Paradoxes and Their Resolutions

Paradoxes
and Their Resolutions
A Thematic Compilation
Avi Sion, Ph.D.

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Sion, Avi
Paradoxes and their Resolutions
A Thematic Compilation
No index, no bibliography
Abstract
Paradoxes and their Resolutions is a ‘thematic

compilation’ by Avi Sion. It collects in one volume the
essays that he has written in the past (over a period of some
27 years) on this subject. It comprises expositions and
resolutions of many (though not all) ancient and modern
paradoxes, including: the Protagoras-Euathlus paradox
(Athens, 5th Cent. BCE), the Liar paradox and the Sorites
paradox (both attributed to Eubulides of Miletus, 4th Cent.
BCE), Russell’s paradox (UK, 1901) and its derivatives the
Barber paradox and the Master Catalogue paradox (also by
Russell), Grelling’s paradox (Germany, 1908), Hempel's
paradox of confirmation (USA, 1940s), and Goodman’s
paradox of prediction (USA, 1955). This volume also
presents and comments on some of the antinomic discourse
found in some Buddhist texts (namely, in Nagarjuna, India,
2nd Cent. CE; and in the Diamond Sutra, date unknown, but
probably in an early century CE).
A is A (and not-A is not-A);
nothing is both A and not-A;
nothing is neither A nor not-A.
(Aristotle’s three laws of thought.)

Contents
Foreword....................................................................8
1. The vanity of the tetralemma ................................13
1. Phenomena are positive.................................13
2. There are no negative phenomena.................14
3. A misinterpreted experiment .........................16
4. Defining negation ..........................................18
2. Clarifying contradiction........................................21
1. Dialectic ........................................................21
2. Contradiction .................................................23
3. Consistency is natural ...................................29
3. Clarifying negation ...............................................32
1. Negation in adduction ...................................32
2. Positive and negative phenomena .................35
3. Negation is secondary ...................................37
4. Negation is an intention ................................41
4. Clarifying paradox ................................................44
1. Internal inconsistency....................................44
2. The Stolen Concept Fallacy ..........................46
3. Systematization .............................................49
4. Properties.......................................................53
5. The Liar paradox (early) .......................................59
1. Double paradox .............................................59
2. The Liar paradox ...........................................61
3. More on the Liar paradox ..............................63
4. The utility of paradoxes ................................65
6. The Liar paradox (redux)......................................70
1. First approach ................................................70
2. Second approach ...........................................72
3. Third approach ..............................................75
4. Fourth approach ............................................77
5. Fifth approach ...............................................79
6. Sixth approach ...............................................81
7. The Russell paradox (early) ................................. 84
1. Self-membership........................................... 84
2. The Russell paradox ..................................... 86
3. Impermutability ............................................ 88
4. The Barber paradox ...................................... 92
5. The Master Catalogue paradox ..................... 94
6. Grelling’s paradox ........................................ 98
8. The Russell paradox (redux) .............................. 103
1. Elements of class logic ............................... 103
2. An apparent double paradox ....................... 109
3. A bit of the history ...................................... 121
4. A bit of self-criticism.................................. 128
9. More on the Russell paradox ............................. 131
1. My resolution of the Russell paradox ......... 131
2. Why Russell’s resolutions are inadequate .. 134
3. Why Rescher’s resolution is inadequate..... 138
4. Other incarnations of the paradox .............. 140
5. About the Barber paradox........................... 142
10. Hempel's paradox of confirmation ................. 144
1. Traditional analysis..................................... 144
2. Novel analysis............................................. 146
3. The problem and its solution ...................... 152
11. Goodman’s paradox of prediction .................. 160
1. The alleged problem ................................... 160
2. The logical solution .................................... 161
3. The concept of ‘grue’ ................................. 164
4. How far up the scale? ................................. 167
12. The Sorites paradox........................................ 171
1. What’s a heap?............................................ 171
2. The use of vague terms ............................... 172
3. Reasoning with vague terms ....................... 175
4. Making up fake paradoxes.......................... 178
13. Protagoras vs. Euathlus ...................................182
1. An ancient paradox .....................................182
2. First resolution ............................................184
3. Second resolution ........................................186
4. Inadequate resolutions .................................190
14. Buddhist antinomic discourse .........................195
1. The tetralemma............................................195
2. Neither real nor unreal ................................200
15. More Buddhist antinomic discourse ...............207
1. The ‘I have no thesis’ thesis ........................207
2. Calling what is not a spade a spade .............225
Main References ........................................................230
8 Paradoxes and Their Resolutions
Foreword
Paradoxes and their Resolutions is a ‘thematic

compilation’. It collects in one volume the essays that I
have written in the past (over a period of some 27 years) on
this subject.
It comprises expositions and resolutions of many, though
far from all, ancient and modern paradoxes, including: the
Protagoras-Euathlus paradox (Athens, 5th Cent. BCE), the
Liar paradox and the Sorites paradox (both attributed to
Eubulides of Miletus, 4th Cent. BCE), Russell’s paradox
(UK, 1901) and its derivatives the Barber paradox and the
Master Catalogue paradox (also by Russell), Grelling’s
paradox (Germany, 1908), Hempel's paradox of
confirmation (USA, 1940s), and Goodman’s paradox of
prediction (USA, 1955).
I also here present and comment on some of the antinomic
discourse found in some Buddhist texts (namely, in
Nagarjuna, India, 2nd Cent. CE; and in the Diamond Sutra,
date unknown, but probably in an early century CE).
Despite its title, note well, the present book is not intended
as an exhaustive study; there are many paradoxes it does
not mention or treat.1
1
In Wikipedia,
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_paradoxes, there is an
interesting ‘list of paradoxes’, which groups the paradoxes under
various headings and has links to entries on individual paradoxes.
There are also articles on paradoxes in the online Stanford
Encyclopedia of Philosophy. A book on this subject worth studying is
Nicholas Rescher’s Paradoxes: Their Roots, Range, and Resolution
(Chicago, Ill.: Open Court, 2001).
Foreword 9
By ‘paradox’ is here, of course, meant apparent double

paradox. A paradoxical proposition has the self-
contradictory hypothetical form ‘if P, then not-P’, or ‘if
not-P, then P’, where P is any sort of proposition. Such a
proposition, taken alone, is not antinomic, i.e. in breach of
the laws of thought, simply because there is a formal way
out of it: ‘if P, then not-P’ implies the categorical
proposition ‘not-P’; and ‘if not-P, then P’ implies the
categorical proposition ‘P’. A single paradox, then,
constitutes logically legitimate discourse. Very different is
a double paradox, i.e. a claim that both ‘if P, then not-P’
and ‘if not-P, then P’ are simultaneously true for a given
instance of P. Such a claim is diametrically opposed to the
law of non-contradiction, since it concludes that both the
categorical propositions ‘not-P’ and ‘P’ are simultaneously
true for a given instance of P.
Clearly, resolving (double) paradoxes is essential to logic,
ontology and epistemology, since to accept any such
antinomy would put human knowledge, and indeed the
cognitive faculties that make it possible, in grave doubt.
Skeptics relish paradoxes, because they maliciously wish
to invalidate human knowledge and the human mind.
Defenders of human reason are therefore obligated to
confront every such challenge, and neutralize it
convincingly. More positively, paradoxes are great
opportunities to learn something new about the way we
think or what we believe, and to discover and correct our
errors. If we did not encounter the paradox, we might
remain unaware of our errors; the paradox opens the door
to our correcting them.
‘Resolution’ of paradox consists in showing that the
apparent double paradox is in fact, for some specific
reason, only apparent; i.e. it is illusory, not real. To find the
resolution, one generally needs to examine the underlying
or surrounding discourse very carefully, and uncover
where in it one made a mistake. One may have relied on
some overly vague notion or fallen into equivocation or

made some unjustified assumption or whatever. Resolution
of paradox is generally not a mechanical process, but
requires considerable perspicacity and reflection. The main
paradoxes are far from easy to dissolve; each one requires
due consideration and special treatment. Often, after they
are discovered by some logician or philosopher, they
remain unresolved for a long time.
As regards the ordering of the present collection, I would
like to make the following clarification. In my past
thematic compilations (namely, The Laws of Thought, The
Self, Ethics, and Theology), I have generally opted for a
chronological presentation. However, in the present case,
the ordering has been determined by didactic as well as
chronological considerations.
 I have placed as the opening chapter an essay, “The
vanity of the tetralemma,” drawn from my A Fortiori
Logic (2013). The next two chapters, “Clarifying
contradiction” and “Clarifying negation,” are drawn
from my book Ruminations (2005). These first three
essays serve to, at the outset, focus attention on and
reaffirm the laws of thought.
 Next, I insert, as introduction to the subject of
paradoxes, the essay “Paradoxes,” drawn from my
earliest work, Future Logic (1990).
 This is followed by some early thoughts about
paradoxes in general and the Liar paradox in particular,
in the essay “The Liar paradox (early),” drawn from
Future Logic and Ruminations. At this point, I insert
my more advanced analysis of this paradox in “The
Liar paradox (redux),” drawn from A Fortiori Logic.
 Next, in the essay “The Russell paradox (early),” also
drawn from Future Logic and Ruminations, I present
some early thoughts on the Russell paradox, as well as
on certain derivatives of it, namely the barber paradox,
Foreword 11
the book catalogue paradox and Grelling’s paradox.

After that, I insert my more advanced analysis of this
paradox in “The Russell paradox (redux),” drawn from
A Fortiori Logic.
 Thereafter, I have put the essays “Hempel’s paradox of
confirmation” and “Goodman’s paradox of
prediction,” both drawn from my Logical and Spiritual
Reflections (2008-9). Then the essays “The Sorites
paradox is contrived” and “Protagoras vs. Euathlus
resolved,” both drawn from a book I have yet to
complete and publish (working title: “Topics in Logic,
Philosophy, and Spirituality,” partly published online
in 2017).
 Finally, the present volume comprises two essays,
“Buddhist antinomic discourse” and “More Buddhist
antinomic discourse,” drawn respectively from my
Buddhist Illogic (2002) and from Ruminations and
Logical and Spiritual Reflections.
As for the relative importance of the paradoxes here
presented and dealt with, the following may be said.
To my mind, the liar paradox and the Russell paradox are
especially important, in view of their potential impact on
logic theory; and I particularly recommend my most recent
reflections concerning them (in the essays labeled
“redux”). Although I had treated these two paradoxes in
earlier writings (here labeled “early”), I managed in 2013,
when I was in the last stages of writing my book A Fortiori
Logic2, to go much more deeply into them. I was at the time
at the top of my form, intellectually at my most experienced
and mature, and could therefore see things a lot more
clearly than ever before.
2
In fact, these essays have nothing to do with a fortiori
argument; but I happened to have written them when that book was
close to finished, and I wanted to publish them as soon as possible, so
I parked them in an appendix there.
In the redux essay on the liar paradox, I show that this

paradox is a many-headed hydra, which cannot be
explicated only with reference to self-reference, as
commonly done, but involves a variety of problems that all
need to be addressed. In the redux essay on the Russell
paradox, I show that this class-logic conundrum is not due,
as customarily assumed, to some difficulty with the idea of
non-self-membership, but is due, on the contrary, to the
impossibility of self-membership; this is a new and
definitive resolution of the paradox, and I detail its many
implications.
The modern paradoxes of Hempel and Goodman are also
of significance to logic theory, in that they raise doubts in
relation to induction; but their resolutions are relatively
easy. The ancient sorites paradox is also logically
interesting, in that it shows the importance of intellectual
and verbal precision in discourse; but as a paradox it is
easily resolved. The earlier Protagoras-Euathlus paradox
does not have great logical importance, except perhaps to
teach us that when endeavoring to resolve paradoxes we
should not get caught up in logically irrelevant issues (in
this case, legal ones).
As regards Buddhist antinomic discourse, dealing with it is
important at this time in history, because Buddhism is
fashionable in some circles, and some of its doctrines are
there received in too dogmatic a spirit.
If in the future I write additional essays on paradoxes, I will
hopefully include them in expanded editions of the present
volume.
The vanity of the tetralemma 13
1. The vanity of the tetralemma
From A Fortiori Logic, Appendix 7.3.
The most radical assault on reason consists in trying to put

in doubt the laws of thought, for these are indeed the
foundations of all rational discourse. First, the law of
identity is denied by saying that things are never quite what
they seem to be, or that what they are is closer to grey than
black and white. This is, of course, an absurd remark, in
that for itself it lays claim to utter certainty and clarity.
Then, the laws of non-contradiction and of the excluded
middle1 are denied by saying that things may both be and
not-be, or neither be nor not-be. This is the ‘tetralemma’,
the fourfold logic which is favored in Indian and Chinese
philosophies, in religious mysticism, and which is
increasingly referred to among some ‘scientists’. To grasp
the vanity of the tetralemma, it is necessary to understand
the nature of negation and the role of negation as one of the
foundations of human logic.
1. Phenomena are positive

The first thing to understand is that everything we
experience is positive phenomenon. Everything we
perceive through our senses, or remember or imagine in our
minds, or even cognize through ‘intuition’ – all that has to
have some sort of content to be at all perceived. Each sense
organ is a window to a distinct type of positive
1
I inadvertently left out the words “and of the excluded
middle” in the original editions of A Fortiori Logic, although it is clear
from the rest of the sentence that I intended them.
phenomenon. We see the blue sky above, we hear birds

sing, we smell the fresh air, we taste a fruit, we feel the
earth’s texture and warmth, etc. Similarly, the images and
sounds in our heads, whether they come from memory or
are produced by imagination, are positive phenomena; and
even the objects of intuition must have some content that
we can cognize. Secondly, we must realize that many
positive phenomena may appear together in space at a
given moment. This is true for each phenomenal type.
Thus, the blue sky may fill only part of our field of vision,
being bounded by green trees and grey buildings; we may
at once hear the sounds of birds and cars; and so on.
Thirdly, many positive phenomena may at any given time
share the space perceived by us. Thus, superimposed on
visual phenomena like the sky may be other types of
phenomena: the sound of birds in the trees, the smell of
traffic in the streets, the feelings in our own body, and so
on. We may even hallucinate, seeming to project objects of
mental perception onto physical space. For example, the
image of one’s eyeglasses may persist for a while after their
removal. Fourthly, each positive phenomenon, whatever its
type, varies in time, more or less quickly. Thus, the blue
sky may turn red or dark, the sounds of birds or traffic may
increase or decrease or even stop for a while, and so forth.
2. There are no negative phenomena

In order to express all these perceptual possibilities –
differences in space and in time and in other respects, we
need a concept of negation, or more precisely an act of
negating. Without ‘negation’, we cannot make sense of the
world in a rational manner – it is the very beginning of
logical ordering of our experience. Thus, in a given visual
field, where (say) blue sky and trees appear, to be able to
say ‘the sky ends here, where the trees begin’ we need the
idea of ‘negation’ – i.e. that on one side of some boundary
sky is apparent and on the other side it is not, whereas on

the first side of it trees are not apparent and on the other
they are. Likewise, with regard to time, to be able to
describe change, e.g. from blue sky to pink sky, we need
the idea of ‘negation’ – i.e. that earlier on this part of the
sky was blue and not pink, and later on it was pink and not
blue. Again, we need the idea of ‘negation’ to express
differences in other respects – e.g. to say that ‘the sounds
of birds singing seem to emanate from the trees, rather than
from buildings’. Thus, negation is one of the very first tools
of logic, coming into play already at the level of sorting of
experiences.
Moreover, negation continues to have a central role when
we begin to deal with abstractions. Conceptual knowledge,
which consists of terms and propositions based directly or
indirectly on perceptual phenomena, relies for a start on our
ability to cognize similarities between objects of
perception: ‘this seems to resemble that somewhat’ – so we
mentally project the idea of this and that ‘having something
in common’, an abstract (i.e. non-phenomenal, not
perceived by any means) common property, which we
might choose to assign a name to. However, to take this
conceptual process further, we must be able to negate – i.e.
to say that ‘certain things other than this and that do not
have the abstract common property which this and that
seem to have’, or to say that ‘this and that do not have
everything in common’. That is, we must be able to say not
only that one thing resembles another in some way, but also
that these or other things do not resemble each other in that
way or in another way. Thus, negation is essential for
making sense of information also at the conceptual level of
consciousness.
Now, what is negation? To answer this question, we first
need to realize that there are no negative phenomena in the
realm of experience. Everything we perceive is positive
phenomenon – because if it was not we obviously would
have nothing to perceive. We can only ‘perceive’ a

negative state of affairs by first mentally defining some
positive state of affairs that we should look for, and then
look for it; if having looked for it assiduously we fail to
find it, we then conclude inductively that it is ‘absent’, i.e.
‘not present’. Thus, positive phenomena come before
negative ones, and not after. Existence logically precedes
non-existence. Negative phenomena are ‘phenomena’ only
metaphorically, by analogy to positive phenomena – in
truth, negative phenomena are not: they do not exist.
‘Negation’ is not a concept in the sense of an abstraction
from many particular experiences having a certain property
in common. Negation is a tool of the thinking observer, as
above described. It is an act, an intention of his.
3. A misinterpreted experiment
To illustrate how confused some people – even some
scientists – are with regard to negation, I offer you the
following example drawn from Richard Dawkins’ The
Greatest Show on Earth: The Evidence for Evolution2. He
describes an experiment by Daniel J. Simons, in which
some people are asked to watch a brief video and observe
how many times a certain event takes place in it; but at the
end they are asked another question entirely, viz. whether
they noticed the presence of a man dressed up as a gorilla
in the course of the movie, and most of them admit they did
not3. According to Dawkins, we may infer from this
experiment how “eye witness testimony, ‘actual
observation’, ‘a datum of experience’ – all are, or at least
can be, hopelessly unreliable.”
2
Pp. 13-14.
3
The video can be seen at:
www.theinvisiblegorilla.com/videos.html.
But this is a wrong inference from the data at hand, because

he confuses positive and negative experience. The people
who watched the video were too busy looking for what they
had been asked to observe to notice the gorilla. Later, when
the video was shown them a second time, they did indeed
spot the gorilla. There is no reason to expect us to actually
experience everything which is presented to our senses.
Our sensory experiences are always, necessarily, selective.
The validity of sense-perception as such is not put in doubt
by the limited scope of particular sense-perceptions. The
proof is that it is through further sense-perception that we
discover what we missed before. Non-perception of
something does not constitute misperception, but merely
incomplete perception. ‘I did not see X’ does not
deductively imply ‘I saw the absence of X’, even though
repetition of the former tends to inductively imply the
latter.
A negative ‘phenomenon’ is not like a positive
phenomenon, something that can directly be perceived or
intuited. A negation is of necessity the product of indirect
cognition, i.e. of an inductive (specifically, adductive)
process. We mentally hypothesize that such and such a
positive phenomenon is absent, and then test and confirm
this hypothesis by repeatedly searching-for and not-finding
the positive phenomenon4. If we were to at any time indeed
find the positive phenomenon, the hypothesis of negation
would immediately be rejected; for the reliability of a
negation is far below that of a positive experience. We
would not even formulate the negation, if we already had
in the past or present perceived the positive phenomenon.
And if we did formulate the negation, we would naturally
4
Not-finding is the non-occurrence of the positive act of
finding. Objectively, note well, not-finding is itself a negative
phenomenon, and not a positive one. But subjectively, something
positive may occur within us – perhaps a sense of disappointment or
continued relief. See more on this topic in my Ruminations, chapter 9.
retract our claim if we later came across the positive

phenomenon. Therefore, the content of negative
phenomena is necessarily always hypothetical, i.e.
tentative to some degree; it is never firm and sure as with
(experienced) positive phenomena.
Negative assertions, like positive assertions, can be right or
wrong. If one looked diligently for a positive phenomenon
and did not find it, then one can logically claim its negation.
Such claim is necessarily inductive – it is valid only so long
as the positive phenomenon is actively sought and not
found. The moment the positive phenomenon is observed,
the negation ceases to be justified. If one did not look for
the positive phenomenon, or did not look with all due
diligence, perhaps because of some distraction (as in the
example cited above), then of course the claim of negation
is open to doubt; certainly, it is inductively weak, and one
is very likely to be proved wrong through some later
observation.
4. Defining negation
How, then, is negation to be defined? We could well say
that negation is defined by the laws of non-contradiction
and of the excluded middle. That is, with regard to any term
‘X’ and its negation ‘not-X’, the relation between them is
by definition the disjunction “Either X or not-X” – which
is here taken to mean that these terms (X and not-X) cannot
be both true and cannot be both false, i.e. they are exclusive
and exhaustive. What do I mean here by ‘definition’? – is
that an arbitrary act? No – it is ‘pointing to’ something
evident; it is ‘intentional’. Here, it points to the instrument
of rational discourse which we need, so as to order
experience and produce consistent conceptual derivatives
from it. The needed instrument has to be thus and thus
constructed; another construct than this one would not do
the job we need it to do for us. That is, the only conceivable
way for us to logically order our knowledge is by means of

negation defined by means of the laws of non-contradiction
and of the excluded middle. Without this tool, analysis of
experience is impossible.
Suppose now that someone comes along and nevertheless
objects to the preceding assertion. Well, he says, how do
you know that the dilemma “either X or not-X” is true? You
just arbitrarily defined things that way, but it does not mean
it is a fact! Could we not equally well claim the tetralemma
“Either X or not-X or both or neither” to be true? The reply
to that objection is very simple. Suppose I accept this
criticism and agree to the tetralemma. Now, let me divide
this fourfold disjunction, putting on the one side the single
alternative ‘X’ and on the other side the triple alternative
‘not-X or both or neither’. I now again have a dilemma, viz.
“either ‘X’ or ‘not-X or both or neither’.” Let me next
define a new concept of negation on this basis, such that
we get a disjunction of two alternatives instead of four. Let
us call the complex second alternative ‘not-X or both or
neither’ of this disjunction ‘NOT-X’ and call it ‘the super-
negation of X’.
Thus, now, the objector and I agree that the disjunction
“either X or NOT-X” is exclusive and exhaustive. We
agree, presumably, that this new dilemma cannot in turn be
opposed by a tetralemma of the form “Either X or NOT-X
or both or neither” – for if such opposition was tried again
it could surely be countered by another division and
redefinition. We cannot reasonably repeat that process ad
infinitum; to do so would be tantamount to blocking all
rational thought forever. Having thus blocked all avenues
to thought, the objector could not claim to have a better
thought, or any thought at all. There is thus no profit in
further objection. Thus, the tetralemma is merely a tease,
for we were quite able to parry the blow. Having come to
an agreement that the new disjunction “Either X or NOT-
X” is logically unassailable, we must admit that the original
disjunction “Either X or not-X” was logically sound from

the first. For I can tell you that what I meant by not-X, or
the ‘negation of X’, was from the beginning what is now
intended by NOT-X, or the ‘super-negation of X’!
I was never interested in a relative, weak negation, but from
the start sought an absolute, strong negation. For such utter
negation, and nothing less radical, is the tool we all need to
order experience and develop conceptual knowledge in a
consistent and effective manner. In other words, whatever
weaker version of negation someone tries to invent5, we
can still propose a strong version such that both the laws of
non-contradiction and of the excluded middle are
applicable without doubt to it. If such negation did not
exist, it would have to be invented. No one can destroy it
by denying it or diluting it. Those who try to are merely
sophists who do not understand the source, nature and
function of negation in human discourse. They think it is a
matter of symbolic manipulation, and fail to realize that its
role in human discourse is far more fundamental and
complex than that. Negation is the indispensable
instrument for any attempt at knowledge beyond pure
perception.
5
There are people who say that the law of non-contradiction is
logically necessary, but the law of the excluded middle is not. Clearly,
this claim can be refuted in the same way. If they claim the three
alternatives “Either X or not-X or ‘neither X nor not-X’” – we can
again split the disjunction into two, with on one side “X” and on the
other side “not-X or ‘neither X nor not-X’” – and then proceed as we
did for the tetralemma. The same can be done if anyone accepts the law
of the excluded middle but rejects the law of non-contradiction. All
such attempts are fallacious nonsense.
Clarifying contradiction 21
2. Clarifying contradiction
From Ruminations 1, 5, & 9.
1. Dialectic
The three “Laws of Thought” may be briefly explicated as
follows:
(i) Thesis: there are certain appearances; appearances
appear.
(ii) Antithesis: there are incompatibilities between
certain of these appearances; in such cases, one or
both of them must be false.
(iii) Synthesis: some remaining appearances must be
true; find out which!
We can in this perspective consider dialectic as a
fundamental form of thought, through which knowledge is
made to progress on and on. It is not a mere detail, an
occasional thought-process, but a driving force, an engine,
of thought.
The laws are not mere information, but calls to cognitive
action. They enjoin proactive and curative cognitive
measures, to ensure (as much as possible at any given time)
continued verification, consistency and completeness.
(i) The law of identity tells us to seek out the facts and sort
them out as well as we can. The purpose of this law is to
instill in people a healthy respect for facts, in the course of
observation and judgment. It is essentially a call to honesty,
and submission to the verdict of truth. People often think,
or act as if they think, that ignoring or denying unpleasant
facts or arguments will make them ‘go away’ – the law of

identity says ‘no, they will not disappear, you must take
them into consideration’.
Some people think that it is impossible for us to ignore that
“A is A”. Far from it! All of us often do so – as when we
refuse to look at or admit the evidence or a logical
demonstration; when we avoid reality or evade it having
glimpsed it; when we lie to ourselves or to others; and so
forth. If the law of identity were always obeyed by us, there
would be no need to formulate it. Logic states the obvious,
because it is often shunned.
(ii) When the law of non-contradiction says to us “you
cannot at once both affirm and deny a proposition”, it is
also telling us that if we ever in the course of discourse
encounter a situation where a proposition seems both true
(for some reason) and false (for other reasons), we have to
go back upstream in our discourse and find out where we
went wrong in the course of it8, and we have to effect an
appropriate correction such as to eliminate the difficulty.
We are not just saying: “ah, there is a contradiction”, and
leaving it at that, nonplussed. No, we are impelled to seek
a solution to the problem, i.e. to resolve the contradiction.
We are inferring that there must be something wrong in our
earlier thinking that led us to this conundrum, some error
of observation or reasoning that requires treatment. So long
as this situation is tolerated, and we cannot pinpoint the
source of error, the credibility of all related knowledge is
proportionately diminished. Consistency must be restored
as soon as possible, or we risk putting all subsequent
knowledge in doubt.
(iii) Similarly, the law of the excluded middle does not just
inform us that “no proposition can be claimed neither true
nor false”. This law insists that if we find ourselves in such
8
“Check your premises”, Ayn Rand would say.
a situation, and it is indeed the case that both a proposition

and its exact negation both seem false, we cannot let the
matter rest or hope to find some compromise position – we
have to eventually, as soon as possible, find good reason to
opt for one side or the other. There is no logically
acceptable middle ground, no avenue of escape.
These action implications inherent in the laws of thought
may also be characterized as dialectical thinking. In this
perspective, the “thesis” is our knowledge (or opinion) as
it happens to be at a given time; the “antithesis” is the
discovery of a logical flaw in that thesis, which causes us
to have doubts about it and seek its review; and finally, the
“synthesis” is the corrections we make in our premises, so
as to resolve the difficulty encountered and obtain a less
problematic new state of knowledge.
2. Contradiction
Many people misunderstand what we logicians mean by
‘contradiction’. The contradictory of a term ‘A’ is its
negation, ‘not A’, which refers to anything and everything
in the universe other than A, i.e. wherever precisely A is
absent in the world. The relation of contradiction between
A and not-A is mutual, reversible, perfectly symmetrical.
The presence of something (A) excludes its absence (i.e.
not A) in that very same thing, and vice versa, if all
coordinates of space and time are identical. However, this
does not exclude the logical possibility that the same thing
may be partly A and partly not A. Thus, the law of thought
‘either A or not A’ can also be stated more quantitatively
as “either ‘all A’ or ‘all not A’ or ‘part A and part not A”.
Some people appeal to this possibility of three alternatives
as an argument against the laws of thought! But that is a
misunderstanding – or worse, deliberate sophistry.
If something, e.g. ‘B’, implies but is not implied by not-A,

it (i.e. B) is as ‘incompatible’ with A as not-A is, but it is
not contradictory to A: it is merely contrary to A. The
contradictory not-A of A differs from A’s contraries in that
the absence of not-A implies A, whereas in the case of
mere contraries like B (or B1 or B2… etc.) this added
logical relation of ‘exhaustiveness’ does not apply.
When contradictories are placed in a disjunction, ‘either A
or not-A’, the disjunction involved signifies both mutual
exclusion (‘or’, meaning ‘not together’) and
exhaustiveness (‘either’, meaning ‘and there is no other
alternative’). It intends: if ‘A’, then not ‘not-A’; and if not
‘A’, then ‘not-A’.
On the other hand, any number of contraries can be placed
in a disjunction: ‘A or B or B1 or B2… etc.’, so that the
presence of any disjunct implies the absence of all the
others; but such disjunction is not exhaustive, unless we
specify that the list of contraries in it is complete. If that list
is indeed complete, then the negation of all but one of the
disjuncts implies the affirmation of the remaining one.
Thus, ‘not-A’ can be equated to the exhaustive disjunction
of all things in the world ‘contrary to A’.
Something different from A, e.g. ‘C’, is not necessarily
contradictory or even contrary to A. The mere fact of
difference does not imply incompatibility. Different
things (like A and C) may be compatible, i.e. capable of
coexistence in the same thing, at the same time and place.
‘Difference’ simply signifies that we are able to distinguish
between the things concerned: i.e. they are not one and the
same when they appear before our consciousness. ‘Similar’
things may be the same in appearance, but not one (e.g. two
instances of the same kind); or they may be one (i.e. parts
of a single whole), yet not the same.
Thus, for example, the logical relation between the colors
black and white depends on how precisely we focus on
them. They are different, since distinguishable. Since they

may coexist on different parts of the same surface, they are
broadly compatible. However, as such or per se, they are
contrary; that is to say: if I perceive a surface or part of
surface as totally white, and you perceive the very same
place and time as totally black, our claims are
incompatible9. This irreconcilability is not a contradiction,
however, because it is possible for a surface to be neither
black nor white.
The expression ‘contradiction in terms’ refers to a
compound term composed of incompatible elements, such
as ‘A and not A’ or ‘A and B (where B is contrary to A)’.
Such a mixed-up term may be said to be paradoxical, as
well as internally inconsistent, since it implies that
contradiction is possible, so that the laws of thought are
denied by it, and then (by generalization, if you like)
‘anything goes’ including denial of the ‘A and not A’
conjunction.
For example, the term “illusory reality” is a contradiction
in terms. On the other hand, note, terms like ‘an inhuman
human’ or ‘an anti-Semitic Jew’ are not strictly speaking
contradictions in terms; they refer to natural possibilities of
conjunction, only the terminology used makes them
superficially seem contradictory (i.e. there are people who
behave inhumanly, or Jews that hate their own people).
The proposition ‘A is not A’ (or ‘some thing that is A is
also not A’), being self-contradictory, implies ‘A is A’, its
contradictory form. This statement should be explicitly
acknowledged, though obvious, because it correlates two
important concepts, viz. ‘internal inconsistency’ and ‘the
logic of paradoxes’.
9
Our disagreement is not terminological, note. We have in the
past agreed as to what experiences ‘black’ and ‘white’ correspond to;
here, we suddenly diverge.
The statement ‘A is not A’ is logically impossible, because

it both affirms and denies the same thing. Therefore, the
opposite statement is true. That statement, i.e. ‘A is A’, is
logically necessary, because even its contradictory ‘A is
not A’ implies it.
Whoever claims ‘A is not A’ is admitting ‘A is A’ – ipse
dixit, he himself said it! Whereas, whoever claims ‘A is A’
is consistent with himself.
Self-contradiction consists of three items:
(i) The proposition in question, call it P.
(ii) The admission that it is an assertoric statement, i.e.
one that affirms or denies something.
(iii)The admission that all assertoric statements involve
claims to consciousness, to knowledge, to truth, etc.
Thus, given P (e.g. “reality is unknowable”), admit that P
implies “this is an assertion” – but all assertions imply
some knowledge of reality – therefore, P implies non-P.
There is a process from P to its negation, which Logic
demands we acknowledge. That demand cannot be refused
without committing the very same self-contradiction. This
is not a circular or ad infinitum proof, but an appeal to
honesty, without which no dialogue is possible.
That all assertoric propositions assert is an aspect of the
Law of Identity. The Law of Non-contradiction may be
discerned in the argument: All assertions assert something;
P is an assertion; therefore, P asserts; whence, if P denies
asserting, P implies non-P. The Law of the Excluded
Middle is also implicit here, in the awareness that we have
no choice but to firmly disown P.
Disguised contradictions. Contradictions appear in
discourse in many guises. They are not always overt, but
may be hidden in the fact of making a statement or in the
standards of judgment used.
A claim may be paradoxical because it inherently entails

its own contradiction, although it does not on the surface
seem to be self-inconsistent. Such implication is not always
formal but requires awareness of the meaning of the terms
used. This form of indirect self-contradiction has been
called “the Stolen Concept fallacy”10.
For instance, the skeptical claim “I know nothing” may be
rejected as self-contradictory, because as soon as someone
makes it – someone who understands and intends the
meaning of the terms “I”, “know” and “nothing” – that is
by itself proof absolute that the person concerned “knows”
something, whence the original claim (of total ignorance)
is shown up to be unavoidably contradictory and thus
necessarily false.
Thus, in cases of this sort, the tacit implication involved is
that one of the terms used (knowing nothing) implicitly
includes the act in question (knowing that I know nothing),
as a case in point contradictory to the explicit claim.
(Rephrasing the said statement as “I do not know anything”
does not change its underlying assumptions, needless to
say.)
There are countless examples of such inherent self-
contradiction. Saying “I have nothing to say” is saying
something. Claiming “We have no memory” is self-
contradictory, because each term in it presupposes a word,
concept and background experiences remembered by the
speaker – and the hearer too. An amusing common
example is “I do not speak a word of English”!
Another important form of covert self-inconsistency is the
use of a double standard. This consists in applying less
stringent standards of judgment to one’s own discourse
than to the discourse of one’s intellectual opponents. A lot
10
By Ayn Rand and (I think) Nathaniel Branden.
of philosophical, and particularly political and religious,

discourse resorts to such inequitable methodology.
The contradiction involved in a double standard is apparent
the moment we step back and view its user’s knowledge
and methodology as a whole. In this wider perspective, the
user of a double standard is clearly inconsistent with
himself, even if his discourse viewed piecemeal may
superficially seem self-consistent.
Whole philosophies may be based on such fallacious
reasoning. For instance, Phenomenalism sets as a general
standard a limitation of knowledge to sensory data without
allowing extrapolations from them to assumed external
material objects – yet it does not criticize its own
adductions using the same rigid standard.
There are two ways this fallacy may be committed: one
may use relaxed standards on one’s own discourse, while
seemingly applying universal norms to one’s opponents’
discourse; or one may appear to apply universal norms to
oneself, while concocting overly strict norms for them. One
may exempt oneself from the usual logical rules, or one
may make unusual logical demands on others.
In either case, the holder of a double standard is in conflict
with logic’s requirement of uniformity. An assumption of
reason is that all humans are epistemologically on the same
plane. Equity is an aspect of ‘common sense’. Experience
and logic have to be used to convince oneself and others,
not sophistical manipulation or authority.
Standards of judgment have to be fair and universal; all
discourse must be equally treated. If differences are
advocated, they have to be convincingly justified. The
principle of equality admittedly involves generalization;
but the onus of proof is on any proposed particularization
of it.
An example of a double standard is the appeal to cultural
relativism. One may seek to rationalize ideas or thought
processes that are contrary to ordinary reason, by claiming

them to belong to a different cultural framework. Such
tolerance seems on the surface friendly and open-minded,
but it is proposed without full consideration of its negative
human and epistemological implications.
3. Consistency is natural
It is important to here reiterate the principle that
consistency is natural; whereas inconsistency is
exceptional.
Some modern logicians have come up with the notion of
“proving consistency” – but this notion is misconceived.
Consistency is the natural state of affairs in knowledge; it
requires no (deductive) proof and we are incapable of
providing such proof, since it would be ‘placing the cart
before the horse’. The only possible ‘proof’ of consistency
is that no inconsistency has been encountered. Consistency
is an inductive given, which is very rarely overturned. All
our knowledge may be and must be assumed consistent,
unless and until there is reason to believe otherwise.
In short: harmony generally reigns unnoticed, while
conflicts erupt occasionally to our surprise. One might well
wonder now if this principle is itself consistent with the
principle herein defended that negatives are never per se
objects of cognition, but only exist by denial of the
corresponding positives. Our principle that consistency is
taken for granted seems to imply that we on occasion have
logical insights of inconsistency, something negative!
To resolve this issue, we must again emphasize the
distinction between pure experience and the interpretations
of experience that we, wordlessly (by mere intention) or
explicitly, habitually infuse into our experiences.
Generally, almost as soon as we experience something, we
immediately start interpreting it, dynamically relating it to
the rest of our knowledge thus far. Every experience almost

unavoidably generates in us strings of associations,
explanations, etc.
The contradictions we sometimes come across in our
knowledge do not concern our pure experiences (which are
necessarily harmonious, since they in fact exist side by side
– we might add, quite ‘happily’). Our contradictions are
necessarily contradictions between an interpretation and a
pure experience, or between two interpretations.
Contradictions do not, strictly speaking, reveal difficulties
in the raw data of knowledge, but merely in the hypotheses
that we conceived concerning such data.
Contradictions are thus to be blamed on reason, not on
experience. This does not mean that reason is necessarily
faulty, but only that it is fallible. Contradictions ought not
be viewed as tragic proofs of our ignorance and stupidity –
but as helpful indicators that we have misinterpreted
something somewhere, and that this needs reinterpretation.
These indicators are precisely one of the main tools used
by the faculty of reason to control the quality of beliefs.
The resolution of a contradiction is just new interpretation.
How we know that two theories, or a theory and some raw
data, are ‘in contradiction’ with each other is a moot
question. We dismiss this query rather facilely by referring
to “logical insight”. Such insight is partly ‘experiential’,
since it is based on scrutiny of the evidence and doctrines
at hand. But it is clearly not entirely empirical and involves
abstract factors. ‘Contradiction’ is, after all, an abstraction.
I believe the answer to this question is largely given in the
psychological analysis of negation.
There is an introspective sense that conflicting intentions
are involved. Thus, the ‘logical insight’ that there is
inconsistency is not essentially insight into a negative (a
non-consistency), but into a positive (the intuitive
experience of conflict of intentions). Although the word
inconsistency involves a negative prefix, it brings to mind

something empirically positive – a felt tension between two
theses or a thesis and some data.
For this reason, to say that ‘consistency is assumable, until
if ever inconsistency be found’ is consistent with our claim
that ‘negations are not purely empirical’. (Notice
incidentally that we did not here “prove” consistency, but
merely recovered it by clarifying the theses involved.)
The above analysis also further clarifies how the law of
non-contradiction is expressed in practice. It does not sort
out experiences as such, but concerns more abstract items
of knowledge. To understand it fully, we must be aware of
the underlying intentions. A similar analysis may be
proposed to explain the law of the excluded middle.
In the latter case, we would insist that (by the law of
identity) ‘things are something, what they are, whatever
that happen to be’. Things cannot be said to be neither this
nor the negation of this, because such characterizations are
negative (and, respectively, doubly negative) – and
therefore cannot constitute or be claimed as positive
experience. Such situations refer to uncertainties in the
knower, which he is called upon to eventually fill-in. They
cannot be proclaimed final knowledge (as some modern
sophists have tried to do), but must be considered
temporary postures in the pursuit of knowledge.
3. Clarifying negation
From Ruminations 9.
1. Negation in adduction
Concepts and theories are hypothetical constructs. They
cannot (for the most part) be proven (definitely, once and
for all), but only repeatedly confirmed by experience. This
is the positive side of adduction, presenting evidence in
support of rational constructs. This positive aspect is of
course indispensable, for without some concrete evidence
an abstraction is no more than a figment of the imagination,
a wild speculation. The more evidence we adduce for it, the
more reliable our concept or theory.
But, as Francis Bacon realized, the account of adduction
thus far proposed does not do it justice. Just as important
as the positive side of providing evidence, is the negative
aspect of it, the rejection of hypotheses that make
predictions conflicting with experience. As he pointed out,
even if a hypothesis has numerous confirmations, it
suffices for it to have one such wrong prediction for it to
be rejected.
Stepping back, this means that the process of adduction is
concerned with selection of the most probable hypothesis
among two or more (already or yet to be conceived)
explanations of fact. Each of them may have numerous
‘positive instances’ (i.e. empirical evidence that supports
it); and so long as they are all still competitive, we may
prefer those with the most such instances. But, the way we
decisively advance in our conceptual/theoretical
Clarifying negation 33
knowledge is by the successive elimination of propositions

that turn out to have ‘negative instances’ (i.e. empirical
evidence against them).
Now all the above is well known and need not be elucidated
further. This theory of inductive logic has proven
extremely successful in modern times, constituting the
foundation of the scientific method.
But upon reflection, the matter is not as simple and
straightforward as it seems at first!
Consider, for example, the issue of whether or not there is
water on Mars. It would seem that the proposition “There
is water on Mars” is far easier to prove inductively than the
contradictory proposition “There is no water on Mars”.
Both propositions are hypotheses.
The positive thesis would be somewhat confirmed, if it was
discovered using certain instruments from a distance that
there are serious indices that water is present; the thesis
would be more solidly confirmed, if a sample of Mars was
brought back to Earth and found upon analysis to contain
water. In either case, the presence of water on Mars would
remain to some (however tiny) degree unsure, because
some objection to our instrumental assumptions might later
be raised or the sample brought back may later be found to
have been contaminated on the way over. Nevertheless,
something pretty close to certainty is conceivable in this
matter.
The negative thesis, by contrast, is much more difficult to
prove by experience. We can readily assume it to the extent
that the positive thesis has not so far been greatly
confirmed. That is, so long as we have not found evidence
for the positive thesis (i.e. water on Mars), we should rather
opt for the negative thesis. But the latter is only reliable to
the degree that we tried and failed to confirm the former. If
we earnestly searched for water every which way we could
think of, and did not find any, we can with proportionate
confidence assume there is no water.
Thus, in our example, the negative thesis is actually more
difficult to establish than the positive one. It depends on a
generalization, a movement of thought from “Wherever
and however we looked for water on Mars, none was
found” to “There is no water on Mars”. However, note
well, it remains conceivable that a drop of water be found
one day somewhere else on Mars, centuries after we
concluded there was none.
Granting this analysis, it is clear that Bacon’s razor that
“What is important is the negative instance” is a bit
simplistic. It assumes that a negative is as accessible as (if
not, indeed, more accessible than) a positive, which is not
always the case.
In practice, a negative may be inductively more remote
than a positive. Granting this conclusion, the question
arises – is the negative instance ever more empirically
accessible than (or even as accessible as) the positive one?
That is, when does Bacon’s formulation of induction
actually come into play?
If we look at major historical examples of rejection of
theories, our doubt may subsist. For example, Newtonian
mechanics was in place for centuries, till it was put in doubt
by the discovery of the constancy of the velocity of light
(which gave rise to Relativity theory) and later again by the
discovery of various subatomic phenomena (which gave
rise to Quantum mechanics). In this example, the ‘negative
instances’ were essentially ‘positive instances’ – the only
thing ‘negative’ about them was just their negation of the
Newtonian worldview!
Such reflections have led me to suspect that the ‘negation’
referred to by Bacon is only meant relatively to some
selected abstraction. His razor ought not be taken as an
advocacy of absolute negation. If we look at the matter
more clearly, we realize that the data used to thus negate an

idea is essentially positive. A deeper consideration of the
nature of negation is therefore patently called for.
2. Positive and negative phenomena

People have always considered that there is a difference
between a positive and a negative term. Indeed, that is why
logicians have named them differently. But logicians have
also found it difficult to express that difference
substantially. Yet, there are significant phenomenological
differences between positive and negative phenomena.
a. The concrete material and mental world is
evidently composed only of positive particular phenomena,
some of which we perceive (whether through the bodily
senses or in our minds). These exist at least as appearances,
though some turn out to seem real and others illusory. This
is an obvious phenomenological, epistemological and
ontological truth.
To say of phenomena that they are ‘particular’ is to express
awareness that they are always limited in space and time.
They have presence, but they are finite and transient, i.e.
manifestly characterized by diversity and change.
We do not ordinarily experience anything concrete that
stretches uniformly into infinity and eternity (though such
totality of existence might well exist, and indeed mystics
claim to attain consciousness of it in deep meditation,
characterizing it as “the eternal present”). We do
commonly consider some things as so widespread.
‘Existence’ is regarded as the substratum of all existents;
‘the universe’ refers to the sum total of all existents; and
we think of ‘space-time’ as defining the extension of all
existents. But only ‘existence’ may be classed as an
experience (a quality found in all existents); ‘the universe’
and ‘space-time’ must be admitted as abstractions.
However, the limits of particulars are perceivable without

need of negation of what lies beyond them, simply due to
the variable concentration of consciousness, i.e. the
direction of focus of attention. That is, though ‘pointing’ to
some positive phenomenon (e.g. so as to name it) requires
some negation (we mean “this, but not that”), one can
notice the limits of that phenomenon independently of
negation.
b. Negative phenomena (and likewise abstracts,
whether positive or negative), on the other hand, do depend
for their existence on a Subject/Agent – a cognizing
‘person’ (or synonymously: a self or soul or spirit) with
consciousness and volition looking out for some
remembered or imagined positive phenomenon and failing
to perceive it (or in the case of abstracts, comparing and
contrasting particulars).
Thus, negative particular phenomena (and more generally,
abstracts) have a special, more ‘relative’ kind of existence.
They are not as independent of the Subject as positive
particular phenomena. That does not mean they are, in a
Kantian sense, ‘a priori’ or ‘transcendental’, or purely
‘subjective’ – but it does mean that they are ontological
potentials that are only realized in the context of (rational)
cognition.
Another kind of experience is required for such realization
– the self-experience of the Subject, his intuitive
knowledge of his cognitions and volitions. This kind of
experience, being immediate, may be positive or negative
without logical difficulty. The Subject reasons inductively
as follows:
I am searching for X;
I do not find X;
Therefore, X “is not” there.
The negative conclusion may be ‘true’ or ‘false’, just like
a positive perception or conclusion. It is true to the degree
that the premises are true – i.e. that the alleged search for
X was diligent (intelligent, imaginative, well-organized,
attentive and thorough), and that the alleged failure to find
X is not dishonest (a lie designed to fool oneself or others).
Whence it is fair to assert that, unlike some positive terms,
negative terms are never based only on perception; they
necessarily involve a thought-process – the previous
mental projection or at least intention of the positive term
they negate.
This epistemological truth does reflect an ontological truth
– the truth that the ‘absences’ of phenomena lack
phenomenal aspects. A ‘no’ is not a sort of ‘yes’.
Note well the logical difference between ‘not perceiving
X’ and ‘perceiving not X’. We do not have direct
experience of the latter, but can only indirectly claim it by
way of inductive inference (or extrapolation) from the
former. In the case of a positive, such process of reasoning
is not needed – one often can and does ‘perceive X’
directly.
Suppose we draw a square of opposition for the
propositions (labeling them by analogy to standard
positions) – “I perceive X” (A), “I do not perceive not X”
(I), “I perceive not X” (E), “I do not perceive X” (O). Here,
the A form is knowable by experience, whereas the I form
is knowable perhaps only by deductive implication from it.
On the negative side, however, the E form is not knowable
by experience, but only by inductive generalization from
the O form (which is based on experience).
3. Negation is secondary
Negation is a pillar of both deductive and inductive logic,
and requires careful analysis. We have to realize that
negative terms are fundamentally distinct from positive
ones, if we are to begin fathoming the nature of logic. The
following observation seems to me crucial for such an

analysis:
We can experience something positive without having
first experienced (or thought about) its negation, but
we cannot experience something negative without
first thinking about (and therefore previously having
somewhat experienced) the corresponding positive.
a. Cognition at its simplest is perception. Our
perceptions are always of positive particulars. The contents
of our most basic cognitions are phenomenal sights,
sounds, smells, tastes, and touch and other bodily
sensations that seemingly arise through our sense organs
interactions with matter – or mental equivalents of these
phenomena that seemingly arise through memory of
sensory experiences, or in imaginary re-combinations of
such supposed memories.
A positive particular can be experienced directly and
passively. We can just sit back, as it were, and receptively
observe whatever happens to come in our field of vision or
hearing, etc. This is what we do in meditation. We do not
have to actively think of (remember or visualize or
conceptualize) something else in order to have such a
positive experience. Of course, such observation may well
in practice be complicated by thoughts (preverbal or
verbal) – but it is possible in some cases to have a pure
experience. This must logically be admitted, if concepts are
to be based on percepts.
b. In the case of negative particulars, the situation is
radically different. A negative particular has no specific
phenomenal content, but is entirely defined by the
‘absence’ of the phenomenal contents that constitute some
positive particular. If I look into my material or mental
surroundings, I will always see present phenomena. The
absence of some phenomenon is only noticeable if we first
think of that positive phenomenon, and wonder whether it

is present.
It is accurate to say that our finding it absent reflects an
empirical truth or fact – but it is a fact that we simply would
not notice the negative without having first thought of the
positive. Negative knowledge is thus necessarily (by
logical necessity) more indirect and active. It remains (at
its best) perfectly grounded in experience – but such
negative experience requires a rational process (whether
verbal or otherwise).
To experience a negative, I must first imagine (remember
or invent) a certain positive experience; then I must look
out and see (or hear or whatever) whether or not this image
matches my current experience; and only then (if it indeed
happens not to) can I conclude to have “experienced” a
negative.
Thinking about X may be considered as positioning oneself
into a vantage point from which one can (in a manner of
speaking) experience not-X. If one does not first place
one’s attention on X, one cannot possibly experience the
negation of X. One may well experience all sorts of weird
and wonderful things, but not specifically not-X.
From this reflection, we may say that whereas affirmatives
can be experienced, negatives are inherently rational acts
(involving imagination, experience and intention). A
negative necessarily involves thought: the thought of the
corresponding positive (the imaginative element), the
testing of its presence or absence (the experiential element)
and the rational conclusion of “negation” (the intentional
element).
c. The negation process may involve words, though it
does not have to.
Suppose I have some momentary experience of sights,
sounds, etc. and label this positive particular “X”. The
content of consciousness on which I base the term X is a
specific set of positive phenomenal experiences, i.e.

physical and/or mental percepts. Whenever I can speak of
this X, I mentally intend an object of a certain color and
shape that moves around in certain ways, emitting certain
sounds, etc.
Quite different is the negation of such a simple term, “not
X”. The latter is not definable by any specific percepts – it
refers to no perceptible qualities. It cannot be identified
with the positive phenomena that happen to be present in
the absence of those constituting X. Thus, strictly speaking,
not-X is only definable by ‘negation’ of X.
Note well, it would not be accurate to say (except ex post
facto) that not-X refers to all experiences other than X
(such as Y, Z, A, B, etc.), because when I look for X here
and now and fail to find it, I am only referring to present
experience within my current range and not to all possible
such experiences. We would not label a situation devoid of
X as “not X” without thinking of X; instead, we would label
that situation in a positive manner (as “Y”, or “Z”, or
whatever).
Thus, we can name (or wordlessly think of) something
concrete “X”, after experiencing phenomena that
constitute it; but in the case of “not-X”, we necessarily
conjure the name (or a wordless thought) of it before we
experience it.
“Not-X” is thus already a concept rather than a percept,
even in cases where “X” refers to a mere percept (and all
the more so when “X” itself involves some abstraction – as
it usually does). The concept “not X” is hypothetically
constructed first and then confirmed by the attempted and
failed re-experience of X.
In short, negation – even at the most perceptual level –
involves an adductive process. It is never a mere
experience. A negative term never intends the simple
perception of some negative thing, but consists of a
hypothesis with some perceptual confirmation. Negation is

always conceptual as well as perceptual in status.
A theory cannot be refuted before it is formulated –
similarly, X cannot be found absent unless we first think of
X.
4. Negation is an intention
Now, there is no specific phenomenal experience behind
the word “not”. Negation has no special color and shape,
or sound or smell or taste or feel, whether real or illusory!
What then is it? I suggest the following:
Negation as such refers to a ‘mental act’ – or more
precisely put, it is an act of volition (or more precisely still,
of velleity) by a Subject of consciousness. Specifically,
negation is an intention. Note that our will to negate is itself
a positive act, even though our intention by it is to negate
something else.
Negation does express an experience – the ‘failure’ to find
something one has searched for. Some cognitive result is
willfully pursued (perception of some positive
phenomenon), but remains wanting (this experience is
qualitatively a suffering of sorts, but still a positive
intention, note) – whence we mentally (or more precisely,
by intention) mark the thing as ‘absent’, i.e. we construct
an idea of ‘negation’ of the thing sought.
Thus, negation is not a phenomenon (a physical or mental
percept), but something intuited (an event of will within the
cognizing Subject). ‘Intuition’ here, note well, means the
self-knowledge of the Subject of consciousness and Agent
of volition. This is experience of a non-phenomenal sort.
Such self-experience is immediate: we have no distance to
bridge in space or time.
When a Subject denies the presence of a material or mental
phenomenon, having sought for it in experience and not
found it – the ‘denial’ consists of a special act of intention.

This intention is what we call ‘negation’ or ‘rejection of a
hypothesis’. It occurs in the Subject, though it is about the
Object.
This intention is not however an arbitrary act. If it were, it
would be purely subjective. This act (at its best) remains
sufficiently dependent on perception to be judged
‘objective’. The Subject must still look and see whether X
is present; if that positive experience does not follow his
empirical test, he concludes the absence of X.
Indeed, an initial negation may on closer scrutiny be found
erroneous, i.e. we sometimes think something is ‘not there’
and then after further research find it on the contrary
‘there’. Thus, this theory of negation should not be
construed as a claim that our negating something makes it
so. Negation is regulated by the principles of adduction –
it is based on appearance that is credible so long as
confirmed, but may later be belied.
We can ex post facto speak of an objective absence, but we
cannot fully define ‘absence’ other than as ‘non-presence’,
and the ‘non-’ herein is not a phenomenon but an intention.
The ‘absence’ is indeed experienced, but it is imperceptible
without the Subject posing the prior question ‘is X
present?’
Absence, then, is not produced by the Subject, but is made
perceptible by his vain search for presence. For, to repeat,
not-X is not experienced as a specific content of
consciousness – but as a continuing failure to experience
the particular positive phenomena that define X for us.
Although we are directly only aware of apparent existents,
we can inductively infer non-apparent existents from the
experience that appearances come and go and may change.
On this basis, we consider the categories ‘existence’ and
‘appearance’ as unequal, and the former as broader than the
latter. Similarly, we inductively infer ‘objective absence’
from ‘having sought but not found’, even though we have

no direct access to former but only indirect access by
extrapolation from the latter. Such inference is valid, with
a degree of probability proportional to our exercise of due
diligence.
For these reasons, I consider the act of negation as an
important key to understanding the nature and status of
logic. Negation is so fundamental to reason, so crucial an
epistemic fact, that it cannot be reduced to something else.
We can describe it roughly as an intention to ‘cross-off’
(under the influence of some reason or other) the proposed
item from our mental list of existents. But this is bound to
seem like a circular definition, or a repetition of same using
synonyms. It is evident that we cannot talk about negation
without engaging in it. Thus, we had better admit the act of
negation as a primary concept for logical science.
Note in passing: the present theory of negation provides
biology with an interesting distinction regarding rational
animals.
Sentient beings without this faculty of negation can only
respond to the present, whereas once this faculty appears in
an organism (as it did in the human species) it can mentally
go beyond the here and now. A merely sensory animal just
reacts to current events, whereas a man can fear dangers
and prepare for them.
Once the faculty of negation appears, the mind can start
abstracting, conceiving alternatives and hypothesizing.
Memory and imagination are required to project a proposed
positive idea, but the intent to negate is also required to
reject inadequate projections. Without such critical ability,
our fantasies would quickly lead us into destructive
situations.
4. Clarifying paradox
From Future Logic 31.
A very important field of logic is that dealing with paradox,

for it provides us with a powerful tool for establishing some
of the most fundamental certainties of this science. It
allows us to claim for epistemology and ontology the status
of true sciences, instead of mere speculative digressions.
This elegant doctrine may be viewed as part of the study of
axioms.
1. Internal inconsistency
Consider the hypothetical form ‘If P, then Q’, which is an
essential part of the language of logic. It was defined as ‘P
and nonQ is an impossible conjunction’.
It is axiomatic that the conjunction of any proposition P and
its negation nonP is impossible; thus, a proposition P and
its negation nonP cannot be both true. An obvious corollary
of this, obtained by regarding nonP as the proposition
under consideration instead of P, is that the conjunction of
any proposition nonP and its negation not-nonP is
impossible; thus, a proposition P and its negation nonP
cannot be both false.
So, the Law of Identity could be formulated as, “For any
proposition, ‘If P, then P’ is true, and ‘If nonP, then nonP’
is true”. The Laws of Contradiction and of the Excluded
Middle could be stated: “For any proposition, ‘If P, then
not-nonP’ is true (P and nonP are incompatible), and ‘If
not-nonP, then P’ is true (nonP and P are exhaustive)”.
Clarifying paradox 45
Now, consider the paradoxical propositions ‘If P, then

nonP’ or ‘If nonP, then P’. Such propositions appear at first
sight to be obviously impossible, necessarily false,
antinomies.
But let us inspect their meanings more closely. The former
states ‘P and (not not)P is impossible’, which simply means
‘P is impossible’. The latter states ‘nonP and not P is
impossible’, which simply means ‘nonP is impossible’. Put
in this defining format, these statements no longer seem
antinomic! They merely inform us that the proposition P,
or nonP, as the case may be, contains an intrinsic flaw, an
internal contradiction, a property of self-denial.
From this we see that there may be propositions which are
logically self-destructive, and which logically support their
own negations. Let us then put forward the following
definitions. A proposition is self-contradictory if it denies
itself, i.e. implies its own negation. A proposition is
therefore self-evident if its negation is self-contradictory,
i.e. if it is implied by its own negation.
Thus, the proposition ‘If P, then nonP’ informs us that P is
self-contradictory (and so logically impossible), and that
nonP is self-evident (and so logically necessary). Likewise,
the proposition ‘If nonP, then P’ informs us that nonP is
self-contradictory, and that P is self-evident.
The existence of paradoxes is not in any way indicative of
a formal flaw. The paradox, the hypothetical proposition
itself, is not antinomic. It may be true or false, like any
other proposition. Granting its truth, it is its antecedent
thesis which is antinomic, and false, as it denies itself; the
consequent thesis is then true.
If the paradoxical proposition ‘If P, then nonP’ is true, then
its contradictory ‘If P, not-then nonP’, meaning ‘P is not
impossible’, is false; and if the latter is true, the former is
false. Likewise, ‘If nonP, then P’ may be contradicted by
‘If nonP, not-then P’, meaning ‘nonP is not impossible’.
The two paradoxes ‘If P, then nonP’ and ‘If nonP, then P’
are contrary to each other, since they imply the necessity
of incompatibles, respectively nonP and P. Thus, although
such propositions taken singly are not antinomic, double
paradox, a situation where both of these paradoxical
propositions are true at once, is unacceptable to logic.
In contrast to positive hypotheticals, negative hypotheticals
do not have the capability of expressing paradoxes. The
propositions ‘If P, not-then P’ and ‘If nonP, not-then nonP’
are not meaningful or logically conceivable or ever true.
Note this well, such propositions are formally false. Since
a form like ‘If P, not-then Q’ is defined with reference to a
positive conjunction as ‘{P and nonQ} is possible’, we
cannot without antinomy substitute P for Q here (to say ‘{P
and nonP} is possible’), or nonP for P and Q (to say ‘{nonP
and not-nonP} is possible’).
It follows that the proposition ‘if P, then nonP’ does not
imply the lowercase form ‘if P, not-then P’, and the
proposition ‘if nonP, then P’ does not imply the lowercase
form ‘if nonP, not-then nonP’. That is, in the context of
paradox, hypothetical propositions behave abnormally, and
not like contingency-based forms.
This should not surprise us, since the self-contradictory is
logically impossible and the self-evident is logically
necessary. Since paradoxical propositions involve
incontingent theses and antitheses, they are subject to the
laws specific to such basis.
The implications and consistency of all this will be looked
into presently.
2. The Stolen Concept Fallacy

Paradoxical propositions actually occur in practice;
moreover, they provide us with some highly significant
results. Here are some examples:
 denial, or even doubt, of the laws of logic conceals an

appeal to those very axioms, implying that the denial
rather than the assertion is to be believed;
 denial of man’s ability to know any reality objectively,
itself constitutes a claim to knowledge of a fact of
reality;
 denial of validity to man’s perception, or his conceptual
power, or reasoning, all such skeptical claims
presuppose the utilization of and trust in the very
faculties put in doubt;
 denial on principle of all generalization, necessity, or
absolutes, is itself a claim to a general, necessary, and
absolute, truth.
 denial of the existence of ‘universals’, does not itself
bypass the problem of universals, since it appeals to
some itself, namely, ‘universals’, ‘do not’, and ‘exist’.
More details on these and other paradoxes, may be found
scattered throughout the text. Thus, the uncovering of
paradox is an oft-used and important logical technique. The
writer Ayn Rand laid great emphasis on this method of
rejecting skeptical philosophies, by showing that they
implicitly appeal to concepts which they try to explicitly
deny; she called this ‘the fallacy of the Stolen Concept’.
A way to understand the workings of paradox, is to view it
in the context of dilemma. A self-evident proposition P
could be stated as ‘Whether P is affirmed or denied, it is
true’; an absolute truth is something which turns out to be
true whatever our initial assumptions.
This can be written as a constructive argument whose left
horn is the axiomatic proposition of P’s identity with itself,
and whose right horn is the paradox of nonP’s self-
contradiction; the minor premise is the axiom of thorough
contradiction between the antecedents P and nonP; and the
conclusion, the consequent P’s absolute truth.
If P, then P — and — if nonP, then P

but either P or nonP
hence, P.
A destructive version can equally well be formulated, using
the contraposite form of identity, ‘If nonP, then nonP’, as
left horn, with the same result.
If nonP, then nonP — and — if nonP, then P
but either not-nonP or nonP
hence, not-nonP, that is, P.
The conclusion ‘P’ here, signifies that P is logically
necessary, not merely that P is true, note well; this follows
from the formal necessity of the minor premise, the
disjunction of P and nonP, assuming the right horn to be
well established.
Another way to understand paradox is to view it in terms
of knowledge contexts. Reading the paradox ‘if nonP, then
P’ as ‘all contexts with nonP are contexts with P’, and the
identity ‘if P, then P’ as ‘all contexts with P are contexts
with P’, we can infer that ‘all contexts are with P’, meaning
that P is logically necessary.
We can in similar ways deal with the paradox ‘if P, then
nonP’, to obtain the conclusion ‘nonP’, or better still: P is
impossible. The process of resolving a paradox, by drawing
out its implicit categorical conclusions, may be called
dialectic.
Note in passing that the abridged expression of simple
dilemma, in a single proposition, now becomes more
comprehensible. The compound proposition ‘If P, then {Q
and nonQ}’ simply means ‘nonP’; ‘If nonP, then {Q and
nonQ}’ means ‘P’; ‘If (or whether) P or nonP, then Q’
means ‘Q’; and ‘If (or whether) P or nonP, then nonQ’
means ‘nonQ’. Such propositions could also be categorized
as paradoxical, even though the contradiction generated
concerns another thesis.
However, remember, the above two forms should not be

confused with the lesser, negative hypothetical, relations
‘Whether P or nonP, (not-then not) Q’ or ‘Whether P or
nonP, (not-then not) nonQ’, respectively, which are not
paradoxical, unless there are conditions under which they
rise to the level of positive hypotheticals.
3. Systematization
Normally, we presume our information already free of self-
evident or self-contradictory theses, whereas in abnormal
situations, as with paradox, necessary or impossible theses
are formally acceptable eventualities.
A hypothetical of the primary form ‘If P, then Q’ was
defined as ‘P and nonQ are impossible together’. But there
are several ways in which this situation might arise. Either
(i) both the theses, P and nonQ, are individually contingent,
and only their conjunction is impossible — this is the
normal situation. Or (ii) the conjunction is impossible
because one or the other of the theses is individually
impossible, while the remaining one is individually
possible, i.e. contingent or necessary; or because both are
individually impossible — these situations engender
paradox.
Likewise, a hypothetical of the contradictory primary form
‘If P, not-then Q’ was defined as ‘P and nonQ are possible
together’. But there are several ways this situation might
arise. Either (i) both the theses, P and nonQ, and also their
conjunction, are all contingent — this is the normal
situation. Or (ii) one or the other of them is individually not
only possible but necessary, while the remaining one is
individually contingent, so that their conjunction remains
contingent; or both are individually necessary, so that their
conjunction is also not only possible but necessary — these
situations engender paradox.
These alternatives are clarified by the following tables, for

these primary forms, and also for their derivatives
involving one or both antitheses. The term ‘possible’ of
course means ‘contingent or necessary’, it is the common
ground between the two. We will here use the symbols ‘N’
for necessary, ‘C’ for contingent (meaning possible but
unnecessary), and ‘M’ for impossible. The combinations
are numbered for ease of reference. The symmetries in
these tables ensure their completeness.
Table 1. Modalities of Theses and Conjunctions.
The following table follows from the preceding. ‘Yes’

indicates that an implication and its contraposite are
implicit in the form concerned, while ‘no’ indicates that
they are excluded from it. ‘‘ here means implies, and ‘‘
means is implied by.
Table 2. Corresponding Definite Hypotheticals.
Normal hypothetical logic thus assumes the theses of

hypotheticals always both contingent, and so limits itself to
cases Nos. 1 to 7 in the above tables. However, the
abnormal cases Nos. 8 to 15, in which one or both theses
are not contingent (that is, are self-evident or self-
contradictory), should also be considered, to develop a
complete logic of hypotheticals.
The definition of the primary positive form ‘If P, then Q’,
while remaining unchanged as ‘P plus nonQ is not
possible’, is now seen to more precisely comprise the
following situations: Nos. 3, 6, 8, 11, 12, 14, or 15, that is,
all the cases where ‘P and nonQ’ is impossible (‘M’), or ‘P

implies Q’ is marked ‘yes’.
The definition of the primary negative form ‘If P, not-then
Q’, while remaining unchanged as ‘P plus nonQ is not
impossible’, is now seen to more precisely comprise the
following situations: Nos. 1, 2, 4, 5, 7, 9, 10, or 13, that is,
all the cases where ‘P and nonQ’ is contingent (C), or ‘P
implies Q’ is marked ‘no’.
The other six hypothetical forms, involving the antitheses
of P and/or Q, can likewise be given improved definitions,
by reference to the above tables.
Notice the symmetries in these tables. In case No. 1, all
conjunctions are ‘C’ and all implications are ‘no’. In cases
Nos. 2-5, one conjunction is ‘M’, and one implication is
‘yes’. In cases 6-11, two conjunctions are ‘M’, and two
implications are ‘yes’. In cases Nos. 12-15, three
conjunctions are ‘M’, and three implications are ‘yes’.
Note the corresponding statuses of individual theses in
each case.
The process of contraposition is universally applicable to
all hypotheticals, positive or negative, normal or abnormal,
for it proceeds directly from the definitions. For this
reason, in the above tables, each implication is firmly
coupled with a contraposite. Likewise, the negation of any
implication engenders the negation of its contraposite, so
that the above tables also indirectly concern negative
hypotheticals, note well.
We must be careful, in developing our theory of
hypothetical propositions, to clearly formulate the breadth
and limits of application of any process under
consideration, and specify the exceptions if any to its rules.
The validity or invalidity of logical processes often
depends on whether we are focusing on normal or
abnormal forms, though in some cases these two classes of
proposition behave in the same way. If these distinctions
are not kept in mind, we can easily become guilty of formal

inconsistencies.
4. Properties
Paradoxical propositions obey the laws of logic which
happen to be applicable to all hypotheticals, that is, to
hypotheticals of unspecified basis. But paradoxicals, being
incontingency-based hypotheticals, have properties which
normal hypotheticals lack, or lack properties which normal
hypotheticals have. In such situations, where differences in
logical properties occur, general hypothetical logic follows
the weaker case.
The similarities and differences in formal behavior have
already been dealt with in appropriate detail in the relevant
chapters, but some are reviewed here in order to underscore
the role played by paradox.
a. Opposition.
In the doctrine of opposition, we claimed that ‘If P, then Q’
and ‘If P, then nonQ’ must be contrary, because if P was
true, Q and nonQ would both be true, an absurdity.
However, had we placed these propositions in a destructive
dilemma, as below, we would have obtained a legitimate
argument:
If P, then Q — and — if P, then nonQ
but either nonQ or Q
hence nonP
Likewise, ‘If P, then Q’ and ‘If nonP, then Q’ could be
fitted in a valid simple constructive dilemma, yielding Q,
instead of arguing as we did that they must be contrary
because their contrapositions result in the absurdity of
nonQ implying nonP and P.
It follows that these contrarieties are only valid

conditionally, for contingency-based hypotheticals. There
are exceptional circumstances in which they do not hold,
namely relative to abnormal hypotheticals (including
paradoxicals).
This is also independently clear from the observation of
‘yes’ marks standing parallel, in cases Nos. 8, 14, 15
(allowing for both ‘P implies nonQ’ and ‘P implies Q’,
where P is impossible), and in cases Nos. 11, 12, 14
(allowing for both ‘P implies Q’ and ‘nonP implies Q’,
where Q is necessary).
Similar restrictions follow automatically for the
subcontrariety between ‘If P, not-then nonQ’ and ‘If P, not-
then Q’, and likewise for the subalternation by the
uppercase ‘If P, then Q’ of the lowercase ‘If P, not-then
nonQ’ (which corresponds to obversion). These
oppositions only hold true for normal hypotheticals; when
dealing with abnormal hypotheticals (and therefore in
general logic), we must for the sake of consistency regard
the said propositions as neutral to each other.
b. Eduction.
Similarly with the derivative eductions. The primary
process of contraposition is unconditional, applicable to all
hypotheticals, but the other processes can be criticized in
the same way as above, by forming valid simple dilemmas,
using the source proposition and the denial of the proposed
target, or the contraposite(s) of one or the other or both, as
horns.
Alternatively, these propositions can be combined in a
syllogism, yielding a paradoxical conclusion. Thus:
In the case of obversion or obverted conversion (in the
former, negate contraposite of target):
If Q, then nonP (negation of target)
if P, then Q (source)
so, if P, then nonP (paradox = nonP)
In the case of conversion by negation or obverted inversion
(in the latter, negate contraposite of target):
If P, then Q (source)
if nonQ, then P (negation of target)
so, if nonQ, then Q (paradox = Q)
Thus, eductive processes other than contraposition are only
good for contingency-based hypotheticals, and may not be
imitated in the abnormal logic of paradoxes. This is made
clear in the above tables, as follows.
Consider the paradigmatic form ‘If P, then Q’. If we limit
our attention to cases Nos. 1-7, then it occurs in only two
situations, subalternating (3) or implicance (6). In these
two situations, ‘P implies nonQ’ is uniformly ‘no’, so the
obverse, ‘If P, not-then nonQ’ is true; and the contraposite
‘Q implies nonP’ is also ‘no’, so the obverted converse, ‘If
Q, not-then nonP’ is true; ‘nonP implies Q’ is uniformly
‘no’, so the obverted inverse ‘If nonP, not-then Q’ is true;
and the contraposite ‘nonQ implies P’ is also ‘no’, so the
converse by negation ‘If nonQ, not-then P’ is true. With
regard to inversion and conversion, they are not applicable,
because ‘nonP implies nonQ’ and ‘Q implies P’ are ‘no’ in
one case, but ‘yes’ in the other.
However, if now we expand our attention to include cases
Nos. 8-15, we see that ‘If P, then Q’ occurs additionally if
P is self-contradictory and Q is contingent (8) or P is
contingent and Q is self-evident (11) or P, Q are each self-
evident (12) or P is self-contradictory and Q is self-evident
(14) or P, Q are each self-contradictory (15). The above-
mentioned uniformities, which made the stated eductions
feasible, now no longer hold. There is a mix of ‘no’ and
‘yes’ in the available alternatives which inhibits such
eductions.
c. Deduction.
With regard to syllogism, the nonsubaltern moods,
validated by reductio ad absurdum, remain universally
valid, since such indirect reduction is essentially
contraposition, and no other eductive process was
assumed. But the subaltern moods in all three figures, are
only valid for normal hypotheticals. Since these moods
presuppose subalternations for their validation, i.e. depend
on direct reductions through obversion or obverted
inversion, they are not valid for abnormal hypotheticals.
With regard to apodosis, the moods with a modal minor
premise provide us with the entry-point into abnormal
logic. As for dilemma, it is the instrument par excellence
for unearthing paradoxes in the course of everyday
reasoning. If we put any simple dilemma, constructive (as
below) or destructive (mutatis mutandis), in syllogistic
form, we obtain a paradoxical conclusion:
If P, then R — and — if Q, then R
but P and/or Q
hence, R
This implies the sorites:
If nonR, then nonP (contrapose left horn)
if nonP, then Q (minor)
if Q, then R (right horn)
hence, if nonR, then R (paradoxical conclusion =
R)
Thus, paradoxical propositions are an integral part of
general hypothetical logic, not some weird appendix. They
highlight the essential continuity between syllogism and
simple dilemma, the latter being reducible to the former.
It follows incidentally that, since (as earlier seen) apodosis
may be viewed as a special, limiting case of simple
dilemma, and simple dilemma as a special, limiting case of

complex dilemma — all the inferential processes relating
to hypotheticals are closely related.
The paradox generated by simple dilemma of course
depends for its truth on the truth of the premises. We should
not hurriedly infer, from the paradox inherent in every
simple dilemma, that all truths are ultimately self-evident,
and all falsehoods ultimately self-contradictory.
Knowledge is not a purely rational enterprise, but depends
largely on empirical findings.
As already pointed out, simple dilemma yields a
categorical necessity or impossibility as its conclusion,
only if all its premises are themselves indubitably
incontingent. Should there be tacit conditions for, or any
doubt regarding the unconditionality of, the hypotheticals
(the horns) and/or the disjunction (the minor premise), then
the conclusion would be proportionately weakened with
regard to its logical modality.
Thus, with reference to the foregoing example, granting
the horns of the major premise: in the specific case where
our minor premise is a formally given disjunction — if,
say, P and Q are contradictory to each other (P = nonQ, Q
= nonP) — then the R conclusion is indeed necessary. But
usually, the listed alternatives P and Q are only
contextually exhaustive, so that the R conclusion is only
factually true.
So, although every logical necessity is self-evident, and
every logical impossibility is self-contradictory, formally
speaking, according to our definitions, we might be wise to
say that these predications are not in practice reciprocal,
and make a distinction between apodictic and factual
paradox. The former is independently obvious; the latter
derives from more empirical data, and therefore, though
contextually trustworthy, has a bit less weight and finality.
Note lastly, the inconsistency of two ‘equally cogent’

simple dilemmas can now be better understood, as due to
their implying contrary paradoxes.
The Liar paradox (early) 59
5. The Liar paradox (early)
From Future Logic 32, and Ruminations 1 & 5.
1. Double paradox
We have seen that logical propositions of the form ‘if P,
then nonP’ (which equals to ‘nonP’) or ‘if nonP, then P’
(which equals to ‘P’), are perfectly legal. They signify that
the antecedent is self-contradictory and logically
impossible, and that the consequent is self-evident and
logically necessary. As propositions in themselves, they
are in no way antinomic; it is one of their constituents
which is absurd.
Although either of those propositions, occurring alone, is
formally quite acceptable and capable of truth, they can
never be both true: they are irreconcilable contraries and
their conjunction is formally impossible. For if they were
ever both true, then both P and nonP would be implied true.
We must therefore distinguish between single paradox,
which has (more precisely than previously suggested) the
form ‘if P, then nonP; but if nonP, not-then P; whence
nonP’, or the form ‘if nonP, then P; but if P, not-then nonP;
whence P’ — and double paradox, which has the form ‘if
P, then nonP, and if nonP, then P’.
Single paradox is, to repeat, within the bounds of logic,
whereas double paradox is beyond those bounds. The
former may well be true; the latter always signifies an error
of reasoning. Yet, one might interject, double paradox
occurs often enough in practice! However, that does not
make it right, any more than the occurrence of other kinds

of error in practice make them true.
Double paradox is made possible, as we shall see, by a
hidden misuse of concepts. It is sophistry par excellence, in
that we get the superficial illusion of a meaningful
statement yielding results contrary to reason. But upon
further scrutiny, we can detect that some fallacy was
involved, such as ambiguity or equivocation, which means
that in fact the seeming contradiction never occurred.
Logic demands that either or both of the hypothetical
propositions which constituted the double paradox, or
paradox upon paradox, be false. Whereas single paradox is
resolved, by concluding the consequent categorically,
without denying the antecedent-consequent connection —
double paradox is dissolved, by showing that one or both
of the single paradoxes involved are untrue, nonexistent.
Note well the difference in problem solution: resolution
‘explains’ the single paradox, whereas dissolution
‘explains away’ the double paradox.
The double paradox serves to show that we are making a
mistake of some kind; the fact that we have come to a
contradiction, is our index and proof enough that we have
made a wrong assumption of sorts. Our ability to intuit
logical connections correctly is not put in doubt, because
the initial judgment was too rushed, without pondering the
terms involved. Once the concepts involved are clarified, it
is the rational faculty itself which pronounces the judgment
against its previous impression of connection.
It must be understood that every double paradox (as indeed
every single paradox), is teaching us something. Such
events must not be regarded as threats to reason, which put
logic as a whole in doubt; but simply as lessons. They are
sources of information, they reveal to us certain logical
rules of concept formation, which we would otherwise not
have noticed. They show us the outer limits of linguistic

propriety.
2. The Liar paradox

An ancient example of double paradox is the well-known
‘Liar Paradox’, discovered by Eubulides, a 4th cent. BCE
Greek of the Megarian School. It goes: ‘does a man who
says that he is now lying speak truly?’ The implications
seem to be that if he is lying, he speaks truly, and if he is
not lying, he speaks truly.
Here, the conceptual mistake underlying the difficulty is
that the proposition is defined by reference to itself. The
liar paradox is how we discover that such concepts are not
allowed.
The word ‘now’ (which defines the proposition itself as its
own subject) is being used with reference to something
which is not yet in existence, whose seeming existence is
only made possible by it. Thus, in fact, the word is empty
of specific referents in the case at hand. The word ‘now’ is
indeed usually meaningful, in that in other situations it has
precise referents; but in this case it is used before we have
anything to point to as a subject of discourse. It looks and
sounds like a word, but it is no more than that.
A more modern and clearer version of this paradox is ‘this
proposition is false’, because it brings out the indicative
function of the word ‘now’ in the word ‘this’.
The word ‘this’ accompanies our pointings and
presupposes that there is something to point to already
there. It cannot create a referent for itself out of nothing.
This is the useful lesson taught us by the liar paradox. We
may well use the word ‘this’ to point to another word ‘this’;
but not to itself. Thus, I can say to you ‘this “this”, which
is in the proposition “this proposition is false”’, without
difficulty, because my ‘this’ has a referent, albeit an empty

symbol; but the original ‘this’ is meaningless.
Furthermore, the implications of this version seem to be
that ‘if the proposition is true, it is false, and if it is false, it
is true’. However, upon closer inspection we see that the
expression ‘the proposition’ or ‘it’ has a different meaning
in antecedents and consequent.
If, for the sake of argument, we understand those
implications as: if this proposition is false, then this
proposition is true; and if this proposition is true, then this
proposition is false — taking the ‘this’ in the sense of self-
reference by every thesis — then we see that the theses do
not in fact have one and the same subject, and are only
presumed to be in contradiction.
They are not formally so, any more than, for any P1 and
P2, ‘P1 is true’ and ‘P2 is false’ are in contradiction. The
implications are not logically required, and thus the two
paradoxes are dissolved. There is no self-contradiction,
neither in ‘this proposition is false’ nor of course in ‘this
proposition is true’; they are simply meaningless, because
the indicatives they use are without reference.
Let us, alternatively, try to read these implications as: if
‘this proposition is false’ is true, then that proposition is
false; and if that proposition is false, then that proposition
is true’ — taking the first ‘this’ as self-reference and the
‘thats’ thereafter as all pointing us backwards to the
original proposition and not to the later theses themselves.
In other words, we mean: if ‘this proposition is false’ is
true, then ‘this proposition is false’ is false, and if ‘this
proposition is false’ is false, then ‘this proposition is false’
is true.
Here, the subjects of the theses are one and the same, but
the implications no longer seem called for, as is made clear
if we substitute the symbol P for ‘this proposition is false’.
The flavor of paradox has disappeared: it only existed so
long as ‘this proposition is false’ seemed to be implied by

or to imply ‘this proposition is true’; as soon as the subject
is unified, both the paradoxes break down.
We cannot avoid the issue by formulating the liar paradox
as a generality. The proposition ‘I always lie’ can simply
be countered by ‘you lie sometimes (as in the case ‘I always
lie’), but sometimes you speak truly’; it only gives rise to
double paradox in indicative form. Likewise, the
proposition ‘all propositions are false’ can be countered by
‘some, some not’, without difficulty.
However, note well, both the said general propositions are
indeed self-contradictory; they do produce single
paradoxes. It follows that both are false: one cannot claim
to ‘always lie’, nor that ‘there are no true propositions’.
This is ordinary logical inference, and quite legitimate,
since there are logical alternatives.
With regard to those alternatives. The proposition ‘I never
lie’ is not in itself inconsistent, except for the person who
said ‘I always lie’ intentionally. The proposition ‘all
propositions are true’ is likewise not inconsistent in itself,
but is inconsistent with the logical knowledge that some
propositions are inconsistent, and therefore it is false; so,
in this case only the contingent ‘some propositions are true,
some false’ can be upheld.
3. More on the Liar paradox

Once we grasp that the meaning of words is their intention,
singly and collectively – the solution of the liar paradox
becomes very obvious. Self-reference is meaningless,
because – an intention cannot intend itself, for it does not
yet exist; an intention can only intend something that
already exists, e.g. another intention directed at some third
thing.
In view of this, the proposition “this proposition is false” is

meaningless, and so is the proposition “this proposition is
true”. Both may freely be declared equally true and false,
or neither true nor false – it makes no difference in their
case, because the words “this proposition” refer to nothing
at all11.
Although the words used in these sentences are separately
meaningful, and the grammatical structure of the sentences
is legitimate – the words’ collective lack of content implies
their collective logical value to be nil. Self-reference is
syntactically cogent, but semantically incoherent. It is like
circular argument, up in the air, leading nowhere specific.
Regarding the exclusive proposition “Only this proposition
is true”, it implies both: “This proposition is true” and “All
other propositions are false” – i.e. it is equivalent to the
exceptive proposition “All propositions but this one are
false”. The latter is often claimed by some philosopher; e.g.
by those who say “all is illusion (except this fact)”.
My point here is that such statements do not only involve
the fallacy of self-reference (i.e. “this proposition”). Such
statements additionally involve a reference to “all others”
which is open to criticism, because:
 To claim knowledge of “all other propositions” is a
claim to omniscience, a pretense that one knows
everything there is to know, or ever will be. And
generally, such statements are made without giving a
credible justification, though in contradiction to all
prior findings of experience and reason.
 Surely, some other propositions are in fact regarded and
admitted as true by such philosophers. They are
generally rather talkative, even verbose – they do not
consistently only say that one statement and refuse to
say anything else.
11
See Future Logic, chapter 32.2.
 And of course, formally, if “this” is meaningless (as

previously shown), then “all others”, which means
“any other than this” is also meaningless!
The liar paradox, by the way, is attributed to the ancient
Greeks, either Eubulides of Miletus (4th Cent. BCE) or the
earlier Epimenides of Crete (6th Cent. BCE). I do not know
if its resolution was evident to these early logicians, but a
(European?) 14th Cent. CE anonymous text reportedly
explained that the Liar’s statement is neither true nor false
but simply meaningless. Thus, this explanation is
historically much earlier than modern logic (Russell et alia,
though these late logicians certainly clarified the matter).12
4. The utility of paradoxes

A (single) paradoxical proposition has the form “if P, then
notP” or “if notP, then P”, where P is any form of
proposition. It is important to understand that such
propositions are logically quite legitimate within
discourse: a (single) paradox is not a contradiction. On
the other hand, a double paradox, i.e. a claim that both “if
P, then notP” and “if notP, then P” are true in a given case
of P, is indeed a contradiction.
The law of non-contradiction states that the conjunction “P
and notP” is logically impossible; i.e. contradictory
propositions cannot both be true. Likewise, the law of the
excluded middle states that “notP and not-notP” is logically
unacceptable. The reason for these laws is that such
situations of antinomy put us in a cognitive quandary – we
are left with no way out of the logical difficulty, no solution
to the inherent problem.
On the other hand, single paradox poses no such threat to
rational thought. It leaves us with a logical way out –
namely, denial of the antecedent (as self-contradictory) and
12
See Future Logic, chapter 63, sections 3 and 6.
affirmation of the consequent (as self-evident). The

proposition “if P, then notP” logically implies “notP”, and
the proposition “if notP, then P” logically implies “P”.
Thus, barring double paradox, a proposition that implies its
own negation is necessarily false, and a proposition that is
implied by its own negation is necessarily true.
It follows, by the way, that the conjunction of these two
hypothetical propositions, i.e. double paradox, is a breach
of the law of non-contradiction, since it results in the
compound conclusion that “P and notP are both true”.
Double paradox also breaches the law of the excluded
middle, since it equally implies “P and notP are both false”.
These various inferences may be proved and elucidated in
a variety of ways:
 Since a hypothetical proposition like “if x, then y”
means “x and not y is impossible” – it follows that “if
P, then notP” means “P and not notP are impossible”
(i.e. P is impossible), and “if notP, then P” means “notP
and not P are impossible” (i.e. notP is impossible). Note
this explanation well.
We know that the negation of P is the same as notP, and
the negation of notP equals P, thanks to the laws of non-
contradiction and of the excluded middle. Also, by the
law of identity, repeating the name of an object does
not double up the object: it remains one and the same;
therefore, the conjunction “P and P” is equivalent to
“P” and the conjunction “notP and notP” is equivalent
to “notP”.
Notice that the meaning of “if P, then notP” is “(P and
not notP) is impossible”. Thus, although this implies
“notP is true”, it does not follow that “if notP is true, P
implies notP”. Similarly, mutatis mutandis, for “if
notP, then P”. We are here concerned with strict
implication (logical necessity), not with so-called
material implication.
The reason why this strict position is necessary is that

in practice, truth and falsehood are contextual – most
of what we believe true today might tomorrow turn out
to be false, and vice-versa. On the other hand, logical
necessity or impossibility refer to a much stronger
relation, which in principle once established should not
vary with changes in knowledge context: it applies to
all conceivable contexts.
 Since a hypothetical proposition like “if x, then y” can
be recast as “if x, then (x and y)” - it follows that “if P,
then notP” equals “if P, then (P and notP)”, and “if
notP, then P” equals “if notP, then (notP and P)”. In this
perspective, a self-contradictory proposition implies a
contradiction; since contradiction is logically
impermissible, it follows that such a proposition must
be false and its contradictory must be true. This can be
expressed by way of apodosis, in which the laws of
thought provide the categorical minor premise, making
it possible for us to exceptionally draw a categorical
conclusion from a hypothetical premise.
If P, then (P and notP)

but: not(P and notP)
therefore, not P
If notP, then (notP and P)

but: not(notP and P)
therefore, not notP
 We can also treat these inferences by way of dilemma,

combining the given “if P, then notP” with “if notP,
then notP” (the latter from the law of identity); or
likewise, “if notP, then P” with “if P, then P”. This
gives us, constructively:
If P then notP – and if notP then notP

but: either P or notP
therefore, notP
If notP then P – and if P then P

but: either notP or P
therefore, P
Paradox sometimes has remote outcomes. For instance,

suppose Q implies P, and P implies notP (which as we saw
can be rewritten as P implies both P and notP). Combining
these propositions in a syllogism we obtain the conclusion
“if Q, then P and notP”. The latter is also a paradoxical
proposition, whose conclusion is “notQ”, even though the
contradiction in the consequent does not directly concern
the antecedent. Similarly, non-exclusion of the middle may
appear in the form “if Q, then neither P nor notP”. Such
propositions are also encountered in practice.
It is interesting that these forms, “Q implies (P and notP),
therefore Q is false” and “Q implies (not P and not notP),
therefore Q is false”, are the arguments implicit in our
application of the corresponding laws of thought.
When we come across an antinomy in knowledge, we
dialectically seek to rid ourselves of it by finding and
repairing some earlier error(s) of observation or
reasoning. Thus, paradoxical argument is not only a
derivative of the laws of thought, but more broadly the very
way in which we regularly apply them in practice.
That is, the dialectical process we use following discovery
of a contradiction or an excluded middle (or for that matter
a breach of the law of identity) means that we believe that:
Every apparent occurrence of antinomy is, in

reality, an illusion.
It is an illusion due to paradox, i.e. it means that some of

the premise(s) that led to this apparently contradictory or
middle-excluding conclusion are in error and in need of
correction. The antinomy is never categorical, but
hypothetical; it is a sign of and dependent on some wrong
previous supposition or assumption. The apparent
antinomy serves knowledge by revealing some flaw in its
totality, and encouraging us to review our past thinking.
Contradiction and paradox are closely related, but not the
same thing. Paradox (i.e. single not double paradox) is not
equivalent to antinomy. We may look upon them as
cognitive difficulties of different degrees. In this
perspective, whereas categorical antinomy would be a
dead-end, blocking any further thought––paradox is a
milder (more hypothetical) degree of contradiction, one
open to resolution.
We see from all the preceding (and from other observations
below) the crucial role that paradox plays in logic. The
logic of paradoxical propositions does not merely concern
some far out special cases like the liar paradox. It is an
essential tool in the enterprise of knowledge, helping us to
establish the fundaments of thought and generally keeping
our thinking free of logical impurities.
Understanding of the paradoxical forms is not a discovery
of modern logic13, although relatively recent (dating
perhaps from 14th Cent. CE Scholastic logic).
13
For instance, Charles Pierce (USA, 1839-1914) noticed that
some propositions imply all others. I do not know if he realized this is
a property of self-contradictory or logically impossible propositions;
and that self-evident or necessary propositions have the opposite
property of being implied by all others. I suspect he was thinking in
terms of material rather than strict implication.
6. The Liar paradox (redux)
From A Fortiori Logic, appendix 7.4.
I dealt with the Liar paradox previously, in my Future

Logic14, but now realize that more needs to be said about
it. This paradox is especially difficult to deal with because
it resorts to several different discursive ‘tricks’
simultaneously.
1. First approach
The statement “This proposition is false” looks
conceivable offhand, until we realize that if we assume it
to be true, then we must admit it to be indeed false, while
if we assume it to be indeed false, then we must admit it to
be true – all of which seems unconscionable. Obviously,
there is a contradiction in such discourse, since nothing can
be both true and false. But the question is: just what is
causing it and how can it be resolved? We are not
‘deducing’ the fact of contradiction from a ‘law of thought’
– we are ‘observing’ the fact through our rational faculty.
We cannot, either, ‘deduce’ the resolution of the
contradiction from a ‘law of thought’ – we have to analyze
the problem at hand very closely and creatively propose a
satisfying solution to it, i.e. one which indeed puts our
intellectual anxiety to rest. As we shall see, this is by no
means a simple and straightforward matter.
The proposition “This proposition is false” is a double
paradox, because: if it is true, then it is false; and if it is
14
See there, chapter 32.2. (See also Ruminations 5.1.)
The Liar paradox (redux) 71
false, then it is true. Notice the circularity from true to false

and from false to true. The implications we draw from the
given proposition seem unavoidable at first sight. But we
must to begin with wonder how we know these implications
(the two if–then statements) to be true. How do we know
that “it is true” implies “it is false,” and that “it is false”
implies “it is true”? Apparently, we are not ‘deducing’
these implications from some unstated proposition. We are,
rather, using ad hoc rational insight of some sort – i.e. in a
sense directly ‘perceiving’ (intellectually cognizing) the
implications of the given proposition. But such rational
insight, though in principle reliable, is clearly inductive,
rather than deductive, in epistemological status. That is to
say, it is trustworthy until and unless it is found for some
reason to be incorrect. This means, there may be one or
more errors in our thinking, here; it is not cast in stone. And
indeed, there must be some error(s), since it has led to
double paradox. Therefore, we must look for it.
Perhaps use of the pronoun “it” is a problem, for it is a
rather vague term. Let us therefore ask the question: more
precisely what does the pronoun “it” refer us to, here?
At first sight, the “it” in “if it is true, then it is false; and if
it is false, then it is true” refers to the whole given
statement, “This proposition is false.” In that event, we
must reword the double paradox as follows: if ‘this
proposition is false’ is true, then ‘this proposition is false’
is false; and if ‘this proposition is false’ is false, then ‘this
proposition is false’ is true. Here, the subject of the two if–
then statements is more clearly marked out as “this
proposition is false,” and so remains constant throughout.
But this clarification reveals abnormal changes of
predicate, from “true” to “false” and from “false” to “true,”
which cannot be readily be explained. Normally, we would
say: if ‘this proposition is false’ is true, then ‘this
proposition is false’ is true; and if ‘this proposition is false’
is false, then ‘this proposition is false’ is false. The reason
we here reverse the predicates is that we consider the

original proposition, “this proposition is false,” as
instructing such reversal.
However, whereas a proposition of the form “‘this
proposition is false’ is true” is readily interpretable in the
simpler form “this proposition is false,” a proposition of
the form “‘this proposition is false’ is false” cannot
likewise be simplified. How would we express the double
negation involved? As “this proposition is true”? Clearly,
the meaning of the latter is not identical to that of the
former, since the subject “this proposition” refers to
different propositions in each case. So, the formulation of
the liar paradox in full form, i.e. as “if ‘this proposition is
false’ is true, then ‘this proposition is false’ is false; and if
‘this proposition is false’ is false, then ‘this proposition is
false’ is true,” does not make possible the reproduction of
the initial formula expressed in terms of the pronoun “it.”
2. Second approach
Let us therefore try something else. If the pronoun “it”
refers to the term “this proposition”, then the double
paradox should be reformulated as follows: if ‘this
proposition’ is true, then ‘this proposition’ is false; and if
‘this proposition’ is false, then ‘this proposition’ is true.
But doing that, we see that in each of these two if–then
statements, though the subject (“this proposition”) remains
constant throughout, the predicate (“true” or “false,” as the
case may be) is not the same in the consequent as it was in
the antecedent. There is no logical explanation for these
inversions of the predicate. Normally, the truth of a
proposition P does not imply its falsehood or vice versa.
We might be tempted to use the given “This proposition is
false” as a premise to justify the inference from the said
antecedents to the said consequents. We might try to
formulate two apodoses, as follows:
If this proposition is true, then it is false

(hypothesis),
and this proposition is false (given);
therefore, this proposition is true (putative
conclusion).
If this proposition is false, then it is true

(hypothesis),
and this proposition is false (given);
conclusion).
Obviously, in the first case we have invalid inference, in

that we try to deny the antecedent to deny the consequent,
or to affirm the consequent to affirm the antecedent. In the
second case, the putative conclusion does follow from the
premises; but we can still wonder where the major premise
(the hypothetical proposition) came from, so we are none
the wiser. So, this approach too is useless – i.e. it proves
nothing.
Alternatively, we might try formulating the following two
syllogisms:
This proposition is false (given),

and this proposition is true (supposition);
therefore, this proposition is false (putative
conclusion).
This proposition is false (given).

and this proposition is false (supposition);
conclusion).
Clearly, these arguments are not quite syllogistic in form;

but they can be reworded a bit to produce syllogisms. The
first two premises would then yield the conclusion “there
is a proposition that is true and false” (3/RRI), which is
self-contradictory (whence, one of the premises must be
false); the second two premises, however, being one and
the same proposition, would yield no syllogistic conclusion
other than “there is a proposition that is false and false”
(3/RRI), which is self-evident (and trivial). But these are
not the conclusions we seek, which must concern “this
proposition” and not merely “some proposition.”
A better approach is to look upon the latter two arguments
as follows. In the first case, the premises “this proposition
is false” (given) and “this proposition is true” (supposition)
seem to together imply “this proposition is both true and
false;” and the latter paradoxical conclusion in turn indeed
suggests that “this proposition is false,” since contradiction
is impossible. And in the second case, the premises “this
proposition is false” (given) and “this proposition is false”
(supposition) agree with each other that “this proposition is
false,” and so this is their logical conclusion. Since both
arguments conclude with “this proposition is false,” the
latter must be the overall conclusion.
However, the latter result is not as conclusive as it seems,
because upon closer scrutiny it is obvious that “this
proposition is false” and “this proposition is true” do not
refer to the same subject, since the predicate changes. The
first “this proposition” refers to the proposition “this
proposition is false” and the second “this proposition”
refers to the proposition “this proposition is true.” So, these

two propositions in fact have different subjects as well as
different predicates (viz. false and true, respectively). The
subjects superficially look the same, because they are
verbally expressed in identical words; but their underlying
intent is not the same, since they refer to significantly
different propositions (propositions with manifestly
different, indeed contradictory, predicates). This means
that when the predicate changes, the subject effectively
changes too. When the predicate is “true,” the subject
means one thing; and when the predicate is “false,” the
subject means something else. Although the words “this
proposition” are constant, their underlying intent varies.
That is to say, the term “this proposition” does not have a
uniform meaning throughout, and therefore cannot be used
as a basis for the inferences above proposed.
3. Third approach
Let us now try another angle. If we examine our initial
reasoning in terms of the pronoun “it” more carefully, we
can see what is really happening in it. Given that ‘this
proposition is false’ is true, we can more briefly say: ‘this
proposition is false.’ Also, given ‘this proposition is false’
is false, we can by negation educe that ‘this proposition is
not false’ is true, which means that ‘this proposition is true’
is true, or more briefly put: ‘this proposition is true’15. In
this way, we seem to argue, regarding the subject “this
proposition is false,” from ‘it is true’ to ‘it is false’, and
from ‘it is false’ to ‘it is true’. But in fact, the use of the
pronoun “it” or the term “this proposition” as abbreviated
15
Some logicians have tried to deal with the liar paradox by
denying that true and false are contradictory terms, i.e. that not-true =
false and not-false = true. Such a claim is utter nonsense; the attempt
to shunt aside the laws of non-contradiction of the excluded middle so
as to resolve a paradox is self-contradiction in action.
subject is a sleight of hand, for the underlying subject

changes in the course of the second transition (that ending
in “this proposition is true”). When abbreviation is used
throughout, we seem to be talking about one and the same
proposition throughout as being both true and false. But
seeing that this is based on hidden equivocation, the
paradoxes disappear.
It is interesting to note that when the reasoning is viewed
more explicitly like that, the proposition “this proposition
is true” also becomes paradoxical! We can argue: if ‘this
proposition is true’ is true, then obviously ‘this proposition
is true’. And: if ‘this proposition is true’ is false, then its
contradictory ‘this proposition is not true’ must be true,
which means that ‘this proposition is false’ is true, i.e. more
succinctly: ‘this proposition is false’. Here, superficially,
there seems to be no paradox, because we seem to argue,
regarding the subject “this proposition is true,” from ‘it is
true’ to ‘it is true’, and from ‘it is false’ to ‘it is false’. But
if we look at the final conclusion, viz. “this proposition is
false,” we see that it corresponds to the liar paradox!16 And
here again, the explanation of the double paradox is that the
apparent subject “it” or “this proposition” changes
significance in the course of drawing the implications.
Notice that, in both these lines of reasoning, the first leg is
ordinary self-implication, mere tautology, while the second
leg is the operative self-contradiction, the paradox. If the
given proposition (whether “this proposition is false” or
“this proposition is true”) is true, we merely repeat the
proposition as is (without need to add the predication “is
true”). But if the given proposition is false, we cannot drop
16
That ‘this proposition is true’ is implicitly (if only potentially)
as paradoxical as ‘this proposition is false’ is, so far as I know, a new
discovery. Note well how both paradoxes occur through quite ordinary
eductions: viz. if ‘P is Q’ is affirmed, then P is Q; and if ‘P is Q’ is
denied, then ‘P is not Q’ is affirmed, then P is not Q (where P stands
for ‘this proposition’, and Q for ‘false’ or ‘true’ as the case may be).
the additional predication (i.e. “is false”) without changing

the original proposition. Thus, we could say that the two
propositions, “this proposition is false” or “this proposition
is true,” present no problem when taken as true; and it is
only when they are hypothetically taken as false that the
problem is created. So, we could say that the way out of the
liar paradox (and its positive analogue) is simply to accept
the two claims as true, and not imagine them to be false!
We could furthermore, if we really want to, argue that “this
proposition is false” and “this proposition is true” differ in
that the former explicitly appears to put itself in doubt
whereas the latter does not do so. On this basis, we could
immediately reject the former and somewhat accept the
latter, even while admitting that the latter is equally devoid
of any useful information. That is to say, since the former
appears ‘more paradoxical’ than the latter, the latter is to
be preferred in extremis. But this, note well, ignores the
equally insurmountable difficulties in it. It is better to
resolutely reject both forms as vicious constructs.
4. Fourth approach
To grasp the illusoriness of the liar paradox, it is important
to realize that the two forms, “this proposition is false” and
“this proposition is true,” are not each other’s
contradictory; and that, in fact, neither of them has a
contradictory! This is a logical anomaly, a fatal flaw in the
discourse of the liar paradox; for in principle, every well-
formed and meaningful proposition is logically required to
have a contradictory. If a propositional form lacks a
contradictory form, it cannot be judged true or false, for
such judgment depends on there being a choice. We do not
even have to limit our propositions to the predicates “true”
or “false” – any predicate X and its negation not-X would
display the same property given the same said subject. That
is, “this proposition is X” and “this proposition is not-X”
are not each other’s contradictory, and are therefore both

equally deprived of contradictory.
We could, of course, remark that “this proposition is X”
can be denied by “that proposition (i.e. the preceding one)
is not X,” or even introduce a symbol for the original
proposition in the new proposition. In such case, although
the subjects would be verbally different, their intents would
surely be the same. But the form “that proposition is not X”
is more akin to the form “‘this proposition is X’ is not X,”
in which the whole original proposition is given the role of
subject and its predicate is given the role of predicate.
However, though these two forms are somewhat equivalent
in meaning to each other and to the original proposition,
their logical behavior patterns are not identical with that of
the original proposition, as we have already seen. The fact
remains that “this proposition is not X” is not the
contradictory of “this proposition is X.”
Clearly, any proposition involving the special subject “this
proposition” exhibits a very unusual property, and may be
dismissed on that basis alone. The reason why such a
proposition lacks a contradictory is that its subject refers to
the proposition it happens to be in, and that proposition is
evidently different when the predicate in it is the term
“false” and when it is the term “true” (or more generally,
any pair of predicates ‘X’ and ‘not-X’). When the predicate
changes, so does the subject; so the subject cannot be
pinned-down, it is variable, it is not constant as it should
be. The term “this proposition” has a different reference in
each case, which depends on the predicate; consequently,
each subject can only be associated with one predicate and
never with the other (i.e. its negation).
From this we see that when at the beginning we thought,
looking upon the statement “This proposition is false,” that
if we take it at its word, then it is must be regarded as false,
and so we have to prefer to it “This proposition is not
false,” i.e. “This proposition is true,” and so forth, we did

not realize that we were in fact, due to the ambiguity
inherent in the term “This proposition” or “it,” changing its
meaning at every turn. This change of meaning passes by
unnoticed, because the term used is by its very nature not
fixed. The pronouns “this” and “it” can be applied to
anything and its opposite without such change of meaning
being verbally signaled in them. They are not permanently
attached to any object, but are merely contextual
designations. In the technical terminology of linguistics,
they are characterized as ‘deictic’ or ‘indexical’.
Thus, it appears that the liar paradox arises, however we
understand its terms, as a result of some sort of
equivocation in the subject. Although we seem
superficially to refer to one and the same subject in the
antecedent and consequent of our if–then reasoning, there
is in fact a covert change of meaning which once we
become aware of it belies the initial appearance of
contradiction. The suggested impossible implications are
thus put in doubt, made incredible. The contradictions
apparently produced are thus defused or dissolved, by
virtue of our inability to make them stick.
5. Fifth approach
Another, and complementary, way to deal with the liar
paradox is to point out the logical difficulty of self-
reference. This is a tack many logicians have adopted,
including me in my first foray into this topic in Future
Logic. The argument proposed here is that the term “this
proposition” refers to an object (viz. “This proposition is
false” or “This proposition is true”) which includes the
term itself. A finger cannot point at itself, and “this” is the
conceptual equivalent of a finger. Effectively, the
expression “this” has no content when it is directed at itself
or at a sentence including it. It is empty, without substance.
It is as if nothing is said when we indulge in such self-

reference.
Thus, “This proposition is X” (where X stands for false, or
true, or indeed anything) is in fact meaningless; and a
meaningless sentence cannot be true or false. Such a
sentence can reasonably be described as neither true nor
false, without breach of the law of the excluded middle,
because neither of these logical evaluations is applicable to
meaningless sentences. “This proposition is false” looks
meaningful because its four constituents (i.e. “this,”
“proposition,” “is” and “false”) are separately normally
meaningful. But in this particular combination, where one
of the elements (viz. “this”) does not refer to anything
already existent, the sentence is found to be meaningless.
The apparent contradictions that self-reference produces
help us to realize its meaninglessness. And it is through the
intellectual realization of the meaninglessness of self-
reference that we explain away and annul the apparent
contradictions. On this basis, we can say that even though
the sentence “This proposition is true” does not at first sight
give rise to any paradox (as people think: “if it is true, it is
true; and if it is false, it is false”), nevertheless, since it
involves self-reference as much as “This proposition is
false,” it is equally meaningless and cannot be
characterized as true or false. In fact, as I have shown
above, “This proposition is true” does also give rise to
double paradox.
Someone might object: What about the propositions: “this
statement is self-referential” and “this statement is not self-
referential”? Surely, we can say that these are meaningful
and that the former is true while the latter is false! The
retort to that objection is that the two propositions “this
proposition refers to itself” and “this proposition does not
refer to itself” are not mutual contradictories, because (just
like in the liar paradox) their subjects differ radically, each
referring to the proposition it is in and not to the other.

Thus, while the positive version may seem more self-
consistent than the negative one, and therefore to be
preferred in extremis, they are in fact both fundamentally
flawed, because (just like in the liar paradox) neither of
them has a contradictory, and without the logical
possibility of negating a discourse it is impossible to judge
whether it is right or wrong.17
6. Sixth approach
Not long after the preceding reflections, I happened to
come across another interesting example of paradoxical
self-reference, namely “Disobey me!”18 This involves the
‘double bind’ – if I obey it, I disobey it and if I disobey it, I
obey it. To resolve this paradox, we need to first put the
17
Another objection (which was actually put to me by a reader)
would be propositions like “this statement has five words” and “this
statement has six words” – even though they contain the demonstrative
“this,” the former looks true and the latter false! Here, we might in
reply point out that though the propositions “this statement has five
words” and “this statement does not have five words,” seem to mean
opposite things, they cannot be contradictories, since both appear true.
Also compare: “this statement has five words” and “this statement does
have five words” – the former is true while the latter is false, though
both mean essentially the same. Clearly, the behavior of these
propositions is far from normal, due to their unusual dependence on
the wording used in them. On one level, we get the message of the
proposition and count the number of words in it, and then check
whether this number corresponds to the given number: if yes, the
proposition is judged ‘true’, and if no, it is judged ‘false’. But at the
same time, we have to be keep track of the changing reference of the
demonstrative “this,” which complicates matters as already explained,
and additionally in this particular context we must beware of the impact
of wording. The Kneales give “What I am now saying is a sentence in
English” as an example of “harmless self-reference” (p. 228).
18
I found this example in Robert Maggiori’s La philosophie au
jour le jour; the author does not say whether it is his own invention or
someone else’s (p. 438).
statement in more precise form, say: “you must disobey

this command!” We can then disentangle the knot by
realizing that the order being given has outwardly
imperative form but inwardly lacks content. It does not
define a specific, concrete action that is to be done or not-
done. If we wished to obey it, or to disobey it, we would
not know just what we are supposed to do or not-do! It is
therefore an order that can neither be obeyed nor be
disobeyed. Ruminating on this case led me to what I now
believe is the trump card, which convincingly finalizes the
resolution of the liar paradox, even as the preceding
reflections all continue to be relevant.
It occurred to me then that this is precisely the problem
with the liar paradox. It says “this proposition is false” –
but it does not tell us anything about the world that can be
judged as true or false. A ‘proposition’ is a statement that
makes some claim about the world. If the statement makes
no such claim, if it ‘proposes’ nothing, it cannot be
logically assessed as true or false. If it refers to nothing –
whether physical, mental or spiritual, perceptual, intuitive
or conceptual – it has no meaning. A meaningless
statement does not qualify as a ‘proposition’. The attributes
of ‘true’ or ‘false’ are not ordinary predicates, like ‘white’
or ‘black’, which can be attached to any subject and then
judged to be truly or falsely attached. The attributes of
‘true’ or ‘false’ require a precise claim to be made before
they can at all be used.
The truth of this explication can be seen with reference to
the ‘propositional forms’ used in logic theory. Take, for
example, “All X are Y.” Such a propositional form cannot
be judged true or false because it manifestly has no content.
Only when such an abstraction is given some specific
content, such as “All men are mortal,” can we begin to ask
whether it is true or false. A propositional form is too vague
to count as a proposition. It does not tell us anything about
the world, other than implying that there are (or even just
that there may be) concrete propositions which have this

form. Just as we cannot disobey or even obey an imperative
without content, so we cannot judge a purely formal
expression true or false.
The same applies to the liar paradox: like a formal
proposition, it has no concrete content, and therefore
cannot be judged true or false. The liar paradox has no
content partly due to its having a self-referential subject
(“this proposition”). But the truth is, even if its subject was
not self-referential, it would still have insufficient content.
This is so, because its predicate “false” (and likewise its
opposite, “true”) is not an ordinary predicate; it is more like
a formal predicate. It can only be used if another, more
concrete predicate has already been proposed for the
subject at hand. For example, “this proposition is
interesting” could be judged true or false (if it was not self-
referential) because it already has a predicate (viz.
“interesting”). Thus, the problem with the liar paradox is
not only the self-reference it involves but also its lack of a
predicate more concrete than the logical predicate “false”
(or “true”).
All this illustrates how the ‘laws of thought’ are not axioms
in the sense of top premises in the knowledge enterprise
from which we mechanically derive other premises. Rather
the expression ‘laws of thought’ refers to recurring insights
which provide us with some intellectual guidance but
cannot by themselves determine the outcome. The
individual in pursuit of knowledge, and in particular the
logician, is driven by the obviousness or by the absurdity
of a situation to look for creative solutions to problems. He
or she must still think of possible solutions and test them.
7. The Russell paradox (early)
From Future Logic 32, 42 & 45, and Ruminations 5.
1. Self-membership
With regard to the issue of self-membership, more needs to
be said. Intuitively, to me at least, the suggestion that
something can be both container and contained is hard to
swallow.
Now, self-membership signifies that a nominal is a
member of an exactly identical nominal. Thus, that all X
are X, and therefore members of “X”, does not constitute
self-membership; this is merely the definition of
membership in a first order class by a non-class.
We saw that, empirically, at least with ordinary examples,
“X” (or the class of X) is never itself an X, nor therefore a
member of “X”. For example, “dogs” is not a dog, nor
therefore a member of “dogs”.
I suggested that this could be generalized into an inductive
postulate, if no examples to the contrary were forthcoming.
My purpose here is to show that all apparent cases of self-
membership are illusory, due only to imprecision of
language.
That “X” is an X-class, and so a member of “X-classes”, is
not self-membership in a literal sense, but is merely the
definition of membership in a second order class by a first
order class. For example, “dogs” is a class of dogs, or a
member of “classes of dogs”, or member of the class of
classes of dogs.
The Russell paradox (early) 85
Nor does the formal inference, from all X are X, that all X-
classes are X-classes, and so members of “X-classes” (or
the class of classes of X), give us an instance of what we
strictly mean by self-membership; it is just tautology. For
example, all dog-classes are members of “classes of dogs”.
Claiming that an X-class may be X, and therefore a
member of “X”, is simply a wider statement than claiming
that “X” may be X, and not only seems equally silly and
without empirical ground, but would in any case not
formally constitute self-membership. For example,
claiming “retrievers” is a dog.
As for saying of any X that it is “X”, rather than a member
of “X”; or saying that it is some other X-class, and
therefore a member of “X-classes” — such statements
simply do not seem to be in accord with the intents of the
definitions of classes and classes of classes, and in any case
are not self-membership.
The question then arises, is “X-classes” itself a member of
“X-classes”? The answer is, no, even here there is no self-
membership. The impression that “X-classes” might be a
member of itself is due to the fact that it concerns X, albeit
less directly so than “X” does. For example, dog-classes
refers to “retrievers”, “terriers”, and even “dogs”; and thus,
though only indirectly, concerns dogs.
However, more formally, “X-classes” does not satisfy the
defining condition for being a member of “X-classes”,
which would be that ‘all X-classes are X’ — just as: “X” is
a member of “X-classes”, is founded on ‘all X are X’. As
will now be shown, this means that the above impression
cannot be upheld as a formal generality, but only at best as
a contingent truth in some cases; as a result, all its force
and credibility disappear.
If we say that for any and every X, all X-classes are X, we
imply that for all X, “X” (which is one X-class) is X; but
we have already adduced empirical cases to the contrary;
so, the connection cannot be general and formal. Thus, we

can only claim that perhaps for some X, all X-classes are
X; but with regard to that eventuality, no examples have
been adduced.
Since we have no solid grounds (specific examples) for
assuming that “X” or “X-classes” is ever a member of
itself, and the suggestion is fraught with difficulty; and we
only found credible examples where they were not
members of themselves — we are justified in presuming,
by generalization, that: no class of anything, or class of
classes of anything, is ever a member of itself.
I can only think of one possible exception to this postulate,
namely: “things” (or “things-classes”). But I suspect that,
in this case, rather than saying that the class is a member of
itself, we should regard the definition of membership as
failing. That is, though this summum genus is a thing, it is
not ‘a member of’ anything.
2. The Russell paradox

The Russell Paradox is modern example of double
paradox, discovered by British logician Bertrand Russell.
He asked whether the class of “all classes which are not
members of themselves” is or not a member of itself. If
“classes not members of themselves” is not a member of
“classes not members of themselves”, then it is indeed a
member of “classes not members of themselves”; and if
“classes not members of themselves” is a member of
“classes not members of themselves”, then it is also a
member of “classes which are members of themselves”.
Thus, we face a contradiction either way.
In contrast, the class of “all classes which are members of
themselves” does not yield a similar difficulty. If “self-
member classes” is not a member of “self-member
classes”, then it is a member of “classes not members of
themselves”; but if “self-member classes” is a member of

“self-member classes”, no antinomy follows. Hence, here
we have a single paradox coupled with a consistent
position, and a definite conclusion can be drawn: “self-
member classes” is a member of itself.
Now, every absurdity which arises in knowledge should be
regarded as an opportunity for advancement, a spur to
research and discovery of some previously unknown detail.
So, what is the hidden lesson of this puzzle?
As I will show, the Russell Paradox proceeds essentially
from an equivocation; it is more akin to the sophism of the
Barber paradox, than to that of the Liar paradox. For
whether self-membership is possible or not, is not the issue.
Russell believed that some classes, like “classes” include
themselves; though I disagree with that, my disagreement
is not my basis for dissolving the Russell paradox. For it is
not the concept of self-membership which results in a two-
way inconsistency. It is the concept of non-self-
membership which does so; and everyone agrees that at
least some (if not all, as I believe) classes do not include
themselves: for instance, “dogs” is not a dog.
What has stumped so many logicians with regard to the
Russell paradox, was the assumption that we can form
concepts at will, if we but formulate a verbal definition. But
this viewpoint is without justification. The words must
have a demonstrable meaning; in most cases, they do; but
in some cases, they are isolated or pieced together without
attention to their intrinsic structural requirements. We
cannot, for instance, use the word ‘greater’ without
specifying ‘than what?’; many words are attached, and
cannot be reshuffled at random. The fact that we
commonly, in everyday discourse, use words loosely, to
avoid boring constructions, does not give logicians the
same license.
3. Impermutability
The solution to the problem is so easy, it is funny, though
I must admit I was quite perplexed for a while. It is simply
that: propositions of the form ‘X (or “X”) is (or is not) a
member of “Y” (or “Y-classes”)’ cannot be permuted. The
process of permutation is applicable to some forms, but not
to all forms.
a. In some cases, where we are dealing with relatively
simple relations, the relation can be attached to the original
predicate, to make up a new predicate, in an ‘S is P’ form
of proposition, in which ‘is’ has a strictly classificatory
meaning. Thus, ‘X is-not Y’ is permutable to ‘X is nonY’,
or ‘X is something which is not Y’; ‘X has (or lacks) Y-
ness’ is permutable to ‘X is a Y-ness having (or lacking)
thing’; ‘X does (or does not do) Y’ is permutable to ‘X is a
Y-doing (or Y-not-doing) thing’. In such cases, no error
arises from this artifice.
But in other cases, permutation is not feasible, because it
falsifies the logical properties of the relation involved. We
saw clear and indubitable examples of this in the study of
modalities.
For instance, the form ‘X can be Y’ is not permutable to ‘X
is something capable of being Y’, for the reason that we
thereby change the subject of the relation ‘can be’ from ‘X’
to ‘something’, and also we change a potential ‘can be’ into
an actual ‘is (capable of being)’. As a result of such verbal
shenanigans, formal errors arise. Thus, ‘X is Y, and all Y
are capable of being Z’ is thought to conclude ‘X is capable
of being Z’, whereas in fact the premises are quite
compatible with the contradictory ‘X cannot be Z’, since
‘X can become Z’ is a valid alternative conclusion, as we
saw earlier.
It can likewise be demonstrated that ‘X can become Y’ is
not permutable to ‘X is something which can become Y’,
because then the syllogism ‘X is Y, all Y are things which
can become Z, therefore X is something which can become

Z’ would seem valid, whereas its correct conclusion is ‘X
can be or become Z’, as earlier seen. Thus, modality is one
kind of relational factor which is not permutable. Even
though we commonly say ‘X is capable or incapable of Y’,
that ‘is’ does not have the same logical properties as the
‘is’ in a normal ‘S is P’ proposition.
b. The Russell Paradox reveals to us the valuable
information that the copula ‘is a member (or not a member)
of’ is likewise not open to permutation to ‘is something
which is a member (or not a member) of’.
The original ‘is’ is an integral part of the relation, and does
not have the same meaning as a solitary ‘is’. The relation
‘is or is not a member of’ is an indivisible whole; you
cannot just cut it off where you please. The fact that it
consists of a string of words, instead of a single word, is an
accident of language; just because you can separate its
verbal constituents does not mean that the objective
relation itself can similarly be split up.
Permutation is a process we use, when possible, to bypass
the difficulties inherent in a special relation; in this case,
however, we cannot get around the peculiar demands of the
membership relations by this artifice. The Russell paradox
locks us into the inferential processes previously outlined;
it tells us that there are no other legitimate ones, it forbids
conceptual short-cuts.
The impermutability of ‘is (or is not) a member of’
signifies that you cannot form a class of ‘self-member
classes’ or a class of ‘non-self-member classes’. These are
not terms, they are relations. Thus, the Russell paradox is
fully dissolved by denying the conceptual legitimacy of its
terms. There is no way for us to form such concepts; they
involve an illicit permutation. The connections between the
terms are therefore purely verbal and illusory.
The definition of membership is ‘if something is X, then it

is a member of “X”’ or ‘if all X are Y, then “X” is a
member of “Y-classes”’. The Russell paradox makes us
aware that the ‘is’ in the condition has to be a normal,
solitary ‘is’, it cannot be an ‘is’ isolated from a string of
words like ‘is (or is not) a member of’. If this antecedent
condition is not met, the consequent rule cannot be applied.
In our case, the condition is not met, and so the rule does
not apply.
c. Here, then, is how the Russell paradox formally
arises, step by step. We will signal permutations by
brackets like this: {}.
Let “X” signify any class, of any order:
(i) If “X” is a member of “X”, then “X” is {a member
of itself}. Call the enclosed portion Y; then “X” is Y,
defines self-membership.
(ii) If “X” is not a member of “X”, then “X” is {not a
member of itself}. Call the enclosed portion nonY; then
“X” is nonY, defines non-self-membership.
Next, apply the general definitions of membership and
non-membership to the concepts of Y and nonY we just
formed:
(iii) whatever is not Y, is nonY, and so is a member of
“nonY”.
(iv) whatever is Y, is not a member of “nonY”, since
only things which are nonY, are members of “nonY”.
Now, the double paradox:
(v) if “nonY” is not a member of “nonY”:
— then, by putting “nonY” in place of “X” in (ii), “nonY”
is {not a member of itself}, which means it is nonY;
— then, by (iii), “nonY” is a member of “nonY”, which
contradicts the starting premise.
(vi) if “nonY” is a member of “nonY”:
— then, by putting “nonY” in place of “X” in (i), “nonY”

is {a member of itself}, which means it is Y;
— then, by (iv), “nonY” is not a member of “nonY”, which
contradicts the starting premise.
Of all the processes used in developing these arguments,
only one is of uncertain (unestablished) validity: namely,
permutation of ‘is a member of itself’ to ‘is {a member of
itself}’, or of ‘is not a member of itself’ to ‘is {not a
member of itself}’. Since all the other processes are valid,
the source of antinomy has to be such permutation. Q.E.D.
d. The existence of impermutable relations suggests
that we cannot regard all relations as somehow residing
within the things related, as an indwelling component of
their identities. We are pushed to regard some relations,
like modality or membership, as bonds standing outside the
terms, which are not actual parts of their being.
Thus, for example, that ‘this S can be P’ does not have an
ontological implication that there is some actual ‘mark’
programmed in the actual identity of this S, which records
that it ‘can be P’. For this reason, the verbal clause {can be
P} cannot be presumed to be a unit; there is nothing
corresponding to it in the actuality of this S, the potential
relation does not cast an actual shadow.
Thus, there must be a reality to ‘potential existence’,
outside of ‘actual existence’. When we say that ‘this S can
be P’, we consider this potentiality to be P as somehow part
of the ‘nature’ of this S. But the S we mean, itself stretches
in time, past, ‘present’, and future; it also has ‘potential’
existence, and is wider than the actual S.
The same can be argued for can not, or must or cannot.
Thus, natural (and likewise temporal) modalities refer to
different degrees, or levels, of existence.
Similarly, the impermutability of membership relations,
signifies that they stand external to their terms, leaving no
mark on them, even when actual.
It seems like a reasonable position, because if every

relation of something to everything else, implied some
corresponding trait inside that thing, then each thing in the
world would have to contain an infinite number of
messages, one message for its relations to each other thing.
Much simpler, is to regard relations (at least, those which
are impermutable) as having a separate existence from their
terms, as other contents of the universe.
4. The Barber paradox

The Barber paradox19 may be stated as: ‘If a barber shaves
everyone in his town who does not shave himself, does he
or does he not shave himself? If he does, he does not; if he
does not, he does’.
This double paradox arises through confusion of the
expressions ‘does not shave himself’ and ‘is shaved by
someone other than himself’.
We can divide the people in any town into three broad
groups: (a) people who do not shave themselves, but are
shaved by others; (b) people who do not shave themselves,
and are not shaved by others; (c) people who shave
themselves, and are not shaved by others. The given
premise is that our barber shaves all the people who fall in
group (a). It is tacitly suggested, but not formally implied,
that no one is in group (b), so that no one grows a beard or
is not in need of shaving. But, in any case, the premise in
fact tells us nothing about group (c).
19
This paradox was offered by B. Russell (in his 1918-19 work,
The Philosophy of Logical Atomism) as an illustration of the Russell
paradox; but he did not claim it as his own, saying that it was
“suggested” to him by someone else. However, Russell considered that
“In this form the contradiction is not very difficult to solve,” because
one can simply deny the subject (i.e. say that such a barber does not
exist).
Next, let us subdivide each of the preceding groups into

two subgroups: (i) people who shave others, and (ii) people
who do not shave others. It is clear that each of the six
resulting combinations is logically acceptable, since who
shaves me has no bearing on whom I can shave. Obviously,
only group (i) concerns barbers, and our premise may be
taken to mean that our barber is the only barber in town.
Now, we can deal with the question posed. Our barber
cannot fall in group (a)(i), because he is not shaved by
others. He might fall in group (b)(i), if he were allowed to
grow a beard or he was hairless; but let us suppose not, for
the sake of argument. This still allows him to fall in group
(c)(i), meaning that he shaves himself (rather than being
shaved by others), though he shaves others too.
Thus, there is no double paradox. The double paradox only
arose because we wrongly assumed that ‘he shaves all
those who do not shave themselves’ excludes ‘he shaves
some (such as himself) who do shave themselves’. But ‘X
shaves Y’ does not formally contradict ‘X shaves nonY’;
there is no basis for assuming that the copula ‘to shave’ is
obvertible, so that ‘X shaves Y’ implies ‘X does not shave
nonY’.
If the premise was restated as ‘he shaves all those and only
those who do not shave themselves’ (so as to exclude ‘he
shaves himself’), we would still have an out by saying ‘he
does not shave at all’. If the premise was further expanded
and restricted by insisting that ‘he somehow shaves or is
shaved’, it would simply be self-contradictory (in the way
of a single paradox).
Further embellishments could be made to the above, such
as considering people who shave in other towns, or making
distinctions between always, sometimes/sometimes-not,
and never. But I think the point is made. The lesson learned
from the barber ‘paradox’ is that without clear
categorizations, equivocations can emerge (such as that
between ‘shaves’ and ‘is shaved’), which give the illusion

of double paradox.
5. The Master Catalogue paradox

A class may be viewed as an imaginary envelope, which
flexibly wraps around all the class’ purported members,
however dispersed in place and time, to the exclusion of all
other things. The question arises, can the figurative
envelope of the class “classes” wrap itself too, or not?
Reviewing the Russell paradox20, we must conclude that
not all ‘word-objects’ are ‘things’ – measures of things are
not themselves to be counted as things. Since classification
is an expression of our measurement of things, it cannot
itself be counted as a thing. To do so gives rise to a paradox,
we should avoid it.
In other words, the problem involved is that the iterative
form (“class of classes”) is not identical with the simple
form (“class”), except very superficially and verbally – so
the former cannot logically be subsumed under the latter.
There is a sufficiently significant modification of the
subject-predicate relation involved, caused by the iteration
of the same term, to exclude the reflex of subsumption. The
paradox arising if we do not restrain this impulse is
precisely what teaches us to exercise such restraint.
The word ‘things’, note, has many meanings. Sometimes,
we intend by it all possible objects of thought. Sometimes,
we mean to exclude words from it21. Sometimes, we mean
to exclude classes; or more narrowly, as just pointed out,
classes of classes; ditto, with regard to concepts or to
concepts of concepts. Sometimes, the word ‘things’
includes only material objects, whatever their category.
20
See Future Logic, chapters 43-45, on class logic.
21
Though of course, this distinction may be paradoxical, since
the word ‘word’ refers to words.
Sometimes, we mean by it ‘entities22’ (material, mental or

spiritual bodies, or delimited substances, individual cases
of which are generally subjects of propositions) in contrast
to their ‘properties’ (the predicates of place, time, quality,
action, quantity, relation, and so forth). Sometimes, in
everyday discourse, we refer to ‘things’ in contrast to
‘persons’ – i.e. ‘things’ here means inanimate or non-
volitional entities. And there are yet more senses of the
word.
Thus, whenever logicians refer to ‘things’, they ought to
try and first make clear just what is to be included under
that heading.
Incidentally, even worse than ‘self-membership’ as a
concept to swallow, is the notion of “classes that seem
contradictory to what they include” – the latter seems
inconceivable at the outset, at least in verbal appearance!
Thus, for instances: “no relationship” is a relationship of
sorts; “non-classes” is in a sense a class. There has to be
some fallacy involved in such terms, which needs to be
clarified. Perhaps the problem is a hyperbole or misnomer?
The answer to this question would be that we are here again
dealing with classes of classes, and these need not be
outwardly consistent with their member classes. Thus, the
class of non-relationships still involves a relationship. The
class of non-classes is nonetheless a class. The class of
empty or null classes does have members. The class of
meaningless or self-contradictory classes is itself neither
meaningless nor self-contradictory. And so forth.
Bertrand Russell illustrates his paradox with reference to:
(a) a catalogue of all books that mention themselves, and
(b) a catalogue of all books that do not mention
themselves.
22
The word ‘entity’, of course, is sometimes meant more
generally, with reference to any existent.
Case (a) presents no problem: the catalogue can list itself

without contradicting its own definition; whereas, if it does
not list itself, it betrays that definition23. Case (b), on the
other hand, is a problem: if it does not list itself, in accord
with its own definition, it thereby becomes eligible for
inclusion in itself24; but, if it does indeed list itself, it
contradicts its own definition. The latter is the double
paradox under discussion.
Now, my first objection would be as follows. The
catalogue’s title (and even, perhaps, a brief description of
its contents, an abstract) could perhaps be listed within the
book itself– but such a book would not and cannot include
a reproduction of the whole book inside itself (not to
mention all the other books it lists or reproduces), for the
simple reason that the task would be infinite (a book within
a book within a book… etc., or the same in the plural).
The book is therefore not itself a member of itself; strictly
speaking, only words about the book are mentionable in it.
The terms inclusion or membership, as used here, then,
have a very limited meaning. Thus, the plausibility of
Russell’s example is very superficial, spurious; he is being
fallacious, sophistical, suggesting something impossible.
Moreover, every book “includes itself” in the sense that it
consists of whatever contents it has and no more. But if a
book is conceived as including a number of other books,
defined by some statement (e.g. all English books), the
book cannot include itself in the sense that this content is
only part of itself. This would not only signify infinite
regression (a book with other books plus itself in it, the
latter in turn with other books plus itself in it, and so forth),
and infinite size, but it would constitute a contradiction
23
That is, the catalogue is not eligible for inclusion in itself –
but that does not affect its exhaustiveness.
24
So that, if it is not forthwith included in itself, it can no longer
be claimed complete.
within the definition. The book cannot both be all its

content and only part of its content.
In this perspective, defining the book as ‘the catalogue of
all books that do not include themselves’, the Russell
paradox is akin to the liar paradox, since the projected book
is an entity that has no finite dimension; it can never be
pinned down.
A second objection would be the following. Even if we take
Russell’s construct as a mere list of books, defined as ‘the
catalogue of all books that do not mention themselves’, the
definition is absurd, since it cannot logically be realized.
We simply cannot write a book listing all books that do not
mention themselves (Conrad’s Lord Jim, Hugo’s Notre
Dame, etc.), in view of the stated dilemma, that whether we
list or not list the book itself in it we are in a contradiction.
Therefore, this concept is of necessity a null-class and
meaningless.
Logic has not been stumped by the paradox, but has
precisely just been taught that the proposed concept is
unsound and unusable; it must therefore simply be dropped
or at least changed somewhat. There is nothing dramatic in
the paradox; it represents one of the functions of Logic. We
might try to propose a modified concept, as follows.
Perhaps we should instead refer to a library.
(a) Consider a catalogue of all books in a certain library,
which is to be placed in that same library. If the book lists
itself, it presents no problem. If the book does not mention
itself as being in the library, it is simply incomplete and
should be expanded; or its title is incorrect and should be
modified (“all books but this one”); or it should be left out
of the library.
(b) Now, with regard to a catalogue of all books not in our
library: such a book cannot both mention itself and be put
in the library. If we want to keep it in our library, we must
erase its mention of itself. If we want it to mention itself,
we must leave it out of the library. These are practical

alternatives, which present no problem.
In this perspective, as we seek a practical expression for it,
the Russell paradox becomes more akin to the Barber
paradox.
6. Grelling’s paradox
To develop his paradox25, Kurt Grelling26 labels a word
‘homological’, if it has the quality it refers to (e.g. the word
“short” is short, or the word “polysyllabic” is polysyllabic),
or ‘heterological’, if it lacks the quality it refers to (e.g.
“long” lacks length, or again “monosyllabic” is not
monosyllabic). He then asks whether these two words,
themselves, are to be categorized this way or that, arguing:
 If “heterological” is homological, then it is
heterological (contradictory predicates).
 If “heterological” is heterological, then it is
homological (contradictory predicates).
But it is a misapprehension of the meanings of these words
to even try to apply them to themselves. In their case, the
references are too abstract to have visible or audible
concomitants. Neither term is applicable to either of them.
Note first that the apparent contradictions in predication
either way apply to the word “heterological” only. For,
using similar reasoning with regard to the word
“homological”, although it might seem more consistent to
say that “homological” is homological than to say that it is
25
This paradox was inspired by Russell’s paradox.
26
Germany, 1886-1942. The paradox is also called the Grelling-
Nelson paradox, because it was presented in a 1908 paper written
jointly with Leonard Nelson (Germany, 1882-1927).
heterological, the sequence of predicates would seem

consistent both ways, i.e.:
 If “homological” is homological, then it is homological
(consistent predicates).
 If “homological” is heterological, then it is
heterological (consistent predicates).
This could be taken to suggest that the term homological is
somehow better constructed, while the term heterological
has a structural fault. But this is not the real issue here.
The real issue is distinguishing between the physical words
“homological” and “heterological” and their respective
intended meanings, viz. homological and heterological.
When we intend a word as such, we traditionally place it in
inverted commas; and when we intend its assigned
meaning we use it simply. In the above propositions,
through which a paradox apparently arises, the subjects are
words as such (in inverted commas) and the predicates are
the meanings of such words.
In this perspective, there is no basis for the claim that
“heterological” is heterological implies “heterological” is
homological, or vice versa. The inference is very
superficial, because it confuses the word as such (intended
as the subject) with the meaning of the word (intended as
the predicate). That is, the inverted commas in the subject
are not used sincerely, but we secretly intend the
underlying meaning as our subject.
How did we draw out the consequents from the
antecedents? Could we see at a glance that the first thesis
implies the second? Let us look at the hypothetical
propositions in question more closely:
If in the antecedent we place the emphasis on the property
referred to by the word “heterological”, viz. some
presumed quality called heterologicality, we would
formulate the paradoxes as follows:
 If the word “heterological” has the property it refers to

(i.e. it is heterological), then it apparently lacks the
property it refers to (i.e. is homological).
 If the word “heterological” lacks the property it refers
to (i.e. it is homological), then it apparently has the
property it refers to (i.e. is heterological).
If on the other hand, in the antecedent we place the
emphasis on the word “heterological” having or lacking the
property it refers to, we would instead formulate the
paradoxes as follows:
 If the word “heterological” has the property it refers to
(i.e. it is homological), then it apparently lacks the
property it refers to (i.e. is heterological).
 If the word “heterological” lacks the property it refers
to (i.e. it is heterological), then it apparently has the
property it refers to (i.e. is homological).
In any of these cases, the consequent is constructed by
comparing the subject “heterological” to the antecedent
predicate heterological or homological; if they are the same
word, we ‘infer’ homological as our consequent predicate,
while if they verbally differ, we ‘infer’ heterological. But
in truth, in making these comparisons between antecedent
subject and predicate, we have not spotted any quality in
the word “heterological” as such, but have tacitly referred
to its underlying meaning, and faced that off against the
hypothesized predicate.
In other words, the statement that “heterological” is
homological (or for that matter that “homological” is
heterological) is not as self-contradictory as it appears at
first glance; it could conceivably be consistent. In truth, it
is indeterminate and therefore meaningless.
More precisely, to resolve the paradox we have to
remember how our terms were induced in the first place.
We can tell that “short” is short merely by seeing or hearing
the word “short” (supposing that any one syllable, however

written or pronounced, counts as short). But in the case of
a term like heterological, you cannot tell whether the word
has or lacks the property it refers to, because that property
is not a concrete (visible or audible) quality of the word,
but something abstract that we apply to visible or audible
components of words. If the quality sought is not visible or
audible, it is unknowable and there is no way for us to tell
which predicate applies.
That is, our initial definitions of those terms, which
mention “a word having/lacking a certain quality it refers
to”, are not clear and precise, because they do not specify
as they should that the qualities intended are phenomenal,
i.e. perceptible aspects of the word. If the word labels
something not included in its physical aspects, the terms
homological and heterological simply do not apply. To
apply them is to play verbal tricks. Thus, neither of these
predicates is applicable to either of these words as such.
It might be objected that words do have non-phenomenal
attributes. For example, we often consider a word useful or
useless. In such case, we might ask: is the word “useful”
useful or not? Yes, I’d reply to that. Therefore, “useful” is
homological. Likewise, “useless” is useful, therefore
“useless” is heterological. In this perspective, one may
doubt the exactitude of what we have just proposed, that
homological and heterological are terms that presuppose
concrete (rather than abstract) predicates.
But to this objection, one could counter that the utility of a
word is ultimately something concrete: a word is useful if
it makes a perceptible practical difference in the
development of knowledge. In that case, our definition
could be modified slightly, specifying that the terms
homological or heterological are only applicable when we
can first directly or indirectly anchor them to some
concrete property.
In sum, these terms must refer to something other than

themselves before they can at all be used. The fallacy
involved is similar to that in the liar paradox, where the
term “this” is used with reference to itself, whereas it only
acquires meaning when it has something else to refer to.
Such terms are relational, and so cannot refer to other
relations in a circular manner or ad infinitum: they need to
eventually be anchored to some non-relational term.
Notice, by the way, that if we changed the word “short” to
say “shortissimo”, with reference to the same meaning, the
word would change status and become heterological, since
“shortissimo” is not shortissimo. On the other hand,
whatever other word we substitute for the word
“heterological”, Grelling’s paradox in relation to it remains
apparent. This test shows that in the latter case it is not
purely the word that we are thinking of, but rather its
underlying meaning. With regard to the word “useful”, we
could also say that it is useful by virtue of its content, or at
most by virtue of its being a word (a unit of language), and
not because of its specific shape or sound.
The Russell paradox (redux) 103
8. The Russell paradox (redux)
From A Fortiori Logic, appendix 7.5.
Logic is what helps us transmute scattered concrete

perceptions into well-ordered abstract concepts. Human
knowledge, or opinion, is based on experience, imagination
and rational insight. The latter is a kind of ‘experience’ in
the larger sense, a non-phenomenal sort of experience, call
it logical ‘intuition’. Reason was for this reason called by
the ancients, in both West and East, the ‘sixth sense’ or
‘common sense’, i.e. the sense-organ which ties together
the other five senses, those that bring us in empirical
contact with phenomenal experience: colors, shapes,
sounds, smells, tastes, touch-sensations, etc., whether they
are physically perceived or mentally imagined. The five
senses without the sixth yield chaotic nonsense (they are
non-sense, one cannot ‘make sense’ of them); and
conversely, the sixth sense is useless without the other five,
because it has nothing about which to have rational
insights. Imagination reshuffles past experiential data and
reasoning, making possible the formation of new ideas and
theories which are later tested with reference to further
experience and reasoning.
1. Elements of class logic

Logic initially developed as a science primarily with
reference to natural discourse, resulting in what we today
refer to as predicate logic. In natural human discourse, we
(you and me, and everyone else) routinely think of and
discuss things we have perceived, or eventually conceived,
by means of categorical propositions involving a subject

(say, S) and a predicate (say, P) which are related to each
other by means of the copula ‘is’. Such propositions have
the form “S is P,” which may be singular or plural, and in
the latter case general (or universal) or particular, and
positive or negative, and moreover may involve various
modes and categories of modality27.
A proposition of the form ‘S is P’ is really a double
predication – it tells us that a thing which is S is also P;
thus, S and P are really both predicates, though one (the
subject S) is given precedence in thought so as to
‘predicate’ the other (the predicate P) of it28. Primarily, S
refers to some concrete phenomenon or phenomena (be
it/they physical, mental or spiritual), i.e. an individual
entity or a set of entities, and P to a property of it or of
theirs. For examples, “John is a man” and “All men are
human beings” are respectively a singular predication
(about one man, John) and a plural one (about all men).
Additionally, still in natural discourse, the subject of our
thoughts may be predicates as such, i.e. predicates in their
capacity as predicates; an example is: “‘men’ may be the
subject or predicate of a proposition.” The latter occurs in
specifically philosophical (or logical or linguistic)
discourse; for example, in the present essay.
Now, logicians through the ages, and especially in modern
times, have effectively found natural discourse somewhat
inadequate for their needs and gradually developed a more
27
We need not go into the details of these distinctions here, for
they are well known. There are also many fine distinctions between
different sorts of terms that may appear in propositions as subjects or
predicates; but let us keep the matter simple.
28
‘Predication’ refers to the copula and the predicate together as
if they were an action of the speaker (or the statement made) on the
subject.
artificial language, that of ‘classes’29. This type of

discourse exactly parallels natural discourse, but is a bit
more abstract and descriptive so as to facilitate
philosophical (or logical or linguistic) discourse and make
it more precise. In this language, instead of saying “this S
is P,” we say “this S is a member (or instance) of P” (note
well the lengthening of the copula from ‘is’ to ‘is a member
(or instance) of’. If ‘this S’ symbolizes a concrete
individual, then ‘P’ here is called a ‘class’; but if ‘this S’
symbolizes an abstract class, then ‘P’ here is called a ‘class
of classes’.
A class, then, is an abstraction, a mental construct in which
we figuratively group some concrete things (be they
physical, mental or spiritual). Although we can and do
temporarily mentally classify things without naming the
class for them, we normally name classes (i.e. assign them
a distinctive word or phrase) because this facilitates
memory and communication. Naming is not the essence of
classification, but it is a great facilitator of large-scale
classification. The name of a class of things does not ‘stand
for them’ in the way of a token, but rather ‘points the mind
to them’ or ‘draws our attention to them’; that is to say, it
is an instrument of intention.
A class in the primary sense is a class of things in general;
a class in the secondary sense is more specifically a class
of classes. Membership is thus of two kinds: membership
of non-classes in a class, or membership of classes in a
class of classes. Alternatively, we may speak of first-order
29
The following account of class logic is based on my
presentation in Future Logic, chapters 43-45. The word ‘class’ comes
from the Latin classis, which refers to a “group called to military
service” (Merriam-Webster). I do not know whether the Ancients used
that word in its logical sense, or some such word, in their discourse,
but they certainly thought in class logic mode. Examples of class
thinking are Aristotle’s distinction between species and genera and
Porphyry’s tree.
classes and second-order classes to distinguish these two

types. There are no other orders of classes. When we think
about or discuss more concrete things, we are talking in
first-order class-logic; when we think about or discuss first-
order classes, we are talking in second-order class-logic,
and the latter also applies to second-order classes since
after all they are classes too. The two orders of classes
should not be confused with the hierarchy of classes within
each order.
The relation between classes of classes and classes is
analogous to the relation between classes and concretes; it
is a relation of subsumption. When a lower (i.e. first-order)
class is a member of a higher (i.e. second-order) class, it
does not follow that the members of the lower class are also
members of the higher class; in fact, if they are members
of the one they are certainly not members of the other.
Thus, for example, you and me, although we are members
of the class ‘men’ because we are men, we are not members
of the class ‘classes of men’ because we are not ‘men’.
Also, the class ‘men’ is not a man, but is a member of the
class ‘classes of men’. The members of the class ‘classes
of men’ (or more briefly put, ‘men-classes’), which is a
class of classes, are, in addition to the broad class ‘men’,
the narrower classes ‘gardeners’, ‘engineers’, ‘sages’,
‘neurotics’, and so on.30
Hierarchization, on the other hand, refers to classes within
a given order that share instances, not merely by partly
30
Note that saying or writing the word men without inverted
commas refers to a predicate. When we wish to refer to the
corresponding class, we say the class of men, or the class men; if we
are writing, we may write the same with or without inverted commas,
or simply ‘men’ in inverted commas. When dealing with classes of
classes, we say the class of classes of men, or the class of men-classes,
or the class men-classes, and we may write the same with or without
inverted commas, or simply ‘classes of men’ or ‘men-classes’ in
inverted commas.
overlapping, but in such a way that all the members of one

class are members of the other (and in some but not all
cases, vice versa). For example, since all men are animals,
though not all animals are men, the class ‘men’ is a
subclass (or species) of the class ‘animals’, and the class
‘animals’ is an overclass (or genus) of the class ‘men’. If
two classes have the same instances, no more and no less,
they may be said to be co-extensive classes (a class that
serves as both species and genus in some context is said to
be sui generis). If two classes merely share some instances,
they may be said to be intersecting (or overlapping)
classes, but they are not hierarchically arranged (e.g.
‘gardeners’ and ‘engineers’). If two classes of the same
order have no instances in common, they may be said to be
mutually exclusive classes.
It is important to grasp and keep in mind the distinction
between hierarchy and order. Since you and I are men, each
of us is a member of the class ‘men’; this is subsumption
by a first-order class of its concrete instances. Since all men
are animals, the class ‘men’ is a subclass of the class
‘animals’; this is hierarchy between two classes of the first
order. Since ‘men’ is a class of animals, it is a member of
the class ‘classes of animals’ (or ‘animal-classes’); this is
subsumption by a second-order class (i.e. a class of classes)
of its first-order-class instances (i.e. mere classes). Since
all ‘classes of men’ are ‘classes of animals’, the class ‘men-
classes’ is a subclass of the class ‘animals-classes’; this is
hierarchy between two classes of the second order, i.e.
between two classes of classes. The relation between
classes of the first order and classes of the second order is
never one of hierarchy, but always one of subsumption; i.e.
the former are always members (instances) of the latter,
never subclasses. Hierarchies only occur between classes
of the same order.
Thus, in class logic, we have two planes of existence to
consider. At the ground level is the relatively objective
plane of empirical phenomena (whether these are physical,

mental or spiritual in substance); above that, residing in our
minds, is the relatively subjective plane of ideas (which are
conceived as insubstantial, but do have phenomenal
aspects – namely mental or physical images, spoken or
written words, and the intentions of such signs),
comprising ideas about empirical phenomena and ideas
about such ideas. Classes are developed to facilitate our
study of empirical phenomena and classes of classes are
developed in turn to facilitate our study of classes – for
classes (including classes of classes) are of course
themselves empirical phenomena of sorts. Classification is
a human invention helpful for cognitive ordering of the
things observed through our senses or our imaginations or
our introspective intuitions. Although classes are products
of mind, this does not mean that they are arbitrary – they
are formed, organized and controlled by means of our
rational faculty, i.e. with the aid of logic.
Clearly, to qualify as a class, a class must have at least one
member (in which case the sole member is “one of a kind”).
Usually, a class has two or more members, indeed
innumerable members. A class is finite if it includes a
specified number of instances; if the number of instances it
includes is difficult to enumerate, the class is said to be
open-ended (meaning infinite or at least indefinite). What
brings the instances of a class together in it is their
possession of some distinctive property in common; the
class is defined by this property (which may of course be a
complicated conjunction of many properties). A class
without instances is called a null (or empty) class; this
signifies that its defining property is known to be fanciful,
so that it is strictly speaking a non-class.
Thus, note well, the term ‘class’ is a bit ambiguous, as it
may refer to a first-order class (a class of non-classes, i.e.
of things other than classes) or a second-order class (a class
of classes, i.e. a mental construct grouping two or more
such mental constructs). A class (of the first order) is not,

indeed cannot be, a class of classes (i.e. a class of the
second order). There is, of course, a class called ‘non-
classes’; its instances are principally all concrete things,
which are not themselves classes; for example, you and I
are non-classes. ‘Non-classes’ is merely a class, not a class
of classes, since it does not include any classes. Thus, ‘non-
classes’ may be said to be a first-order class, but does not
qualify as a second-order class.31
The realm of classes of classes is very limited as an object
of study in comparison to the realm of mere classes. For
what distinctions can we draw between classes? Not many.
We can distinguish between classes and classes of classes,
between finite and open-ended classes, between positive
and negative classes32, and maybe a few more things, but
not much more.
2. An apparent double paradox

Bertrand Russell (Britain, 1872-1970) proposed a
distinction between ‘a class that is a member of itself’ and
31
Note that, whereas positive terms are easy enough to translate
into class logic language, negative terms present a real difficulty. For
example, whereas the term men refers only to non-classes, its strict
antithesis, the term non-men in its broadest sense, includes both non-
classes (i.e. concrete things other than men) and classes (i.e. more
abstract things). Again, whereas the term finite classes refers only to
classes, its strict antithesis, the term non-finite-classes in its broadest
sense, includes both open-ended classes (abstracts) and non-classes
(concretes). Thus, we must, for purposes of consistency, admit that
some terms do cover both non-classes and classes (including classes of
classes). Practically, this means we have to make use of disjunctives
which reveal the implicit alternatives. This of course complicates class
logic considerably.
32
Positive classes are defined by some positive property and
negative classes are defined by a negative one. For examples, ‘men’ is
defined with reference to rational animals (positive), whereas
‘bachelors’ is defined with reference to not yet married men (negative).
‘a class that is not a member of itself’. Although every class

is necessarily co-extensive with itself (and in this sense is
included in itself), it does not follow that every class is a
member of itself (evidently, some are and some are not).
Such a distinction can be shown to be legitimate by citing
convincing examples. Thus, the class ‘positive classes’ is a
member of itself, since it is defined by a positive property;
whereas the class ‘negative classes’ is not a member of
itself, since it is also positively defined (albeit with general
reference to negation). Again, the class ‘finite classes’ is
not a member of itself, since it has innumerable members;
while the class ‘open-ended classes’ is a member of itself,
since it too has innumerable members.
What about the class ‘classes’ – is it a member of itself or
not? Since ‘classes’ is a class, it must be a member of
‘classes’ – i.e. of itself. This is said without paying
attention to the distinction between classes of the first and
second orders. If we ask the question more specifically, the
answer has to be nuanced. The class ‘first-order classes’
being a class of classes and not a mere class, cannot be a
member of itself, but only a member of ‘second-order
classes’; the members of the ‘first-order classes’ are all
mere classes. On the other hand, since the class ‘second-
order classes’ is a class of classes, it is a member of itself,
i.e. a member of ‘second-order classes’. Thus, the class
‘second-order classes’ includes both itself and the class
‘first-order classes’, so that when we say that the wider
class ‘classes’ is a member of itself, we mean that it is more
specifically a member of the narrower class ‘classes of
classes’. As regards the class ‘non-classes’, since it is a
class and not a non-class, it is not a member of itself. Note
however that Russell’s paradox does not make a distinction
between classes of the first and second orders, but focuses
on ‘classes’ indiscriminately.
Russell asked whether “the class of all classes which are
not members of themselves” is or is not a member of
itself. It seemed logically impossible to answer the

question, because either way a contradiction ensued. For if
the class ‘classes not members of themselves’ is not a
member of the class ‘classes not members of themselves,’
then it is indeed a member of ‘classes not members of
themselves’ (i.e. of itself); and if the class ‘classes not
members of themselves’ is a member of ‘classes not
members of themselves,’ then it is also a member of
‘classes which are members of themselves’ (i.e. of its
contradictory). This looked like a mind-blowing double
paradox.
The solution of the problem. The pursuit of knowledge is
a human enterprise, and therefore one which proceeds by
trial and error. Knowledge is inductive much more than
deductive; deduction is just one of the tools of induction.
There are absolutes in human knowledge, but they are few
and far between. When we formulate a theory, it is always
essentially a hypothesis, which might later need to be
revised or ruled out. So long as it looks useful and sound,
and does so more than any competing theory, we adopt it;
but if it ever turns out to be belied by some facts or
productive of antinomy, we are obliged to either
reformulate it or drop it. This is the principle of induction.
When we come upon a contradiction, we have to ‘check
our premises’ and modify them as necessary. In the case at
hand, since our conception of class logic is shown by the
Russell paradox to be faulty somehow, we must go back
and find out just where we went wrong. So, let us carefully
retrace our steps. We defined a class and membership in a
class by turning predication into classification, saying
effectively:
If something is X, then it is a member of the class
‘X’, and not a member of the class ‘nonX’.
If something is not X, then it is not a member of the
class ‘X’, but a member of the class ‘nonX’.
Where did we get this definition? It is not an absolute that

was somehow cognitively imposed on us. We invented it –
it was a convention by means of which we devised the idea
of classes and membership in them. Knowledge can very
well proceed without recourse to this idea, and has done so
for millennia and continues to do so in many people’s
mind. It is an idea with a history, which was added to the
arsenal of reasoning techniques by logicians of relatively
recent times. These logicians noticed themselves and
others reasoning by means of classification, and they
realized that this is a useful artifice, distinct from
predication and yet based on it somehow. They therefore
formally proposed the above definition, and proceeded to
study the matter in more detail so as to maximize its utility.
The ‘logic of classes’, or ‘class logic’, was born.
However, at some stage, one logician, Bertrand Russell,
realized that there was an inherent inconsistency in our
conception of classification, which put the whole edifice of
class logic in serious doubt. That was the discovery of the
paradox bearing his name. That was a great finding, for
there is nothing more important to knowledge
development, and especially to development of the branch
of knowledge called formal logic, than the maintenance of
consistency. Every discovery of inconsistency is a
stimulation to refine and perfect our knowledge. Russell
deserves much credit for this finding, even if he had a lot
of difficulty resolving the paradox in a fully convincing
manner. Let us here try to do better, by digging deeper into
the thought processes involved in classification than he did.
What is classification, more precisely?
If we look more closely at our above definition of a class
‘X’ and membership of things in it by virtue of being X,
we must ask the question: what does this definition
achieve, concretely? Are we merely substituting the phrase
‘is a member of’ for the copula ‘is’, and the class ‘X’ for
the predicate X? If this is what we are doing, there is no
point in it – for it is obvious that changing the name of a

relation or a term in no way affects it. Words are incidental
to knowledge; what matters is their underlying intent, their
meaning. If the words change, but not the meaning, nothing
of great significance has changed. No, we are not here
merely changing the words used – we are proposing a
mental image.
Our idea of classification is that of mental entities called
classes in which things other than classes (or lesser classes,
in the case of classes of classes) are figuratively collected
and contained. When we say of things that they are
members of class ‘X’, we mean that class ‘X’ is a sort of
box into which these things are, by means of imagination,
stored (at a given time, whether temporarily or
permanently). That is to say, our ‘definition’ of
classification is really a formal convention used to institute
this image. What it really means is the following:
If something is X, then it is in the class ‘X’, and out
of (i.e. not in) the class ‘nonX’.
If something is not X, then it is out of (i.e. not in)
the class ‘X’, but in the class ‘nonX’.
Clearly, to ‘be’ something and to ‘be in’ (within, inside)
something else are not the same thing. Our definition
conventionally (i.e. by common agreement) decrees that if
X is predicated of something, then we may think of that
thing as being as if contained by the mental entity called
class ‘X’. But this decree is not an absolute; it is not a
proposition that being subject to predication of X naturally
and necessarily implies being a member of class ‘X’. For
the whole idea of classification, and therefore this
definition of what constitutes a class and membership
therein, is a human invention. This invention may well be,
and indeed is, very useful – but it remains bound by the
laws of nature. If we find that the way we have conceived
it, i.e. our definition of it, inevitably leads to contradiction,
we must adjust our definition of it in such a way that such

contradiction can no longer arise. This is our way of
reasoning and acting in all similar situations.
As we shall presently show, since the contradiction is a
consequence of the just mentioned defining implication,
we must modify that implication. That is to say, we must
decree it to have limits. Of course, we cannot just vaguely
say that it has limits; we must precisely define these limits
so that the practical value of our concept of classification
is restored. We can do that by realizing that our definition
of classification with reference to something ‘being in’
something else means that class logic is conceived of as
related to geometrical logic. This is obvious, when we
reflect on the fact that we often ‘represent’ classes as
geometrical figures (notably, circles) and their members as
points within those figures. This practice is not accidental,
but of the very essence of our idea of classification.
Classification is imagining that we put certain items,
identified by their possession of some common and
distinctive property, in a labeled container33.
Let us now examine the concept of self-membership in the
light of these reflections. What is the idea of self-
membership? It is the presupposition that a class may be a
member of itself. But is that notion truly conceivable? If
we for a moment put aside the class logic issue, and
reformulate the question in terms of geometrical logic, we
see that it is absurd. Can a container contain itself? Of
course not. There is no known example of a container
containing itself in the physical world; and indeed, we
cannot even visually imagine a container containing itself.
So, the idea of self-containment has no empirical basis, not
even in the mental sphere. It is only a fanciful conjunction
of two words, without experiential basis. For this reason,
33
This is a pictorial ‘representation’, an analogical image not to
be taken literally.
the idea strikes us as illogical and we can safely posit as a

universal and eternal ‘axiom’ that self-containment is
impossible. A nonsensical term like ‘the collection of all
collections’ is of necessity an empty term; we are not
forced to accept it, indeed we are logically not allowed to
do so; we can only consistently speak of ‘the collection of
all other collections’34.
A container is of course always co-extensive with itself, i.e.
it occupies exactly the space it occupies. But such ‘co-
extension’ is not containment, let alone self-containment,
for it does not really (other than verbally) concern two
things but only one; there is no ‘co-’ about it, it is just
extended, just once. We refer to containment when a
smaller object fits inside a larger object (or in the limit
when another object of equal size neatly fits inside a
certain object). The concept of containment refers to two
objects, not one. There has to be two distinct objects; it
does not suffice to label the same object in two ways. To
imagine ‘self-containment’ is to imagine that a whole
object can somehow fit into itself as a smaller object (or
that it can somehow become two, with one of the two inside
the other). This is unconscionable. A whole thing cannot
be a part (whether a full or partial part) of itself; nothing
can be both whole and part at once. A single thing cannot
be two things (whether of the same or different size) at
once; nothing can simultaneously exist as two things.
You cannot decide by convention that something is both
whole and part or that one thing is two. You cannot
convene something naturally impossible. You can only
convene something naturally possible, even though it is
unnecessary. Thus, the concept of self-containment is
34
To give a concrete image: a bag of marbles (whether alone or,
even worse, with the marbles in it) cannot be put inside itself, even if
the bag as a whole, together with all its contents, can be rolled around
like a marble and so be called a marble.
meaningless; it is an inevitably empty concept, because it

assumes something impossible to be possible. There is no
such thing as self-containment; a container can never
contain itself. If this is true, then it is of course equally true
that no class includes itself, for (as we have seen)
classification is essentially a geometrical idea. Given that a
container cannot contain itself, it follows that the answer to
the question as to whether a class can be a member of itself
is indubitably and definitely: No. Because to say of any
class that it is a member of itself is to imply that a container
can be a content of itself. Just as no container which is a
content of itself exists, so no class which is a member of
itself exists!
Now, this is a revolutionary idea for class logic. It applies
to any and every class, not just to the class ‘classes not
members of themselves’ which gave rise to the Russell
paradox. Moreover, note well that we are here denying the
possibility of membership of a class in itself, but not the
possibility of non-membership of a class in itself. When we
say that no container contains itself, we imply that it is true
of each and every container that it does not contain itself.
Similarly, when we say that no class is a member of itself,
we imply that it is true of each and every class that it is not
a member of itself. What this means is that while we
acknowledge the subject of the Russell paradox, namely
the class ‘classes that are not members of themselves’, we
reject the notion that such a class might ever, even
hypothetically for a moment, be a member of itself (and
therefore paradoxical) – for, we claim, no class whatever is
ever a member of itself.
How can this be, you may well ask? Have we not already
shown by example that some classes are members of
themselves? Have we not agreed, for example, that the
class ‘classes’ being a class has to be a member of the class
‘classes’, i.e. of itself? How can we deny something so
obvious? Surely, you may well object further, if the class
‘classes that are not members of themselves’ is not a

member of itself, then it is undeniably a member of itself;
and if it is a member of itself, then it is undeniably not a
member of itself? To answer these legitimate questions, let
us go back to our definition of classification, and the things
we said about that definition. As I pointed earlier, our
definition of classes and membership in them has the form
of a conventional implication. It says:
If and only if something is X, then it is a member
of the class ‘X’.
Now, since this conventional implication leads us
inexorably to paradox, we must revise it, i.e. make it more
limited in scope, i.e. specify the exact conditions when it
‘works’ and when it ceases to ‘work’. What is essentially
wrong with it, as we have seen, is that it suggests that a
class can be a member of itself. For example, since the class
‘classes’ is a class, then it is a member of ‘classes’; in this
example, the variable X has value class and the variable
‘X’ has value ‘classes’. But, as we have shown, the claim
that a class can be a member of itself logically implies
something geometrically impossible; namely, that a
container can be a content of itself. So, to prevent the
Russell paradox from arising, we need to prevent the
unwanted consequences of our definition from occurring.
Given that our concept of classification is problematic as it
stands, what are the conditions we have to specify to
delimit it so that the problem is dissolved?
The answer to this question is that when the subject and
predicate of the antecedent clause are one and the same,
then the consequent clause should cease to be implied. That
is to say, if the antecedent clause has the form “if the class
‘X’ is X” then the consequent clause “then the class ‘X’ is
a member of ‘X’ (and thus of itself)” does not follow. This
‘does not follow’ is a convention, just as the general ‘it
follows’ was a convention. What we have done here is
merely to draw a line, saying that the consequent generally

follows the antecedent, except in the special case where the
subject and predicate in the antecedent are ‘the same’ (in
the sense that predicate X is applicable to class ‘X’ which
is itself based on predicate X). This is logically a quite
acceptable measure, clearly. If an induced general
proposition is found to have exceptions, then it is quite
legitimate and indeed obligatory to make it less general,
retreating only just enough to allow for these exceptions.
Since the initial definition of classification was a general
convention, it is quite permissible, upon discovering that
this convention leads us into contradiction, to agree on a
slightly narrower convention. Thus, whereas, in the large
majority of cases, it remains true that if something is X,
then it is a member of the class ‘X’, and more specifically,
if a class (say, ‘Y’) is X, then it (i.e. ‘Y) is a member of the
class of classes ‘X’ – nevertheless, exceptionally, in the
special case where the class that is X is the class ‘X’ (i.e.
where ‘Y’ = ‘X’), we cannot go on to say of it that it is a
member of ‘X’, for this would be to claim it to be a member
of itself, which is impossible since this implies that a
container can be a content of itself. Note well that we are
not denying that, for example, the class ‘classes’ is a class;
we are only denying the implication this is normally taken
to have that the class ‘classes’ is a member of the class
‘classes’. We can cheerfully continue saying ‘is’ (for that
is mere predication), but we are not here allowed to turn
that ‘is’ into ‘is a member of’ (for that would constitute
illicit classification).
In this way, the Russell paradox is inhibited from arising.
That is to say, with reference to the class ‘classes not
members of themselves’: firstly, it is quite legitimate to
suppose that the class ‘classes not members of themselves’
is not a member of itself, since we know for sure (from
geometrical logic) that no class is a member of itself; but it
is not legitimate to say that this fact (i.e. that it is not a
member of itself) implies that it is a member of itself, since

such implication has been conventionally excluded.
Secondly, it is not legitimate to suppose, even for the sake
of argument, that the class ‘classes not members of
themselves’ is a member of itself, since we already know
(from geometrical logic) that no class is a member of itself,
and therefore we cannot establish through such supposition
that it is not a member of itself, even though it is anyway
true that it is not a member of itself.
As can be seen, our correction of the definition of
classification, making it less general than it originally was,
by specifying the specific situation in which the
implication involved is not to be applied, succeeds in
eliminating the Russell paradox. We can say that the class
‘classes not members of themselves’ is not a member of
itself, but we cannot say that it is a member of itself;
therefore, both legs of the double paradox are blocked. In
the first leg, we have blocked the inference from not-being
‘a member of itself’ to being one; in the second leg, we
have interdicted the supposition of being ‘a member of
itself’ even though inference from it of not-being one
would be harmless. Accordingly, the answer to the
question posed by Russell – viz. “Is the class of all classes
which are not members of themselves a member of itself or
not?” – is that this class is not a member of itself, and that
this class not-being a member of itself does not, contrary to
appearances, make it a member of itself, because no class
is a member of itself anyway.
Thus, to be sure, though it is true that the class ‘classes’ is
a class, it does not follow that it is a member of itself;
though it is true that the class ‘classes of classes’ is a class
of classes, it does not follow that it is a member of itself;
though it is true that the class ‘positive classes’ is a positive
class, it does not follow that it is a member of itself; though
it is true that the class ‘open-ended classes’ is an open-
ended class, it does not follow that it is a member of itself;
though it is true that the class ‘classes that are not members
of themselves’ is a class that is not a member of itself, it
does not follow that it is a member of itself. As for the class
‘classes members of themselves’, it has no members at all.
It should be emphasized that the restriction on
classification that we have here introduced is of very
limited scope; it hardly affects class logic at all, concerning
as it does a few very borderline cases.
The above is, I believe, the correct and definitive
resolution of the Russell paradox. We acknowledged the
existence of a problem, the Russell paradox. We diagnosed
the cause of the problem, the assumption that self-
membership is possible. We showed that self-membership
is unconscionable, since it implies that a container can
contain itself; this was not arbitrary tinkering, note well,
but appealed to reason. We proposed a solution to the
problem, one that precisely targets it and surgically
removes it. Our remedy consisted in uncoupling
predication from classification in all cases where self-
membership is assumed, and only in such cases. This
solution of the problem is plain common sense and not a
flight of speculation; it is simple and elegant; it is
convincing and uncomplicated; it does not essentially
modify the concept of class membership, but only limits its
application a little; it introduces a restriction, but one that
is clearly circumscribed and quite small; it does not result
in collateral damage on areas of class logic, or logic in
general, that are not problematic, and therefore does not
call for further adaptations of logic doctrine. Note
moreover that our solution does not resort to any obscure
‘system’ of modern symbolic logic, but is entirely
developed using ordinary language and widely known and
accepted concepts and processes.
3. A bit of the history

Let us now look briefly at some of the history of the Russell
paradox, and see how he and some other modern symbolic
logicians dealt with it35.
Georg Cantor had already in 1895 found an antinomy in his
own theory of sets. In 1902, when Gottlob Frege
(Germany, 1848-1925) was about to publish the second
volume of his Grundgesetze, he was advised by Russell of
the said paradox. Frege was totally taken in and could not
see how to get out of the self-contradictions inherent in “the
class of classes that do not belong to themselves.” He
perceived this as very serious, saying: “What is in question
is … whether arithmetic can possibly be given a logical
foundation at all.” Frege first tried to fix things by
suggesting that there might be “concepts with no
corresponding classes,” or alternatively by adjusting one of
his “axioms” in such a way that:
“Two concepts should be said to have the same

extension if, and only if, every object which fell
under the first but was not itself the extension of the
first fell likewise under the second and vice
versa”36.
Clearly, Frege’s initial suggestion that there might be

“concepts with no corresponding classes” can be viewed as
an anticipation of my uncoupling of predication and
classification in specific cases. However, Frege did not
identify precisely in what cases such uncoupling has to
occur. This is evident in his next suggestion, which, though
it points tantalizingly to the difficulty in the notion of self-
35
I am here referring principally to the account by William and
Martha Kneale in The Development of Logic, ch. XI.1-2.
36
Kneale and Kneale, p. 654. Italics theirs.
membership, does not reject this notion outright but instead

attempts to mitigate it. He speaks of two concepts instead
of one, and tries to conventionally exclude the extension as
a whole of each from the other, while of course continuing
to include the objects falling under the extension; this
shows he has not realized that self-inclusion by an
extension is not even thinkable.
It should be stressed that Russell’s paradox pertains to a
certain class (viz. that of all classes not members of
themselves) being or not-being a member of itself – not of
some other class. Frege tries to resolve this paradox with
reference, not to a single class, but to a pair of equal classes,
even though (to my knowledge) he has not demonstrated
that co-extensive classes result in a paradox comparable to
the Russell paradox. It follows that his attempted solution
to the problem is not germane to it. Moreover, Frege seems
to have thought that if all items that fall under one class
(say, ‘Y’) fall under another class (say, ‘X’), then the class
‘Y’ may be assumed to fall under the class ‘X’; and vice
versa in the event of co-extension. This is suggested by his
attempt to prevent such assumption, so as to avoid (in his
estimate) the resulting Russell paradox. But in truth, it does
not follow from the given that all Y are X that the class ‘Y’
is a member of the class ‘X’ – it only follows that the class
‘Y’ is a subclass of the class ‘X’, or an equal class if the
relation is reversible. Thus, it appears that Frege confused
the relations of class-membership and hierarchization of
classes, using a vague term like ‘falling’ to characterize
them both.
We may well ask the question whether an equal class, or a
subclass, or even an overclass, might be a member of its
hierarchically related class. Offhand, it would seem to be
possible. For example, all positive classes are classes and
therefore members of the class ‘classes’, and the class
‘positive classes’ is a subclass of the class ‘classes’;
however, although not all classes are positive classes (some
are negative classes), nevertheless the class ‘classes’ is a

positive class (being defined by a positive statement), and
so is a member of the class ‘positive classes’. But although
this example suggests that an overclass might be a member
of its subclass (and therefore, all the more, an equal class
or a subclass might be a member of its hierarchical
relative), we might still express a doubt by means of
analogy, as Frege perhaps intended to do. We could argue
inductively, by generalization, that if a class cannot be a
member of itself, then maybe it cannot be a member of any
coextensive class (as Frege suggests), and perhaps even of
a subclass or an overclass. For the issue here is whether the
instances referred to by the first class can be thought to
occur twice in the second class (as members of it in their
own right, and as constituents of a member). So, Frege may
have raised a valid issue, which could lead to further
restrictions in class logic. However, this need not concern
us further in the present context, since (as already
explained) it is not directly relevant to resolution of the
Russell paradox.
Russell described his paradox in his book Principles of
Mathematics, published soon after. Although at first
inclined to Frege’s second approach, he later preferred
Frege’s first one, proposing that there might be “some
propositional functions which did not determine genuine
classes.” Note here again the failure to pinpoint the precise
source and remedy of the problem. Subsequently, Russell
thought that “the problem could never be solved
completely until all classes were eliminated from logical
theory.” This, in my view, would be throwing out the baby
with the bath water – an overreaction. But then he found
out (or rather, he thought he did, or he convinced himself
that he did) that the same paradox could be generated
without “talk of classes,” i.e. with reference to mere
predicates – that is, in terms of predicate logic instead of in

terms of class logic. As Kneale and Kneale put it37:
“Instead of the class which is supposed to contain

all classes that are not members of themselves let
us consider the property of being a property which
does not exemplify itself. If this property
exemplifies itself, then it cannot exemplify itself;
and if it does not exemplify itself, then it must
exemplify itself. Clearly, the nature of the trouble
is the same here as in the original paradox, and yet
there is no talk of classes.”
But even if classes are not explicitly mentioned here, it is

clear that they are tacitly intended. How would a property
‘exemplify’ itself? Presumably, property X would be ‘a
property which exemplifies itself’ if property X happens to
be one of the things that have property X. That is to say, X
exemplifies X if X is a member of the class of things that
are X. We cannot talk about properties without resorting to
predication; and once we predicate we can (given the initial
definition of classification) surely classify. So, this attempt
is just verbal chicanery; the same thought is intended, but
it is dressed up in other words. It is dishonest. Moreover,
the way the paradox is allegedly evoked here does not in
fact result in paradox.
We cannot say, even hypothetically, “if this property [i.e.
the property of being a property which does not exemplify
itself] exemplifies itself” for that is already self-
contradictory. To reconstruct a Russell paradox in
‘property’ terms, we would have to speak of ‘the property
of all properties which do not exemplify themselves’; for
then we would have a new term to chew on, as we did in
37
William and Martha Kneale, p. 655.
class logic. But clearly, this new term is quite contrived and
meaningless. Here again, we must mean ‘the class of all
properties which do not exemplify themselves’ – and in
that event, we are back in class logic. Thus, note well, while
Russell was right in looking to see whether his paradox was
a problem specific to class logic, or one also occurring in
predicate logic, and he claimed to have established that it
occurred in both fields, in truth (as we have just
demonstrated) he did not succeed in doing that. In truth, the
paradox was specific to class logic; and he would have
been better off admitting the fact than trying to ignore it.
In response to certain criticisms by his peers, Russell
eventually “agreed that the paradoxes were all due to
vicious circles, and laid it down as a principle for the
avoidance of such circles that ‘whatever involves all of a
collection must not be one of the collection’.” Thus,
Russell may be said to have conceded the principle I have
also used, namely that a collection cannot include itself as
one of the items collected, although in truth the way he put
it suggests he conceived it as a convention designed to
block incomprehensible vicious circles rather than a logical
absolute (notice that he says ‘must not’ rather than
‘cannot’). He viewed the paradoxes of set theory as
“essentially of the same kind as the old paradox of
Epimenides (or the Liar).” This suggests that, at this stage,
he saw his own paradox as due to self-reference, somehow.
It does look at first sight as if there is some sort of self-
reference in the proposition ‘the class of all classes that are
not members of themselves is (or is not) a member of
itself’, because the clause ‘member of itself’ is repeated
(positively or negatively, in the singular or plural) in
subject and predicate38. But it cannot be said that self-
reference is exactly the problem.
38
Note that if self-reference were the crux of the problem, then
the proposition ‘the class of all classes that are members of themselves
A few years later, in a paper published in 1908, Russell

came up with a more elaborate explanation of the Russell
paradox based on his ‘theory of types’. Russell now argued
that “no function can have among its values anything
which presupposes the function, for if it had, we could not
regard the objects ambiguously denoted by the function as
definite until the function was definite, while conversely …
the function cannot be definite until its values are
definite”39. In other words, the question “the class of all
classes that are not members of themselves, is it or is it not
a member of itself” is inherently flawed, because the
subject remains forever out of reach. We cannot take hold
of it till we resolve whether or not it is a member of itself,
and we cannot do the latter till we do the former; so, the
conundrum is unresolvable, i.e. the question is
unanswerable. Effectively, the subject is a term cognitively
impossible to formulate, due to the double bind the issue of
its definition involves for any thinker.
Here, we should note that the purpose of Russell’s said
explanation was effectively to invalidate the negative class
‘classes not members of themselves’, since this is the class
giving rise to the double paradox he was trying to cure. The
positive class ‘classes members of themselves’ clearly does
not result in a double paradox: if we suppose it is not a
member of itself, self-contradiction does ensue, but we can
still say without self-contradiction that it is a member of
itself. In fact, if Russell’s explanation were correct, the
positive class ought to be as illicit as the negative one. For
if we claim the impossibility of a class referring to
something that is not yet settled, as Russell did with
reference to the negative class, then we must admit this
characteristic is also found in the positive class, and we
is (or is not) a member of itself’ would be equally problematic, even

though it apparently does not result in a similar paradox.
39
Quoted by the Kneales, p. 658.
must reject it too. Russell does not seem to have realized

that, i.e. that his remedy did not technically differentiate
the two classes and so could be applied to both. For this
reason, his attempt to solve the Russell paradox with
reference to circularity or infinity must be judged as a
failure. In my own theory, on the other hand, it is the
positive class (that of self-membership) which is invalid
(and empty), since it is geometrically unthinkable, while
the negative class (that of non-self-membership) remains
quite legitimate (and instantiated), as indeed we would
expect on the principle that all claims (including that of
self-membership) ought to be deniable.
Anyway, Russell concluded, briefly put, that a function
could not be a value of itself; and proposed that function
and value be differentiated as two ‘types’ that could not be
mixed together indiscriminately. But this theory is, I would
say, too general, and it complicates matters considerably.
As we have seen, we cannot refuse to admit that, for
instance, ‘classes’ is a class; the most we can do is to deny
that this implies that ‘classes’ is a member of itself. This is
a denial of self-membership, not of self-predication or of
self-reference. As regards the notion of ‘types’ and later
that of ‘orders within types’, these should not be confused
with the more traditional ideas of hierarchies and orders of
classes, which we laid out earlier in the present essay. In
truth, the resemblance between Russell’s concepts and the
latter concepts gives Russell’s theory a semblance of
credibility; but this appearance is quite illusory – these are
very different sets of concepts. Russell’s notion of ‘types’
is highly speculative and far from commonsense; while it
might appear to solve the Russell paradox, it has
ramifications that range far beyond it and incidentally
invalidate traditional ideas that do not seem problematic40.
40
See for a start the Kneales’ critique of the ‘theory of types’ in
ch. XI.2.
In short, it is a rough-and-ready, makeshift measure, and

not a very convincing one.
Every paradox we come across is, of course, a signal to us
that we are going astray somehow. Accordingly, the
Russell paradox may be said to have been a signal to Frege,
Russell, and other modern logicians, that something was
wrong in their outlook. They struggled hard to find the
source of the problem, but apparently could not exactly
pinpoint its location. All the intricacy and complexity of
their symbolic and axiomatic approach to logic could not
help them, but rather obscured the solution of the problem
for them. This shows that before any attempt at
symbolization and axiomatization it is essential for
logicians to fully understand the subject at hand in ordinary
language terms and by means of commonsense. To my
knowledge, the solution of the problem proposed in the
present essay is original, i.e. not to be found elsewhere. If
that is true, then the theory of class logic developed by
modern symbolic logicians, which is still the core of what
is being taught in universities today, needs to be thoroughly
reviewed and revised.
4. A bit of self-criticism
As regards the resolution of the Russell paradox that I
proposed over two decades ago in my Future Logic, the
following needs to be said here. While I stand, in the main,
by my theory of the logic of classes there (in chapters 43-
44), I must now distance myself somewhat from my
attempted resolution of the Russell paradox there (in
chapter 45).
I did, to my credit, in that past work express great
skepticism with regard to the notion of self-membership;
but I did not manage to totally rule it out. I did declare:
“Intuitively, to me at least, the suggestion that something
can be both container and contained is hard to swallow,”
and I even postulated, in the way of a generalization from

a number of cases examined, that “no class of anything, or
class of classes of anything, is ever a member of itself,”
with the possible exception of “things” or “things-classes”
(although it might be said of these classes that they are not
members of any classes, let alone themselves41); but still, I
did not reject self-membership on principle, and use that
rejection to explain and resolve the Russell paradox, as I
do in the present essay.
This is evident, for instance, in my accepting the idea that
“‘self-member classes’ is a member of itself.” The reason I
did so was the thought that “whether self-membership is
possible or not, is not the issue.” Superficially, this is of
course true – the Russell paradox concerns the ‘class of all
classes that are not members of themselves’, and not ‘the
class of all classes that are members of themselves’. But in
fact, as I have shown today, this is not true; acceptance of
self-membership is the true cause of the Russell paradox,
and non-self-membership is not in itself problematic.
Anyway, not having duly ruled out self-membership, I
resorted to the only solution of the problem that looked
promising to me at the time – namely, rejection of
‘permutation’ from “is (or is not) a member of itself” to “is
(or is not) {a member of itself}” (notice the addition of
curly brackets). That is to say, I proposed the logical
interdiction of changing the relation of self-membership or
non-self-membership into a predicable term. Now I see that
this was wrong – it was an action taken too late in the
process of thought leading up to the Russell paradox. It was
a superficial attempt, treating a symptom instead of the
disease. I did that, of course, because I thought this was “of
41
Note that in this context I come up with the idea that the
definition of membership might occasionally fail. But I did not at the
time pursue that idea further, because I did not then analyze what such
failure would formally imply.
all the processes used in developing these arguments, [the]

only one of uncertain (unestablished) validity.” But in
truth, it was not the only possible cause of the effect – there
was a process before that, one of deeper significance,
namely the transition from ‘is’ to ‘is a member of’. I did
not at the time notice this earlier process, let alone realize
its vulnerability; and for that reason, I did not attack it.
Clearly, I was on the right track, in that I sought for a place
along the thought process at which to block development
of the Russell paradox. But my error was to pick a place
too late along that process. In fact, the right place is earlier
on, as advocated in the present essay. The Russell paradox
does not arise due to an illicit permutation, but due to the
illicit transformation of a predicate into a class in cases
where a claim of self-membership would ensue. And while
the remedy proposed is even now in a sense ‘conventional’,
the flaw it is designed to fix is quite real – it is that self-
membership is in fact impossible and therefore can never
be assumed true. My previous proposed solution to the
problem only prevented the Russell paradox; it did not
prevent self-membership, which is the real cause of the
paradox. Thus, the solution I propose in the present essay
is more profound and more accurate.
More on the Russell paradox 131
9. More on the Russell paradox
From Topics (published only online so far).
1. My resolution of the Russell paradox

My resolution of the Russel paradox is, simply put, that no
class is, or can ever be, a member of itself. Self-
membership is unconscionable. It is therefore no surprise
that the unthinking adoption of the idea of self-membership
by Russell led him to paradox. The concept of class-
membership differs significantly from that of predication.
Predication is a natural way of thinking; class-membership
is an artificial one, invented by logicians. The concept of
class-membership is useful, but it has limitations. The idea
of class-membership is very early, being implied already in
Aristotle’s discourses; but became more consciously used
by logicians in modern times.
The original idea is that if any individual thing (call it X)
‘has’ some property (call it Y-ness), then it is ‘subsumed’
under the species or genus of Y-having things; i.e. if X is
Y, then X is a Y (notice the use of ‘a’ to signal that a species
or genus, as distinct from a property, is intended by Y).
This thought later led to the idea of a ‘class with members’,
defined by: if X is a Y, then X is a member of the class
“Y” (notice the use of inverted commas to refer to a class
as distinct from a predicate). Tacitly intended here are the
complements: “if X is not Y, then X is not a Y” and “if X
is not a Y, then X is not a member of the class ‘Y’,” note.
But it should be made clear that these two ideas, though
related, are quite distinct. While it can be said of anything
which is Y, that it is a Y; it cannot be said of any class “Y”

which happens to be a Y, that it is a member of the class
“Y” (i.e. a member of itself). For the idea of class-
membership is figuratively the idea of an enclosure (the
class) in which a group of things (the members) that are
alike in some way (i.e. have some property in common, say
Y) are included; and it is impossible to visually imagine
that the enclosure will be included within itself (i.e. that the
class can be a member of itself). One can say it in words,
of course; but one cannot draw it on paper.
Thus, the idea of subsumption under a species or genus (of

“Y” under Y) and that of class-membership (of “Y” in “Y”)
are only partly equivalent, and should not be confused. For
example, whereas the class “classes” is indeed a class, it
cannot logically be a member of the class “classes.” The
characterizations “is a class” and “is a member of the class
‘classes’” are not interchangeable. The class “classes” can,
however, still be a member of other classes, notably of the
class “not self-member classes.” Indeed, no class can be a
member of “self-member classes,” because there is no such
class (as just explained); and consequently, all classes are
members of “not self-member classes.”
Note this well: even though some classes (such as the class
“classes”) do subsume themselves, they cannot reasonably
be said to be members of themselves. This signifies that,
whatever the value of Y: whether the class “Y” is or is not
a Y, “Y” is not a member of the class “Y,” i.e. it is not a
member of itself. So, the proposition through which we
initially defined class-membership, viz. if X is a Y, then X
is a member of the class “Y,” has a formal exception, viz.
the case where the class “Y” is intended by the term X
(which is otherwise general).
(Although we have not here dealt with subclasses and
overclasses, note that the said exception does not prevent
the class “Y” from being a member of the overclass “Y-
classes;” which, by definition, includes “Y” together with
all the subclasses of “Y.” This is true because “Y” and “Y-
classes” are at different levels, so this does not constitute
self-membership. More on this below.)
Another oddity of class logic to note is that, just as
“classes” is a class, “non-classes” can be said to be a class,
without self-contradiction. In the case of predicate logic,
such a twist is not possible; i.e. a non-class (i.e. a thing that
is not a class) cannot be said to be a class: only a class can
be said to be a class. This again proves the divergence
between these two ways of thinking. On the other hand,
note, “classes” cannot consistently be said to be a non-
class; and likewise, “non-classes” cannot be said to be a
non-class.
As regards the Russell paradox, it is alleged that the class
of “all classes not member of themselves” constitutes a
double paradox, because: if we say it is not a member of
itself, then it is a member of itself, and if we say that it is a
member of itself then it is not a member of itself. But it is
clear, in the light of what we have realized above, that the
problem lies in the consequent of the first if-then statement
and in the antecedent of the second if-then statement, i.e.
in the false claim that they contain that “all classes not
member of themselves” can be a member of itself. In truth,
no class is a member of itself, so both the if-then statement
made are wrong (non-sequiturs).
In other words, the resolution of Russell’s paradox is that
the class “all classes not member of themselves,” just like
any and every other class, is not a member of itself, and
this claim does not give rise to any self-contradiction.
2. Why Russell’s resolutions are

inadequate
Now, Bertrand Russell did formulate a somewhat similar
explanation of his paradox, saying:
“No collection (whole or totality) can contain

members that are defined in terms of itself;
specifically, no existing collection can ever be a
constitutive part of itself”42.
How does this formulation differ from my denial of the

logical possibility of self-membership? Russell’s
formulation obviously refers indirectly to the collection
itself; i.e. he means, more directly put: a collection cannot
contain itself as a member because such membership could
only be triggered by defining the collection in terms of
itself, and that is not feasible. Where is the “definition,”
here? It is the term’s formulation itself, viz. “all classes that
are members of themselves” in our case.
The proposed definition involves the term that is being
defined; i.e. there is an element of self-reference, of
42
Quotation from Principia Mathematica by Nicholas Rescher
in Paradoxes: Their Roots, Range, and Resolution, p. 172. This
“Vicious Circle Principle” was earlier formulated by Henri Poincaré.
circularity. This can be called self-definition; and it is

obviously useless, if we do not already know what is
intended by other means. But is definition of the class in
terms of itself the issue at hand, here? I would say not: this
term is merely the end-product of a reasoning process; it
does not suddenly come out of the blue. It is this reasoning
process that needs to be examined and evaluated.
Is the class of “all classes that are members of themselves”
produced by self-definition? No – the underlying
predicative term “all classes that are classes” is not
problematic: indeed, all classes are classes. This
predication engenders the classificatory term “all classes
that are members of ‘classes’,” which is not per se
problematic, either. What is problematic is that the latter
term, using for example the fact that “classes” is a class,
and so apparently a member of itself, inductively gives rise
to the term “classes that are members of themselves.” So,
the genesis of the latter, problematic term is not through
mere self-definition, as Russell seems to think, but through
the illegitimate traduction (putative translation) of a
perfectly legitimate predication into a class-membership
proposition.
The said traduction is known and proved to be illegitimate
by the fact that it gives rise to the Russell paradox. My
proposed resolution is easily proved with reference to the
negative term “all classes that are not members of
themselves.” If the issue were self-definition, as Russell
suggests, then this term too would be problematic, since it
also refers to itself (if only negatively); yet this term is not
problematic!43 Clearly, then, the issue at hand is not self-
43
Alternatively, if the latter is thought to be problematic, then
the former cannot be thought so. In any case, one of the two has to be
unproblematic, for discourse to be at all possible. I mention this
alternative, only because at first sight it may seem that the negative
term “all classes not members of themselves” is the problematic one,
since it apparently results in paradox (whereas the positive one
definition, but something else entirely. It is the naïve

inference just described.
More accurate is Russell’s concluding statement, viz. that
“no existing collection can ever be a constitutive part of
itself” – but that is not an explanation in itself: it is an
evident consequent of the Russell paradox, i.e. a statement
that there is obviously some sort of problem with any
“existing collection” being “a constitutive part of itself,”
which implies that such a collection cannot exist. That is
not an explanation, but an observation needing an
explanation, and the explanation Russell offers revolves
around self-definition, as we have seen. But self-definition
is not, in fact, genetically involved.
I would say that, although Russell glimpsed that there is a
problem inherent in the idea of self-membership (or,
alternatively, perhaps, that of non-self-membership) by a
class, he did not correctly understand precisely why the
problem arose. He wrongly identified the problem as self-
definition, i.e. as self-reference in definition. But though
this feature is present and significant, it is not the crux of
the problem.
In truth, the problem can only be solved through the finer
conceptual analysis I have formulated. The problem arises
through the assumption that subsumption under a concept
and class-membership are fully parallel (effectively
interchangeable) ideas – they simply are not. It is this prior
faulty assumption which eventually gives rise to the
Russell paradox. Once this is understood, it is easy to see
why “self-membership” is unconscionable and we must
say categorically that no classes are members of
themselves, and in that event no Russell paradox arises
anymore.
apparently does not). In truth, this negative term is unproblematic, and

it is the positive term “all classes members of themselves” which
causes the paradox. Note this well.
Later on, Russell, seemingly dissatisfied with his earlier

proposed resolution of his double paradox, proposed his
Theory of Types as a means to this end. In its simplest
form, this theory focuses on the differences between the
individual items subsumed by classes, the classes
themselves, the classes of classes that the latter are
subsumed by, and so on. These are successive “types,”
forming a hierarchy of items from the concrete objects to
more and more abstract derivatives of them.44
Very briefly put, the theory postulates that a proposition
may be universally true of a lower type, but not include a
higher type. For example, all classes can be said to be
members of the class “classes,” without this implying that
“classes” is also a member, simply because (the theory
claims) it is of a higher type than all the classes it includes.
So, “all classes” does not literally mean all classes; it can
(due to “type” difference) exclude the class “classes” itself.
Of course, this claim is quite arbitrary, and merely conceals
the Russell paradox behind a smoke screen.45
There is some truth to this idea, but it also involves some
confusion. There indeed exists a hierarchy between
concrete individual items, abstract groupings of items
(classes), and more abstract groups of groups of items
(classes of classes). However, the Russell paradox does not
arise when we try to include a class in a class of classes,
i.e. a subclass in an overclass. And of course, the Russell
paradox does not arise when we try to include an individual
item in a class. The Russell paradox only arises when we
try to include a class in itself; or (by extension) a class of
classes in itself.
44
I will not here get into a detailed analysis of this theory. I refer
readers to my previous, more detailed analyses in my books Future
Logic (chapters 43-45) and A Fortiori Logic (Appendix 7.5).
45
I refer readers to the excellent exposition and critique of
Russell’s paradox and his attempted resolutions of it, in William and
Martha Kneales’ The Development of Logic, chapter 11.
The Russell paradox only arises in attempts to self-include

a class, or a class of classes, in itself. So, hierarchy is not
the issue, here, and the theory of types cannot provide a
solution! It is only incidentally true that a class can only
group concrete objects, or a class of classes can only group
less abstract classes. The reason for the paradox is not type
differences, but the fact that a class or class of classes
cannot, even in imagination, include itself in itself.
Note in passing that, in our above example, the class
“classes” (i.e. the class of all classes) is really a class of
classes, since the units it groups are all classes.
Nevertheless, it remains a class in its own right, and as such
apparently belongs under itself, i.e. subsumes itself. The
solution is not that it cannot subsume itself, but only that it
cannot be a member of itself. This is not a matter of
hierarchy (type), but a matter of changing predication into
classification.
3. Why Rescher’s resolution is inadequate

Nicholas Rescher’s proposed resolution of the Russell
paradox is somewhat but not much different from Russell’s
first attempt. He applies a general principle that he has
formulated, called the Successful Introduction Principle, to
the case at hand. He points out that “only when something
is properly identified, can it serve as a subject of
meaningful discussion;” adding: “With an inappropriately
identified pseudo-object… the door to contradiction and
paradox is thrown wide open”46. In his view, then, the
46
Op. cit. pp. 172-73. While this SIP principle is intuitively
sound, and relevant to the case at hand, it must be said that it is not a
general truth. In truth, much of human discourse is made through more
or less vague terms. Relatively few terms, if any, are fully and finally
defined. This is because our knowledge is essentially inductive, rather
than (as many logicians imagine) deductive. We use a word (when we
need one) and a working definition (when we have one) as pragmatic
Russell paradox is caused by a failure of proper

identification inherent in a class defined in terms of itself.
Thus, Rescher focuses on the problem of self-definition,
just as Russell does. His approach differs, as he points out,
in that whereas Russell sees self-definition as an
ontological issue, Rescher sees it as a communicative issue.
For Russell a class cannot exist which is defined with
reference to itself; whereas for Rescher, we cannot even
begin to use or discuss such a class, because it is as if
nothing has been said yet. Both these insights are, in my
view, true. But they do not resolve the Russell paradox, as
already explained. To repeat, the issue is not one of self-
definition, but of passing over from a predicative discourse
to a classificatory one. A class like “classes” is indeed a
class, but “classes” cannot be a member of the class
“classes.” These are two different systems of thought,
which do not behave identically in all circumstances.
We cannot form concepts at will, just by putting some
words together in a definition. A definition is a hypothesis
subject to verification by logic. In the case of the definition
of class-membership, viz. the proposition that “if X is a Y,
then X is a member of the class ‘Y’,” double paradox is
found to ensue in the special case of “if ‘Y’ is a Y, then ‘Y’
is a member of ‘Y’.” Therefore, the rule we tried to
formulate (i.e. the said definition of class-membership)
must have an exception; namely, when X stands for the
class “Y.”
tools. Our understanding of their reference is at all times tentative and

temporary. As our knowledge grows and our analyses are refined, our
terms (hopefully) gain increasing accuracy, become more pointed. So,
the principle here proposed by Rescher should not be taken too
generally. Meaningful discussion occurs all the time with imperfectly
defined words; that is the norm rather than the exception, and we
usually manage very well to avoid contradictions nonetheless.
Meaning is not essentially a verbal issue, but one of insight and
understanding.
The Russell paradox is valuable in that it teaches us that an

exception must be allowed for in the defining formula. We
initially assume the general definition to be valid; but after
we find out that it leads to self-contradiction and paradox,
we are obliged to retract it in part. We are logically forced
to altogether reject the notion of self-membership. This is
a very limited and precise retraction, but it restores
consistency to class logic. Our hypothetical definition has
been adjusted to avoid inconsistency. This is the correct
resolution of the Russell paradox.
4. Other incarnations of the paradox

It should be mentioned that Russell realized that the
concept of class was at issue somehow, but then he tried to
show that the same paradox could be formulated within
predication. As Kneale and Kneale rendered it47:
“Instead of the class which is supposed to contain

all classes that are not members of themselves let
us consider the property of being a property which
does not exemplify itself. If this property
exemplifies itself, then it cannot exemplify itself;
and if it does not exemplify itself, then it must
exemplify itself. Clearly, the nature of the trouble
is the same here as in the original paradox, and yet
there is no talk of classes.”
The implications here are that some properties “exemplify”

themselves, while some do not. That is, a property Y: in
some cases, Y is Y (i.e. has property Y) and in others Y is
not Y (i.e. lacks property Y). If Y is Y, then Y exemplifies
itself; and if Y is not Y, then Y does not exemplify itself.
47
The Development of Logic, p. 655.
Is it, however, ever true that Y is Y? Can anything be

pointed to that has precisely itself as a predicate? I would
say not. Clearly, ‘Y is Y’ here does not refer to a
predicative tautology, like ‘white is white’. Rather what we
mean by ‘Y is Y’ here is that ‘whiteness is white’, i.e. Y-
ness (the property Y) is Y (has the property Y). This is a
very different statement, which does not follow from the
preceding one.
And the same critique of it can be brought to bear for it as
for the classificatory version. We may well say that if X is
Y, then X “exemplifies” Y-ness (i.e. is one of the things
that has Y-ness), but in the special case where X is replaced
by Y-ness (i.e. the property Y), we must make an
exception, and deny that ‘Y-ness is Y’ implies ‘Y-ness
exemplifies Y-ness (i.e. itself)’. To avoid an eventual
Russell paradox, we must at least short-circuit such
implication, if not totally reject the consequent (saying that
it is never true that Y-ness exemplifies Y-ness), if not even
reject the antecedent (saying that it is never true that Y-ness
is Y).
Russell claimed that if “the property of non-self-
exemplification” exemplifies itself, then it lacks “the
property of non-self-exemplification” and so cannot
exemplify itself; and if does not exemplify itself, then it has
“the property of non-self-exemplification” and so must
exemplify itself. To my mind, this means we must reject
the very idea of self-exemplification and say that nothing
exemplifies itself (even if we happen to find some Y-ness
which is Y). In that event, we can well say that “the
property of non-self-exemplification” does not exemplify
itself, without any contradiction arising.
The same thing can be said using other terms: some
concepts are “instances” of themselves, while some are not.
That is, we can define instantiation by saying: if X is a Y,
then X is an instance of Y (i.e. X is an individual within the
group called Y); but we must make an exception in the

special case where X is replaced by Y, and deny that if Y
is a Y then Y is an instance of Y. It is clear that Y here
refers specifically to a concept, and not just any kind of
thing. An example would be “the concept ‘concept’ is a
concept; therefore, the concept ‘concept’ is an instance of
itself.”
This is clearly very similar to saying “the class of all classes
is itself a class; therefore, the class of all classes is a
member of itself;” and a similar paradox is bound to
emerge from it, which can be neutralized in a similar
manner. That is, we must upon reflection say that nothing
is an instance of itself, so that in fact “the concept of non-
self-instantiation” is not an instance of itself. A similar line
of reasoning can be followed with regard to “inclusion”
and any other similar relations.
Clearly, none of these issues relate to predication as such,
but to more geometrical ideas (classifying,
having/belonging, instantiating, including) through which
we try to represent predication. These relations are
intended as metaphors for predication; but it turns out that
these analogies are not perfect. The lesson the Russell
paradox teaches us is that these derivative relations all have
exceptions (as already detailed above). The Russell
paradox does not affect predication as such; predication as
such is immune to it. Although Russell was right to
investigate whether his paradox meme affects predication
as such, he was wrong to conclude that it does; it does not.
5. About the Barber paradox

There is a town with only one barber. Some men in it shave
themselves; the rest do not, but are all shaved by the barber.
What about the barber? Does he shave himself or not? If he
does, he is one of the men who shave themselves (no
problem); if he does not, he is one of those shaved by the
barber, i.e. by himself (apparent contradiction). Obviously,

in his case, the two classes of men overlap: he both “shaves
himself” and he is “shaved by the barber.” This is hardly
problematic: it just tells us that the supposed either-or
disjunction between the two groups of men is not really
one; his case is a logically implied exception to it. That is,
in his case, unlike in other cases, being shaved by the
barber does not imply not shaving himself.
How does this compare to the Russell paradox, of which
the barber paradox is touted as an illustration? I resolve the
Russell paradox by saying that no class is a member of
itself; it follows that we can say that the class of “classes
not members of themselves” is necessarily not a member
of itself, without this giving rise to a contradiction. I
resolve the barber paradox differently, by saying that,
unlike all other men in town, the barber can well both shave
himself and be shaved by the barber (himself). In the
Russell paradox, one of the conflicting classes is wholly
eliminated. In the barber paradox, the conflict between the
classes is softened in a single case (that of the barber
himself). Since the two paradoxes are not resolved in the
same way, they must be regarded as logically distinct.
10. Hempel's paradox of

confirmation
From Logical and Spiritual Reflections 1.8.
1. Traditional analysis
Carl Gustav Hempel1 in the 1940s exposed an alleged
“paradox of confirmation”, which suggested that a fully
consistent formal inductive logic is impossible. This is
commonly called “the raven paradox”, and may be
described as follows:
a) The observation that Some ravens are black (Some A
are B) confirms the hypothesis that All ravens are black
(All A are B).
The latter proposition may be contraposed to All non-black
things are non-ravens (All nonB are nonA).
b) Next, consider the observation that Some apples are
green (Some C are D). This is convertible to Some green
things are apples (Some D are C).
It follows from this proposition that Some non-black things
are non-ravens (Some nonB are nonA), since green things
are not black and apples are not ravens.
Now, just as Some ravens are black (Some A are B)
confirms the hypothesis that All ravens are black (All A are
B), so Some non-black things are non-ravens (Some nonB
are nonA) confirms the hypothesis that All non-black
things are non-ravens (All nonB are nonA).
1
Germany-USA, 1905-97.
Hempel’s paradox of confirmation 145
This induced proposition may in turn be contraposed to All

ravens are black (All A are B), and here lies the difficulty,
for it appears that the mere observation of some green
apples is enough to confirm the hypothesis that All ravens
are black! Note well that to achieve this result we did not
even need to observe any black ravens.
c) It follows from the preceding that we can equally well,
using the same logical process, given Some apples are
green, confirm the hypothesis that All ravens are pink, or
any other color (except green) for that matter.
d) This is in itself a mystery: how can apples tell us about
ravens? Intuitively, this has to be viewed as a non-sequitur.
Moreover, in the case of black ravens, the existence of
black ravens has empirical backing, as already indicated;
so, the ‘inference’ from green apples to All ravens are black
still seems somewhat reasonable. But in the case of pink
ravens, we have never observed any such animals; so, the
‘inference’ from green apples to All ravens are pink seems
quite unjustifiable.
Moreover, knowing by observation that Some ravens are
black, how can we ‘conclude’ that All ravens are pink?
Even if we do not claim all ravens black, but only claim all
ravens pink, we would in such circumstances be upholding
contrary propositions, namely the particular one that some
ravens are black and the general one that all ravens are
pink.
Moreover, even if we have never observed the color of any
ravens, we can according to the above inductive process
simultaneously conclude many contrary statements such as
All ravens are black, All ravens are pink, All ravens are
orange, etc. This too is a result that flies in the face of the
law of non-contradiction.
Furthermore, the same can be done with reference not only
to green apples, but also to apples of other colors (except
black or pink, etc. as the case may be), and indeed to things
(non-ravens) other than apples. In that event, almost
anything goes in knowledge, and we can at will affirm or

deny just about anything about just about everything!
This then, according to traditional presentations2, is
Hempel’s paradox. It appears, from such analysis that the
inductive processes of confirming hypotheses (such as
generalizations directly from experience or indirectly from
logical derivatives of experience) are fundamentally
flawed. The analysis involved is quite formal, i.e. it can be
performed in terms of symbols like A, B, C, D – and so it
has universal force.
It follows that induction is bound to result in various
absurdities: apparent non-sequiturs, many contradictions,
and ultimately imply the arbitrariness of all human
knowledge. Clearly, Hempel discovered here a serious
challenge to inductive logic and logic in general.
2. Novel analysis
As I will now show in detail, the above analysis is
inaccurate in some important respects. I will show that
although Hempel did indeed discover an interesting formal
problem for logicians to consider and solve, this problem
does not result in what we would call a paradox. That is,
there are valuable lessons to be learned from Hempel’s
paradox (as we may continue to call it conventionally), but
it does not present logic with any insurmountable
predicament.
a) The first operation described above is the commonly
used inductive process of generalization. A particular
proposition (Some A are B) is turned into a general one
(All A are B). The particular supports the general in the
way that positive evidence confirms a hypothesis. Their
logical relation is adductive. ‘Some’ here means ‘at least
2
See for instance: the article in Wikipedia at
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Raven_paradox.
some, possibly all and possibly only some’ – and by

generalizing we are opting for the hypothesis ‘all’ in
preference to the hypothesis ‘only some’.
However, it would be an error to consider that Some A are
B is alone capable of inductively justifying All A are B.
Such generalization is an inductively permissible inference
provided we have looked for and so far not found any A
that are not B. For if we had found (by direct observation
or by some reasoning) that Some A are not B, we would
certainly not have generalized. Moreover, if we later do
come across an A that is not B, we would have to
particularize All A are B back to Some A are B.
This condition sine qua non of generalization, viz. to
remain on the lookout for contradictory instances and
adjust one’s judgment accordingly, is not stressed or even
mentioned in the earlier presentation, note well. Yet this is
a known and accepted rule of scientific thought at least
since the time of Francis Bacon, who emphasized the
importance of the “negative instance” in induction. To
ignore this condition is bound to lead to contradictions
sooner rather than later.
Regarding the contraposition of All A are B to All nonB
are nonA, it is of course a deductive act. Even so, we must
keep in mind that the conclusion All nonB are nonA is only
due to the prior inductive inference of All A are B from
Some A are B. No observation is required for the
deduction, but we remain bound by the need to keep
checking the previous inductive act, i.e. to remain alert for
eventual cases of A that are not B.
b) Now, let us grant that Some C are D, as above. Some C
are D readily converts to Some D are C. However, Some D
are C does not formally imply that Some nonB are nonA –
some syllogistic inference is tacitly involved here, which
ought to be brought out in the open. Clearly, we tacitly take
for granted the premises that green is not black and apples
are not ravens, whence: the following two successive

syllogisms are constructed:
1st figure, EIO:
No green thing is a black thing (No D are B)
Some apples are green (Some C are D)
Therefore, Some apples are not black (Some C are not B).
3rd figure, AII:
All apples are non-ravens (All C are nonA)
Some apples are non-black (Some C are nonB)
Therefore, Some non-black things are non-ravens (Some
nonB are nonA).
Whence, by generalization we obtain: All non-black things
are non-ravens (All nonB are nonA); and then by
contraposition: All ravens are black (All A are B). Note that
the premises that led to this general conclusion do not
include Some ravens are black; i.e. this conclusion is based
on no empirical observation of black ravens.
Note too that we could have obtained the same result with
the premises No ravens are green (No A are D) and No
apples are black (No C are B). Note also that, though the
syllogisms involved are deductive processes, all such tacit
premises require prior observations and generalizations
(i.e. inductions) to be adopted.
Moreover, it is significant to note that these syllogisms
could not be constructed if the colors of the ravens and
apples under consideration were the same (both green or
both black), or if ravens and apples were not mutually
exclusive classes. We also assume here that a raven cannot
have more than one color (e.g. be partly black and partly
green or whatever, or sometimes the one and sometimes
the other); and similarly for an apple.
The next step was to generalize Some nonB are nonA to
All nonB are nonA. But here again, generalization is
allowed only provided we have no evidence or inference
from any other source that Some nonB are not nonA. That
is, in our example, we must remain conscious that it is
possible that some non-black things are not non-ravens, i.e.

are ravens, which means we might yet find some non-black
(albino) ravens out there.
Here too, we must make sure, in accordance with Bacon’s
crucial principle of adduction, that there is no conflicting
observation that obstructs our expansive élan. This is all
the more necessary, since here the premise of
generalization Some nonB are nonA was obtained
indirectly by deduction from previous products of
induction, whereas previously our premise Some A are B
was (supposedly) directly observed.
Note further that these two generalizations have the
regulatory conditions that Some A are not B or Some nonB
are not nonA, respectively, not be found true – and these
conditions are one and the same since these two
propositions are logically equivalent by contraposition.
This means that in either case, whether we reason directly
from black ravens or indirectly from green apples, there is
the same implicit condition for generalization – that in our
experience or reasoning to date no non-black ravens have
appeared.
Thus, whichever of these two generalizations we opt for,
the condition that there be no known instances of A which
are not B is unaffected, and the dependence of the truth of
All A are B on this condition is unchanged. Note too, the
same condition holds before and after such generalizations.
That is, even after such inductive process, if we discover
new evidence to the contrary, we logically may and indeed
must retract.
As previously stated in c) and d): using the same logical
process, given Some apples are green, we can equally
confirm the hypothesis that All ravens are pink, and many
other wild hypotheses that conflict with each other3.
3
To show propositions with different predicates are in conflict,
we use syllogism. For instance, All ravens are black and All ravens are
Obviously, we are doing something wrong somewhere, and

have to take action to either prevent such absurd eventual
consequences or correct them when and if they occur. I will
now explain the solution to the problem.
Generalization is never an irreversible process. So, if any
generalization leads to contradictions, we are free and
indeed obligated to particularize. The question of course
remains: in what precise direction and how far back should
we go? Still, what this means is that there is no ‘paradox’
in inductive logic as there is in deductive logic; almost
everything (with the exception of logic itself – especially
the laws of thought on which it is built) is and ever remains
‘negotiable’.
In deduction, a contradiction is a far more serious event,
because the process leading up to it is presumably
necessary. But in induction, we know from the outset that
the connection between premise(s) and conclusion is
conditional – so contradictions are expected to arise and it
is precisely the job of inductive logic to determine how to
respond to them.
Dealing with contradictions is a branch of inductive logic,
called harmonization or conflict resolution. This is not
something rare and exceptional – but occurs all the time in
the development of knowledge. Sometimes conflicts are
resolved before they take shape, sometimes after. If we see
them coming, we preempt them; otherwise, we perform the
possible and necessary retractions.
Particularization of a general proposition is retraction.
More broadly, retraction means rejection or modification
of a theory in the light of new evidence. Thus, for example:
till now, I have seen only black ravens, and assumed all are
black; tomorrow, I may notice a white raven, and change
my view about the possible colors of ravens.
pink are incompatible, because knowing that No black things are pink,
we obtain, by syllogism (1st figure, EAE): No ravens are pink, which
is contrary to All ravens are pink.
Hempel is evidently or apparently unaware of this crucial

aspect of inductive reasoning, else he would not have
viewed contradictions arising in the course of induction as
paradoxical. Nevertheless, the situation described by him
is interesting in this context, for reasons he did not (I think)
realize.
For after the first generalization, starting from Some ravens
are black (Some A are B), if we belatedly discover that
Some ravens are not black (Some A are not B), we simply
return to our initial observation that Some ravens are black
(Some A are B). Whereas after the second generalization,
starting from Some non-black things are non-ravens (Some
nonB are nonA), if we belatedly discover the same
conflicting evidence, we cannot simply deny All ravens are
black (All A are B).
Why? Because this would still leave us with part of our
generalization, viz. the claim that Some ravens are black
(Some A are B). That is to say, we would expect ‘All A are
B’ plus ‘Some A are not B’ to yield the harmonizing
conclusion ‘Some A are B and some A are not B’. The
negative particular does not eliminate the positive
particular underlying the positive generality; since we
previously (due to said generalization) believed the
generality, we now have a leftover to account for.
In the case of All ravens are black, such retraction is not
noteworthy, since we know from experience Some ravens
are black; but in the case of All ravens are pink, we have a
serious problem, for there is no shred of evidence for a
claim that Some ravens are pink! In other words, the
proposed retraction cannot suffice in the situation
presented by Hempel, i.e. when All A are B is induced from
Some nonB are nonA.
3. The problem and its solution

In my view, this is the crux of the problem revealed by
Hempel’s exploration. The problem is not exactly a
paradox, since the validity of generalization formally
depends on such process not giving rise to any eventual
contradiction.4
That from the observation of some green apples we may by
generalization infer that All ravens are black and All ravens
are pink and many other conflicting conclusions – this is
amusing, but not frightening. For in such situation of self-
contradiction, we can by retraction find ways to harmonize
our knowledge again. The problem is temporary.
On the other hand, what Hempel has here uncovered is that
we cannot always retract simply by particularization of the
conflicting theses. Particularization seems acceptable in
some cases (e.g. with black ravens), but in other cases it
yields unacceptable results (e.g. with pink ravens), because
the logical remainder of such retraction is devoid of
empirical basis.
Suppose, using Hempel’s method, starting from green
apples, we induce both the generalities All ravens are pink
and All ravens are orange. These two conclusions are in
conflict. Let us say we decide to resolve the conflict by
denying them both; that still leaves us with two
4
A paradox is a thesis that formally contradicts itself or
deductively leads to contradictory propositions. From a single such
paradox, we may conclude that the thesis in question is false; logic as
such is not put in question, because the contradiction involved is
merely conditional. A double paradox, on the other hand, is a serious
threat to logic; here, both a thesis and its contradictory are paradoxical,
so the contradiction is unconditional. In that case, logic cannot declare
either of them true or false – but must among them find either a non-
sequitur (as in the Barber paradox) or a meaningless term (as in the
Liar paradox). That is, logic must challenge either one or more of the
implications involved, and/or one or more of the terms or theses
involved. The Hempel scenario does not give rise to an
unconditional/double paradox.
propositions Some ravens are pink and Some ravens are

orange.
These two particular propositions are not in conflict – and,
let us take for granted, neither of them has any empirical
basis, yet they both got somehow cozily ‘established’ in
our knowledge! They were introduced by the
generalizations from green apples, yet they were not
dislodged when we abandoned the corresponding
generalities. We are stuck with them, even though the
complex processes that led to them have been revoked.
It is unthinkable that such particulars (whether true or
untrue) should emerge from the unrelated observation of
green apples (or whatever else). This I believe is the
significant problem uncovered by Hempel. The problem is
not the conflict of generalities or between general and
particular propositions, so it is not about paradox. The
problem has to do with ‘collateral damage’ to knowledge,
through incomplete correction of errors.
I suggest the following solution for it: when we generalize
from Some A are B to All A are B, and then discover that
Some A are not B, we particularize All A are B back to
Some A are B. That is normal procedure, which we all
commonly practice.5
On the other hand, when we obtain All A are B by
generalization from Some nonB are nonA to All nonB are
nonA (followed by contraposition of the latter), then when
we discover that Some A are not B, we cannot merely
particularize All A are B back to Some A are B, but must
also retract the intermediate premise of the proposition All
A are B, viz. All nonB are nonA, and return to Some nonB
are nonA.
In view of the latter retraction, we in fact no longer have a
basis for claiming Some A are B (this cannot be deduced
from Some nonB are nonA). It would be an error of
5
Symbolically, A + O = IO.
induction to forget the actual source of our belief in All A

are B. The distinction between the inductive grounds Some
A are B and Some nonB are nonA must be kept in mind, so
that in the event of discovery of contradictory evidence,
viz. that Some A are not B, we particularize back to our
exact same previous position in each case.
We may thence formulate the following new law of
inductive logic, which may be called the law of
commensurate retraction: a product of generalization like
All A are B cannot be treated without regard to its
particular source; when if ever it is denied by new
evidence, we must retreat to the same initial particular and
not to some other particular that was implied by the
generality when it seemed true but is now no longer
implied by it since it is no longer true.
In other words, when and if we come upon a contradiction
of the sort considered here, we must realize that this does
not merely discredit the generality that was previously
induced, but more deeply discredits the inductive act that
gave rise to it. Thus, we should not retract by mere
particularization, but carefully verify whether the
remaining particular has any independent basis and if it has
not we should return far back enough to the status quo ante
to make sure no unconfirmed particular remains.
This seems like a perfectly reasonable instruction – to
reverse and clean up all traces of an inductive act that was
found illicit, i.e. that led us into a logical impasse.
All this means that, using ordinary procedures of logic, we
would never fall into a self-contradictory situation (e.g.
claiming paradoxically All ravens are black and All ravens
are pink). The fact that generalizations may yield
incompatible results is commonplace; we daily deal with
such conflicts without difficulty. When such conflicts
arise, we are logically required to harmonize. If we cannot
find a specific way to resolve the conflict, the conflict is
resolved in a generic manner, viz. all the generalizations

involved are put in doubt.
In a situation where two or more propositions are put in
doubt by mutual conflict, we would naturally give more
credence to one that has some direct empirical basis (like
All ravens are black) than to one that merely emerged from
indirect projection (like All ravens are pink). We need not
treat all conflicting propositions with equal doubt, but may
be selective with regard to their inductive genesis.
With regard to the evidence for conflicting thesis –
obviously, if we have no data on black or pink ravens, we
would not know which way to retract, and both
generalizations would be problematic. But if we have
observed some black ravens and never observed any pink
ones, we would naturally opt for the generalization that All
ravens are black (All A are B). On the other hand, if we
have observed both black ravens and pink ravens, we
would make neither generalization and simply conjoin the
two particulars.
With regard to the inductive processes used – direct
generalization would naturally be favored over the indirect
sort envisaged by Hempel. If the conflict at hand can be
resolved by ordinary means, e.g. with reference to
empirical considerations, we need not bother to backtrack
with reference to process. But in cases where we have no
other means of decision, process would naturally be the
focus of revision.
A possible objection to the law of commensurate retraction
would be that in practice we rarely manage to keep track of
the exact sources of our generalizations. Such ignorance
could conceivably occur and cause some havoc of the type
Hempel described in our knowledge.
However, we may also point out that in practice we just
about never find ourselves in the situation described by
Hempel. How often does anyone generalize from a
proposition like Some nonB are nonA? The statistical
answer is ‘probably never’ – Hempel’s paradox is just a

remote formal possibility that logicians have to consider,
but its practical impact is just about nil.
Moreover, we are not likely to arrive at a proposition of the
form Some nonB are nonA, except by the sort of reasoning
above depicted, i.e. through some other terms like C and D.
We cannot directly observe that Some nonB are nonA.
Observation relates primarily to positive phenomena; it can
be about negative phenomena but only indirectly. This
suggests that if we did encounter a situation of Hempel
paradox, we would likely be aware of how it arose.
Another remark worth making is that the above solution of
the problem raised in Hempel’s paradox can be
characterized as heuristic; it is repair work by trial and
error. But I have already proposed in my work Future
Logic6 a detailed, systematic, formal treatment of
induction, by means of factorization and formula revision.
I believe that is free of the Hempel’s problem, since every
formal possibility is included in the factorial formulas
developed.
With regard to solutions to Hempel’s paradox offered by
other logicians, e.g. those by Goodman and by Quine
described in the earlier mentioned Wikipedia article:
“Nelson Goodman suggested adding restrictions to our
reasoning, such as never considering an instance as support
for ‘All P are Q’ if it would also support ‘No P are Q’ …
Goodman, and later another philosopher, [W.V.] Quine,
used the term projectible predicate to describe those
expressions, such as raven and black, which do allow
inductive generalization; non-projectible predicates are by
contrast those such as non-black and non-raven which
apparently do not. Quine suggests that it is an empirical
question which, if any, predicates are projectible; and notes
6
First published in 1990, a few years before Hempel’s death.
See part VI.
that in an infinite domain of objects the complement of a

projectible predicate ought always be non-projectible. This
would have the consequence that, although “All ravens are
black” and “All non-black things are non-ravens” must be
equally supported, they both derive all their support from
black ravens and not from non-black non-ravens.”
I find these proposals reasonable and not incompatible with
my own. However, I think mine is a little more precise in
pinpointing the problem at hand and its solution.
Goodman’s suggestion to restrict induction from a
proposition if such process yields conflicting conclusions
is logically sound. Only his instruction cannot be obeyed
preemptively, but only after we discover that the process
yields conflicting conclusions. So, it is not a preventative,
as he seems to consider it, but an after the fact correction.
It can therefore be regarded as about the same as the law of
commensurate retraction I above propose. The only
difference is that he does not seem to have made a
distinction between the conflict of generalities and the
underlying leftover particulars.
As for “non-projectible predicates”, I would agree that
negative terms (complements) present a general problem in
induction. Although deductive logic makes no distinction
between positive and negative terms, phenomenology does
distinguish between the presence of positive phenomena
and their absence. Whereas we can observe a positive
phenomenon (like a black raven) without regard to its
negation, we cannot mention a negative term (like non-
black or non-raven) before thinking of and looking for the
corresponding positive phenomenon and failing to find it.7
Thus, a truly negative term can never be truly empirical. Its
content is never ‘I have seen something’, but always ‘I have
diligently looked for something and not found it’. A
negative is ‘empirical’ in a lesser, more derivative sense
7
See my essay on this topic in Ruminations (part I, chapter 9).
than a positive. It already involves a generalization of sorts,

from ‘could not be found’ to ‘was not there to be found’.
It follows from this insight that generalization from
negative terms, such as Some nonB are nonA, can only
proceed with unusual caution and skepticism. Hempel’s
scenario further justifies such tentativeness. We are might
even be tempted as a radical solution to simply always
interdict generalization for a truly negative subject. If any
manner of discourse has certain likely illogical
consequence, logicians are wise to formulate a preemptive
law of logic of this sort.
Another temptation is to deny any meaningful content to
propositions of the form Some nonB are nonA. Such a
proposition is formally implied by All A are B, and
compatible with Some A are B, No A are B and Some A
are not B – but does it really tell us anything? Indeed, since
nothing can be inferred about A or B (as subjects) from
Some nonB are nonA, what information does such a
proposition contain? Could one not conceivably assert such
a proposition using any almost two terms taken at random?
This sort of doubt could be used to further justify
interdiction of generalization from such propositions.8
However, since a less radical solution, namely the above-
proposed law of commensurate retraction is possible, we
perhaps need not go so far. Rather than preemptively forbid
certain doubtful processes under all conditions, I prefer to
allow them in case they occasionally work, and prepare the
8
These questions are made clearer if we consider the eventual
negation of Some nonB are nonA, i.e. the form No nonB is nonA,
which implies All nonB are A. In the event the latter proposition is true,
we would have a negative term (nonB) included in a positive (A). This
could be taken to mean that almost all the world (except things that are
B) falls under A. For this to happen, A would have to be a very large
concept. Such a concept would be very exceptional and almost
meaningless. Whence, we can say that Some nonB are nonA is almost
always true, and at the same time not very informative.
appropriate corrective mechanism for when they fail to

work.
To sum up, I believe we have convincingly shown here that
Hempel's so-called paradox does not present the science of
logic with any insuperable difficulty; it is made out to be a
bit more daunting than it really is. Even so, it is an
interesting contribution for logicians to ponder over.
11. Goodman’s paradox of

prediction
From Logical and Spiritual Reflections 1.9.
1. The alleged problem

Nelson Goodman56 proposed in 1955 a “riddle of
induction” (as he called it57) or “paradox of prediction” (as
others have characterized it), which seemed to demonstrate
a formal difficulty in generalization. This may be stated as
follows:
“Goodman … introduce[d] the color grue, which applies to
all things examined before a certain time t just in case they
are green, but also to other things just in case they are blue
and not examined before time t. If we examine emeralds
before time t and find that emerald a is green, emerald b is
green, and so forth, each will confirm the hypothesis that
all emeralds are green. However, emeralds a, b, c, ... etc.
also confirm the hypothesis that all emeralds are grue. In
this case emeralds a,b,c, … examined after time t should be
grue, and therefore blue!” (Emphasis mine)58
56
USA, 1906-98.
57
Or more pretentiously, “the new problem of induction”.
58
Here I’m quoting:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nelson_Goodman. Elsewhere, we are
informed that “applies to all things examined before t just in case they
are green but to other things just in case they are blue” is Goodman’s
own wording in his original presentation in Fact, Fiction, and Forecast
(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grue_%28color%29).
Goodman’s paradox of prediction 161
The significance of this artifice, according to its

proponents, is that although green and “grue” have the
same linguistic form, and so should be subject to the same
logical processes (in this case, the inductive process of
generalization), they are internally quite different types of
concepts, since the first implies a similarity between its
past and future instances, while the second suggests a
change of color over time, so that the result is paradoxically
quite different if we generalize with reference to the one or
the other.
2. The logical solution

However, as I shall now formally demonstrate, this is
merely a sleight of hand, for though the act of
generalization is equally valid for green and for grue, it
does not follow that we can infer any emeralds to be blue
from the induced general proposition that all emeralds are
grue. That is to say, the conclusion “and therefore blue” in
the above presentation is an erroneous deduction.
To expose this simple error, the given scenario must be
reformulated more carefully (the symbols X, A, B, C are
mine):
 Say we examine all available emeralds (X), till a
certain time (t), and finding them all to be green (A), we
ordinarily conclude by generalization that All emeralds are
green (All X are A), although we know [from past
experience with induction in general] that the next emerald
we find, after time t, might well turn out to be blue (B) [or
indeed, to be some other color59]!
59
This is my own interpolation, to make Goodman’s thesis more
accurate. For there is no reason to suppose a priori that only blue
emeralds might eventually be found. We are only guessing the
possibility of blue emeralds, not basing it on any specific observations
– therefore any other color is equally probable (or improbable).
 Let us now following Goodman introduce a new

concept “grue” (C) to be defined as the class grouping all
things that were examined before a certain time t and found
to be green (A) and all things not examined before time t
which happen to be blue (B) [or indeed, to be some other
color].60
 Applying this definition, all X (emeralds) examined
before t were found A (green) are also C (grue); i.e. by
syllogism we can infer Some X are C. As for remaining
eventual cases of X, those not examined till after time t [if
ever], each will either be found be to be A (green) or to be
B (blue) [or indeed, to be some other color]; in that sense,
the latter X too are C. Hence, All X are C would seem a
reasonable conclusion.
 But it certainly does not logically follow from the
preceding that any emeralds will indeed be found to be any
color other than green, i.e. that any X are B [i.e. blue, or
whatever non-green color]! For, properly understood, the
category C is not formulated as a disjunction of A or B that
is bound to actualize both some cases of X-A and some
cases of X-B.
 If you look closely, you will see that C includes on
the one hand things already known to be A (green emeralds
already observed) and on the other hand a palette of things
of still unknown qualification, i.e. either A or B (blue) [or
even some other color]. The latter is a disjunction of
Nevertheless, my refutation of Goodman works just as well without

this added comment.
60
Note that the latter things are stated to be merely “not
examined until time t [yet, if ever]”; this is not to be confused (as some
commentators have done) with “examined after time t”, for no matter
how many things we do eventually examine, we will obviously never
achieve (or know we have achieved) a complete enumeration of all
such things in the universe. Note also that the concept grue is here
defined as a general predicate for any eventual subject (“things”),
rather than specifically for emeralds.
conceivable outcomes, not one of inevitable outcomes. To

infer X-B as an actual outcome would therefore be a non-
sequitur.
 The fact that we do not know whether any future X
will be found A does not allow us to infer from this
disjunction of possibilities that some future X will
necessarily be B. We do not yet know whether any future
X will be found B, either. We may well find that All X are
A (All emeralds are green) remains forever applicable after
time t as before time t (as predicted in the initial ordinary
generalization).
 The premises ‘All X are C’ and ‘All C are A or B’
indeed yield the syllogistic conclusion ‘All X are A or B’.
But the disjunction ‘A or B’ here cannot be interpreted
differently in the major premise and in the conclusion. The
disjunction in the premise not being extensional, the
disjunction in the conclusion cannot be treated as
extensional61. To do so would be to commit the fallacy of
four terms.
It is thus clear from our exposition that the introduction of
the concept “grue” has changed nothing whatsoever in the
inductive possibilities offered by the given data. The
correct inductive conclusion remains unaffected by
Goodman’s fun and games. All Goodman has succeeded in
doing is artfully conceal his fallacious deductive reasoning
(misinterpretation of the kind of disjunction involved); it is
all just sophistry.
In the thick smoke of Goodman’s rhetoric, it is made to
appear as if blue emeralds are as easy to predict as green
ones. But that is not at all the logical conclusion according
61
That is, a base of the given disjunction is Some C might be B,
whereas the corresponding base of the allegedly inferred disjunction is
Some X are B. But to imagine something happening is not proof it has
to in fact happen sometimes. The conclusion does not follow from the
premise.
to inductive logic. Why? Because in the case of the

hypothesis that future emeralds observed will be found
green, we have some concrete data to support it, namely
that all present and past emeralds observed have been
found green.
Whereas, in the support of Goodman’s hypothesis that blue
emeralds will appear, we have no experiential evidence
whatever so far. All we can say is that it is not
inconceivable that blue emeralds might one day be found,
but that does not imply that any ever will. ‘Not
inconceivable’ does not justify actual prediction. It just
means ‘imaginable in the present context of knowledge’.
That is, all we have is a general epistemological principle
to remain open-minded to all eventual outcomes, based on
past experience relating to all sorts of objects, that novelty
does appear occasionally. But such scientific open-
mindedness is not equivalent to a positive prediction of
specific changes. It is just a call, in the name of realism, to
avoidance of prejudice and rigidity.
3. The concept of ‘grue’

A question we ought to ask is whether Goodman’s “grue”
construct is a well-formed concept?
An ordinary concept of “grue” (or green-blue) would
simply be formulated as “green and/or blue”. We may well
find it valuable to introduce such a concept, perhaps to
stress that green and blue are close in the range of colors,
or that some things are partly green and partly blue, or
sometimes green and sometimes blue, or that some hues in
between are hard to classify as clearly green or clearly blue.
The dividing line between these colors is after all pretty
arbitrary.
Given that some emeralds are green, we could then deduce
that some emeralds are grue. It would be equally valid to
induce thence that all emeralds are green or that all

emeralds are grue. This would imply no inherent self-
contradiction, because to say that all emeralds are grue
does not imply (or exclude) that any emeralds are blue. All
emeralds are grue is formally compatible with the
eventuality that all emeralds are green. So, there is no
“paradox of prediction” in fact.
Goodman’s “grue” construct is no different from this
ordinary concept with respect to such logical implication.
Its difference is not in the involvement of disjunction
(green or blue), since such disjunction is quite
commonplace; for example, the concept “colored” means
(roughly) “red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo or
violet”. The significant difference in Goodman’s construct
is its involvement of temporal-epistemic conditions. This
serves the rhetoric purpose of clouding the issues.
Defining the concept “grue” as the class of all things
examined before time t and found to be green and all things
not examined before t that happen to be blue – involves a
self-contradiction of sorts. If I have not yet examined the
things after time t, how can I positively say of any of them
that they are blue? I could only make such a statement ex
post facto, after having examined some of the things after
time t and found them blue.
Alternatively, it would have to be said by a ‘third party’
looking on, who has examined some of the things before
time t and found them blue, and who is observing my
situation before I have done the same. But as regards all
current observers taken together, they cannot logically
adopt such a hypothesis, about things that happen to be blue
although they have not yet been observed to be so. We can
only consistently talk about things that might yet be found
blue. For this reason, Goodman’s grue concept is not well-
formed.
Grue is primarily defined as the union of green things and

blue things; but it does not follow from such definition that
if some things (such as emeralds) are green, then other such
things (i.e. other emeralds) must be blue. To say that a kind
of thing (emeralds) is grue is not to intend that its instances
must cover the whole range of possibilities included under
grue. The concept of grue remains legitimate provided we
find the predicates it collects together (green, blue)
scattered in various kinds of thing (emeralds, the sea, etc.).
Thus, every ordinary predicate involves some uncertainty
as to its application to specific subjects. Moreover, this
applicability may vary with time: according to our context
of knowledge, and according to changes occurring in the
objects observed. Therefore, there is no need to involve
such epistemic and temporal factors in the definition of any
of the concepts we propose. Such factors are inherent to
conceptualization.
The reason Goodman introduced such complications in his
definition of “grue” was because he wanted to refute (or
give the impression he was refuting) the process of
generalization we commonly use to develop our
knowledge on the basis of limited observation.
According to inductive logic, observing that some X are A,
and so far seeking and not finding any X that are not A, we
may generalize and say All X are A. This remains
effectively true for us so long as we have no evidence of
any X that is not A. Generalization involves prediction, i.e.
saying something about cases of X we have not yet
observed and maybe never will.
Goodman wished to demonstrate that we are equally
justified in predicting a negative outcome (i.e. not A, e.g.
B) as a positive outcome (i.e. A)62. He did not realize the
62
To do so, he needed to construct a concept that would include
both A and notA, so that generalization could be formally shown to be
able to go either way. However, since a concept including
logical justification of our generalizations63. We are not

arbitrarily predicting that the cases of X we observe in the
future will be A rather than not A. We are just sticking to
the same polarity (A), because it is the only polarity we
have any empirical evidence for so far. Comparatively, to
predict the opposite polarity (not A, in this context) would
be purely arbitrary – a wild assertion. Specifically for X,
the first move has some empirical support, whereas the
second has none at all.
Goodman simply did not realize this difference in
justification between the two courses, though it is obvious
to anyone who takes the time to reflect. He thus failed to
apply the inductive principle that a confirmed hypothesis is
always to be preferred to an unconfirmed one. Moreover,
as we saw, in his eagerness to invalidate inductive
reasoning, he committed one of the most elementary errors
of deductive reasoning!
4. How far up the scale?

Underlying Goodman’s riddle is another important
question for inductive logic: how far up any scale of
classification can generalizations legitimately be taken?
Having for a given subject generalized a certain predicate,
why not generalize further up the scale to a larger
predicate?64
Consider a subject X and any two predicates S and G,
related as species and genus, i.e. such that all S are G but
not all G are S (i.e. some nonS are also G). Here, note well,
S and G are both ordinary concepts, like green and colored.
contradictories in non-informative, he included contraries, viz. ‘A or

B’ (where B is not A). This slightly conceals the issue, but does not in
fact change it.
63
See my Future Logic, chapter 50.
64
I have touched upon this topic (indirectly, with regard to
ethical logic) in my Judaic Logic, chapter 13.3.
 If all cases of X that we have observed so far are

found to be S, and we have looked out for and not
encountered any X that are not S, we may inductively infer
that All X are S. This generalization remains valid so long
as no cases of X that are not S are found; but if any X-nonS
eventually do appear, we are required by inductive logic to
revise our previous judgment, and particularize it to Some
X are S and some X are not S. For induction proceeds
conditionally65.
 The same reasoning applies to G66. Alternatively,
granting that All S are G, we can from All X are S
deductively infer that All X are G, by syllogism (1st Figure,
AAA). Thus, we might postulate, if we are justified to
generalize, for a given subject X, as far as the specific
predicate S, we are also justified to do so higher still on the
scale of classification, as far as the more general predicate
G. This is logically okay if properly understood and
applied.
 However, it would be a gross error of judgment67 to
infer from such valid generalization that there might be
some X that are G but not S (even if we know there are
things other than X that are G but not S). At this stage, the
actual content All X are G is identical (in extension and
implicitly in intension) to the All X are S from which it was
65
For adduction or generalization is justified by two essential
principles: (1) confirmation of a hypothesis by a positive instance, and
(2) the non-rejection of the same hypothesis by any negative instance,
and both principles must be equally obeyed for it to proceed logically.
There are of course many other conditions involved – see my essay
“Principles of Adduction” in Phenomenology (chapter VII.1).
66
That is, given Some X are G (or deducing this from Some X
are S), we can generalize to All X are G, provided there is no known
negative instance (X-nonG) to belie it.
67
This is as we saw one of the errors Goodman committed in
formulating his “riddle”. This error is of a deductive rather than
inductive nature.
derived68. How the two statements differ is only with

regard to eventual corrective particularization…
 Suppose tomorrow we discover an X that though
still G is not S (for example, an emerald of some color other
than green). In such event, we would have to particularize
the first (more specific) statement to ‘Some X are S and
some X are not S’; but the second (more generic) statement
‘All X are G’ would remain unchanged.69
 But as a result of such particularization All X are G
has a vaguer meaning, since G no longer for us refers only
to the S species of G but equally to some other (nonS)
species of it. Thus, though the inductive rule would be to
generalize as far up the scale as we indeed can go, we must
keep in mind that the further up the scale we go, the more
we dilute the eventual significance of our generalization.70
Thus, although in principle generalization up the scale is
unfettered, in practice we proceed relatively slowly so as to
maintain the noetic utility of our ideas and statements. To
give a formal example: the proposition All X are S might
be used as minor premise in a syllogism where S is the
middle term, whereas the proposition All X are G – even if
68
This is obvious if we consider that we may equally well obtain
All X are G: (a) by generalization from Some X are G, which we
deduce from Some X are S, or (b) by deduction from All X are S, which
we generalize from Some X are S. In truth, it could be argued that these
two are slightly different, since (a) requires that we make sure that there
are no instances of X that are not G, whereas (b) requires that we make
sure that there are no instances of X that are not S. This difference is
however brought out in the ensuing stage of eventual particularization.
69
Note that if we discover an X that is not G, it is necessarily
also not S, given All S are G. In that event, both general propositions
would of course have to be particularized.
70
In this context, we could compare Goodman’s “grue” concept
to Feynman’s concept of “oomph”. The latter, defined (tongue-in-
cheek) as “a kind of tendency for movement” might seem useful to
“explain” various phenomena, but it is so vague that it cannot predict
anything and is therefore worthless (p. 19).
still identical in extension and intension to the preceding –

would be useless in that same context (i.e. with S as middle
term).
Moreover, to regard All X are G as a more profitable
generalization than All X are S, in the sense of providing
us with information about more things for the same price
in terms of given data, signals a confusion71 between
generalization for a given subject from a narrower
predicate to a wider predicate, and generalization of a given
predicate from a narrower subject to a wider subject.
The latter case is the truly profitable form of generalization.
Suppose All X are P, and Y is an overclass of X (i.e. All X
are Y, though not all Y are X), then this would consist in
inducing that All Y are P — of course, unless or until some
Y that is not P is discovered. The rules of such
generalization are dealt with fully in my work Future Logic
under the heading of Factorial Induction (Part VI).
71
Which Goodman was guilty of in formulating his “riddle”,
incidentally.
The Sorites paradox 171
12. The Sorites paradox
1. What’s a heap?
The Sorites paradox is not a paradox, in the strict sense of
the term, but a question. The question is sometimes put in
a sophistical manner, so as to make it seem paradoxical.
But it can be put in a more straightforward manner, in
which case it is seen to be simple though not without
importance. The term sorites is Latin, derived from the
Greek sōros, meaning heap.
One way to express the Sorites paradox is: What is a ‘heap’
(of pebbles, say)? Or, how many pebbles (say) constitute a
‘heap’ of them? The obvious answer is there must surely
be at least one pebble. If you have no pebbles, you do not
have a heap, but a non-heap. But is one pebble enough?
The obvious answer is: no, you need at least two pebbles
to make a heap, since heap is a collective term, and one that
additionally suggests that the pebbles are stacked one on
top of the other (and you cannot stack a non-pebble on a
pebble or a pebble on a non-pebble). A single pebble
logically counts as a non-heap; heap is intrinsically plural.
Formulated like that, the question is not very problematic.
But if it is formulated as follows, it becomes more
complicated. If we have many pebbles (say, 100) piled up,
we obviously have a heap. What happens if we remove one
pebble, do we still have a heap? Yes, 99 make up a heap.
What happens if we remove one more pebble, do we still
have a heap? Yes, 98 make a heap. And so on, till we come
to low numbers, at which stage the sophist wonders

whether two pebbles constitute a heap, then one pebble,
then no pebble. At this stage, the question appears
paradoxical, rather artificially: should we conclude that no
pebble makes a heap, or one pebble makes a heap? The
sophist thinks we might; the real logician knows we cannot.
2. The use of vague terms

Clearly, the problem here, insofar as there is one, has to do
with the exact formulation of initially vague terms. If we
do not at the outset step back and think about the exact
intent of a vague term, of this sort (a term suggesting
quantity, as it happens) or any other, we may find ourselves
in difficulty further on in our discourse. So, we need to stop
and think before use of such terms, and preempt any
difficulties they might eventually create. In the present
case, as we have seen, the term (heap) is inherently plural
(and so inapplicable to less than two pebbles). A sophist
prefers to complicate the matter, so as to put human reason
and knowledge in doubt, as is his wont; but the matter is
really simple enough.
In some cases, to be sure, there is a conventional element
to the definition of a vague term. This can be illustrated
with reference to another version of the so-called Sorites
paradox: As of how many hairs is a man not bald?
Obviously, a man with no hair at all is definitely bald. But
would a man with only one hair, or a very small number of
hairs, not be considered bald in ordinary discourse?
Perhaps so – but only conventionally. If we define bald
strictly, it implies zero hair; but if we define it loosely, it
may include cases involving an arbitrary, though
preferably small, number of hairs, determined by
convention – for examples, five or twenty hairs1. Clearly,

if we want to avoid confusion, nothing stops us from
referring to this broadened sense of ‘bald’ as, more
accurately, ‘bald or almost bald’.
This issue of vagueness is nothing special – it is not limited
to terms giving rise to the Sorites paradox. For instance, a
relative term like ‘small’ (or its relative, ‘large’) is
inherently vague and can only be used with precision in
specific situations by means of a conventional quantity.
Again, when dealing with continua, we may need to set
arbitrary dividing lines. For instance, there is no objective
dividing line between one color and an adjacent color in
the spectrum, and it may be necessary in some
circumstances for us to imagine one (e.g. for legal or other
practical purposes2). Conventional distinctions are part of
human thought; but, it is important to stress, they are not
all of human thought. There are always objective elements
behind conventional ones. For example, the dividing line
between blue and green would be somewhere in between
what we see as clearly blue and what we see as clearly
green – it would never be far on one side or the other, and
much less between green and yellow or between blue and
indigo or still further afield.
1
Or whatever minimal hairiness seems to us subjectively as so
close to bald as to be effectively bald.
2
For example, in Jewish law (halakhah) much attention is
given to quantitative definitions, notably to the maxima or minima of
durations, times o’clock, distances, lengths, volumes, weights,
temperatures, monetary values, etc. Initially, such measures were often
expressed by the rabbis in vague terms (e.g. ‘the volume of an egg’),
but later more precise formulations were called for (which different
authorities might differently estimate). However, some measures
remain subjective (e.g. the estimate of when one is full after eating).
See for more details:
http://halachipedia.com/index.php?title=Reference_of_Measurements
_in_Halacha.
Returning to our alleged paradox, a few more comments

are in order. As already stated, there is nothing paradoxical
in the concept of a heap, if it is properly defined. Most
simply, a heap can be defined as material items placed on
top of each other in whatever way, implying that there must
be two or more items. A more complex definition would
assume that a heap must be pyramidal, i.e. requires at least
four such items (three for the base and one on top); but this
puts us in no difficulty, as it can be referred to more
specifically as a pyramidal heap. Similarly, baldness stricto
sensu refers to no hair at all; it is nevertheless applied to
small quantities of hair, though only roughly-speaking.
There are many vague terms of this sort in our common
discourse3, some of which may require a conventional
definition for pragmatic reasons. For example, the term
‘crowd’ might be taken to refer to a gathering of three or
more people, on the basis of the popular saying that “two’s
company, but three’s a crowd;” or we might, say in
software used by the police to monitor large groups of
people, opt for a larger minimum (say, 50 or 500), set
arbitrarily as cause for alarm. The word ‘mob’ might be
preferred when the latter crowd goes on a rampage.
But in any case, there is no real logical problem in such
unspecific quantitative expressions. They do not constitute
a defect in ordinary language, requiring us to construct an
3
Indeed, this is inevitable on two counts. First, many concrete
objects are impossible to precisely define. Where, for example, does
an orange end precisely? Is the perfume or heat emanating from the
fruit part of it or not? At what points in time and space may such
emanations logically be regarded as separate from it? Second, human
knowledge being inductive, we cannot always start a concept with a
precise definition, but tend to leave it open, to be defined more and
more precisely as experience unfolds. In this perspective, the majority
of abstract terms we use are open, including terms that may be used to
more precisely define other terms – so, here again, vagueness is
inevitable. But such ontic and epistemic difficulties do not imply
paradox; they simply call for philosophical reflection.
“ideal language” where all terms have single precise

meanings4. Much less do they call for treatment by means
of abstruse symbolic logics (dearly loved by many modern
logicians). On the contrary, they demonstrate the versatility
and flexibility of ordinary thought and speech; and they
witness the fact that much of our linguistic communication
has non-verbal undercurrents, which we mostly
comprehend very ably. Most of our daily use of vague
terms involves no need for more clear-cut definition. They
are used to suggest things approximately, and are not
intended as precise and true affirmations. If the need for
precision and truth does arise, it is then addressed in a way
that preserves consistency (by explicit convention if
necessary).
3. Reasoning with vague terms

To be sure, vague terms can be perilous if we try to reason
with them. But vague terms are often used without
involving them in argumentative processes Moreover,
reasoning with vague terms is not always invalid – there
are contexts where the vagueness does not inhibit a reliable
conclusion.
In categorical (or hypothetical) syllogism, the rule
regarding vague terms (or theses) is the following: The
4
The resort to an “ideal language” by certain modern logicians
to solve a problem of logic is futile. Unable to understand the actual
way we real human beings logically deal with certain cognitive
difficulties, they try to impose a superficial, artificial and impractical
way of thinking on the rest of us. The role of the genuine logician is
not to impose imaginary logics, but to understand our natural logical
means and thence to perfect and reinforce them. Reasoning by humans
should be the central concern of logicians. The natural language way
to deal with Sorites paradoxes is to use words more precisely – e.g.
instead of calling persons with very few hairs ‘bald’, to call them
‘almost bald’; or more accurately still, if necessary for some practical
purpose, ‘having (say) one to ten hairs’.
middle item (term or thesis, as the case may be) cannot be

vague, because it would provide no guarantee that its intent
is the same in the two premises. If the middle item is vague,
we cannot be sure of overlap and the conclusion is invalid.
On the other hand, the major and minor items can be vague
without affecting the argument, and that in all four figures.
There is, however, an exception to this rule – when the
middle term is vague, but not so vague that overlap is not
guaranteed, a valid argument can still be made.
The latter is evident when we consider the following two
arguments in the third figure, in which the middle term
ensures overlap even though neither premise is universal.
The expressions ‘most’ (more than half) and ‘few’ (less
than half) are vague, insofar as they do not specify exact
numbers. But notice the particularity (as against majority
or minority) in the conclusion – i.e. the increased
vagueness of the conclusion.
Most M are P
and Most M are S;
therefore, Some S are P
Few M are P (which implies that Most M are not P)

and Most M are S;
therefore, Some S are not P
In apodosis, the rules regarding vague terms or theses are

the following:
Modus ponens:
If A is B, then C is D, and A is B (affirming the antecedent);
then, C is D (consequent is affirmed).
The antecedent and the minor premise cannot be vague;

else, the conclusion is invalid. However, the consequent
could be vague, and the conclusion would still be valid
(though also vague).
Modus tollens:
If A is B, then C is D, and C is not D (denying the
consequent); then, A is not B (antecedent is denied).
The consequent and the minor premise cannot be vague;
else, the conclusion is invalid. However, the antecedent
could be vague, and the conclusion would still be valid
(though also vague).
Here again, in both moods, exception is conceivable, if we

know that the major and minor premises overlap, even if
we don’t know precisely how much they overlap.
Similar rules may be formulated for other varieties of
argument, such as dilemma or a fortiori.
The people who claim that vague terms are inherently
paradoxical are dishonestly nitpicking, motivated by the
desire to impress themselves or others by their ability to
find and resolve (contrived) paradoxes, or (worse still) to
demonstrate that human knowledge is inevitably
paradoxical and therefore futile. Clearly, just as it is
dishonest to call a single pebble or no pebble a heap, it is
dishonest to call a person with one or more hairs bald5. If
5
As I explain in A Fortiori Logic, chapters 1.4 and 2.5, it is
sometimes useful to formulate terms in a way so inclusive that positive,
zero and negative values are all embraced by them. This is often done
in scientific discourse because it facilitates some calculations and
graphs. But it must be well understood that such inclusive terms are
inherently undeniable – i.e. they already englobe both an affirmation
and its denial. In the present context, we might choose to enlarge terms
like heap or bald to include their opposites, for whatever reason; but
when we do so we must remain keenly aware of what we are doing. If
you indulge in such contradictions-in-terms to start with,

you are bound to end up with paradoxes. People who
behave thus are not real logicians but sophists. They spin
and fabricate – they are not interested in finding ways to
true knowledge.
4. Making up fake paradoxes

The original formulations of both the conundrums
described above, relating to a heap and to baldness, are
attributed to Eubulides of Miletus (fl. 4th Cent. BCE), the
Megarian logician who also gave us the Liar paradox6. He
was a student of Euclid, a teacher of Diodorus Cronus, and
a contemporary and rival of Aristotle. These puzzles were
perhaps not initially presented as paradoxes, but rather as
illustrations of a question (viz. where should we draw the
line?). This possibly reflected a dawning consciousness
that there are vague terms that may require arbitrary
definition in some circumstances. As above shown, this
problem is solved easily enough. However, later thinkers
tried to make a mountain out of a molehill, and presented
the issue in the form of an argument-chain (or sorites,
where the conclusion of the preceding argument serves as
a premise for the next).
Thus, the bald man puzzle became, in its positive
formulation: Surely, a man with one hair is about as bald
as one with no hair; and if a man with only one hair can
we do not treat such terms with appropriate care, we should not be

surprised if we are forced into contradictions.
6
A couple of centuries earlier, Epimenides of Knossos
declared: “Cretans, always liars,” though himself a Cretan, apparently
unaware of the contradiction inherent such a statement. Eubulides may
have noticed the paradox involved and sought to refine it and
strengthen it, since it was not a double one but one easily resolved by
saying that possibly not all Cretans are liars or that Cretans do not all
always lie (Epimenides being a notable exception).
still be called bald, then a man with two hairs qualifies as

bald; and if a man with two hairs is bald, then a man with
three hairs is bald; etc.; therefore, a man with a thousand
hairs can still be considered bald (paradox). Alternatively,
the argument could be stated in negative form: if a man
with a thousand hairs is not to be regarded as bald, then one
with 999 hairs is not to be so regarded either; and if 999
does not qualify, then 998 does not either; and so on…
whence, a man with one hair only is not bald; therefore, a
man with no hair is not bald (paradox).
Clearly, these arguments are forced – they involve some
very doubtful and misleading premises. In the positive
version, the false premise is that ‘a man with no hair can be
called bald’ implies ‘a man with one hair can be called
bald’. In the negative version, the false premise is that ‘a
man with one hair cannot be called bald’ implies ‘a man
with no hair cannot be called bald’. It is the same false
claim of implication (in contraposite form). The paradox is
created by the refusal to admit that ‘bald’, strictly-
speaking, means ‘hairless’; which refusal is not based on
honest logical insight, but on a willful act of illogic.
Similarly, in the case of a heap, the trick consists in
implying that a single pebble or even no pebble may be
considered as a heap.
The inventors of these arguments do not pause and
rationally reflect on the underlying issue (i.e. where is the
dividing line?) before engaging in an apparent inference
process, but instead attempt to bamboozle us into a
paradoxical corner. The argument-chain proposed just
serves as a smokescreen to conceal the crucial false claim
being put over. They are the logical equivalents of pyramid
sales, each sale supporting the next without solid
foundation. People who are taken in by the tricky move are
simply bad logicians, if not shamelessly dishonest. They
then pretentiously weave massive and intricate theories
around this phenomenon, untroubled by the initial error or

lie in their discourse.
To those who argue that a single hair or pebble hardly
makes any difference, I would suggest that they make the
following simple physical experiment: take an accurate
balance with the same weight on both sides, then add a
single hair or pebble to one side and watch the scales tip!
To those still unconvinced by this, because they
dogmatically believe that logic is a matter of fancy and
convention, I would suggest (tongue-in-cheek, more or
less) that they place, under the heavier scale, a plunger
connected to an explosive device strapped to their nose,
and then watch Reality blow up in their face! That
argument, I think, might finally convince them, if they
survived.
As regards Eubulides, we might note in passing his other
paradoxes. The most significant is of course the Liar
paradox, which as I have shown in detail elsewhere7 is
exceptionally powerful due to the variety of difficulties it
involves (but still quite resolvable). Another three
paradoxes8 deal with equivocations in the term ‘know’,
specifically with failure to immediately recognize someone
one normally recognizes immediately (such as a close
relative or old friend), when the latter is masked or has been
away too long or is not looked at attentively enough.
Another, the Horns paradox claims that what you have not
lost must be in your possession; whence, if you have not
lost horns, you must have horns. This apodosis involves a
false major premise, since something one has ‘never had’
may equally (as well as something one ‘still has’) be
characterized as ‘not lost’ – so the consequent does not
follow upon the antecedent; therefore, if one has not lost
7
See my A Fortiori Logic, Appendix 7.4.
8
Namely, the Masked Man, Elektra and Overlooked Man
paradoxes.
horns, one cannot be assumed to have horns (since one may

well never have had any).
From this short list, it can be seen that Eubulides’ queries
all give rise to some sort of reflection on logic – reflections
on vague terms, on conventional definitions, on
equivocations, on term-negations, on self-reference, and
various other difficulties that may arise in human
discourse. It would be wrong, I think, to assume the motive
of such queries to have been teasing or obfuscation
(although, to be sure, later skeptics did use such
conundrums malignantly, as already mentioned). Rather,
I’d say, they served as springboards for earnest reflections
and discussions on logic – because it seems unlikely that
they were formulated without any attempt to solve the
problems they engendered. In some cases, valid
explanations or resolutions were no doubt proposed (even
though they may not have come down to us), while in other
cases the difficulties may have seemed insurmountable. In
other words, I doubt that Eubulides was merely sophistical
– I’d class him rather as a serious logician.
13. Protagoras vs. Euathlus
1. An ancient paradox
One of the many alleged paradoxes that have come down
to us from the Greeks is the dispute between Protagoras (of
Abdera, ca. 480-410 BCE) and his student Euathlus (about
whom nothing more is known). The story is told by Aulus
Gellius (Roman, ca. 125-180 CE)80, that Protagoras, a
famous Sophist, and an expensive teacher, agreed with
Euathlus to train him in rhetoric, a discipline essential at
the time to argumentation in courts of law. The agreement
was that Euathlus would not have to pay Protagoras the
specified fee (or the unpaid portion of the fee, by some
accounts) until he had been fully trained and went on to
plead his first case and win it81.
It is said that after Euathlus completed his course, he did
not (for whatever reason) choose to use his newly acquired
skills before any court of law, and so he never won or lost
any case, and so was contractually not required to pay
Protagoras anything. Nevertheless, Protagoras, with
motives that we shall presently consider, sued him (in the
court of Areopagus in Athens). Euathlus chose to
80
Some 550-600 years after the fact, in his Attic Nights (ca. 150
C.E.).
81
The contract in question was presumably verbal, rather than
written, in those days; but we may take it that both parties agreed on
its stated clause.
Protagoras vs. Euathlus 183
personally defend himself. The following arguments were

reportedly put before the court:
a. Protagoras argued that he surely ought to be paid the
fee, because (i) if the court ruled in his favor, he could
on that basis demand payment; and (ii) if the court ruled
in favor of the defendant, then the latter would have
won his first case and therefore be contractually
obliged to pay the fee anyway.
b. Euathlus replied that he surely ought not to pay the fee,
because (i) if the court ruled in favor of the plaintiff,
then Euathlus would have lost his first case and
therefore not be contractually obliged to pay the fee;
and (ii) if the court ruled in favor of the defendant, then
he would on that basis be exempt from payment
anyway.
Thus, while the plaintiff argued, apparently convincingly,
that he was certain to deserve payment however the court
ruled, the defendant was in turn able to argue, apparently
just as convincingly, that he was certain to be exempt from
payment in either event. For this reason, this case is
regarded as paradoxical. It is said that the court was so
confused by these arguments and counter-arguments that it
chose to adjourn sine die (or, some say, for 100 years) to
avoid judgment.
The significance of this legal dispute for logic and
philosophy is that it gives the impression that two people
can argue dilemmatically and paradoxically in opposite
directions and both be right. The enemies of human reason
relish this kind of conclusion, since it would put in doubt
the reliability and efficacy of human reason. But as we shall
now show, the said impression is very superficial. There
are, to my mind, at least two possible resolutions of this so-
called Paradox of the Court. In fact, although I thought of
the second before the first, the latter logically precedes the
former. I later learned from Peter Suber’s survey of the
literature on the subject82 that the first resolution was long

before me proposed by Aulus Gellius; the second
resolution seems to be novel.
2. First resolution
The simplest solution to this problem is to suppose that the
wily Protagoras, seeing that Euathlus was taking his time
getting to work, decided to speed things up. Protagoras
trapped his pupil by using the above argument, knowing
full well that he would lose a first trial, but win an eventual
second trial. He knew he would lose a first trial, because
the agreement between the parties only obligated Euathlus
to pay the fee once he won his first case; it did not obligate
him to practice law anytime soon, or even ever. Euathlus
foolishly fell into the trap and personally argued the case
in court. Had the court not adjourned sine die, it would have
logically given him victory, thus making Euathlus win his
first case. Thereafter, assuming that a second trial was
legally permitted – and both the parties’ arguments above
do make this assumption – Protagoras would have been the
ultimate winner. Of course, no second trial would be
necessary if Euathlus conceded that having won the first
trial he was sure to lose the second, and settled the account
forthwith.
In other words, Protagoras’s first argument (i) was mere
camouflage; he was really relying on his second argument
(ii). Euathlus let his vanity get the better of him and
formulated two fancy counter-arguments, thinking to outdo
his teacher. But Protagoras was more cunning than him.
82
In The Paradox of Self-Amendment. The section on the
Protagoras v. Euathlus paradox can be read online; it is worth reading,
including the notes, and not very long. See at:
https://dash.harvard.edu/bitstream/handle/1/10288413/Peter%20Sube
r%2c%20Paradox%20of%20Self-
Amendment%2c%20Section%2020.html?sequence=1#A.
The only way Euathlus could have avoided being beaten

was by hiring a lawyer83. If the lawyer won the first trial,
as he could be logically expected to since the only
condition for defeat here was not satisfied, Euathlus would
not be considered as having personally won his first case
in court, and Protagoras would not be able to win a second
trial. Thus, the master was indeed superior to the pupil.
There was no real paradox, since there was an actual way
out of the apparent paradox.
Of course, one might add that Euathlus was in practice the
winner, since through his counter-argument he managed to
so bewilder the court that it gave up trying to judge the
matter at all, and he was not forced to pay up. Maybe he
hoped for that and he lucked out. But on a theoretical,
logical level, in the present perspective, he proved to be not
too intelligent. Not only did he foolishly not hire a lawyer
to plead on his behalf, but he also wrongly assumed that his
argumentation was effective in countering Protagoras’. He
kidded himself into thinking that if he won the first trial, he
would not have to face a second one. He should have
examined his teacher’s argumentation more carefully.
Let us now look at the arguments in more formal terms, to
clarify them. I shall introduce the following symbols: let P
= Protagoras, Q = Euathlus; A = the agreed condition that
Q wins his first case in order to be liable, and C = the agreed
result that fee must be paid by Q to P. We know at the
outset that if A then C, and if not-A then not-C: these are
the terms of the agreement. The arguments are as follows
(with my critical commentary in italics):
a. According to P: (i) if court rules that P wins, then C is
true (but objectively court cannot rule for P, since A not
yet true, so this is a non-starter); whereas if (ii) court
83
Assuming this was possible in Athens in those days. This is a
fair assumption (even if some commentators deny it) since, after all,
Euathlus was apparently trained by Protagoras to be a lawyer himself.
rules that Q wins (as it logically must), then not-C is

true (at the conclusion of a first trial); but if Q thus
wins, then A becomes true and C must (in a later trial)
follow, in which event P finally wins.
b. According to Q: (i) if court rules that P wins, then not-
A is true (at the conclusion of a first trial); but if not-A
is true then not-C must (in a later trial) follow, so Q
finally wins (but objectively court cannot rule for P,
since A not yet true, so this is a non-starter); whereas
if (ii) court rules that Q wins (as it logically must), then
not-C is true (but here Q fails to mention later
consequences that P rightly pointed out).
In conclusion, P is logically the resultant winner; Q’s
arguments are in fact insufficient to prevent this outcome.
P pretends to seek to win immediately; but in truth his aim
is longer term victory (in the second round). Q imagines he
might lose the first round but win the second or that he
might win the first round without having to face a second;
but these are all fantasies. It is difficult to understand why
the court found this case too confusing – the judge (or
judges) can’t have been very bright fellows.
3. Second resolution
A more complex solution to the problem is as follows. It is
possible that Protagoras sued Euathlus by appealing to an
unspoken clause of the agreement. The agreement
contained only one explicit clause, viz. that Euathlus would
have to pay Protagoras the fee if and only if he won his first
case. If that was so, Protagoras would have no basis for
requesting a trial, since that condition had obviously not
been satisfied. But since he sued, he must have thought and
argued that the agreement included a tacit (or perhaps
implicit) understanding that Euathlus would practice law
within a reasonable time lapse84, at which time his new

skills would be tested in a court and he would be expected
to pay if he won. Protagoras couldn’t have imagined the
judge would allow a trial to proceed, let alone would rule
in his favor, without some good reason85.
Clearly, what the judge was called upon to decide in this
trial was (could only have been, in the present perspective)
whether this claim by Protagoras, that there was a tacit
clause to the agreement, was justified. He could well have
justified it by considering that had Euathlus been allowed
not to practice law at all or to practice it as late as he chose,
the agreement would have surely specified the caveat. He
could equally well have rejected it by considering that
Protagoras took for granted something he should have
explicitly obtained agreement on. So, the case hinges on a
tacit issue, rather than exclusively on the explicit clause of
the agreement; i.e. there was more to the story than is told.
Furthermore, it is evident from the arguments presented by
both parties in this trial that each of them foresaw the
possibility of a second trial in which the ruling of the first
trial could be reversed. This is logically implied in the
second argument of Protagoras and in the first argument of
Euathlus. In these two eventualities, a second trial would
be needed to finalize the judgment; unless, of course, the
losing party freely concedes its inevitable result and settles
the account in advance. The judge in the first trial could not
decide in favor of either party and then against him in the
same breath. A first judgment of win or loss would have to
be established before a second judgment could be made, in
84
Protagoras would also, of course, claim that the reasonable
delay had expired. If the court agreed with the existence of a tacit
clause but disagreed with the claim it was fulfilled, that would merely
adjourn the case for a certain amount of time (of their estimate).
85
Needless to say, the present analysis is made entirely from a
logical viewpoint, although a court of law might reason differently or
even not reason at all (e.g. bribery, favoritism, pressure).
view of the terms of the contract. So, there is a time factor

to take into consideration in analyzing these arguments.
It should be noted that, whereas the first trial has an
uncertain outcome, since it depends on the decision (the
judgment call) of the judge regarding an alleged tacit clause
to the agreement, the second trial has a foreseeable
outcome, since it depends solely on the explicit clause of
the agreement.
Clearly, as we shall now show, if we factor the above
considerations into the arguments, the paradoxical
appearance is easily dissolved. I shall here use the
following symbols: let P = Protagoras; Q = Euathlus; A =
the explicit condition that Q wins his first case; B = the
alleged implicit condition that Q was required to practice
within a reasonable amount of time; and C = the fee must
be paid by Q to P. The arguments are as follows:
a. According to P: (i) if B then C; and (ii) if not-B then
not-C, but if not-C then (later) if A then C; therefore, C
anyway.
b. According to Q: (i) if B, then C, but if C then (later) if
not-A then not-C; and (ii) if not-B, then not-C;
therefore, not-C anyway.
From this we see that the two parties’ arguments are much
alike, but each side has cunningly left out part of the
consequences (shown in italics). P has truncated the
consequences of (i) that Q points out, and Q has truncated
the consequences of (ii) that P points out. For this reason,
they seem to balance each other out. But if we take all the
subsequent events (in a possible second trial) into account,
we get the following more objective joint argument (c),
which is clearly non-paradoxical:
(i) if B then C, but if C then (later) if not-A then not-
C; and
(ii) if not-B then not-C, but if not-C then (later) if A
then C.
So, in (i) the final conclusion is not-C, while in (ii) it is C

– which means that there is no paradox. This also shows
that, while it cannot objectively be predicted whether P or
Q will win the first trial, it can be said that (i) if P wins the
first trial, he will lose the second, and if Q wins the first
trial, he will lose the second. Obviously, P cannot argue
that he has a right to a second trial (if he loses the first) but
Q has not; likewise, Q cannot argue that he has a right to a
second trial (if he loses the first) but P has not. So, we must
take all later events into consideration to logically reconcile
all the arguments. Note that if for some reason there is no
second trial, there is also no paradox, since the conclusion
will be either (i) C or (ii) not-C.
Whatever happens, there is no paradox because neither
party can in fact, contrary to initial appearances, claim
inevitable victory; victory does not come both ways for
both parties, but only one way for each party.
Clearly, here, both parties were employing the common
sophistical trick of hiding an inconvenient part of the
unbiased argument from the court. Euathlus was a good
apprentice of Protagoras’, since his counter-argument
exactly mirrors the latter’s argument. That is, there was an
element of dishonesty in both their arguments; both were
intellectual frauds at heart, knowingly expounding half-
truths. Therefore, this fake paradox presents no deep
challenge to Logic, contrary to the claims of Relativists. In
particular, Protagoras’ general claim that “there are two
sides to every issue” (duo logoi) is shown to be spurious in
the present context.
It is worth always keeping in mind that some people
involved in philosophy and logic, as in life in general, are
sometimes moved by the evil impulse; indeed, some much
more than others. They may consciously lie, or
subconsciously twist facts and arguments, for a large
variety of motives. Usually, lusts for power, fame and
fortune play some role. An academic may want the

admiration of his peers or of his students; a husband may
want to impress his wife; an unemployed may hope to get
a job; and so on. It is wrong to look upon all philosophical
statements as disinterested. Philosophers and logicians are
not all pure scientists or saints.
I might add that the secret of success with finding solutions
to philosophical and logical problems, and particularly to
paradoxes, is the sincere desire to do so. Many
philosophers and logicians approach problems with a
negative attitude, not really wanting to solve them, but
rather wishing to rationalize their antipathy to human
reason through them. The honest researcher is moved by
his better impulses; he is sincerely desirous to confirm the
effectiveness of the human faculties of cognition – that’s
precisely why he succeeds.
4. Inadequate resolutions
As earlier mentioned, based on Suber’s account of the
literature, the first resolution should be attributed to Aulus
Gellius, but the second resolution seems to be original.
Suber’s account shows that the court paradox has been
discussed in a number of works over time, but more often
apparently from a legal point of view than from a logical
one. The legal issues involved are manifold, but most need
not and should not be taken into consideration in a purely
logical perspective. Why? Because the logician’s purpose
here is not to decide the case, i.e. who should win or lose,
but merely to explain and remove the appearance of
paradox.
This remark can be illustrated with reference to the
resolution (not mentioned by Suber) proposed centuries
ago by Lorenzo Valla (Italy, ca. 1406-57). This attempt at
resolution is not adequate because it relies on a thoughtless
distinction between payment on account of the court’s
verdict and that on account of the agreement. I quote an

SEP article which describes it86:
“If Euathlus loses the case, he will have to pay the

rest of the fee, on account of the verdict of the
judges; but if Euathlus wins, he will also have to
pay, this time on account of his agreement with
Protagoras. Euathlus, however, cleverly converts
the argument: in neither case will he have to pay,
on account of the court's decision (if he wins), or on
account of the agreement with Protagoras (if he
loses).… Briefly put, Valla says that Euathlus
cannot have it both ways and must choose one or
the other alternative: he must comply either with his
agreement with Protagoras or with the verdict
passed by the judges. If they decide against
Protagoras, he may try to reclaim his money in a
second lawsuit.”
Let us analyze Valla’s proposed resolution using the

following symbols: let P = Protagoras; Q = Euathlus; and
C = the fee must be paid by Q to P.
a. According to P: If Q loses (for whatever reason), then
C (by verdict); but if Q wins, then C (by agreement).
b. According to Q: If Q wins (for whatever reason), then
not-C (by verdict); but if Q loses, then not-C (by
agreement).
Valla’s conclusion, as here presented87, is unclear.
Apparently, he puts the onus on Euathlus in particular to
86
See Stanford Enc. of Phil., online at
https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/lorenzo-valla/. This issue is
apparently treated in Repastinatio dialectice et philosophie. The author
of the article is apparently Lodi Nauta (2013).
87
I have not read Valla’s work. I have to assume that the author
of the SEP article on Valla correctly presented Valla’s reasoning. I
“choose one or the other alternative” and comply with

either the agreement or the verdict. This tells us nothing,
since Euathlus’ argument shows he is willing to comply
with either, except that he projects both as in his favor.
Valla adds that if Protagoras loses a first lawsuit, he may
win a second. But here again, this does not resolve the
paradox, but only repeats one part of it.
From this we see that Valla has not thought the issues
through: he does not consider on what grounds Q might
lose or win ‘by the court’s verdict’; and he does not realize
that the second argument by each party, where Q might
alternatively win or lose ‘by the agreement’, in fact refers
to a second lawsuit, since the agreement is evidently not
about to be implemented voluntarily (Valla’s mention of a
second lawsuit is placed beyond the four if-then
statements, which themselves do not emphasize the
temporal sequences involved). In the last analysis, then,
Valla does not arrive at a ready resolution of the paradox.
The trouble with Valla’s approach is that it effectively
takes the initial decision of the court to be arbitrary, i.e.
unrelated to the agreement between the parties. It does not
consider on what basis the court might judge that Euathlus
can lose the first round. This may be acceptable legally, but
it is not acceptable logically – and our concern here is with
logic. Logically, the idea that Euathlus can lose the first
round is a non-starter, if we go by the explicit clause of the
agreement. He might lose the first round only if the court
grants the supposition that there was a tacit clause to the
suspect he or she may not have, as the details given in the article are
rather vague and inconclusive; they do not clarify exactly what
resolution of the paradox Valla had in mind. Not everyone is good at
logic. (Note that I did write to the author, asking him or her to please
verify the summary of Valla’s view given in the SEP article, but I got
no reply. That the author did not deign to respond confirmed my
estimate that this is not a very reliable source: intelligent people
confidently welcome reasonable queries.)
agreement, such as that he had to practice law sometime

soon.
In any case, the verdict for the first round cannot be
arbitrary – i.e. irrational, unjustified - but must directly
relate to the agreement. This is equally true for the second
round. So, no disconnect between verdict and agreement is
logically permissible.
Interestingly, my first reaction to the paradox a few years
ago88 was very similar to Valla’s. But as soon as I set about
seriously considering the issues for the present essay, I
realized its weakness and uselessness. The paradox appears
neutralized if we insert a distinction between ‘payment
following court verdict’ and ‘payment following contract
terms’ and assign different symbols to these two
consequences, say C1 and C2. These two terms may or may
not be quantitatively identical; but they anyway refer to
distinct events. This measure seems to nullify the paradox,
because the consequences of the first and second if-then
statements would be different for each party. Thus:
a. According to P: If P wins, then C1; but if P loses, then
C2.
b. According to Q: If Q wins, then not-C1; but if Q loses,
then not-C2.
It follows that if P wins and Q loses, then C1 and not-C2
are true; and if P loses and Q wins, then not-C1 and C2 are
true. Since C1 and C2 are different terms, even if they
happen to refer to the same monetary amount, the
consequents in each party’s argument are not formally
contradictory (since the defining motive is different), so
there is no paradox. But, to repeat, this approach does not
explain why the court would give a verdict inconsistent
with the agreement, so it is artificial. For a genuinely
logical resolution, we must focus attention on the
88
In 2009, in an e-mail to someone.
agreement, and not admit arbitrary verdicts. Arbitrary

verdicts just muddy the waters.
Other attempted resolutions I have seen are also flawed,
either because they similarly conflate legal and logical
issues, or because they do not follow through on all the
consequences of all the suppositions. In any case, either of
my proposed two resolutions suffices to unravel the
paradox; but the two together take care of all eventualities.
Note that, in the first resolution, we not only resolve the
paradox, but also incidentally decide the case (in favor of
Protagoras); whereas in the second resolution, we are
content as logicians to resolve the paradox, leaving the task
of legal decision to the judge.
To conclude: the paradox of the court is due to a number of
factors, which must be untangled and taken into
consideration if it is to be resolved. (a) The terms ‘win/lose’
cannot refer to arbitrary judgments by the court; if they do,
the paradox may be perpetuated. (b) It must be realized that
the arguments put forward by the two parties imply that the
process of resolution has two phases: a first trial followed
by a second trial (or by a ready concession and settlement
without need of a second trial); the appearance of paradox
is partly due to overlooking this time factor. (c) There is
some vagueness in what is meant by ‘the agreement’, and
all possible interpretations must be taken into account: if
the agreement is taken to refer exclusively to the explicit
clause, then the first trial concerns that only and is easily
decided; but if the agreement is claimed to involve a tacit
understanding, then the first trial aims at a decision
regarding that tacit clause and the second round deals with
the explicit clause.
Buddhist antinomic discourse 195
14. Buddhist antinomic discourse
From Buddhist Illogic 1 & 2.
1. The tetralemma
Western philosophical and scientific thought is based on
Aristotelian logic, whose founding principles are the three
“Laws of Thought”. These can be briefly stated as “A is A”
(Identity), “Nothing is both A and non-A” (Non-
contradiction) and “Nothing is neither A nor non-A”
(Exclusion of the Middle). These are not claimed as mere
hypotheses, note well, but as incontrovertible premises of
all rational human thought89.
Religions like Judaism, Christianity and Islam, even while
adhering to these laws in much of their discourse and
paying lip-service to them, in their bids to interpret their
own sacred texts and to make their doctrines seem
reasonable to their converts, have often ignored these same
laws. This is especially true of mystical trends within these
religions, but many examples could be given from
mainstream writings. The same can be said of some aspects
of Buddhist philosophy.
The tetralemma90 is a derivative of the laws of thought,
with reference to any two terms or propositions, labeled A
89
See my Future Logic, ch. 2 and 20, and later essays on the
subject (published on my website www.thelogician.net).
90
See Cheng, pp. 36-38, on this topic. He there refers to MT
opening statement, as well as XVII:12a and XXIII:1a. Etym. Gk. tetra
and B, and their opposites non-A and non-B. Four

combinations of these four terms are conceivable, namely
“A and B” (both), “non-A and non-B” (neither), “A and
non-B” and “non-A and B” (one or the other only).
According to Aristotelian logic, these four statements are
incompatible with each other (only one of them can be true,
because if two or more were affirmed then “A and non-A”
or “B and non-B” or both would be true, and the latter
implications are self-contradictory) and exhaustive (at
least one of them must be true, since if they were all denied
then “not A and not non-A” or “not B and not non-B” or
both would be true, and the latter implications go against
the excluded middle).
Now, what Nagarjuna does is insert the term A in place of
B (i.e. he takes the case of B = A), and effectively claim
that the above four logical possibilities of combination
apply in that special case – so that “A and A (=B)”, “non-
A and non-A (=non-B)”, “A and non-A (=non-B)”, “non-
A and A (=B)” seem logically acceptable. He then goes on
to argue that there are four existential possibilities:
affirmation of A (A + A = A), denial of A (non-A + non-
A = non-A), both affirmation and denial of A (A and
non-A) and neither affirmation nor denial of A (not A
and not non-A). He is thus apparently using the principles
and terminology of common logic to arrive at a very
opposite result. This gives him and readers the impression
that it is quite reasonable to both affirm and deny or to
neither affirm nor deny.
But in Aristotelian logic, the latter two alternatives are at
the outset excluded – “both A and non-A” by the Law of
Non-contradiction and “neither A nor non-A” by the Law
of the Excluded-Middle – and the only logical possibilities
left are “A” or “non-A”. The anti-Aristotelian position may
= four, lemma = alternatives. Term coined in contrast to the dilemma

“A or non-A”.
be viewed, in a positive light, as an anti-Nominalist

position, reminding us that things are never quite what they
seem or that things cannot be precisely classified or
labeled. But ultimately, they intend the death of Logic; for
without the laws of thought, how are we to distinguish
between true and false judgments?
The law of identity “A is A” is a conviction that things have
some identity (whatever it specifically be) rather than
another, or than no identity at all. It is an affirmation that
knowledge is ultimately possible, and a rejection of sheer
relativism or obscurantism. Nagarjuna’s goal is to deny
identity.
It should be noted here that Aristotle is very precise in his
formulation of the law of contradiction, stating in his
Metaphysics “The same attribute cannot at the same time
belong and not belong to the same subject in the same
respect” (italics mine). Thus, an alternative statement of
the laws of thought would be the ‘trilemma’ (let us so call
it) “either wholly A, or wholly non-A, or both partly A and
partly non-A”, which excludes the fourth alternative “both
wholly A and wholly non-A”. The Buddhist attack on the
laws of thought draws some of its credibility from the fact
that people subconsciously refer to this ‘trilemma’,
thinking superficially that indeed opposite things may
occur in the same place at different times or at the same
time in different places or in various respects, without
thereby giving rise to logical difficulty incapable of
resolution. But it should be clear that the Buddhist position
is much more radical than that, accepting thoroughgoing
antinomy.
Similarly with regard to the law of the excluded middle,
which affirms the situation “neither A nor non-A” to be
impossible in fact. People are misled by the possibility of
uncertainty in knowledge, as to whether A or non-A is the
case in fact, into believing that this law of thought is open
to debate. But it must be understood that the thrust of this

logical rule is inductive, rather than deductive; i.e. it is a
statement that at the end of the knowledge acquisition
process, either “A” or “non-A” will result, and no third
alternative can be expected. It does not exclude that in the
interim, a situation of uncertainty may occur. Nagarjuna’s
position exploits this confusion in people’s minds.
Nagarjuna interprets the limitation implied by the dilemma
“A or non-A” as an arbitrary ‘dualism’ on the part of
ordinary thinkers91. It only goes to show that he
misunderstands formalization (or he pretends to, in an
attempt to confuse gullible readers). When logicians use a
variable like “B” and allow that “non-A and B” and “A and
non-B” are both in principle possible, they do not intend
that as a generality applicable to all values of B (such as
“A”), but only as a generic statement applicable to any
consistent values of B. In the specific case where B = A,
91
It is misleading to call this a ‘duality’ or ‘dichotomy’, as
Buddhists are wont to do, because it suggests that a unitary thing was
arbitrarily cut into two – and incidentally, that it might just as well have
been cut into four. But, on a perceptual level, there is no choice
involved, and no ‘cutting-up’ of anything. A phenomenon appearing is
one single thing, call it ‘a’ (a proper name, or an indicative ‘this’), and
not a disjunction. The issue of ‘dichotomy’ arises only on a conceptual
level. Negation is a rational act, i.e. we can only speak of ‘non-a’, of
what does not appear, by first bringing to mind something ‘a’, which
previously appeared (in sensation or imagination). In initial
conceptualization, two phenomena are compared and contrasted, to
each other and to other things, in some respect(s); the issue is then, are
they similar enough to each other and different enough from other
things to be judged ‘same’ and labeled by a general term (say ‘A’), or
should they be judged ‘different’ or is there an uncertainty. At the later
stage of recognition, we have to decide whether a third phenomenon
fits in the class formed for the previous two (i.e. falls under ‘A’) or
does not fit in (i.e. falls under ‘non-A’) or remains in doubt. In the latter
case, we wonder whether it is ‘A’ or ‘non-A’, and forewarn that it
cannot be both or neither.
the said two combinations have to be eliminated because

they are illegal (i.e. breach two of the laws of thought).
The above-stated property of symbols, i.e. their
applicability only conditionally within the constraints of
consistency, is evident throughout the science of formal
logic, and it is here totally ignored by Nagarjuna. His
motive of course was to verbalize and rationalize the
Buddha’s doctrine that the ultimate truth is beyond nama
and rupa, name and form (i.e. discrimination and
discourse), knowable only by a transcendental
consciousness (the Twofold Truth doctrine). More
precisely, as Cheng emphasizes, Nagarjuna’s intent was to
show that logic is inherently inconsistent and thus that
reason is confused madness to be rejected. That is, he was
(here and throughout) not ultimately trying to defend a
tetralemma with B equal to A – or even to affirm that things
are both A and non-A, or neither A nor non-A – but wished
to get us to look altogether beyond the distinctions of
conceptualization and the judgments of logic.
But as above shown he does not succeed in this quest. For
his critique depends on a misrepresentation of logical
science. He claims to show that logic is confused and self-
contradictory, but in truth what he presents as the thesis of
logical science is not what it claims for itself but precisely
what it explicitly forbids. Furthermore, suppose logical
theory did lead to contradictions as he claims, this fact
would not lead us to its rejection were there not also a tacit
appeal to our preference for the logical in practice. If logic
were false, contradictions would be acceptable. Thus,
funnily enough, Nagarjuna appeals to our logical habit in
his very recommendation to us to ignore logic. In sum,
though he gives the illusion that it is reasonable to abandon
reason, it is easy to see that his conclusion is foregone and
his means are faulty.
2. Neither real nor unreal

But Nagarjuna also conceives ultimate reality
(“emptiness”92) as a “middle way” 93 – so that the world of
experience is neither to be regarded as real, nor to be
regarded as unreal (“there is nothing, neither mental nor
non-mental, which is real” and it “cannot be conceived as
unreal,” reports Cheng). In this context, Nagarjuna is
clearly relying on one of the above-mentioned logically
impossible disjuncts, namely “neither A nor non-A” (be it
said in passing). I want to now show why Nagarjuna’s
statement seems superficially reasonable and true.
As I have often clarified and explained94, knowledge has to
be regarded or approached phenomenologically (that is the
only consistent epistemological thesis). We have to start by
acknowledging and observing appearances, as such,
without initial judgment as to their reality or illusion. At
first sight all appearances seem real enough. But after a
while, we have to recognize that some appearances conflict
with other appearances, and judge such appearances (i.e.
one or more of those in conflict) as illusory. Since there is
nothing in our ‘world’ but appearances, all remaining
appearances not judged as illusions (i.e. so long as they are
not logically invalidated by conflicts with other
appearances) maintain their initial status as realities.
That is, the distinction between appearances as realities or
illusions emerges within the world of appearances itself,
merely classifying some this way and the rest that way. We
have no concept of reality or illusion other than with
92
Beyond consciousness of “Shunyata” is a more vivid
awareness called “Mahamudra”, according to Chögyam Trungpa, in
Illusion’s Game. But such refinements need not concern us here.
93
See Cheng, pp. 38-39, on this topic. He there refers to MT
XIII:9a and XVIII:7.
94
See my Future Logic, ch. 60-62, and later essays on the
subject.
reference to appearance. To use the category of reality with

reference to something beyond appearance is concept
stealing, a misuse of the concept, an extrapolation which
ignores the concept’s actual genesis in the context of
appearance. To apply the concept of illusion to all
appearances, on the basis that some appearances are
illusions, is an unjustified generalization ignoring how this
concept arises with reference to a specific event (namely,
inconsistency between certain appearances and resulting
diminishment of their innate credibilities). Moreover, to
claim that no appearances are real or that all are illusions is
self-defeating, since such claim itself logically falls under
the category of appearance.
The illusory exists even though it is not reality – it exists as
appearance. The real is also apparent – some of it, at least.
Therefore, appearance per se is neither to be understood as
reality (since some appearances are illusory), nor can it be
equated to illusion (since not all appearances have been or
can be found illusory). Appearance is thus the common
ground of realities and illusions, their common
characteristic, the dialectical synthesis of those theses and
antitheses. It is a genus, they are mutually exclusive species
of it. (The difference between appearance and existence is
another issue, I have dealt with elsewhere – briefly put,
existence is a genus of appearance and non-appearance, the
latter concepts being relative to that of consciousness
whereas the former is assumed independent.)
None of these insights allows the conclusion that
appearances are “neither real nor unreal” (granting that
‘unreal’ is understood to mean ‘non-real’). All we can say
is that some appearances are real and some unreal.
Formally, the correct logical relation between the three
concepts is as follows. Deductively, appearance is implied
by reality and illusion, but does not imply them; for reality
and illusion are contradictory, so that they cannot both be
true and they cannot both be false. Moreover, inductively,
appearance implies reality, until and unless it is judged to

be illusion (by virtue of some inconsistency being
discovered).
More precisely, all appearances are initially classed as real.
Any appearance found self-contradictory is (deductively)
illusory, and its contradictory is consequently self-evident
and (deductively) real. All remaining appearances remain
classed as real, so long as uncontested. Those that are
contested have to be evaluated dynamically. When one
appearance is belied by another, they are both put in doubt
by the conflict between them, and so both become initially
problematic. Thereafter, their relative credibilities have to
be tentatively weighed in the overall context of available
empirical and rational knowledge – and repeatedly
reassessed thereafter, as that context develops and evolves.
On this basis, one of these appearances may be judged
more credible than the other, so that the former is labeled
probable (close to real) and the latter relatively improbable
(close to illusory). In the limit, they may be characterized
as respectively effectively (inductively) real or illusory.
Thus, reality and illusion are the extremes (respectively,
100% and 0%) in a broad range of probabilities with many
intermediate degrees (including problemacy at the mid-
point).
To be still more precise, pure percepts (i.e. concrete
appearances, phenomena) are never illusory. The value-
judgment of ‘illusory’ properly concerns concepts (i.e.
abstract appearances, ‘universals’) only. When we say of a
percept that it was illusory, we just mean that we
misinterpreted it. That is, what we initially considered as a
pure percept, had in fact an admixture of concept, which as
it turned out was erroneous. For example, I see certain
shapes and colors in the distance and think ‘here comes a
girl on a bike’, but as I get closer I realize that all I saw was
a pile of rubbish by the roadside. The pure percept is the
shapes and colors I see; the false interpretation is ‘girl on
bike’, the truer interpretation is ‘pile of rubbish’. The initial

percept has not changed, but my greater proximity has
added perceptual details to it. My first impression was
correct, only my initial judgment was wrong. I revise the
latter concept, not through some superior means to
knowledge, but simply by means of further perception and
conception.
Strictly speaking, then, perception is never at issue; it is our
conceptions that we evaluate. It is in practice, admittedly,
often very difficult to isolate a percept from its
interpretation, i.e. from conceptual appendages to it. Our
perception of things is, indeed, to a great extent ‘eidetic’.
This fact need not, however, cause us to reject any
perception (as many Western philosophers, as well as
Buddhists, quickly do), or even all conception. The
conceptual ‘impurities’ in percepts are not necessarily
wrong. We know them to have been wrong, when we
discover a specific cause for complaint – namely, a logical
or experiential contradiction. So long as we find no such
specific fault with them, they may be considered right. This
just means that we have to apply the rules of adduction95 to
our immediate interpretations of individual percepts, just
as we do to complex theories relative to masses of percepts.
These rules are universal: no judgment is exempt from the
requirement of careful scrutiny and reevaluation.
Now, judging by Cheng’s account and certain quotations
of Nagarjuna therein, we could interpret the latter as having
been trying to say just what I have said. For instance,
Cheng writes96: “What Nagarjuna wanted to deny is that
empirical phenomena… are absolutely real…. However,
[this] does not mean that nothing exists. It does not nullify
95
Adduction treats all conceptual knowledge as hypothetical, to
be tested repeatedly – in competition with all conceivable alternative
hypotheses – with reference to all available logic and experience.
96
P. 42.
anything in the world” (my italics). I interpret this non-

nullification as an acknowledgment of appearance as the
minimum basis of knowledge. Nagarjuna may have had
difficulties developing an appropriate terminology
(distinguishing existence, appearance and reality, as I do
above), influenced no doubt by his penchant for
paradoxical statements seeming to express and confirm
Buddhist mystical doctrine.
But if that is what he meant, then he has not succeeded to
arrive at a “middle way” (a denial of the Law of the
Excluded Middle), but only at a “common way” (a granted
common ground). As far as I am concerned, that is not a
meager achievement – the philosophical discovery of
phenomenology! But for him that would be trivial, if not
counterproductive – for what he seeks is to deny ordinary
consciousness and its inhibiting rationales, and to thereby
leap into a different, higher consciousness capable of
reaching transcendental truth or ultimate reality.
It is interesting to note that the Madhyamika school’s
effective denial of reality to all appearance was not
accepted by a later school of Mahayana philosophy, the
Yogacara (7th-8th cent. CE). Cheng describes the latter’s
position as follows97: “Every object, both mental and non-
mental, may be logically or dialectically proven illusory.
But in order to be illusory, there must be a certain thought
that suffers from illusion. The very fact of illusion itself
proves the existence and reality of a certain consciousness
or mind. To say that everything mental and non-mental is
unreal is intellectually suicidal. The reality of something
should at least be admitted in order to make sense of talking
about illusion” (italics mine). That is the tenor of the
phenomenological argument I present above, although my
final conclusion is clearly not like Yogacara’s, that
everything is consciousness or mind (a type of Idealism),
97
P. 25.
but leaves open the possibility of judging and classifying

appearances as matter or mind with reference to various
considerations.
The Madhyamika rejection of ‘dualism’ goes so far as to
imply that “emptiness” is not to be found in nirvana, the
antithesis of samsara (according to the earlier Buddhist
viewpoint), but in ‘neither samsara nor nirvana’. In truth,
similar statements may be found in the Pali Canon, i.e. in
the much earlier Theravada schools, so that it is not a
distinctly Mahayana construct. The difference is one of
emphasis, such statements, relatively rare in the earlier
period, are the norm and frequently repeated in the later
period. An example may be found in the Dhammapada, a
sutra dating from the 3rd cent. BCE98, i.e. four or five
hundred years before Nagarjuna. Here, samsara is likened
to a stream or this shore of it, and nirvana to the further
shore; and we are told to get beyond the two.
When you have crossed the stream of Samsara, you

will reach Nirvana… He has reached the other
shore, then he attains the supreme vision and all his
fetters are broken. He for whom there is neither this
nor the further shore, nor both….
Such a formula is legitimate if taken as a warning that

pursuing nirvana (enlightenment and liberation) is an
obstacle to achieving it, just a subtle form of samsara
98
This is supposedly the date of composition, though the
translator, Juan Mascaro, in his Introduction, states “compiled” at that
time, thus seeming to imply an earlier composition. It is not clear in
that commentary when the sutra is estimated to have been first written
down. And if it was much later, say in the period of crystallization of
Mahayana thought, say in 100 BCE to 100 CE, the latter may have
influenced the monks who did the writing down. See ch. 26 (383-5) for
the quotation.
(ignorance and attachment); there is no contradiction in

saying that the thought of nirvana as a goal of action keeps
us in samsara – this is an ordinary causal statement. The
formula is also logically acceptable if taken as a reminder
that no word or concept – not even ‘samsara’ or ‘nirvana’
– can capture or transmit the full meanings intended (i.e.
‘not’ here should more precisely be stated as ‘not quite’).
There is also no contradiction in saying that one who has
attained nirvana does not need to leave the world of those
locked in samsara, but can continue to exist and act in it
though distinctively in a way free of attachment.
But it would be a contradiction in terms to speak of
‘emptiness’ as ‘neither samsara nor nirvana’, given that
nirvana as a concept is originally defined as non-samsara;
the truth cannot be a third alternative. At best, one could
say that emptiness is a higher level of nirvana (in an
enlarged sense), which is not to be confused with the lower
level intended by the original term nirvana, nor of course
with samsara. In that case, nirvana (in a generic sense of
the term, meaning literally non-samsara) includes both a
higher species and a lower one; and the statement ‘neither
samsara nor lower-nirvana’ is then compatible with the
statement ‘higher nirvana’. There is a big difference
between rough, poetic, dramatic language, and literal
interpretation thereof.
More Buddhist antinomic discourse 207
15. More Buddhist antinomic

discourse
From Ruminations 5, and Logical and Spiritual

Reflections 3.10.
1. The ‘I have no thesis’ thesis

a. The Buddhist99 philosopher Nagarjuna (India, c.
150-250 CE) attacked every thesis he regarded as rational
by every means he regarded as logical, and declared his
own discourse immune from scrutiny and criticism, by
saying (according to one translation):
“If I had a thesis, I would be at fault; since I alone

have no thesis, I alone am without fault” (VV
29)100.
99
Needless to say, the following comments are not an attack on
Buddhism, but on the rhetoric of Nagarjuna. Buddhism is not well
served by such games. I think of Nagarjuna whenever I read v. 306 of
the Dhammapada: “He who says what is not… and he who says he has
not done what he knows well he has done… sinned against truth”. For
me, he is just a philosopher like any other; his interest in Buddhism is
incidental (as is his saintly status in the eyes of many).
100
Nagarjuna in Vigraha Vyavartani (Averting the Arguments),
verse 29. The translation used here is given by ‘Namdrol’ in the E-
Sangha Buddhism Forum
(http://www.lioncity.net/buddhism/index.php?s=d8946a5bcb1f56f3e9
e21a108125823f&showtopic=5604&st=100&#entry82577). Note
however that the word “alone” in this translation may not be in the
original, judging by other translations I have seen, even though it does
seem to be Nagarjuna’s intent.
The first aspect of Nagarjuna’s statement is a brazen claim

to have no claim. This is of course self-contradictory.
Every proposition that claims to be meaningful and true
(whether about some experience or about abstraction,
whether positive or negative) is an assertion, a claim. To
pretend making no claim even as one plainly makes one is
a breach of the law of identity: it is denying that a fact is a
fact.
There is no logical way to deny or criticize the theses or
methodologies of others without opening one’s own
discourse to evaluation. All denial or criticism is discourse,
and all discourse is subject to logical review. To pretend
the logical possibility of dispensation is dishonest (and if
such pretense implicitly is bad enough, it is all the more
dishonest if made explicitly).
Nagarjuna’s discourse was, in fact (as I show in Buddhist
Illogic), shock full of fallacious arguments, a mere parody
of logic posing as logic. But he knew that people untrained
in logic would fall for it, and he sealed their intellectual fate
with the said eyewash claim. To neutralize further
discussion, he misled them into believing he had simply
shown up the logical absurdity of logic, and all doctrines
based on it, but had himself posited no methodology or
doctrine of his own.
Not only was his alleged refutation of reason full of errors
of reasoning, but his concluding ‘no-claim claim’ was also
a mockery of logic and sincerity. He, of course, just says ‘I
make no claim’ – and he persistently denies that this
statement constitutes a claim. I call that shameless
psychological manipulation, motivated by one-upmanship.
He cynically takes advantage of the credulity of some
people, to dominate them intellectually.
The second aspect of Nagarjuna’s above statement can be
viewed as a ‘soft’ version of the liar paradox, since he tells
us: everyone but me is in error. Although such a

statement is not in itself inconsistent (God could
conceivably utter it truthfully) – it is logically open to
doubt due to being self-exempting.
Effectively, it says: ‘I am the only human who has
knowledge; I know everyone else is incapable of true
knowledge’. Only a fool is tricked by such an
unsubstantiated claim to privilege. Reason regards all
people as technically within range of knowledge given
enough effort, even if they do not all fulfill their potential
equally. Reason demands that discourse be reasoned and
fair – i.e. based on common general norms as to how truth
and falsehood are to be determined.
If Nagarjuna were basing his criticism of ordinary human
means to knowledge on a claim to have attained a ‘higher
level’ of consciousness (i.e. Buddhist enlightenment or
Biblical prophecy), we could not convincingly oppose him
(being unable to prove or disprove such experiential
claims). But he is not using such as claim as his basis – he
is attempting to debunk reason through ordinary logical
discourse. In that case, he is fair game for logic.
The statement of infallibility is then seen as manifest
arrogance, a lack of respect for other thinkers. By saying ‘I
alone am exempt from any criticism’ the author
aggressively grants himself a special dispensation: he alone
is endowed with the way to knowledge; everyone else is an
idiot or a dishonest person. It is totalitarian, dictatorial
speech.
Compare this dismissive ‘you all know nothing’, to the
self-inclusive statement ‘I (or we) know nothing’. The
latter – even though it implies ‘I know that I know nothing’
and is therefore self-inconsistent – is at least modest; so
much so, that such admission is widely considered a mark
of wisdom (and it is commendable, in modified form, i.e.
as ‘I know close to nothing, very little’).
Self-exemption is a hidden form of self-inconsistency,

because it resorts to a double standard. The one making
such a claim presents superficially rational arguments
against human experience and logic, but does not ask
himself or tell us how he (an ordinary human) managed
(using the very cognitive means he rejects) to attain such
allegedly true knowledge. The author criticizes others, but
does not equally well criticize himself.
This is a fallacious mode of thought often found among
would-be skeptical philosophers. It comes in many subtle
forms. It is wise to always be on the lookout for such
practices, applying the reflexive test here demonstrated.
b. Looking at Nagarjuna’s above statement in more
detail, the following may be added.
To begin with, what is meant here by “having a thesis”?
This refers to any explicit or even wordless belief, any clear
or even vague opinion upheld (considered to constitute
knowledge), any proposition one advocates or implicitly
logically condones. The subject that Nagarjuna is here
discussing is any outcome of human rational cognition, any
belief, opinion or doctrine that one may arrive at, rightly or
wrongly, by means of ordinary consciousness, i.e. through
experience, negation, abstraction, hypothesizing, inductive
or deductive argument.
And what is meant here by “being at fault”? This refers to
making a mistake in the course of observation or reasoning,
so that some thesis one has adhered to is in fact an illusion
rather than a reality, false rather than true, erroneous
instead of correct.
How do we know the status appropriate to a thesis? We
know it (I suggest) by holistic application of the whole
science of logic to the totality of the data of experience. Our
concepts of cognitive right or wrong are themselves all
constructed by logic and experience, without appeal to
some extraordinary outside justification (like prophetic
revelation or mystical realization, or simply the authority

of some great personage or of a religious document or
institution).
Now, Nagarjuna is evidently well aware of all that, but is
intent on annulling the independent reliability of ordinary
experience and reason. His strategy and tactics to this end,
in all his discourse, as I have shown throughout my
Buddhist Illogic, is to give the impression (however
paradoxical) that logic may be invalidated by means of
logic. And this twofold sentence of his, “If I had a thesis, I
would be at fault; since I alone have no thesis, I alone am
without fault”, fits neatly into his destructive philosophical
programme.
On the surface, this sentence might be construed as a single
argument:
If X (a proposition is proposed), then Y (an error is

made)
but not X (no proposition)
therefore, not Y (no error)
Although the above apodosis is logically invalid, since it

denies the antecedent to deny the consequent, Nagarjuna is
not above letting it pass without comment, knowing it will
suffice to convince some people, although he is well aware
that the logically trained will spot it and object. But for the
latter audience, he reserves a subtler form of manipulation.
It has to be seen that the purpose of this famous Verse 29
in Nagarjuna’s discourse is designed to make a show of
logical consistency. He wants by means of it to give the
impression that his anti-rational discourse is justifiable,
that it has the stamp of approval of logic. Yes, he is actually
attacking logic; but at the same time, he has to pretend to
use it, because he knows this measure is required to
convince people. For most people, a veneer of logic (i.e.

mere rhetoric) suffices to put their reason’s critical faculty
at rest. We shall now see how he goes about this task.
The first part of Nagarjuna’s statement, viz. “If I had a
thesis, I would be at fault”, is not intended (as some have
assumed) as a justification for his overall discourse. It is
not placed here in his discourse as an argument with
intrinsic force, which directly buttresses or proves his
philosophy. It is certainly not an obvious logical principle,
or axiom, which everyone would agree on without
objection, from which his discourse can be inferred or even
generalized. No – it is itself an inference and application
from Nagarjuna’s main thesis, namely the claim that ‘All
human knowledge based on ordinary experience and
reason is necessarily erroneous’.
The latter underlying claim is his major premise in a (here
tacit) productive eduction, i.e. one that deduces a particular
hypothetical proposition from a more general categorical
one101. This argument is formally valid, running as follows:
All X (opinions) are necessarily Y (erroneous);

therefore,
If this is X (a proposition is proposed), then this is Y
(an error is made).
In this way, the first part of Nagarjuna’s statement is made

to seem something inferred, rather than an arbitrary claim.
It is cunningly presented as an application of already
admitted information, rather than as an isolated assertion.
Granting the premise, the conclusion indeed logically
follows (this is the veneer of logic) – but has the premise
already been granted? No. Also note, once the conclusion
101
See Future Logic, chapter 29.3.
is seemingly drawn, it can by generalization be used to

reinforce the premise; although this is a circularity, it works
psychologically.
Moreover, Nagarjuna manages through this implicit
productive argument to pretend he is being consistent with
himself: he is telling us, effectively: ‘See, I am not just
attacking other people’s knowledge, but am prepared to
apply the same stringent critique to my own!’ This virtuous
declaration is of course dust in your eyes, because he is not
here putting the broader principle in doubt but merely
reaffirming it. He has nowhere established that ‘All
propositions are false’. His is a pseudo-logical posture.
As the next part of his statement clarifies, he does not
consider his discourse as falling under the critical rule he
has formulated. The proposition “If I had a thesis, I would
be at fault” is a counterfactual hypothetical; his own
discourse is never made into an issue open to debate. It
seems open-minded, but it is a foregone judgment. His
intention is to ‘avert all arguments’ and place himself at the
outset outside the fray. He seemingly at first admits and
then vehemently denies that his own discourse is a product
of ordinary consciousness. This convoluted avoidance of
cognitive responsibility has fooled many a poor soul.
Moving on, now, to the second part of Nagarjuna’s
statement, viz. “since I alone have no thesis, I alone am
without fault”. As already pointed out, this can be viewed
as the minor premise and conclusion of an invalid apodosis
in which the first part of the statement is the major premise.
But we could also more generously assume that Nagarjuna
intended a valid apodosis, using as its tacit major premise
the obvious proposition: ‘If one has no thesis, one cannot
make a mistake’.
It can be correctly argued that this premise was left tacit
simply because it is so obvious to and readily granted by
everyone. It is indeed true that if one ventures no utterance,
thought or even intention, if one holds no opinion, makes

no claim to knowledge, if one remains inwardly and
outwardly silent, one will never make any errors. For the
status of truth or falsehood is only applicable to
meaningful assertions.
A stone is never in error, because it has no thoughts.
Likewise, a thoughtless person may by his or her
ignorance, blindness or stupidity make many errors of
living, but makes no error in the logical sense of having
proposed an inappropriate proposition. All that is so
obvious (and vacuous) no debating it is necessary. The
following apodosis is thus implicit in Nagarjuna’s
declaration:
If not X (no proposition is proposed), then Y (no error

is made)
but not X (no proposition)
therefore, not Y (no error)
This argument has a true major premise, as well as a valid

form. This gives his discourse a veneer of logic again,
helping him to persuade more victims. However, his minor
premise remains well open to doubt, and decisively
deniable! (As a consequence of which, his conclusion is of
course also open to doubt.) He takes it for granted that he
‘has no thesis’ – but this claim is far from granted already.
The tacit major premise acts as a smokescreen for the
minor premise.
Moreover, note, although ‘being correct’ implies ‘not
being at fault’, the reverse is not necessary. Nagarjuna
suggests that his alleged faultlessness implies the
correctness of his position, but it does not follow! Only if
his criticism of all opposing theses was correct (which is
by no stretch of the imagination true), and his thesis was
not liable to similar criticism and was therefore the only

leftover logical possibility, would such inference be drawn.
Nagarjuna does indeed ‘have a thesis’. His main thesis, the
goal of his whole philosophical discourse, is as already
mentioned the claim that ‘All human knowledge based on
ordinary experience and reason is necessarily erroneous’.
This, for a start, qualifies as a thesis – boy, it is a big
skeptical thesis, full of negative implications. It is a
principle of logic that to deny any thesis is to affirm an
opposite thesis. His claim that his doctrine is not a thesis,
in the minor premise here, is mere arbitrary assertion.
Furthermore, he ‘has a thesis’ every time he makes a
specific assertion of any kind, including the assertion under
scrutiny here, viz. “If I had a thesis, I would be at fault;
since I alone have no thesis, I alone am without fault”. Note
that Nagarjuna thinks that making a negative statement is
somehow ‘not having a thesis’ – but the polarity of a
statement does not diminish the need for justification; if
anything, one can argue that on the contrary negative
statements are harder to establish than positive ones!
And we should strictly include as ‘theses’ of his not only
such explicit statements, but also all the implicit
assumptions and suggestions within his discourse (like the
implicit major premise and resulting apodosis we have just
highlighted). It makes no difference whether these explicit,
or unstated and unadmitted, items constitute information or
logical method, content or process.
For all these elements of discourse, be they spoken or
otherwise intended, in all fairness fit in our common
understanding and definition as to what it means to ‘have a
thesis’. For none of these categorical or hypothetical
propositions (except perhaps ‘if silence, no error’) is self-
evident. They did not arise ex nihilo in Nagarjuna’s mind,
ready-made and self-justified.
They are all complex products of ordinary human

cognition, based on experience and produced by reason
(even if, in Nagarjuna’s case, the mind involved is
deranged). They undeniably together form a specific
philosophy, a theory of logic, an epistemology and
ontology. The mere fact that we can (as here done) at all
consider and debate them is proof that they are ‘theses’.
The law of identity (A is A) must be maintained: facts are
facts and it is no use pretending otherwise. Nagarjuna may
eternally refuse the predicate of “having a thesis”, but we
confidently insist on it. His arguments have in no way
succeeded in averting this just and true judgment.
Consequently, his doctrine is self-contradictory. Not only
does he ‘have a thesis’, but since his thesis is that ‘to have
a thesis is to be in error’, he has (by its own terms) to be
recognized as being in error.
Thus, to end it: Nagarjuna’s statement “If I had a thesis, I
would be at fault; since I alone have no thesis, I alone am
without fault” weaves a complicated web of deception. It
misleads, by means of subtle ambiguities and superficial
imitations of logic. Once its dishonesty is revealed, it
should be decidedly rejected.
The mere historic fact that Nagarjuna is famous and
admired by many does not justify hanging on to his
doctrine ad nauseam, trying ex post facto to find ways to
make it consistent with logic. Celebrity is not proof of some
hidden truth – it is vanity. Most who do so are merely
grasping for reflected glory. Anyway, attachment to
authority is argument ad hominem. The religious and
academic ‘groupies’ who gave him and perpetuate his
authority are not logically competent, however numerous
they be. It is a case of the blind leading the blind.
c. Nagarjuna defends his ‘non-thesis’ idea in the next
verse (VV 30), describing it as “a non-apprehension of
non-things” (according to one translation102). Now, this is

a very funny phrase. To the impressionable, it sounds very
deep, pregnant with meaning. It seems to suggest this man
has some privileged higher way of knowledge that goes
beyond ordinary experience and reasoning.
But in truth, taken literally, we are all quite capable of
“non-apprehension of non-things” and daily practice it, for
the simple reason that non-things cannot be apprehended!
Logically, this is all this phrase means, note well. What
then is the old fox up to, here?
Nagarjuna is trying to project his ‘not having a thesis’
position as far as logically possible from our plebian
‘having a thesis’ – i.e. from ordinary consciousness, which
consists in ‘the apprehension of things’. He has logically
only three alternatives to choose from:
 the ‘non-apprehension of things’
(unconsciousness);
 the ‘apprehension of non-things’ (an otherworldly
consciousness);
 or the ‘non-apprehension of non-things’.
Having a marked taste for one-upmanship and dramatic
extremes, Nagarjuna of course chose the third of these
terms as his vehicle. Even though the obvious sense of this
phrase is puerile, it has poetic breadth and appeal. It seems
102
By Frederick J. Streng. The full text of his translation seems
to be that posted in the Internet at:
http://www.orientalia.org/article491.html. Note that the phrase “non-
apprehension of non-things” is considered an incorrect translation by
Plamen Gradinarov. However, while willing to admit the latter’s
objection, I do not agree that Streng’s freer translation is entirely
inadmissible. In my view, it may not be literally precise, but it captures
Nagarjuna’s paradoxical spirit and intent. See our discussion of this
issue at http://nyaya.darsana.org/topic3.html. In any case, even if the
phrase “non-apprehension of non-things” is best not relied on, the
criticisms of Nagarjuna in the present section can still be proposed on
other grounds.
to imply ‘knowledge without consciousness’ and

‘consciousness of the unknowable’ all at once.
Thus, his ‘non-apprehension’ is a mix of apprehension and
non-apprehension, or something else again. And likewise,
his ‘non-things’ are things of some sort as well as non-
things, or perhaps something quite other still.
In other words, the negative terms in the phrase “non-
apprehension of non-things” are not intended by Nagarjuna
nor received by his disciples and students as mere
negations of the corresponding positive terms, but as
paradoxical terms, which may (in accord with the
tetralemma schema) be all at once positive or negative or
both or neither.
It is (and isn’t) ‘apprehension/non-apprehension of
things/non-things’ all in one.
Nagarjuna stands out in the history of world philosophy as
the most unabashed opponent of the laws of thought. Not
only does he freely use self-contradictory or middle-
including propositions, but he even makes use of terms
loaded with contradiction and inclusion of a middle.
Now, some people might say: ‘what is wrong with that?’
They will argue: ‘the real world is extremely subtle, and
we can only ever hope to express it in thought very
approximately; Nagarjuna is only trying to take this
uncertainty into consideration within his discourse; the
laws of thought are just arbitrary demands, making us force
our thoughts into prejudicial straightjackets’.
But logical laxity is not the proper attitude in the face of an
extremely complex and hard to express real world. It is
precisely because of the great difficulty of the cognitive
task at hand that one is called upon to be very clear and
careful. Avoiding checks and balances on our judgments
does not increase their efficiency but makes them less
reliable.
In the case under consideration, if Nagarjuna does indeed

have some privileged form of otherworldly consciousness,
he can just say so. The laws of thought in no way forbid
him to posit such a claim. He does not need to beat about
the bush, and pretend to have something unspeakable and
not subject to peer review. He can and should be forthright,
and defend his position in an equitable way like everyone
else.
If he considers the terms ‘apprehension’ and ‘things’ to
have some intrinsic logical flaw, he can argue his case
openly; he does not need to engage in allusion, suggestion
and fallacious argument. Most of us thinkers are open-
minded and willing to correct our errors: if these terms are
flawed, we are not attached to them; we are flexible, ready
to modify or replace them as logically necessary in the light
of new evidence and reasoning.
But Nagarjuna is like an accused, who when forced to
appear in court refuses to admit his identity, or recognize
the authority of the law and the judges, or plead guilty or
not guilty, or argue the defense of his case. Worse still, in
utter contempt of the court, he does not even admit his
refusal to be a refusal – he calls it a ‘non-thesis’. Does that
stop court proceedings or make the court declare him
innocent? Surely not.
Nagarjuna misunderstands the nature of negation. He
thinks that if one person says ‘X’ and another says ‘not X’,
the onus of proof is on the first more than on the second.
He considers that making a positive statement is more
logically demanding than making a negative one. He
imagines in his confusion that saying ‘no’ is equivalent to
saying nothing, i.e. to not saying anything. Most logicians
would disagree with him, and argue that any thesis put
forward (even if only by insinuation) is equally in need of
proof, whatever its polarity.
I would go further and say that, on the contrary, a negative

statement is more demanding than a positive one. You can
prove a positive statement easily enough, if you point to
sufficient evidence in its favor. But how do you prove a
negative statement? It is much more difficult, since
negatives are not directly experienced but are only
experienced by way of the absence of positives. A negative
can ultimately only be proved indirectly, by inability to
prove any contrary positive.
Thus, in fact, not only does Nagarjuna’s alleged self-
limitation to negatives not exempt him from proofs, but on
the contrary it increases the logical burden upon him. He is
right in considering negatives as significantly different
from positives, but he does not realize that the difference is
to his disadvantage. He claims to have no epistemological
or ontological basis, and yet to be able to reject offhand all
theories of knowledge and reality. Such a grandiose
fanciful claim surely requires much more justification than
any other!
It should be stressed, incidentally, that Nagarjuna’s “non-
apprehension of non-things” should not be interpreted (as
some do) as a defense of non-verbal meditative experience
or insight. That is not the thrust of his anti-rational
philosophy, although its avowed Buddhist affiliation may
lead one to suppose so.
If Nagarjuna were a man deeply absorbed in meditation, he
would not be writing philosophy. If his intent were to
promote meditation, he would simply teach methods of
meditation and not stir up verbal disputes. No – this man
has philosophical ambitions. Allegedly, these are meant to
put into words some of the ‘reasoning’ that he considered
the Buddha to have gone through before attaining
enlightenment. Nagarjuna assumes from the start that this
‘reasoning’ is necessarily anti-logical, a rejection of
reason.
But we must see that this assumption is just a prejudice of

his distorted mind. He was a philosophical revolutionary –
one who believed that reason has to be overturned, to be
transcended. But it is more credible to be evolutionary –
and to consider meditation as a way for us to keep moving,
beyond the limits of discursive thought, without need to
deny such thought within its applicable bounds.
To advocate respect for logic is not to foment endless
babble, but rather to require that any thought arising be
subjected to responsible cognitive evaluation. Logic is
possible entirely without words, by means of silent
intentions. Even in deep meditation, some sort of ‘reality
check’ by means of logic occurs, and this need not involve
any words. It is only by this means, no doubt, that a
Buddha-to-be may steer himself well clear of common
illusions and insane imaginings, towards to full realization.
Contrary to Nagarjuna’s belief, rationality and spirituality
are not necessarily in conflict. Reason and meditation are
potentially, to some extent, mutually beneficial. It is not
thought as such, much less logic, but only excess of
thought, particularly irrelevant chatter, which hinders
meditative concentration and contemplation. A certain
amount of appropriate thinking is often needed to initially
position one’s mind for meditation.
d. In fact, as I will now show, the sentence “If I had a
thesis, I would be at fault”103 is a formal impossibility. I
earlier interpreted and symbolized it as “If X (a proposition
is proposed), then Y (an error is made)”, giving the
antecedent and consequent two separate symbols, X and Y.
But now let us consider these constituents more closely.
103
Two other translations of this sentence confirm and amplify
this reading. “If I would make any proposition whatever, then by that I
would have a logical error” (Streng). “Should I have put forward any
thesis, then the logical defect would have been mine” (Gradinarov).
What does “making an error” mean here? It is not an

ordinary predicate. The consequent Y does not merely refer
to some error in general, but specifically to an error in the
antecedent X. Y tells us that X is wrong. Therefore, Y
formally implies the negation of X, i.e. notX! Granting this,
Nagarjuna’s sentence now reads: “If X, then not X”, i.e.
“If X is true, then X is false” – a paradoxical hypothetical
proposition, whose conclusion would be the categorical “X
is false” (as earlier suggested).
However, that is not the end of the matter. If we now
consider the meaning of X – viz. “a proposition is
proposed” – we may fairly suppose it refers to just any
proposition whatsoever. In that case, the proposition
concerned might even be the negation of X; so that we may
substitute notX for X throughout the hypothesis. So doing,
we obtain “If notX, then not notX”, i.e. “If not X, then X”,
or in other words “If X is false, then X is true”. This is also,
of course, a paradoxical proposition, whose formal
conclusion is “X is true”.
We thus – by means of a universal reading of “having a
thesis”, as inclusive of “not having a thesis” – now have,
not only a single paradox, but a double paradox! That is,
our conclusion is not only that X is false, but that X is both
true and false. The latter conclusion is of course contrary
to the law of non-contradiction, as in the case of the liar
paradox.
This means that Nagarjuna’s statement is a formal
impossibility: it is a contradiction in terms; it is not only
false, but meaningless. It does not constitute legitimate
discourse at all, let alone a tenable philosophical position
or theory. The words or symbols used in it are logically not
even conceivable, so it is as if he is saying nothing. He
seems to be saying something intelligible, but it is an
illusion.
Now, it may be objected that Y does not necessarily mean

that X is wrong, but could merely mean that X could be
wrong. That is, “making an error” could be taken to mean
that X is uncertain rather than definitely refuted. In that
case, we would have the following two hypotheses: “If X,
possibly not X” and “If not X, possibly X”; or in one
sentence: “Whether X or not X is proposed, the outcome is
uncertain”. Indeed, this more modal, ambiguous posture
may well be considered as Nagarjuna’s exact intent (which
some have interpreted as noncommittal ‘illocution’).
At first sight, due to the use of vague words or of symbols,
this objection may seem credible and the contradictory
conclusions involved apparently dissolved. But upon
reflection, there is still an underlying conflict: to affirm X,
or to deny it, is contrary to a position that neither affirms
nor denies X. An assertoric statement (affirming or
denying X) is incompatible with a problematic statement
(saying X may or may not be true). One cannot at once
claim to have knowledge (of X, or of not X) and claim to
lack it (considering the truth or falsehood issue open). This
is as much a contradiction as claiming the same thing (X)
true and false.
Someone unacquainted with the logic of hypothetical
propositions might now object that X, or notX, is only
proposed hypothetically in the antecedent, and so may well
be problematic in the consequent. But this is a logically
untenable objection, due to the process of addition
(described in the chapter on formal logic); i.e. due to the
fact that “If X, then Y” implies “If X, then (X and Y)”. In
the present case, this means: “If X is asserted, then X is
both asserted and uncertain”. It suffices for the
contradiction to occur conditionally, as here, for the
condition to be disproved; therefore, our conclusion is
quite formal: “X cannot be asserted”. QED.
Someone could here, finally, object that the certainty in the

antecedent and the uncertainty in the consequent may not
be simultaneous, and so not produce a logical conflict.
Such objection would be valid, granting that a thought
process separated the beginning and end of the hypothetical
proposition. However, in the case under scrutiny,
Nagarjuna is clearly stating that in the very act of
“proposing something”, one would be “making an error”;
i.e. the error is nothing other than the proposing, itself. So,
no time separation can credibly be argued, and Nagarjuna’s
thesis remains illogical.
Note that all the present discussion has concerned only the
first part of verse 29, i.e. the major premise “If I had a
thesis, I would be at fault”. We have found this
hypothetical proposition logically faulty, irrespective of
whether Nagarjuna admits or refuses to acknowledge that
he “has a thesis”. So, let us now reconsider this minor
premise of his, and his conclusion that he “is not at fault”.
We have here introduced a new twist in the analysis, when
we realized that “If X, then Y” (understood as “If X, then
not X”) implies “If not X, then Y” (since the latter is
implied by “If not X, then X”, which is implied by the
former by replacing X with notX). So, now we have a new
major premise for Nagarjuna, namely “If not X, then Y”,
meaning: “If I do not have a thesis, I will be at fault”.
Taking this implied major premise with Nagarjuna’s own
minor premise, viz. “I have no thesis” – the conclusion is
“I am at fault”. This conclusion is, note, the opposite of his
(“I am not at fault”). Thus, even though Nagarjuna boasts
his thinking is faultless, it is demonstrably faulty!
For – simply put, leaving aside all his rhetoric – all he is
saying is: “no thesis is true”; it is just another version of the
liar paradox. And his attempt to mitigate his statement,
with the afterthought “except my thesis”, is logically
merely an additional statement: a particular case that falls
squarely under the general rule. Moreover, before an

exception can be applied, the rule itself must be capable of
consistent formulation – and this one clearly (as just
shown) is not.
Note lastly, none of this refutation implies that silence is
impossible or without value. If (as some commentators
contend) Nagarjuna’s purpose was to promote cessation of
discourse, he sure went about it the wrong way. He did not
need to develop a controversial, anti-logical philosophy. It
would have been enough for him to posit, as a
psychological fact, that (inner and outer) silence is
expedient for deep meditation.
2. Calling what is not a spade a spade

Buddhism, no doubt since its inception, has a mix of logic
and illogic in its discourse. Looking at its four main
philosophical schools, Abhidharma, Prajnaparamita,
Madhyamika and Yogacara, the most prone to discard the
three laws of thought (i.e. Identity, Non-contradiction,
Exclusion of the middle) was Madhyamika104. But this
trend was started in the earlier Prajnaparamita, as examples
from the Diamond Sutra105 show.
104
See my work Buddhist Illogic on this topic, as well as
comments on Nagarjuna’s discourse in my Ruminations, Part I, chapter
5. I must stress that my concern, throughout those previous and the
present critiques, is not to reject Buddhism as such, but to show that it
can be harmonized with reason. I consider quite unnecessary and
counterproductive, the attitude of many Buddhist philosophers, who
seemingly consider Realization (i.e. enlightenment, liberation,
wisdom) impossible without rejection of logic. My guiding principle
throughout is that they are quite compatible, and indeed that reason is
an essential means (together with morality and meditation) to that
desirable end.
105
Judging by its Sanskrit language, the centrality of the
bodhisattva ideal and other emphases in it, this sutra is a Mahayana
text. It is thought to have been composed and written in India about
We do, in this sutra, find samples of valid logical argument.

For example, there is a well formed a fortiori argument in
Section 12106: “wherever this sutra or even four lines of it
are preached, that place will be respected by all beings…
How much more [worthy of respect] the person who can
memorize and recite this sutra…!” But we do also find
plain antinomies, like “the Dharma… is neither graspable
nor elusive” (said even though not graspable means
elusive, and not elusive means graspable).
But the Diamond Sutra repeatedly uses a form of argument
that, as a logician, I would class as a further twist in the
panoply of Buddhist illogic. This states: “What is called X
is not in fact X; therefore, it is called X” (or sometimes:
“What is called X is truly not X; such is merely a name,
which is why it is called X”).
There are over twenty samples of this argument in the said
sutra. Here is one: “What the Tathagata has called the
Prajnaparamita, the highest, transcendental wisdom, is not,
in fact, the Prajnaparamita and therefore it is called
Prajnaparamita.” Here is another: “… what are called
beings are truly no beings. Such is merely a name. That is
why the Tathagata has spoken of them as beings.”107
What I am questioning or contesting here regarding this
sort of discourse is only the “therefore” or “which is why”
350 C.E., though at least one authority suggests a date perhaps as early
as 150 C.E. For comparison, Nagarjuna, the founder of Madhyamika
philosophy, was active circa 150-200 C.E.; thus, this Prajnaparamita
text was written during about the same period, if not much later.
106
Mu Soeng, p. 111.
107
In Mu Soeng: pp. 145 and 151, respectively. I spotted a
similar argument in another Mahayana text: “And it is because for them
[the bodhisattvas] training consists in not-training that they are said to
be training” (my translation from a French translation) – found in
chapter 2, v. 33 of the “Sutra of the words of the Buddha on the
Supreme Wisdom” (see Eracle, p. 61).
conjunction108. I am not denying that one might call

something by an inappropriate name, or even that words
can never more than approximate what one really wants to
say. But to say that one is naming something X because it
is not X – this is surely absurd and untenable.
This is not merely ‘not calling a spade a spade’ – it is
calling something a spade even while believing it not to be
a spade! This is, at least on the surface, contrary to logic. If
the label is not applicable, why apply it? Moreover, why
boast about this unconscionable inversion, saying
“therefore”?
To say that something “is not in fact or truly X” is to imply
that the word X has a sense that the thing under
consideration does not fit into; in such case, why call that
very thing ‘X’ against all logic? Why not just call it ‘not X’
(or coin for it some other, more specific name) and avoid
paradox!
Discourse like “such is merely a name” is self-defeating
anyway, since in fact it uses names that do convey some
meaning. The sentence suggests no words have any valid
reference, yet relies on the effectiveness of the words it
utilizes to communicate its various intentions. It is a
statement that tries to exempt itself from the criticisms it
levels at all statements as such.
In the examples given above, the argument depends on our
understanding of words like ‘Prajnaparamita’ (i.e.
perfection of wisdom) or ‘beings’ – and yet at the same
time tries to invalidate any such understanding. It cannot
therefore be said to communicate anything intelligible.
108
Assuming the translation in this edition is correct, of course
(and it seems quite respectable; see p. ix of the Preface). My point is
that no logician has ever formally validated such an argument; and in
fact it is formally invalid, since the conclusion effectively contradicts
a premise.
Without doubt, we cannot adequately express ultimate

reality (or God) in words. But it remains true that we can
verbally express the fact of ineffability (as just done in the
preceding sentence). There is no need to devalue words as
such to admit that they have their limits.
Moreover, it is very doubtful that such paradoxical
statements (like “name this X because it is not X”) are
psychologically expedient to attain enlightenment; they
just cognitively confuse and incapacitate the rational mind.
Rather than silence the inquiring mind, all they actually do
is excite it with subconsciously unanswered questions.
Such nonsensical statements are products of an unfortunate
fashion that developed in Buddhism at a certain epoch109.
That sort of intellectual perversity came to seem profound,
as it does to some postmodern thinkers in the West today,
precisely because a logical antinomy implies nothing – and
that emptiness of meaning is (wrongly) equated with the
Emptiness underlying all phenomena. The gaping hole in
knowledge left by antinomy gives the illusion of being
pregnant with meaning, whereas in fact it is just evidence
of ignorance. Note this well.
It should be added that there is indeed a sort of structural
paradox in the meditative act – but the Diamond Sutra’s
habit of ‘calling not a spade a spade’ is not it. The paradox
involved is that if we pursue enlightenment through
meditation, we cannot hope to attain it, for then our ego
(grasping at this transcendental value as at a worldly
object) is sustained; yet, meditation is the best way to
enlightenment. So, we must ‘just do it’ – just sit and let our
native enlightenment (our ‘Buddha nature’) shine forth
eventually.
109
Although not entirely absent in the earlier Abhidharma
literature and the later Yogacara literature, they are not uncommon in
some Prajnaparamita literature (including the Diamond Sutra) and
rather common in Madhyamika literature.
It should also be reminded that Buddhism is originally

motivated by strong realism. It is essentially a striving
towards Reality. In this perspective, the Buddhist notion of
“suchness” may be considered as a commitment to the Law
of Identity. The enlightened man is one who perceives
things, in particular and in general, such as they really are.
This is brought out, for instance, in the following Zen
exchange. A monk asked Li-shan: “What is the reason [of
Bodhidharma’s coming from the West, i.e. from India to
China]”, to which the Zen master replied “Just because
things are such as they are”, and in D. T. Suzuki’s
commentary that this refers to “Suchness”110.
110
The Zen Doctrine of No-mind, p. 93.
Main References
Cheng, Hsueh-li. Empty Logic: Madhyamika Buddhism

from Chinese Sources. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 1991.
Dawkins, Richard. The Greatest Show on Earth: The
Evidence for Evolution. New York: Free Press, 2009.
Dhammapada, The. Juan Mascaro, trans.
Harmondsworth, Mx.: Penguin, 1973.
Eracle, Jean. Enseignements du Bouddha. Paris: Librio,
2005.
Kneale, William and Martha. The Development of Logic.
Oxford, London: Clarendon, 1962.
Maggiori, Robert. La philosophie au jour le jour. Paris:
Flammarion, 1994.
Mu Soeng. The Diamond Sutra: transforming the way we
perceive the world. Boston: Wisdom, 2000.
Rescher, Nicholas. Paradoxes: Their Roots, Range, and
Resolution.
Suzuki, D.T. The Zen Doctrine of No-Mind. Ed. Christmas
Humphreys. York Beach, ME.: Weiser, 1972.
Trungpa, Chögyam. Illusion’s Game. Shambhala: Boston,
1994.
Main References
Works by Avi Sion
Avi Sion is the author of several works on logic and

philosophy, including: Future Logic (1990); Judaic Logic
(1995); Buddhist Illogic (2002); Phenomenology (2003);
The Logic of Causation (1999, 2003, 2010); Volition and
Allied Causal Concepts (2004); Ruminations (2005);
Meditations (2006); Logical and Spiritual Reflections
(2008-9); A Fortiori Logic (2013).
These works can be freely studied at:

www.TheLogician.net and www.AviSionBooks.com.
Paradoxes and their Resolutions can be read online at:
www.avisionparadoxes.bravesites.com/
A complete list of Avi Sion’s websites can be viewed at:
www.avisionlinks.bravesites.com.
Avi Sion can be reached for questions or comments at:

[email protected]

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What is the main topic of the book?

What is the main topic of the book?

What paradoxes does the book discuss?

What paradoxes does the book discuss?

Paradoxes

and Their Resolutions

Avi Sion, Ph.D.

PROTECTED BY INTERNATIONAL AND PAN-AMERICAN COPYRIGHT

Proudly self-published by Avi Sion, 2017.

Library Cataloguing Information:

Paradoxes and their Resolutions is a ‘thematic

(Aristotle’s three laws of thought.)

Paradoxes and their Resolutions is a ‘thematic

By ‘paradox’ is here, of course, meant apparent double

some overly vague notion or fallen into equivocation or

the book catalogue paradox and Grelling’s paradox.

In the redux essay on the liar paradox, I show that this

1. The vanity of the tetralemma

From A Fortiori Logic, Appendix 7.3.

The most radical assault on reason consists in trying to put

1. Phenomena are positive

phenomenon. We see the blue sky above, we hear birds

2. There are no negative phenomena

sky is apparent and on the other side it is not, whereas on

have nothing to perceive. We can only ‘perceive’ a

But this is a wrong inference from the data at hand, because

retract our claim if we later came across the positive

way for us to logically order our knowledge is by means of

disjunction “Either X or not-X” was logically sound from

From Ruminations 1, 5, & 9.

facts or arguments will make them ‘go away’ – the law of

a situation, and it is indeed the case that both a proposition

If something, e.g. ‘B’, implies but is not implied by not-A,

them. They are different, since distinguishable. Since they

The statement ‘A is not A’ is logically impossible, because

A claim may be paradoxical because it inherently entails

of philosophical, and particularly political and religious,

processes that are contrary to ordinary reason, by claiming

the rest of our knowledge thus far. Every experience almost

inconsistency involves a negative prefix, it brings to mind

knowledge is by the successive elimination of propositions

more clearly, we realize that the data used to thus negate an

2. Positive and negative phenomena

However, the limits of particulars are perceivable without

following observation seems to me crucial for such an

think of that positive phenomenon, and wonder whether it

specific set of positive phenomenal experiences, i.e.

hypothesis with some perceptual confirmation. Negation is

found it – the ‘denial’ consists of a special act of intention.

from ‘having sought but not found’, even though we have

From Future Logic 31.

A very important field of logic is that dealing with paradox,

Now, consider the paradoxical propositions ‘If P, then

2. The Stolen Concept Fallacy

 denial, or even doubt, of the laws of logic conceals an

If P, then P — and — if nonP, then P

However, remember, the above two forms should not be

These alternatives are clarified by the following tables, for

Table 1. Modalities of Theses and Conjunctions.

The following table follows from the preceding. ‘Yes’