than eight hours from a trading

Much of the DRCs population is dependent centre and with no facilities for refrigeration or
on slash-and-burn, rain-fed agriculture for its for appropriate storage of food crops, post-harvest
subsistence. The consequent vulnerability is reected losses can reach up to 80 percent in some areas.
in the alarming levels of food insecurity, with as Furthermore, years of conict have taken their
toll as farmers have lost whatever tools or inputs
many as 70 percent of the population estimated
they had and, today, they struggle to procure basic
to be malnourished according to the FAO/WFP.
materials. At the same time, population growth,
As women are responsible for close to 70 percent
deforestation and slash-and-burn agriculture have
of agricultural production, there is a high-level accentuated the vicious cycle of land degradation.
of gender imbalance associated with these risks. In urban and peri-urban agriculture, vegetable
The main issues identied for this sector are: food contamination from the application of untreated
insecurity; unsustainable subsistence agriculture; sewage is an emerging issue of concern.
poor access to markets and inadequate transport
infrastructure; food contamination; dilemma of The dilemma of plantation agriculture lies in the
plantation agriculture; deforestation, soil erosion and DRCs huge potential for plantations of various
land degradation; and an under-utilised potential for crops, including biofuels, versus their potential
agroforestry and conservation agriculture. negative environmental and social impacts.
Whereas 29 percent of the DRCs agricultural
Food insecurity is a major concern in the DRC, land was previously cultivated under large scale
whose population grew by approximately 20 percent plantations, today most are no longer operational.
between 1995 and 2005, while its agricultural Foreign interest is reportedly returning, however,
output dropped by 25 percent. Farming practices raising concerns over potential land grabbing.
are unsustainable and inecient, and with little Environmental issues associated with plantations
or no inputs, large areas of land are required as include the use of agrochemicals, the introduction
soil fertility is rapidly depleted. Disintegration of of exotic species and the risk of natural forest
transport infrastructure and resulting geographical conversion. On the other hand, there is an under-
isolation has led to the collapse of the rural utilised potential for agroforestry and conservation
economy as farmers are unable to easily sell their agriculture despite the existence of successful
produce, purchase inputs or receive support from agroforestry schemes such as at Mampu and Ibi
agricultural extension services. Over 50 percent of Village in the Batk Plateau.
Low yields from slash-and-burn agriculture cannot ensure food security for the DRCs
rapidly growing population (Mambasa, Ituri district)
Once one of the worlds leading palm oil cultivation centres, Kikwits palm oil factories
have been left to decay since the 1990s
Box 4. Decline of Kikwits palm oil plantations

7ITHANEYEONITSGOODSOILSANDFAVOURABLECLIMATICCONDITIONSTHEHuileries du Congo-BelgeTHEN
A BRANCH OF THE MULTINATIONAL 5NILEVER CHOSE +IKWIT AND ITS SURROUNDINGS IN TO ESTABLISH LARGE
COMMERCIAL PALM OIL PLANTATIONS 0RODUCING APPROXIMATELY TONNES OF OIL EVERY MONTH THE OIL
PRODUCEDWASMAINLYUSEDTOMANUFACTURESOAPANDMARGARINE-OSTOFTHESEPRODUCTSWEREEXPORTED
TO"ELGIUM
4HECOMPANYEMPLOYEDTHOUSANDSOFPEOPLEANDALSOPURCHASEDPALMOILFROMINDIVIDUALFARMERSTHEREBY
PROVIDINGADECENTQUALITYOFLIFEFORENTIREFAMILIES5NFORTUNATELYTHISmOURISHINGINDUSTRYCAMETOANEND
WITHTHEADVENTOFTHEPOST COLONIALNATIONALIZATIONPROCESSWHICHLEDTOMISMANAGEMENTATTHECOMPANY
HEADQUARTERSANDEVENTUALLYTHECOMPLETEHALTOFTHEINDUSTRY4ODAYALLTHATISLEFTAREABANDONEDFACTORIES
ANDTHOUSANDSOFHECTARESOFUNMANAGEDPALMTREESINTERSPERSEDWITHNATURALVEGETATION
4HEDECLINEOFTHEPALMOILINDUSTRYLEFT+IKWITSPOPULATIONMASSIVELYUNEMPLOYEDANDRESULTEDINFOOD
INSECURITY)NORDERTOCOPEWITHTHELOSSOFLIVELIHOODMANYTARGETEDGALLERYFORESTSFORSLASHANDBURN
AGRICULTUREANDCHARCOALPRODUCTION$EGRADATIONOFGALLERYFORESTSHASALSOHADDETRIMENTALIMPACTSON
WATERCOURSESWHICHPROVIDETHEMAINSOURCEOFDRINKINGWATERFORTHELOCALPOPULATION
'IVENTHAT+IKWITISRELATIVELYWELLCONNECTEDTOMARKETSWITHROADANDWATERCONNECTIONSTO+INSHASAAS
WELLASTHETWO+ASAPROVINCESTHEPOTENTIALFORRECOVERINGCOMMERCIALAGRICULTUREISSTRONGANDWOULD
BEANIMPORTANTCONTRIBUTIONTORE BUILDINGASUSTAINABLELOCALECONOMY
Two of the DRCs iconic species, the mountain gorilla and the endemic okapi (forest giraffe)
Biodiversity and protected areas

The DRC possesses the highest level of biological
diversity in Africa. This rich natural endowment
is of local and global signicance, yet today, 190
species are classified as critically endangered,
endangered or vulnerable on the IUCN Red List
of Threatened Species. Endemic species such as
the northern white rhinoceros are now close to
extinction, only a few hundred mountain gorilla
remain while the bonobo, human beings closest-
living relative, is increasingly under pressure from
commercial bushmeat hunting.
The main issues aecting biodiversity and protected

An estimated 1.7 million tonnes of bush meat
areas are: encroachment on park integrity;
are consumed in the DRC each year, with a price
unregulated bush meat hunting; human-wildlife value of over one billion US dollars
conict; ivory poaching; limited community-based
management in buer zones; and under-developed
wildlife tourism. Most of the DRCs parks are because of poor community consultation, park
situated in the east of the country, a zone which faces delimitations remain contentious and park
signicant population pressure and armed conict. authorities frequently only manage a small portion
As a result, park encroachment - with subsequent of the parks, with the remainder falling outside of a
deforestation, poaching, artisanal mining and commonly agreed park management plan. Forceful
farming in those areas - and incursions by armed eviction of populations for the creation of parks, has
militias are frequent, severely compromising led to continued conict and antagonism between
park integrity. Furthermore, in many instances, park authorities and communities in the DRC.
Many species, including endangered ones, are around 51 million people lacking access to potable
threatened by unregulated and unsustainable bush water. This assessment found inadequate access
meat hunting. Estimates suggest that between to drinking water; pollution and degradation of
1.1 and 1.7 million tonnes of bush meat are drinking water sources from land-use changes;
consumed in the DRC each year, for a total value poor construction and maintenance of water
of over USD 1 billion per year. The exact extent systems; untapped hydropower potential; and a
of the problem, however, remains undocumented, data vacuum, as being the most pressing issues
preventing it from being properly managed. concerning water resources management. The
Equally, sustained international demand for ivory DRC has one of the lowest access rates to safe
continues to place pressure on the DRCs elephant drinking water, estimated at only 26 percent of
population. The DRCs total elephant population the population. The country possesses plentiful
dropped from about 62,000 in 2002 to about freshwater resources with potential annual per
23,000 in 2006. Human-wildlife conict is on the capita water availability estimated at 19,967m3
rise in the DRC as a growing population expands (2008), but in reality each Congolese has access
into areas of importance for biodiversity. Potential to an average of only seven cubic metres of water
ecotourism revenue from the DRCs parks and per year. Moreover, water availability is highly
wildlife is estimated to be huge, although it unequal with as little as three percent of the
currently remains untapped. population having access to safe water in some
rural zones. Distribution is highly unequal in
Water resources
urban areas too: 85 percent of water connections
Despite being Africas most water-rich country, are found in four provinces (Kinshasa, Bas Congo,
the DRC faces a severe drinking water crisis with Katanga and South Kivu).
In the past decade more than 200 park guards have been killed in eastern DRC, equivalent
to around 10 percent of the national ranger force
With the gradual decay of State institutions since quality. The DRCs vast water resources also
the mid-1970s, baseline data for water is either non- represent a signicant hydropower opportunity.
existent or out of date, leaving a signicant data However, this option remains largely untapped
vacuum. Water samples taken during UNEP eld with total installed capacity representing only 2.5
missions suggest that biological contamination is percent of existing potential.
a serious problem due to inadequate protection of
water sources. For instance, spot checks of over 50 Fisheries
improved urban and rural drinking water points The DRC boasts exceptionally high freshwater
revealed a 92 percent incidence of bacteriological sh diversity. Although ecological investigations
contamination, including pathogenic microbes of are incomplete and research remains ongoing,
faecal origin, with subsequent high risks for human
over 690 sh species have been recorded in the
health. Also, elevated suspended sediment loads
Congo basin, of which an estimated 80 percent are
from deforestation and poor land use practices
are threatening many critical drinking water endemic. Lake Tanganyika alone counts a total of
sources and seriously impacting water treatment 2,156 sh species, of which close to 30 percent are
operations, such as at the REGIDESO centres in endemic. With one of the largest catches (239,000
Lukunga (Kinshasa) and Kindu (Maniema). tonnes) from inland sheries in Africa, sh and
sh products account for an estimated 25-50
Poor construction and maintenance of water percent of the Congolese populations protein
systems as well as the vitural absence of regulatory intake. Yet this is a sector where little information
oversight is another cause for concern. A survey exists and where regulations and enforcement
commissioned by the World Bank and Water and remain lax. The main concerns for sheries are:
Sanitation Programme in 2005 found that most collapse of industrial shing; unregulated artisanal
of the DRCs small rural water supply systems shing; post-capture challenges; deforestation and
(serving 3,000 30,000 people) were of poor pollution; and lack of information.
Despite recent improvements, almost 51 million Congolese are without access to safe drinking water
also threaten sheries, particularly from mining

in southern Katanga. While a fair amount of
research on sh species ecology and diversity is
being conducted by academics and scientists,
there are major knowledge gaps about the state
of the resource and its utilisation, which is
fundamental to ensuring sustainable management
of the sector.
Climate change
Despite its low contribution to anthropogenic
climate change, the DRCs population faces high
impact risks, particularly increased food insecurity
associated with changes in rainfall variability
patterns. Climate scenarios including those from
the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
(IPCC) portray a rise in temperatures closer to
the equator and a shortening of the rainy season
in the southern plateau. Notably the drought
prone region of Katanga is expected as of 2020
to lose two months of its rainy season, from seven
months today.
The key issues identied with respect to climate

change are: a limited knowledge base and
projections; vulnerability of rain-fed small-scale
agriculture; limited preparation for climate
change adaptation; and the need to seize on the
DRCs considerable carbon market potential. The
most alarming issue is the vulnerability of rain-
The economic importance of the DRCs shing fed small-scale agriculture on which the majority
sector is today largely underreported, but was of the DRCs population rely for subsistence.
estimated in the 1980s to represent 17 percent
Extreme events expected under climate change
of GDP
scenarios, compounded by dry seasons alternating
with sudden precipitation, are likely to aect soil
Until the 1970s semi-industrial fishing was structure, fertility and quality and thereby, its
prevalent in Lakes Tanganyika, Edward, Albert ability to sustain sucient crops for the countrys
and Mweru. Today, the DRCs sheries sector is population. The risk of fires is also likely to
almost completely outside the formal economy, increase. With carbon stocks in the DRCs forests
with artisanal fisher-folk accounting for 95 estimated at 27,258 million tonnes, the country
percent of the national sh catch. Small-scale holds the key to either vastly increasing carbon
artisanal shing is practically unregulated and emissions by clearing forests, or alternatively
in many cases inappropriate fishing gear is maintaining these stocks and being rewarded
used, particularly small mesh sizes that capture for it. Promising schemes in which the DRC is
juveniles. There is limited respect for spawning and actively engaged include REDD+ and the CDM
nursery grounds and periods, coupled with weak of the UN Framework Convention on Climate
enforcement and supervision of shing practices. Change. Already through projects such as the
Post capture challenges include transport, storage, Ibi Batk carbon sink plantation (IBCSP), the
and marketing, leading to a mainly subsistence DRC is beneting from carbon funding. Such
approach to sheries exploitation. Deforestation initiatives, however, need to be expanded and
and pollution which aect freshwater resources replicated across the country.
The DRCs National Adaptation Plan of Action industrial facilities to be sited in residential and
has identified two priority interventions to inappropriate locations as observed in Kinshasas
enhance the countrys adaptation to climate industrial area and in the mining cities of Katangas
change. These are: (i) electrication of urban and Copperbelt (Lubumbashi, Likasi, Kolwezi). Due to
rural areas, and (ii) enhancement of pastoral and limited formal controls and monitoring, untreated
agricultural production capacity, both of which are industrial euent and solid waste is commonly
urgent measures that need to be implemented to disposed of directly into the environment, leading
support the populations adaptation to anticipated to a high risk of ecosystem contamination in certain
climate change. areas (e.g. Lake Tshangalele, Pool Malebo).
Industry
Aside from industrial natural resource extraction in
the mining and forestry sectors, the DRCs small
industrial base is dominated by manufacturing
and food processing, both of which have been
in steep decline due to years of mismanagement,
lack of investment, and the populations growing
dependence on various informal artisanal activities
to make ends meet. The key obstacles to a more
diversied and sustainable industrial development
are a weak supportive regulatory environment,
poor enforcement capacity, energy constraints and
limited access to credit. Deteriorating infrastructure
and subsequent geographical isolation as well
as increased insecurity have led to the decline
of many agro-industries at the provincial level.
Weak land use planning and enforcement have In 2011, the Ibi Bateke Carbon Sink Plantation
allowed people to settle in an ad-hoc manner became the rst initiative to be registered in the DRC
in designated industrial areas, and likewise for under the Clean Development Mechanism
Industrial and commercial wastes are openly burnt near Kinshasas industrial area. Currently,
the country does not have any engineered landll sites
With the collapse of transport infrastructure, a bicycle economy has emerged around many urban
centres, effectively curtailing trade to a radius of 30 to 50 kilometres (Kananga, Kasai Occidental)
Urbanisation It is estimated that 75 percent of the DRCs

The DRCs urbanisation rate is at an unprecedented urban population live in slums. As a result,
4.6 percent. Ranked in 2010 as the third most large cities such as Mbuji-Mayi and Kananga
resemble agglomerations of unintegrated villages.
populous city in Africa, Kinshasa (8.75 million)
Furthermore, given their intense energy needs,
is projected to become the most populous African
rapidly growing urban centres become major
city by 2030. Another salient feature is the rapid consumer centres of wood and charcoal, leading
growth in the number of secondary urban centres to considerable deforestation in the surrounding
hosting populations of several hundred thousand areas. Due to chaotic and uncontrolled urban
people. Fast urban growth has been substantially growth, vast informal settlements often develop
accelerated by conflict-induced population into degradation hotspots, characterized by severe
displacement and rural migration accentuated gullies, poor sanitation and substantial peri-urban
by economic collapse of the countryside. Due deforestation and are highly vulnerable to disasters
to the weakness of urban governance and such as landslides. Providing basic services,
practical absence of land use planning beyond including energy and water supply, and addressing
the limits of historic city centres, urbanization environmental problems in urban centres,
is accompanied by minimal (if any) expansion including in nancially strapped secondary cities
of infrastructure installations and basic services. is one of the key challenges facing the DRC.
&IGURE -AJORGULLYEROSIONINTHE$2#SURBANCENTERS
Major gully erosion in Kananga, Kasai Occidental
Kikwit
P
!
P Kananga
!
Kikwit main road

3
Gully head in Kikwit
Kikwit
Direction of gully
growth
Metres
0 250 500
Transport torrential rainfall, coupled with limited maintenance

There is a striking gap between supply and demand capacity, means that they are at high risk of rapidly
in the DRCs transport system. A large part of the degrading into gullies.
infrastructure was developed during the colonial era Energy
with exports in mind, and is now in an overall state
of disrepair. Today, national development plans and The DRC has a huge hydropower potential of
substantial foreign investment are targeting the 100,000 MW, the equivalent of 13 percent of the
sectors rehabilitation, with a major focus on roads. worlds hydropower potential. Yet the domestic
The two main issues identied by this assessment rate of electrication remains low, and is currently
are: an access dilemma and construction impacts estimated at no more than nine percent, while
including inadequate maintenance. less than three percent of the DRCs hydropower
potential is exploited There is an urgent need to
The access dilemma is that although improving develop a sustainable mix of energy sources as a basis
transport infrastructure is essential for the for restarting most economic activities. The main
development of the countrys many isolated issues in the energy sector which this assessment
regions, it typically comes at a high environmental identied are: poor access; imbalance in energy mix;
cost, particularly where previously remote pristine articially low electricity pricing and over-reliance
zones are opened-up in a context of pervasive weak on biomass. Limited access to electricity is a major
governance. Equally, the impacts of transport constraint to investment according to a survey of 341
infrastructure expansion, particularly roads, can be rms in the DRC. If fully developed, the Inga Dam
high, with land disturbance, habitat fragmentation, development schemes would not only be able to
carbon dioxide emissions and pollution increasing. cover domestic energy needs, but could also generate
Furthermore, the high vulnerability of the DRCs a substantial revenue stream from electricity sales to
mainly earth road network to frequent equatorial neighbouring countries and regional power pools.
Many village settlements in the DRC are aligned along roads
Every day throughout the DRC, thousands of Bayanola strong men push bicycles carrying charcoal
loads of 200-250 kilograms into urban centres to meet the burgeoning energy demand
While the DRC is rich in a range of energy sources DRC are biological, hydro-meteorological and
(oil, natural gas, solar, biomass, hydropower), the geological in nature. Environmental degradation
vast majority of the countrys energy needs (95 is frequently an underlying factor contributing
percent) are currently being met from biomass. As to disaster risk and intensity. For instance,
a result, the DRCs domestic energy demands cause deforestation and agriculture practiced on steep
the loss of around 400000 hectares of forest each slopes increase the risk of landslides or mudslides
year. Furthermore, as the energy sector is heavily and ash oods. The main issues associated with
subsidised with weak cost-recovery, the public natural hazards are lack of baseline data; increased
electricity company, SNEL, does not have sucient outbreaks of epidemics linked to periods of conict
funds to eectively maintain its infrastructure and and natural hazards; oods in the Congo basin
expand investments. and droughts in the southern plateau and high
vulnerability to geological hazards in the Albertine
Natural hazards Rift. Existing data points to epidemics linked to
periods of conict - being the most deadly natural
While information is scarce, overall the DRCs hazard aecting the population. Between 1970 and
vulnerability to disasters is considered to be very 2010, 62 major epidemic events, primarily from
high given the multiple natural hazards faced bacterial and viral infectious diseases, killed close to
and the increasing proportion of the population 8,300, and aected an additional 663,000 people.
exposed to these hazards, particularly in densely Disruptions in health services, food insecurity, poor
populated displacement camps and urban centres. water and sanitation services and displacement
The three main natural hazards prevalent in the exacerbate the impact of such health hazards.
6. Underlying structural State-managed co-operatives, the disintegration of

constraints to environmentally public services and the stagnation of the private
sector, the informal economy which cuts across
sustainable development all sectors, has overtaken the formal economy. An
Analysis of the above-mentioned post-conict estimated 80-90 percent of the DRCs population
challenges revealed a number of common is engaged in the informal sector. In economic
underlying factors. The structural constraints value, this parallel economy is estimated to be
examined in this section stem from decades of gross three times the size of the DRCs formal GDP.
mismanagement, corruption and poor governance In the conict pockets of eastern DRC such as
and have been significantly worsened by the in Masisi and Walikale in North Kivu and parts
recent conicts in the DRC. These distortions of Ituri, an informal war economy has taken over
present a major impediment towards improving with militarised natural resources exploitation
environmental and natural resource management and trade lying beyond the purview of state
in the DRC. Unless the negative dynamic created administrative institutions.
by the coalescence of these systemic constraints is
reversed, the degradation of the countrys natural Although the governance frameworks to formalise
capital is likely to accelerate. economic activity are gradually being put in
place, the DRCs undiversied economy based
6.1 Informalisation of the economy almost entirely on natural resource extraction
has remained informal to this day with
The radical informalisation of the economy major environmental and social consequences.
and society an exceptionally long process of Economic informalisation is strongly paralleled
economic regression and State decay which by the growing substitution of the State in the
started in the 1970s and has been exacerbated by management of social sectors and service delivery
recent conicts - has had enormous impacts on by international organisations, donors and NGOs
natural resources extraction and management. in what has been termed government-by-NGO,
With the collapse of State enterprises as well as or the NGOisation of the country.
Most of the DRCs population functions in the informal sector
The DRC has the largest artisanal mining workforce in the world, estimated at around
two million people
Box 5. Signicance of the informal, artisanal and small-scale sectors in the DRCs economy
%XTREMEFRAGMENTATIONANDINFORMALISATIONOFECONOMICACTIVITYISADISTINGUISHINGFEATUREOFTHE$2#S
ECONOMY-OSTOFTHEPOPULATIONISENGAGEDINONE PERSONSURVIVAL MODEOCCUPATIONSTHATARELARGELY
DEPENDENTONNATURALRESOURCEEXTRACTION%CONOMICGROUPINGSOFMORETHANlVEPEOPLEAREANEXCEPTION
.OTEVENTHEPROVISIONOFSOCIALSERVICESHASBEENSPAREDFROMINFORMALISATION(IGHLIGHTEDBELOWARE
SALIENTFACTSABOUTTHE$2#SINFORMALSECTORANDNASCENTSOCIALECONOMY
s -OSTOFTHEPOPULATION PERCENT ISDEPENDENTONLOW YIELDINGSUBSISTENCEAGRICULTUREBASEDLARGELY
ONSLASHANDBURNPRACTICESANDHASEXTREMELYLIMITEDACCESSTODISTRIBUTIONANDMARKETINGSYSTEMS
s 4HE OMNIPRESENCE OF WOMEN AND YOUTH IN THE $2#S PARALLEL ECONOMY IS ONE OF ITS DISTINCTIVE
CHARACTERISTICS
s 7ITH AROUND TWO MILLION ARTISANAL MINERS THE $2# HAS THE LARGEST !3- WORKFORCE IN THE WORLD
3UPPORTINGAPPROXIMATELYPERCENTOFTHE$2#SPOPULATIONTHE!3-SECTORACCOUNTSFORAROUND
PERCENTOFMINERALPRODUCTION
s !NNUAL TIMBER PRODUCTION FROM ARTISANAL LOGGING IS APPROXIMATELY TIMES LARGER THAN INDUSTRIAL
LOGGING"OTHAREDWARFEDBYUNCONTROLLEDFUELWOODANDCHARCOALPRODUCTIONWHICHBYVOLUMEIS
TIMESLARGERTHANARTISANALLOGGING
s 5PTOMILLIONTONNESOFBUSHMEATORWILDMEATAREHARVESTEDANNUALLYFROMUNREGULATEDHUNTING
ANDPOACHING4HEECONOMICVALUEOFBUSHMEATISESTIMATEDAT53$BILLIONPERYEARMORETHAN
INDUSTRIALANDARTISANALLOGGINGCOMBINED
A man balances on a log to cut it using a two-handled saw in a gallery forest near Kasasa,
Kasai Occidental
Box 5, continued
s .ON MEATFORESTFOODSWHICHAREGATHEREDWITHOUTANYFORMALCONTROLSPLAYACRITICALROLEINTHEFOOD
SECURITYANDLIVELIHOODSOFALARGEPARTOFTHE$2#SPOPULATION4HEMARKETVALUEOFTHESEFOREST
FOODSASWELLASOTHERFORESTPRODUCTSEGMEDICINES HASNOTBEENESTIMATEDORQUANTIlEDBUTIT
ISKNOWNTOBESIGNIlCANT
s !RTISANALlSHINGACCOUNTSFORPERCENTOFTHE$2#SlSHCATCHESTIMATEDATTONNESPER
YEAR
s !MAJORBREAKDOWNINSOCIALSERVICEDELIVERYNAMELYDRINKINGWATERSANITATIONANDWASTEMANAGEMENT
HASOCCURRED&OREXAMPLEDRINKINGWATERSUPPLYINURBANAREASFELLFROMPERCENTINTO
PERCENTIN!SARESULTTHESESERVICESARELARGELYPROVIDEDTHROUGHMAKESHIFTARRANGEMENTS
THATAREGENERALLYOFPOORQUALITYANDRAPIDLYFALLAPARTDUETOLACKOFMAINTENANCE
s 3-%SAREESTIMATEDTOEMPLOYAROUNDPEOPLEORPERCENTOFTHETOTALWORKFORCE%MPLOYMENT
CREATIONINTHE3-%SECTORHASBEENVIRTUALLYNON EXISTENTINTHEPERIOD ASIGNIlCANT
SETBACKGIVENITSMAJORROLEINJOBCREATIONANDTHEOPPORTUNITIESOFFEREDBYTHE$2#SEXCEPTIONAL
NATURALRESOURCEBASE
s !LTHOUGHSOCIALENTERPRISESnNAMELYPROTO COOPERATIVESANDASSOCIATIONSnHAVEBEENMOREDYNAMIC
THANTHE3-%SECTORTHEIRCRITICALIMPORTANCEINMOBILISINGFORMALEMPLOYMENTISNOTADEQUATELY
APPRECIATEDANDHARNESSED&OREXAMPLETHENUMBEROFSAVINGCOOPERATIVESACCREDITEDWITHTHE
#ENTRAL"ANKINISLESSTHANPERCENTOFTHOSEREGISTEREDINTHES
6.2 Survival-based foraging dbrouillardise, Systme D or Article 15, which

livelihoods mean fending for oneself, this forager economy
is based on a number of strategies including:
With the shrinking of the formal economy, most slash and burn shifting cultivation, fuelwood
Congolese have had little choice but to pursue and charcoal production, artisanal mining and
pragmatic survival strategies based largely on the forestry, wildlife poaching, uncontrolled shing
harvesting of natural resources. Weak governance and gathering of non-timber forest products.
and a protracted crisis have transformed foraging Foraging activities are strongly gendered, with
livelihood strategies known as cueillette - women and children playing a prominent role,
into a standard way of life for the majority of and are therefore, more susceptible to exploitative
the population. Referred to popularly as la relationships.
Livelihood strategies in the DRC centre on survival, relying on a foraging culture and
resourceful debrouillaridise skills (above and opposite)
The meagre pickings from a cueillette livelihood available to a large part of the DRCs population,
strategy oer the poor multiple tangible benets it oers limited opportunities to advance beyond
and means for self-preservation. Consequently, basic subsistence and build technical capacity and
the DRCs resource-based foraging economy has capital assets to improve production and resource
demonstrated dynamism and resilience, and in management over the medium to long-term. It also
the apparent chaos a particular form of order has represents a threat to the natural resource base, as
emerged encompassing complex supply chains and weak state institutions coupled with high levels of
informal trade networks. While a foraging economy corruption mean that there is essentially no control
has been the only income-generating option over resource extraction or use.
GECAMINES
Heavily mechanised industrial mining of the past contrasts sharply with todays hand picking
of mineral ore by artisanal workers
6.3 Deep de-industrialisation and 6.4 Emerging social enterprises

de-mechanisation: a low-productivity constrained by weak governance
trap
The decline in social enterprises, particularly State-
One of the most serious consequences of the sponsored cooperatives initiated with external
DRCs profound economic informalisation is the support in the 1980s, has accelerated the de-
deindustrialisation and demechanisation of its key mechanisation of production and the reversion of
economic sectors (mining, forestry, agriculture, Congolese society to subsistence-based livelihoods
sheries). With the growing resource demands with important consequences for day-to-day
from newly industrializing countries and a natural resource management. Nevertheless
growing global population, the DRC risks sinking over the past few years, there has been a rapid
further down the levels of the supply chain, to expansion of ad-hoc initiatives by the population
become nothing more than a provider of raw to create entrepreneurial self-help groups in
materials to the rest of the world. The danger of natural resource-based sectors such as forestry,
becoming structurally locked into a colonial trade mining, agriculture and sheries. In areas where
pattern of exporting raw materials and cash crops the government is unable to deliver basic services,
is therefore very real. Extensive demechanisation business-oriented social organisations have also
currently also limits the possibilities of taking emerged, for example water user and waste
advantage of economies of scale and raising collection associations. The grassroots momentum
production. However, if supported by strategic by Congolese civil society to form proto-
policies and investments, the DRCs low level of cooperatives and artisanal associations represents a
industrialisation, combined with its rich natural major step forward in organizing, centralizing and
resource base can open attractive opportunities formalizing fragmented individualized activities
for leapfrogging and adopting clean and resource- in more rational and constructive economies of
ecient technologies. scale. Furthermore, development partners have
been supporting the creation of voluntary local 6.5 Small and medium-sized
development committees and community-based enterprises handicapped by an
natural resource management schemes. unfriendly business environment
Emerging social economy organisations, however, Despite progress in modernizing the financial
are presently operating in a governance vacuum systems legal framework and removing bottlenecks
without the prerequisite legal sanction to on private sector engagement, the DRC business
safeguard and support their development. As a environment remains burdensome. According
result, most social enterprises register as non- to the World Banks Doing Business 2011 report
profits (Association Sans But Lucratif) which, which ranks the DRC at the bottom of its list (175
while providing legal identity, curtails their access out of 183), if a rm were to pay all its taxes it
to credit, as banks and other potential creditors would on average be equivalent to 340 percent of
are reluctant to provide them with loans. It is its prot. Onerous red tape complicates the start-
noteworthy that a recent survey has indicated up of small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs)
absence of credit to be the main constraint to and penalises their competitiveness. A recent World
the growth of the local private sector. Nascent Bank survey (2011) has shown that there has been
social enterprises are consequently isolated virtually no growth in the DRCs SME sector over
from entry into the economic mainstream. This the past ve years. Moreover, of the 6,000 private
situation undermines the enormous potential of companies that existed 25 years ago only 5,000
entrepreneurial social organisations to generate jobs remain today. On the other hand, it is noteworthy
and contribute to development programmes within that large companies have been enjoying substantial
an environmentally sustainable framework. growth. Lack of clarity on regulatory requirements,
An entrepreneur decries the administrative hassles in starting a new business to sell liqueed petroleum
gas cylinders; a potential alternative to charcoal and fuelwood (Beni, North Kivu)
excessive procedural hassles and over-taxation, the collection of nancial data, particularly on
make it particularly dicult for SMEs and domestic the cross-border ow of funds. The weakness of
entrepreneurs to yield a prot. Their lack of political the banking system substantially undermines the
patronage and weak negotiating power makes it possibilities for organising and monitoring natural
very dicult for them to cut through red tape resource extraction. With an estimated 300,000
compared to larger companies. Given the limited 350,000 bank accounts for a population of 68
incentive to formalise business transactions, the million in 2010, the DRC has one of the lowest
growth of the informal sector has accelerated to banking ratios (0.5 percent) in the world. Although
such a level that it has become a critical structural there has been exponential growth in the banking
problem in the DRC economy. Not only does sector since 2005 and customer condence is
informality undermine entrepreneurship and the gradually returning, the economy continues to
growth of SMEs by curtailing their access to credit, operate mainly in cash (largely in USD) through
but it also means that they operate beyond the informal dealings. The micronance sector is also
scope of environmental and labour laws, making under-developed, representing only 0.041 percent
it dicult to channel equitable and sustainable of GDP. The lack of nancial records not only
practices in their activities. hampers the collection of critical statistics, but
also signicantly raises the risks of tax evasion,
6.6 Breakdown of the banking resource traceability, corruption and criminal
system undercuts revenue generation activity. Enforcing environmental standards
and economic accumulation from and improving transparency on natural resource
natural resources exports is therefore signicantly undermined by
the fragility of the banking system. It also means
The breakdown of the DRCs banking system that the populations access to credit is limited,
and its crucial intermediary role has amplied the thereby stiing its capacity to invest in production
opacity of economic transactions and impeded inputs and sustainable resource management.
The micronance sector remains under-developed in the DRC. A savings and credit
cooperative in Beni, North Kivu
The disintegration of the DRCs national road network is a major constraint to economic
development and poverty reduction
6.7 Geographic isolation and double-up as trade corridors to southern and

dynamic border regions: different eastern Africa, exhibit a considerably more
patterns of environmental degradation dynamic economy than isolated hinterland
regions. With the adoption of new technologies
A critical obstacle to economic growth is the (e.g. chain saws and nylon shing nets), artisanal
complete degradation of the DRCs uvial, road, production particularly of minerals, timber and
railway and air transportation infrastructure. The sheries - can rapidly rise to a semi-industrial
country is spatially and structurally disconnected, scale. Improving resource management in border
with vast hinterland areas geographically isolated areas is often complicated by unregulated cross-
into virtual islands that are cut-o both from border trade, insecurity and criminal networks.
the centre and from each other. Physical isolation
has curtailed large-scale commerce and economic 6.8 Ambiguities over land tenure
life has become acutely localised as people have and weak land management
reverted to subsistence existences. In large areas
of the country people rely on bicycles, carts Land use planning and resource access in the
and pirogues for transport and trade, limiting DRC is complicated by a dual land tenure system
local communities and entrepreneurs access to of customary and statutory laws which often
markets, and preventing them from diversifying collide, resulting in considerable uncertainty
livelihoods and breaking from a vicious cycle of and confusion. Although not legally recognized
resource foraging. by government, customary tenure remains the
de facto system through which most people
Resource-rich border regions particularly manage and gain access to land and other natural
southern Katanga, the Kivus and Ituri that resources, especially in rural and peri-urban areas.
Bambuti pygmies experts of the forest are highly vulnerable to being dispossessed of their ancestral
lands and experiencing displacement, marginalisation and poverty
Due to potential overlaps and contradictions and often have to negotiate temporary use of
between customary and statutory land allocation, marginal terrain. Diminishing land rights of
insecurity over land ownership is commonly vulnerable groups, particularly the Pygmies,
experienced in the DRC and has been an including forced expropriation, is also an issue
important driver of social conict, particularly of growing concern.
in eastern DRC. Preliminary results from a
UN commissioned survey (2011) have revealed Inadequate land tenure arrangements have led
that the two main causes of conict (excluding to uncontrolled land use which is accentuated
the eastern war zone) are related to customary by massive population displacement and rural
authority and local land disputes. For example, migration with signicant negative impacts on the
control over natural resources is the main source environment. This situation is further complicated
of conict in the non-war zones of Orientale by the lack of a comprehensive land management
Province, while 76 percent of conicts in Katanga plan establishing a spatial framework to direct and
province are related to land titles. regulate development activities. The problem is
evident in frequent incidents of conicting and
An unclear tenure regime and open access to incompatible land uses, such as the granting
common resources is widely considered to of mining concessions within protected areas,
have discouraged farmers from investing in rampant conversion of forests into agricultural
the intensication of agricultural production elds through slash-and-burn practices, anarchic
and improve natural resource management. settlements in peri-urban areas and degradation of
Women, who play a pivotal role in agriculture, strategic drinking water sources due to agricultural
are particularly disadvantaged in accessing land and housing construction encroachment.
6.9 Data vacuum decisions and design effective environmental

management interventions.
Natural resource management in the DRC is
severely handicapped by a profound absence of data.
6.10 Nascent environmental policy
Institutionalised data collection systems started to
and institutional framework
collapse from the mid-1970s, and almost completely
ceased to function in the wake of widespread rioting Since the democratic elections of 2006, there has been a
in 1990-1993 and the subsequent conicts due to signicant drive to develop and update environmental
personnel abandonment and looting of monitoring legislation and institutional arrangements. This is a
stations. As a result, statistics today are largely major task that is currently ongoing. Nonetheless,
unreliable and signicant discrepancies are quoted environmental degradation continues unabated
for a wide range of key indicators. Data deciencies due to a poorly-enforced, piecemeal environmental
cut across all sectors, from population censuses to legal framework. The lack of an overarching
estimates of drinking water supply, malnourishment environmental policy has hampered the development
levels, deforestation rates, biodiversity inventories, of a comprehensive set of regulatory tools and
volume of fish catch, agricultural and mineral environmental norms. Consequently, laws and
production and exports. Furthermore, surveying and regulations have arisen in an ad hoc and fragmented
mapping of natural resources is partial, outdated and manner in response to emerging environmental
incomplete. Although some investment has been made concerns. Institutional reform is greatly needed,
recently to install modern environmental observation and is currently proceeding under the umbrella of
infrastructure particularly meteorological and the government-led national development plan for
liminographic stations and ad-hoc surveys have forestry and conservation (Programme National Fort
been carried out (wildlife, forestry, hydrogeological), et Conservation de la Nature (PNFCN) which is
data collection remains grossly inadequate and supported by a consortium of international partners.
underfunded. Furthermore, where data exists, it is
Institutional weakness has also hampered progress.
often inaccessible due to archaic storage methods and
Key constraints include: (i) a severe funding shortage,
the lack of a harmonised information management
with only a small proportion of the MECNTs budget
structure. Without the prerequisite baseline datasets being disbursed to cover sta salaries, and a total lack
and the capacity to carry-out long-term measurement of operational expenditure; (ii) inadequate human
of key parameters, it is impossible to make informed and technical capacity, with poor salaries and working
conditions (particularly in remote areas) leading to
disillusioned personnel and dissuading competent
sta from remaining in the Ministrys employment
and (iii) poor infrastructure (from oces to electricity
supply) and decient equipment (from vehicles to
computers), particularly at the provincial level. Under
these circumstances, the governments ability to address
the countrys wide range of environmental challenges,
as well as comply with its commitments under
multilateral and regional environmental agreements,
is signicantly limited. The DRCs move towards
decentralisation is in itself creating a major challenge
for environmental governance, particularly when it
comes to coordination, enforcement and funding
of the new entities that will be created. Overlapping
mandates between MECNT and other institutional
actors such as, the Ministries of Mines, Agriculture
Rebuilding the states capacity to collect baseline and Energy, add to these diculties. In addition,
environmental data for planning purposes is a strategies and platforms to integrate civil society
priority. A recently installed automated weather and increase environmental awareness are wanting
station in Mbandaka, Equateur although these are now gradually emerging.
7. Opportunities for cost-ecient micro-solutions, which generally serve

sustainable development, a large population base. Notable examples include:
good governance and t the Mampu agroforestry project, the model
peace consolidation for which could both stem the charcoal crisis
around rapidly growing urban centres and
UNEPs assessment identified a number of improve livelihoods for disadvantaged groups;
signicant opportunities to sustainably manage
the countrys natural resources, promote good t community-based water user associations to
raise drinking water access in peri-urban and
governance and support peacebuilding for
rural areas (see box 6);
the benefit of the DRCs present and future
generations. t urban and peri-urban horticulture garden
associations in Kinshasa and other major cities as
7.1 Build on success stories to create a way to improve urban food security and create
a virtuous circle of development greener cities;
There are many environmental success stories t community-based natural resource management
plans to rationalise land use activities through
in the DRC. A striking feature of the DRCs
zoning and participatory cartography (e.g.
successful projects and activities is that while
CARPE programme targeting critical biodiversity
they are generally locally well known, awareness
landscapes);
of their achievements and challenges is decient
at the provincial and national levels due to t the Ibi Batk carbon sink plantation, which
physical inaccessibility and limited resources. in 2011 became the rst project in the DRC
Consequently there is limited capitalisation on to obtain carbon credit nancing through the
lessons learned. To overcome this limitation, there CDM.
is a clear need to broadcast and popularize positive
environmental management experiences and Equally important are the numerous self-help and co-
accelerate the systematic upscaling of successful management initiatives to better organise artisanal
models into national programmes. exploitation of natural resources through social
economy enterprises particularly associations and
Most of these successful initiatives involve nascent cooperatives visible across key sectors including
social enterprises and the small-scale sector as well as mining, forestry, agriculture and sheries.
Urban farmer associations are a positive example of emerging social enterprises, which can help
improve food security and green the DRCs rapidly growing cities (Tshuenge, Kinshasa)
Newly constructed ofce of the Lubilanji Water User Association in Mbuji-Mayi, Kasai Orientale
Box 6. Example of a success story: improving drinking water access through people-
based associations
!N INSPIRING MODEL OF BOTTOM UP DEVELOPMENT IS OFFERED BY THE CREATION OF NEIGHBOURHOOD BASED
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The head of the environmental ofce in Ituri district (right) apprehends a group of newly arrived
immigrants about to start unauthorised logging activities
7.2 Positive reform of environmental artisanal resource exploitation be developed during

governance upcoming reviews of mining, forestry and related
environmental laws. The next important step is
Positive change to reform and strengthen to disseminate enacted legislation and develop
environmental governance in the DRC is under subsidiary implementing regulations, guidelines
way and visibly enjoys high-level political support. and standards. Good progress has also been made
The most signicant progress has been in the in creating mechanisms to coordinate government
development of a modern legislative framework, and donor activities, particularly in the forestry,
including the recently approved framework law wildlife conservation and water sectors.
on the environment, sectoral laws on mining
and forestry, and a series of environmental Despite ongoing institutional reforms, administrative
laws (water resources, nature conservation and structures remain weak, with extensive deciencies in
biosafety) that are currently under review in human, technical and nancial capacity, and major
parliament. The economically pivotal mining and gaps in coordination at multiple levels. There are,
forestry laws focus on industrial-scale production however, notable success stories of extending state
which, while necessary for creating a favourable authority, such as the Congolese Wildlife Authoritys
business environment and attracting critical (ICCN) ability to secure the Virunga National Park
foreign investment, do not effectively address since 2007 by stepping-up anti-poaching patrols,
small-scale and subsistence level activities by the curtailing forest destruction for charcoal production
majority of the population. It is therefore essential and relocating IDPs, all of which has translated into
that the ground rules and best practices for increased tourism revenue.
7.3 Enhancement of regional actively engage in sustainable trade initiatives

environmental and natural resources that are being developed through regional fora
cooperation including the ICGLR, the Southern African
Development Community and the Commission
Regional environmental cooperation provides of Ministers in charge of Forests in Central
major opportunities for the DRCs economic Africa (COMIFAC). International certication
development and reinforces peace-building eorts initiatives such as the FSC for forestry, the
with neighbouring countries. With its immense size Kimberley process for diamonds and the EITI
and extensive natural resource base, the DRC has for extractives, also provide market-based tools to
traditionally emphasised economic self-suciency. secure sustainable management of these high-value
However, with its strategic location at the junction natural resources.
of Central, Eastern and Southern Africa and given
the growing importance of regional integration Cooperation in the management of transboundary
and globalization processes as driving forces for protected areas and shared ecosystems as well
economic growth and development, it is no longer as investments in regional energy and transport
benecial for the DRC to look only inwards. integration can promote economies of scale
Realities prompting this strategic shift include and create cost-eective and environmentally-
the collapse of transport infrastructure, increasing ecient solutions. A range of examples from the
integration of border areas with regional transport Greater Virunga Transboundary Collaboration,
networks, signicant cross-border commercial the Rusizi transboundary hydropower scheme
trade, particularly in the eastern provinces and and the Southern Africa Power Pool provide
Katanga, and an unfolding decentralisation process insightful models for environmental collaboration.
in which economic development is becoming Capitalising on the experiences of neighbouring
increasingly a provincial and regional issue. countries in the sustainable management of natural
resources through regional knowledge networks
Regularizing large-scale trade in key commodities would also help to save time and resources.
particularly minerals, timber, charcoal, bushmeat Collectively, regional environmental initiatives
and cash crops should also help facilitate adoption and projects can provide a platform to actively
of sustainable natural resource management advance interstate dialogue, condence building
practices. It is therefore critical that the DRC and peace consolidation.
The Inga dam development schemes have the potential to generate substantial revenue from electricity
sales to neighbouring countries and regional power pools
7.4 Decentralisation of so much one of governance reform as it is of

environmental management institutional creation and reconstruction. While
political decentralisation has been achieved in the
In the DRCs administratively fragile post-conict 11 provinces, key scal and administrative aspects
situation, the ongoing process of decentralisation remain unclear and are yet to be resolved. The
represents both a major challenge and an envisaged proliferation of decentralized institutions
opportunity for natural resources management. over the next several years will require substantial
The new 2006 constitution and decentralisation nancial and human resources, including capacity
laws of 2008 have profoundly transformed the to collect baseline information for planning
architecture of the State with the number of purposes. It appears unrealistic at least in the
provinces due to increase from 11 to 26 (including short-term - that new decentralized entities will
Kinshasa). Simultaneously, approximately one- be able to establish eective institutions and
thousand decentralised administrative entities implement development activities given severe
are to gain legal status and will be entitled to raise budgetary constraints and nascent governance
taxes, borrow money and to become company capacity. As the central State withdraws and the 11
shareholders. Given the DRCs vast size, a robust provinces are eectively dismembered, the risk of
decentralisation process oers a unique window a governance vacuum is real and, as experienced
of opportunity for the population to participate in other countries, could create new centres of
in the use and management of natural resources, corruption and mismanagement. A transitional
launch development initiatives and build eective and sequenced approach is therefore required
local institutions. to prevent a governance void and gradually
transfer the competencies of the central state to
At the same time, the disintegration of State decentralized entities as part of a major capacity
institutions means that decentralisation is not building process.
Building the environmental management capacity of newly decentralised administrative entities

will be a priority
8. Recommendations 2) Mobilise the social economy to

create jobs and enhance
Ongoing post-conict reconstruction provides sustainable growth
a major window of opportunity for the DRC to
engage in the key policy actions advanced through The DRCs nascent and dynamic social economy
this assessment. These include capitalising on the represents an invaluable asset that can boost formal
DRCs emerging social economy and small-scale employment particularly for youth, women
sector to generate employment, including green and the most vulnerable groups of society. In the
jobs; maximising synergies through area-based Congolese context, the social economy comprises
development programming; and engaging in a diverse organisational forms that include but are not
green economy transition to achieve sustainable limited to: (i) associations and proto-cooperatives;
development. Five broad recommendations are (ii) SMEs; and (iii) local development and
proposed below to facilitate the application of community-based natural resource management
the suggested policy actions, and which could initiatives. Mobilising micronance is critical to
be further elaborated to help create the enabling the success of social enterprises including through
conditions for a green economy transition. savings and credit cooperative organisations. In
More detailed thematic recommendations the DRCs challenging post-conict reality, social
are tabled in Annex I. The overall time frame economy organisations are viable vehicles for
for these recommendations is the medium to the integration of environmental objectives and
long-term (10-15 years), but as they comprise occupational best practices across many economic
standalone actions they can be implemented sectors, including through the promotion of green
in a staged manner over short-term cycles of jobs. Supporting the institutionalisation of the
3-5 years. Prioritisation and sequencing of the social economy through targeted policies (technical
recommendations should be made through a qualication, credit, equipment and technology)
multi-stakeholder and participatory process should also substantially advance social equity and
within the framework of national, provincial and/ inclusive growth, which is critical to the DRCs
or area-based environmental action plans. pursuit of justice and peace.
1) Strengthen environmental
governance and invest in
capacity building
Strengthen State-led environmental governance
through: (i) mainstreaming poverty-environment
linkages into national development planning
including economic valuation of ecosystem
services in national accounting; (ii) development
of policies, legislation, strategies, scal measures
and investment plans that leverage relevant green
economy principles as appropriate; (iii) major
capacity-building, training and skills enhancement
programmes including administrative and
equipment support particularly at the provincial
level and as an integral part of the ongoing
decentralisation process; (iv) technical assistance to
implement legislation and carry out environmental
assessments of policies, programmes and projects;
and (v) establish and institutionalise major Grassroot initiatives to create artisanal
environmental data collection programmes and associations and proto-cooperatives can create
information management systems in collaboration much needed jobs as well as integrate relevant
with academic and research institutions. environmental objectives
3) Target smart green investments water management projects; small-scale farmer

and build on success stories organisations; urban and peri-urban agricultural
associations; and community-based natural
Promotion of green investments in the DRC can resource management initiatives.
be pursued through three main tracks. Firstly,
quantifying the economic value of the DRCs 4) Strengthen regional governance
vast ecosystem services - primarily from carbon
sequestration, biodiversity benets and watershed and cooperation
protection - is a prerequisite to informed economic Fostering regional environmental cooperation to
decision-making. Financial and multiple-benet support economic development, help break natural
valuation would provide the basis for engaging resource and conict linkages and promote peace-
in a wide range of market-based carbon schemes, building eorts is essential for addressing many of the
PES instruments and other reciprocal agreements DRCs challenges. This includes active engagement
that compensate land stewards for ecosystem by the DRC in: (i) various initiatives, particularly
conservation and restoration. that of the ICGLR, to regularize trade in conict
resources through the application of cross-border
Presently, the most promising initiatives for traceability and certication monitoring systems;
the DRC are those being developed under the (ii) development of transboundary protected area
REDD+ scheme which has the potential to
management plans including promotion of regional
generate nearly USD 1 billion per annum; the
ecotourism circuits; and (iii) mobilising regional
CDM; and ecotourism. Yet, it is important to
economies of scale and environmentally-sound
emphasize that there are a wide range of PES
investments in infrastructure schemes, particularly
opportunities, including those that build on the
in the energy and transport sectors.
creation of green jobs.
Secondly, maximise opportunities to leapfrog 5) Prioritise the environmental

the DRCs ongoing reindustrialisation and sustainability of humanitarian
reconstruction by adopting new state-of-the art action
technologies that reduce energy and resource
consumption while minimising waste generation Given the protracted nature of the DRCs
and pollution and creating decent, well-paying humanitarian emergency and to ensure maximum
jobs, including green work opportunities. Key returns on investment, relief operations need
sectors include mining, oil and gas development, to be better linked to long-term recovery and
electrication, renewable energies, transport and reconstruction planning. Priority areas include camp
industrial agriculture. management and rehabilitation, sustainable energy,
shelter, water, waste management and sanitation.
Finally, the DRCs many sustainable success It is also important to establish multi-stakeholder
stories that have delivered concrete results on the dialogue platforms in the war-torn eastern part of the
ground should be documented, replicated and country to address the existing communication gap
expanded into national scale programmes. These between environment, development, humanitarian
include agroforestry schemes; community-based and peacekeeping operations.
9. Financing the and the voluntary carbon market. The DRC is

recommendations already actively engaged in climate nancing
initiatives as one of the nine pilot countries under
Addressing a critical funding gap REDD+ and also recently registered its first
carbon sequestration project (Ibi Batk) under
Due to regional disparities and access constraints, CDM. With preliminary estimates indicating that
this assessment has not attempted to carry out the carbon market has the potential to generate
a detailed calculation of the level of nancing USD 1 billion per annum for the DRC, it is
needed to implement its recommendations. important that eorts to secure this nancing are
However, the funds needed are substantial. An reinforced. At the same time, the DRC needs to
indicative sum - corresponding to UNEPs global pursue other climate regulation nancing, such
modelling scenario for a green economy transition as the Green Climate Fund established at the
- amounts to at least USD 200 million per annum, Climate Conference in Cancun (2010), as well
the equivalent of two percent of national GDP. as payment schemes for biodiversity conservation
To kick-start the process of greening key sectors services, including by promoting ecotourism and
of the DRCs economy, priority interventions mobilizing funding from the Global Environment
recommended in this report will require multi- Facility.
million dollar investments over at least the
next decade. The most promising strategies for Green schemes
mobilizing nance at the scale required include: Worldwide there is a growing market for certied
goods, fair-trade products, organic foods and
Harnessing global market-based other plant-based and natural commodities. Many
instruments on ecosystem services
consumers are willing to pay more for such value
In view of the DRCs globally signicant natural added and specialised goods. Given the DRCs
capital, one of the major nancing opportunities unique and vast natural resources, such niche
is from innovative global-level PES mechanisms. markets could provide signicant income to local
Today, the most promising area from which the communities, and if sustainably managed can
DRC can marshal large-scale funding is from oer an important opportunity to create green
carbon market schemes, including REDD, CDM jobs and support social enterprises.
Although there has been a rise in development assistance, donor funding to the DRC remains chronically
low on a per capita basis compared to other sub-Saharan African countries
Doubling Ofcial Development There is also a need to enhance donor and

Assistance (ODA) to the DRC government coordination through the Thematic
As the DRC rebuilds its capacity to raise internal Group on Environment (GT 18), and accelerate the
resources, a signicant part of the nancing will shift from project-based delivery of development
need to be mobilised from development partners assistance to a coherent programmatic and sector
in the short to medium term. Although there has wide approach as advocated under the Paris
been a rise in ODA since the mid-2000s which Declaration. Increased harmonization is equally
accounts for approximately 50 percent of the required between the GT 18 with its current focus
DRCs national budget, donor funding remains on forestry and protected areas management and
chronically low on a per capita basis; USD 36 other related sector working groups particularly
per head compared with the sub-Saharan African infrastructure, energy and drinking water supply,
average of USD 47. Moreover, the country was mining and agriculture and rural development.
ranked as the second-least developed nation in Government and donor coordination fora oer
the world by the United Nations Development an important opportunity to raise the presently
Programme in 2010. Recent commitments to negligible investment in the environmental aspects
double aid to Africa, as called for by the United of these aforementioned key economic sectors. It
Kingdoms Commission for Africa in 2005 is also important to emphasise that international
and amplied by many others, are particularly aid is not only an issue of funding and should
relevant here. Given the countrys size, geopolitical include technical assistance and capacity building
significance and the global environmental given the low absorptive capacity of national
importance of its natural resources, a doubling of institutions.
ODA for the DRC should be a priority. Specically,
Increasing public nancing and reform
assistance to environmental and natural resources
of taxation policies to open the space
management should be substantially augmented for local level nancing through
from its current low levels. Importantly, such collective action
funding should be provided in the framework
of a green economy transition with a focus on With the release of national funds through
supporting social economy organisations, creating international debt relief under the HIPC in
green jobs and micro-investments. 2010 and increased revenue from rebounding
commodity prices, the DRCs government
At the same time, it is important to recognize that should endeavour to gradually increase its public
conventional aid particularly as development financing allocations for environmental and
needs continually increase due to rapid natural resources management. For sustainability
population growth is unlikely to increase at a purposes and to gradually break from its current
rate corresponding to the scale of the challenge. aid dependence, the government should cover the
Therefore, traditional aid, including from operational costs of donor projects to the extent
development finance institutions (the World possible. At the same time, policy reforms are
Bank, bilateral development agencies) will need also needed to overcome onerous red tape and
to focus more tightly on kick-starting major distortionary taxation to help open the space
investments and in parallel on lling the gaps that for bottom-up initiatives - particularly through
cannot be supported through domestic nancing. social economy organisations, small and medium-
Multilateral development banks will also have a sized enterprises and community-based natural
critical role to play in raising access to private resource management initiatives. Critically, access
capital and Foreign Direct Investment including to micronance credit is needed to jump-start
through public-private partnerships. self-help initiatives.
10. Way forward The imperative for the DRC to overcome

entrenched poverty and recover 20 years of lost
With this post-conict environmental assessment, development is immense. Long-term support and
UNEP has sought to set the stage for long- commitment from the international community
term international assistance to support the to assist the DRC realise its massive potential as
DRC in the equitable and sustainable use of one of Africas richest countries and key engines
its exceptional natural endowments. Given the for economic growth is essential. Indeed, assistance
scale and complexity of the challenges, and the to the country needs to be doubled in line with
level of financing required to implement the international pledges. The price of conict relapse
recommendations, the mobilisation of political and chaos to the people of the DRC and the
support and funding will need to be underpinned international community will be much higher. In
by an organised process of advocacy and awareness parallel, strengthening governance and national
raising. UNEP proposes to actively support its absorption capacity will be equally critical. As part
main government partner, the MECNT, in leading of the overall response provided by the United
this eort. Nations, UNEP looks forward to a continued
partnership with the Government and people of the
To facilitate the fundraising process, UNEP DRC, as well as its international partners, to help
will draw on the range of information products resolve the countrys multi-faceted environmental
developed through this assessment to engage the challenges, and to build on its human and
international community. Government counterparts environmental capital to bring about sustainable
are for their part encouraged to secure funds from economic recovery, lasting stability and peace.
national budgets, as well as other extra-budgetary
funding channels. It is foreseen that the awareness
and fundraising eort will take at least one year
following the report launch. Meanwhile, UNEP will
endeavour to consolidate its ongoing projects in the
DRC into a coherent national programme as well
as start select quick impact projects. In addition,
UNEP intends to catalyse follow-up action by key
stakeholders and assume an advisory role to other
agencies as part of the DRC UN Country Team.
A key step will be to build on the ndings and prioritise

the recommendations of this assessment through
the development of a National Environmental
Action Plan, as well as decentralised provincial and
area-based environmental programming. UNEP
is ready to assist the Government of the DRC in
taking this multi-stakeholder and participatory
process forward, including through the sequenced
alignment of actions, denition of time frames
and roles and responsibilities, and development
of cost estimates. To bring the multi-sectoral
recommendations to fruition, the full involvement
of several line ministries and agencies, UN
organisations, development partners, multilateral
development banks, civil society organisations and
NGOs is therefore indispensable. Where UNEP
has a clear value-added advantage in executing
the recommendations, it intends to pursue joint The Congo River - the national highway - has
programming with other UN agencies and partners immense potential for leading the nation on a
as its implementation model. sustainable development path
Annex:
Table of sectoral and thematic recommendations
Conict, Displacement, Natural Disasters and the Environment

Conict and displacement
Provide technical support to MONUSCO to strengthen its ability to regulate the trade in high value natural re-
R3.1.1
sources and to mainstream environment in peace-keeping operations.
Improve planning and governance of IDP camps, both ofcial and unofcial, and invest in rehabilitating aban-
R3.1.2
doned camps.
R3.1.3 Clean up landmines in order to facilitate access to land and enable appropriate natural resource management.
R3.1.4 Undertake studies on natural resources and conict linkages and how to break them.
Reinforce initiatives by the ICGLR and with MONUSCO to improve the traceability of supply chains for minerals
R3.1.5
and timber.
Natural Hazards and Disaster Risk Reduction
Strengthen institutional and technical capacities for country-wide monitoring and mapping of all major hazards,
R3.2.1
as a rst critical step in developing more accurate and comprehensive risk and vulnerability proles.
Strengthen institutional capacities for disaster preparedness, including early warning systems, contingency plan-
R3.2.2
ning and emergency response.
Review national development strategies and sectoral plans and ensure that disaster risk reduction is main-
R3.2.3
streamed in development planning.
Improve national awareness of disaster risk and disaster risk reduction through training and capacity develop-
R3.2.4
ment.
R3.2.5 Invest in ecological restoration as a strategy for disaster risk reduction.
Environment and Natural Resources
Forestry Resources
Strengthen the regulatory and policy framework for forests and incorporate within it sustainable forest manage-
R4.1.1
ment, agroforestry and climate mitigation.
R4.1.2 Improve technical capacity of forest services.
R4.1.3 Expand sustainable industrial and agroforestry plantations for fuelwood production.
Support the DRC to implement enabling conditions, such as FLEGT, for sustainable and certied timber opera-
R4.1.4
tions.
R4.1.5 Promote the sustainable harvesting of NTFPs as a source of revenue for the DRCs population.
Land
R4.2.1 Improve land tenure legislation to take into account both modern and customary tenure.
R4.2.2 Reinstate an inter-ministerial land use planning committee with a clear mandate and deliverables.
R4.2.3 Engage communities and traditional authorities in participatory land use planning.
R4.2.4 Support responsible agro-investments.
Agriculture
R4.3.1 Strengthen the DRCs agricultural policy to integrate sustainability.
R4.3.2 Support the grouping of smallholders into farmer organisations.
R4.3.3 Promote conservation agriculture.
R4.3.4 Develop extension services for rural farmers.
Wildlife and Protected Areas

R4.4.1 Strengthen management capacity for the DRCs protected areas.
Assess and register the different species sold as bushmeat in local markets and identify trade routes (also for
R4.4.2
ivory) so as to improve CITES enforcement.
R4.4.3 Promote sustainable ecotourism with community engagement.
Support community-based natural resource management, community management of protected areas and joint
R4.4.4
management.
Undertake research to identify major buffer zones and corridors that need to remain protected and managed for
R4.4.5
biodiversity purposes.
Water Resources
R4.5.1 Develop a national water policy, sectoral water strategies and statutory regulations.
R4.5.2 Develop a comprehensive national water information system for the DRC.
R4.5.3 Invest in autonomous community-based management of micro-scale water infrastructure.
R4.5.4 Implement a capacity-building programme for decentralised water institutions.
R4.5.5 Develop and implement watershed-based source protection plans.
R4.5.6 Improve rural water access.
Fisheries
Carry out baseline studies and monitoring of sheries resources to provide technical guidance on sustainable
R4.6.1
practices.
R4.6.2 Promote the organisation of shermen under co-management structures.
R4.6.3 Promote investments and technical assistance in post-capture shery products.
Promote trans-boundary collaboration for sustainable sheries management in the internationally shared Great
R4.6.4
Rift Valley Lakes.
R4.6.5 Develop sustainable aquaculture.
Climate Change
Strengthen, value and recognise internationally the role of the DRCs forests in reducing carbon emissions and in
R4.7.1
absorbing carbon.
Build capacity to enhance climate change expertise and develop climate scenarios specically for the DRC at the
R4.7.2
national and sub-national scales.
Develop programmes to assess the vulnerability of communities to climate change and implement adaptation
R4.7.3
and mitigation measures.
R4.7.4 Include climate proong in development planning.
Urban Environment
R5.1.1 Improve urban governance.
R5.1.2 Increase supply and rate of urban electrication as an alternative to intense wood and charcoal fuel.
Promote efcient use of, and alternatives to, fuelwood and charcoal as a cooking energy source in urban cen-
R5.1.3
tres.
R5.1.4 Prioritize gully and soil erosion protection measures in urban planning.
Expand urban and peri-urban horticulture (UPH) initiatives to improve food security and livelihoods in urban
R5.1.5
areas.
R5.1.6 Invest in urban water sanitation infrastructure to reduce pollution and improve public health.
R5.1.7 Carry out a feasibility study of efcient waste management in cities.
Mineral Resources
R6.1.1 Improve environmental governance of mineral resources development.
Clarify jurisdictional roles and responsibilities in the mining sector as it pertains to environmental management
R6.1.2
and monitoring.
Carry out a strategic (sectoral) environmental assessment of mineral resources development in the key mining
R6.1.3
provinces.
Undertake immediate remediation of pollution hotspots identied by UNEP during its eld work in Katanga given
R6.1.4
their human health risks.
R6.1.5 Undertake detailed environmental audits in the six mining provinces.
R6.1.6 Promote environmental best practices in mining and the use of cleaner, more efcient, low carbon technologies.
Formalize the artisanal mining sector in order to introduce better environmental and occupational health stand-
R6.1.7
ards.
Industry, Transport and Energy
Industry
Update and maintain an inventory of industries across the country to dene the basis for a sector-wide strategic
R7.1.1
approach to sustainable development.
Review and where necessary set a series of environmental and pollution norms and regulations for acceptable
R7.1.2
levels of industrial efuent and emissions to the environment.
Transport
Strengthen government capacity to implement systematically and rigorously environmental impact assessments
R7.2.1 for roads and other transport-related infrastructure - and to ensure that the resulting recommendations can be
fully implemented.
Undertake a strategic environmental assessment for the transport system that would examine multi-modal
R7.2.2
transport options.
Energy
R7.2.3 Carry out a strategic environmental assessment of the energy sector to dene a sustainable energy mix.
Provide training and support to the State energy bodies, and other key actors, to ensure that they are sensitised
R7.2.4
to principles from the green economy as they apply to the energy sector
Facilitate the implementation of the improved cooking stoves programme at household level to improve
R7.2.5
energy efciency
Design and implement renewable energy pilot projects for conventional water utilities and autonomous,
R7.2.6
community-based water supply systems.
Environmental Governance and International Cooperation
R8.1.1 Strengthen the environmental policy framework.
Build capacity of provincial MECNT entities and strengthen the decentralisation of environmental management in
R8.1.2
the country.
R8.1.3 Develop a dedicated environmental data management centre
R8.1.4 Facilitate civil society and public participation in environmental decision-making
R8.1.5 Improve environmental education and awareness-raising.
R8.1.6 Strengthen capacities for transboundary environmental cooperation at all levels
Further information
Further technical information may be obtained from the UNEP Disasters and Conicts Programme website at:
http://www.unep.org/disastersandconicts/ or by email: [email protected]
www.unep.org
P.O. Box 30552 Nairobi, Kenya
Tel: +254 (0)20 762 1234
Fax: +254 (0)20 762 3927
Email: [email protected]
The Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC) possesses diverse

and outstanding natural resources which are important for the
Congolese populations livelihoods as well as being of strategic
regional and global signicance. Decades of state decay and
successive conicts have exposed the countrys exceptional natural
wealth to the chaos of informal and uncontrolled exploitation, with
serious and long-lasting consequences. In the prevailing anarchy,
illegal natural resource extraction patterns have developed which
now fuel many of the DRCs conicts and human tragedies.
The good news is that the DRCs natural capital is in an overall
satisfactory condition, and most of the environmental degradation
is still reversible. Signicant threats to biodiversity, increasing
deforestation and localised mining pollution in southern Katanga,
however, do signal alarming trends that are of serious concern.
As the DRCs economic recovery continues with the gradual return
of peace, the development needs of its growing population of nearly
70 million, coupled with new technologies, are rapidly transforming
unregulated artisanal exploitation into semi-industrial resource
mining. Furthermore, the DRCs vast mineral reserves are again
the object of intense foreign competition, placing great pressures
on the countrys forests, biodiversity and water resources. An
underlying challenge is that these developments are occurring in
a context of pervasive weak governance.
International assistance, including a doubling of aid, is urgently
needed to support the equitable and sustainable use of the DRCs
natural resources.The countrys active engagement in market-based
instruments for ecosystem services, particularly the carbon market
and ecotourism, are promising sources of large-scale nancing.
To combat poverty and promote inclusive growth, this assessment
by the United Nations Environment Programme asserts that
building on the momentum of an emerging Congolese social
economy as an engine for employment-led green development
is central to successful post-conict recovery and the pursuit of
sustainable peace.
ISBN: 978-92-807-3226-9
Job No.: DEP/1467/GE

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The Democratic Republic

United Nations Environment Programme

United Nations Environment Programme

About the Post-Conict Environmental Assessment

Layout: Matija Potocnik

Synthesis for Policy Makers

1. Overview: from crisis to opportunity 6

2. Key policy actions 13

3. The importance and fate of the DRCs natural capital 22

4. Role and consequences of natural resources in conflict 24

5. Post-conflict challenges to environmental and natural resource management 29

6. Underlying structural constraints to environmentally sustainable development 49

9. Financing the recommendations 67

10. Way forward 69

Annex: Table of sectoral and thematic recommendations 70

have been made in the security sector, there is

Bandundu SANKURU 6 BURUNDI

4 Oshwe Dekese KINDU

shown on the map by number. Kasongo- Kahemba Kabongo Manono

1 Moanda 2 Dibaya Kamina Bukama HAUT-

7 Mbanza-Ngungu 3 Miabi Mutshatsha

DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC OF THE CONGO Kilometres

1.2 Development vision 1.3 Limitations of the

-AP -INING FORESTANDOILCONCESSIONSINTHE$2#

CENTRAL AFRICAN REPUBLIC

Mineral mining (gold, copper, cobalt, etc.) GCS: WGS 84

Non-mineral mining (sand, stone, etc.)

Mining exploration Sources:

2. Key policy actions 2.1 Capitalise on the DRCs emerging

Feasibility studies are needed to develop and

Box 1. Farmers associations: a growing movement

-AP 0RIORITYHOTSPOTSFORAREA BASEDINTEGRATEDDEVELOPMENT

CENTRAL AFRICAN REPUBLIC

2.3 Integrate economic valuation process. It is anticipated that REDD+ projects

The recommendations from this assessment aim to

Box 2. Using resource efcient technologies to clean-up Katangas mining environment

2) The DRCs tropical rainforest extends over

3) The DRC possesses an outstanding mega-

4) Over half of Africas water resources and 13

International boundary Height Kilometres

Gorillas have also fallen victim to the DRCs violent conicts

4.2 Major environmental humanitarian response programme. Given the

Environmental footprint of humanitarian sustainability through the systematic integration of

A demining operation on the outskirts of Kisangani, Orientale Province

Artisanal forestry, charcoal production and mining are

In terms of livelihoods and long-term economic

&IGURE $EFORESTATIONFRONTIEREXPANSIONAROUND-BUJI -AYI +ASAI/RIENTAL

!2 2010 - Cleared forest

&IGURE $IAMONDMININGRUSHONTHE3ANKURU2IVER +ASAI/RIENTAL

5.2 Synopsis of priority issues land and landscape degradation. An environmental

This assessment identied the following environmental

Box 3. Pink poisons threaten Katangas rivers and groundwater

The small-scale and artisanal mining sector

In terms of social concerns, the ASM sector usually

&IGURE %XTENSIVEENVIRONMENTALFOOTPRINTOFLARGE SCALEINDUSTRIALMININGIN+OLWEZI +ATANGA

metallurgical Mutoshi flooded pit

Forestry Resources order of priority: (i) slash and burn agriculture

Non-timber products such as edible forest Several participatory mapping initiatives

Agriculture farmers live more than eight hours from a trading

-AP -ININGFORESTANDOILCONCESSIONSINTHE$2#

-AP 0RIORITYHOTSPOTSFORAREA BASEDINTEGRATEDDEVELOPMENT

&IGURE $EFORESTATIONFRONTIEREXPANSIONAROUND-BUJI -AYI+ASAI/RIENTAL

&IGURE $IAMONDMININGRUSHONTHE3ANKURU2IVER+ASAI/RIENTAL

&IGURE %XTENSIVEENVIRONMENTALFOOTPRINTOFLARGE SCALEINDUSTRIALMININGIN+OLWEZI+ATANGA