(PHI402) Indian Ethics

DHARMA

Dharma as understood by Mimamsa can be loosely translated into English as "virtue," "morality," or "duty," the set of
ritual obligations and prerogatives that, if properly performed, maintains the harmony of the world and furthers the
personal well-being of the person who performs them.

Jaimini defines "dharma" as a command or injunction which compels people to action. It is the supreme duty, the
ought, the categorical imperative. Artha (wealth, worldly status) and Kama (aesthetic enjoyment), which deal with
ordinary common morality, can be learned through worldly intercourse. Dharma and Moksa (liberation), which deal
with true spirituality, are revealed only by the Veda. Dharma consists in the commands of the Veda, and action is the
final import. Dharma is not something which exists by itself; it can only be produced by acting according to the
injunctions of the Vedas. By necessity, an action is associated with its effect or consequence. An action performed
during earthly life produces an unseen potency, apurva, in the soul of the agent, which, when obstructions are
removed and the time becomes ripe, yields fruit.

There are three kinds of actions: Obligatory (non-performance results in sin, but performance does not result in any
merit), optional (performance leads to merit, but non-performance is not sin), and prohibited (performance leads to
sin). Obligatory actions are of two kinds, those which must be performed daily (nitya), such as daily prayers; and
those which must be performed on special occasions (naimittika).

Dharma and adharma (merit and demerit) are associated with happiness and pain which will be enjoyed or suffered
in the life beyond. Later Mimamsakas, following the thought of some of the other Hindu schools, substituted the ideal
of heaven with that of liberation.

The Mimamsa school held dharma to be equivalent to following the prescriptions of the Samhitas and their Brahmana
commentaries relating the correct performance of Vedic rituals. In this sense, Mimamsa is essentially ritualist
(orthopraxy), placing great weight on the performance of Karma or action as enjoined by the Vedas, and a counter-
movement to the mysticism of Vedanta.

BHAVANA

Mimamsa texts explain the procedure of an injenctive statement enjoining dharma i.e. yaga as follows. The statement
y a j e t a svargakamah enjoins yaga for obtaining svarga. The verb yajeta contains the verbal root yaj and the
verbal termination lih i.e. optative termination. This optative suffix has two aspects viz. verbal termination in general
and optative termination in particular. Both these aspects convey bhavana. The expression bhavana is a technical;
term in Mimamsa used in two senses i) prerana i.e. prompting, directing or creating interest, ii) pravrtti i.e. initiative,
effort. In the first sense it is called Sabdhibhavana and in the second sense it is called arthibhavana.

The first is conveyed by the optative i.e. in aspect of the verbal termination and second is conveyed by the general
verbal termination aspect. As soon a person hears a statement containing a verb that is in optative, he understands
that he is directed to undertake the activity mentioned by the verb. Ordinarily such direction is given by a person.
However, in the case of vedic statement there is no person behind it. Therefore, the optative suffix itself is taken as
giving this direction. Therefore, bhavana i.e. preprana i.e. the direction given here is taken as given by the optative
suffix itself.

Consequently, this aspect of bhavana is designated as abdlbhavana. This direction generates initive on the part of
the listener to undertake the activity mentioned in the statement. This initiative is designated as arthibhavana. The
word artha means the objective, the purpose. Since, this initiative is intended to achieve the objective i.e. svarga it is
designated as arthibhavana.
VIDHI, NISHEDHA AND ARTHAVADA

In the Mimansa system of interpretation, the raw material to which its rules applied, consisted mainly of Vedic texts.
But once the system was evolved it was utilised for the interpretation of material contained in works relating to other
branches of learning, including law.1 It is the method oiMimansa, rather than the matter to which it was applied, that
seems to have invested it with a certain attraction. Its method is sound and its subject matter is of positive nature and,
as has been said, in most cases, its reasoning is convincing.

Jaimini, the founder oiPurva Mimansa, has classified the texts of the Vedas into (1) Vidhi, (2)Nishedha, (3)
Arthavada, (4) Namadheya, and (5) Mantra.

(1) A Vidhi is an obligatory text. It is positive in character.

(2) A Nishedha (also called Pratishedha) is an obligatory text, but it is negative in character.
(3) AnArthavada is a non-obligatory text, connected with a particular Vidhi.It is not a command or prohibition in itself,
but is, rather, explanatory of the reason for another (substantive) command or prohibition, or illustrates it or explains
its benefit.

While the first two classes of texts mentioned above are substantive in nature (positive or negative), the next two a re
not substantive. In this manner, the first two can be distinguished from the third and the fourth. The third (Arthavada)
is connected with some particular Vidhi. An Arthavada is not allowed to control the meaning or force of a Vidhi, but
can facilitate the understanding of a Vidhi and is thus its concomitant.

Vidhi

Beside the primary injunction pure and simple (utpatti-vidhi), it distinguished also the injunction of application
(viniyoga-vidhil which fixes the relation between the principal rite and a subsidiary action; the injunction of
employment (prayoga-vidhi) which fixes the order in which the different parts of the rite should be performed; the
injunction of qualification (adhikara-vidhi) which fixes the conditions required if the doer of the action is to obtain the
fruits of the ritual he has put into effect; the restrictive injunction (niyama-vidhi) which submits the doing of the act to
determined conditions, excluding others which are equally possible; and the injunction of exclusive specification
(parisankhaya- vidhi) which operates as a prohibition, and so forth."These subtle distinctions furnish the shastric
interpreter with readyformed means to analyse and classify the precepts of the smriti and to define their nature and
significance rigorously.

Arthavada

For the purpose mentioned in the preceding discussion, it became also necessary to distinguish between a Vidhi and
Arthavada. The former is a positive injunction, while the latter is only an explanation for it. An Arthavada does not
express the will of the law maker, unlike the Vidhi. It is only an observation in the nature of a commentary, "just as if
the law maker descended from his position as such, and condescended to point out the merit of the law laid down,
from the point of view of the ordinary run of people".1 If a thing is a requisite part and parcel of a Vidhi - what is called
the angangi relation with the Vidhi - then it is itself of an authoritative character. But an Arthavada, according to the
conservative theory, does not have an authoritative character, but only explains something else which has such a
character. No doubt, according to the view of some writers, some Vidhis themselves create a liking for the command
and such injunctive texts might not have any Arthavada texts relating to them. But, by and large, when a Vidhi has an
Arthavada text related to it, it is assumed that the Vidhi-vakya does the workof only enjoining the act, while the task of
creating a liking for the act is performed by the Arthavada. "The Vidhi has an expectancy for the Arthavada. The Vidhi
and the Arthavada together form one sentence, so that the Vidhi has an expectancy for the Arthavada".

Theory of Eternal Sound

The Veda is an instance of Sabda Pramana i.e., words as a source of valid knowledge. A word is nothing but a sound
used to denote an Object of apprehension. The eternality of the Veda thus implies the eternality of words. Mimamsa,
as it claims the eternality of the Veda,argues for the eternality of sound in general and of words in particular.
Mimamsa holds that sound is a quality of Dkdsa or ther. Sound exists eternally though its apprehension stands in
need of some manifesting agency. In the case of word sounds, the manifesting agency is the human utterance.
Utterance manifests a word in the consciousness of the listeners. Words have no production or destruction but
eternally existing and all pervading. Sound as a quality of akasa, subsists in it. As ther is eternal and all-pervading,
sound, as its quality, is also eternal and all-pervading. To understand the peculiarity of Mimamsa theory of sound, we
may refer to the theories of sound held by other schools, in this connection.
Indian thought offers distinct views on sound and its nature. For Samkhya, sound is a quality of tangible substances
and subsists in them like color, smell etc. and liable to manifestation. Vaisesika takes sound to be a quality of Akasa
and is liable to production and destruction. Thus it is a non-eternal quality of the ether. Buddhists argue that sound
does not subsist in anything. It is rather a production of vibrations in the elements and thus subject to production and
destruction. Nyaya, following Vaisesika, treats sound to be a quality of the ether and thus subject to production and
destruction. So, it is non-eternal as opposed to the Mimamsa view that it is eternal. Though Nyaya-Vaisesika and
Mimamsa share the view that sound is a quality of the ether, Nyaya-Vaisesika Differs from Mimamsa regarding its
eternal character. The significant discussion on the nature of sound in Indian philosophy boils down to the debate
between Mimamsa and Nyaya. It is interesting to see that the Naiyayikas, despite their overt veneration for the
scriptures, are the ardent opponents of eternality of the Veda.

Though they explicitly argue for the authority of the Veda, they do so on quite different grounds. We will later see how
the so called arguments in favour of the Vedic authority are nothing but mere lip-service to please the orthodoxy.
Gautama, the founder of Nyaya, objects the eternality of sound on the following grounds: 1) because it has beginning
in time, 2)because it is apprehended by sense organ and such apphension implies series of sounds, and, 3) we use
the verb 'make' with reference to sound and this implies that sound is a product. The first of these grounds means
that sound has a cause. When it is caused, it comes into existence and thus has a beginning in time. At a later
moment it ceases to exist and thus has an end too.

Whatever has a beginning in time cannot be called eternal. It may be argued that a jar after destroyed would not
come into existence again and thus its non-existence after destruction (vidhvamsdbhava) is eternal though has a
beginning. Uddhyotakara answers the above argument saying that the absense of jar has a cause i.e., destruction of
the jar.

It was not there before the jar existed or during its existence. Moreover, non-eternality as an abstract noun, denotes
something positive whereas non-existence prior to the jar and after its destruction is sheer absense.U So, when a
thing is said to be non-eternal, it means that it does not have absolute existence.

Naiyayikas explain the apprehension of sound through existence of series of sounds caused by the effort that
produces sound. For example, when a piece of wood is being cut, the conjunction and disjunction of the axe with the
piece of wood produces sound and this initial sound produces other sounds in all directions. The latter sounds
produce further sounds. In this way, sound proceeds in series, each duller than the preceding one. Of those series,
the one which reaches the akdsa in the ear of the hearer alone is apprehended. This is the reason why we hear the
sound much after the impact of the axe on the wood has ceased. The hypothesis of sound series impairs the
eternalist notion of sound, by showing the limited temporal existence of each series. The fact that sound is heard at a
distance after its cause has ceased establishes the view that the impact of the axe has not manifested but produced
the sound. Kumarila argues that utterance manifests a word but does not produce it as a lamp manifests a jar and
does not produce it? But Naiyayikas make a point against this argument also, saying that there is a difference
between the two instances. It is true that light of the lamp manifested the jar. The lamp is said to have manifested the
jar because as soon as the light has ceased, there would be no apprehension of the jar. So in the case of
manifestation, the manifested object ceases to be apprehended as soon as the manifesting agency ceases.
However, in the case of sound it is heard even after the effort, which is said to have manifested the sound, ceases.
So, it is clear that the effort, be the utterance or impact of the axe, has rather produced the sound.

Mimamsakas argue that in ordinary language, we also speak of eternal dkdsa as we speak of non-eternal objects.
We speak of 'part of dkasa (pradesa).Similarly, we are prone to speak of eternal sound as we speak of a product. But
mere speaking of eternal dkdsa and sound as we speak of products, does not make them non-eternal. Naiyayikas
argue that in the case of dkdsa, we figuratively impose the word 'part to it though in reality, dkdsa is devoid of parts.
The basis of this imposition is the similarity of dkdsa to things that have real parts, in the sense that its contact does
not pervade over the whole of it. Even the Akdsa has no parts, the contact is not deprived of its substratum; it
subsists in the akdsa itself. Moreover, sound is a non-pervasive quality of dkdsa. Pervasion means subsistence all
over the substratum. When a jar is seen, its colour is seen. So, colour is a pervasive quality. Whenever a few cows
are perceived, the universal 'cowness' Is perceived. So, the universal is pervasive. However, sound is not perceived
whenever its substratum i.e., dkdsa is perceived. This proves that sound is a non-pervasive quality.

APURVA

The sacrifices are enjoined by vedic injunctions. Certain results to be realised by these are also stated. For instance,
the injunction darsa purnamasabhyam svarga kamo yajeta ^T) enjoins the performance of darsapurnamasa sacrifice
to realise svarga. Now this act of the sacrifice comes to an end as soon as all the items of it are completed. However,
the result svarga does not immediately emerge. The cause should immediately precede the effect. When this does
not happen some intermediary to maintain the continuity has to be envisaged. Hence, apurva is envisaged as an
intermediary between the the sacrifice and the result i.e. svarga.

This concept is envisaged by arthapatti pramana. Whenever there is a conflict between the two facts both of which
are supported by appropriate pramana, a third fact has to be envisaged to resolve the conflict. Here, performing
sacrifice is enjoined by sruti. A result for it is also stated in sruti. These statements imply the cause and effect relation
between the two. This cannot be worked out unless the two are connected. This difficulty is resolved by envisaging
apurva by arthapatti. Since, this arthapatti emerges out of sruti statements, it is designated as srutarthapatti.

This apurva arises when the main sacrifice is successfully completed. It is designated as paramapurva. The
subsidiary acts generate their own apurvas. These are designated as avantarapurva. For instance, at
darsaapurnamasa sacrifice agneya etc three subbordinate acts are performed on darsaa and paurnamasa each.
From these three utpattyapurvas arise. Since, these two sets of three acts are performed on separate days a
samudaya apurva arises from each set of three acts. Ultimately these lead to paramapurva or phalapurva. This leads
to the final result.

This apurva is a kind of trans-empirical power. It remains with the performer of the sacrifice. Ordinarily the power of
an entity remains with that entity only and ceases to exist when that entity ceases. It produces the result for that entity
only. However this is the position in the case of empirical power. Apurva is a trans-empirical power. Hence, its way of
functioning is quite different from empirical power. The sacrificial act is empirical. Its continuity until the result arises
could not be envisaged. However, as dharma it could generate a trans-empirical power and could lead to the result.
In Indian philosophical and religious tradition the concept of non-empirical power i.e. adrsta is accepted by all in some
or other form at some or other stage. It remains with the persons concerned. However, it is not cognised by him like
his cognition of joy or sorrow.

RTA
In the Vedic religion, ta ("that which is properly/excellently joined; order, rule; truth") is the principle of natural order
which regulates and coordinates the operation of the universe and everything within it. In the hymns of the Vedas,
ta is described as that which is ultimately responsible for the proper functioning of the natural, moral and sacrificial
orders. Conceptually, it is closely allied to the injunctions and ordinances thought to uphold it, collectively referred to
as Dharma, and the action of the individual in relation to those ordinances, referred to as Karma two terms which
eventually eclipsed ta in importance as signifying natural, religious and moral order in later Hinduism. Sanskrit
scholar Maurice Bloomfield referred to ta as "one of the most important religious conceptions of the Rig Veda",
going on to note that, "from the point of view of the history of religious ideas we may, in fact we must, begin the
history of Hindu religion at least with the history of this conception".

Already in the earliest Vedic texts, ta as an ethical principle is linked with the notion of cosmic retribution. A central
concept of the gveda is that created beings fulfil their true natures when they follow the path set for them by the
ordinances of ta, and failing to follow those ordinances was thought to be responsible for the appearance of various
forms of calamity and suffering. Committing one's actions to the governance of ta, referred to as its "Dharma", was
therefore understood as imperative in ensuring one's own well-being. In this vein, the individual who follows the
ordinances of nature can be described as one who acts according to the "Dharma of ta". Dharma, then, was
originally conceived of as a "finite or particularized manifestation of ta inasmuch as it represents that aspect of the
universal Order which specifically concerns the mundane natural, religious, social and moral spheres as expressed in
ritualistic regulations, public laws, moral principles and laws of nature".

RNA

The concept of rna, the human indebtedness or the primary obligation, is unique to Indian tradition. It is in fact the
source of dharma, because it weans one away from desire-gratification and leads towards duty-fulfillment.
Rna, according to Panini the great grammarian, signifies a want or a deficiency.

Taittiriya Samhita (TS) speaks about three kinds of basic indebtedness every human being carries with him or her.
They are the debt one owes - (a) to his ancestors (pitr), (b) to the sages/seers (rishi) and(c) to the Gods (deva).

The Shathapatha Brahmana (SB) adds one more .The fourth one is the debt one owes to his fellow beings.

These texts suggest the ways of liquidating the debts or fulfilling the obligations one is born with. These are briefly, as
under.

Pitr : by bringing up a family, by getting and raising children in a proper manner.

Rishi : by study and by understanding the cultural context into which one is born.
Deva : by honoring , worshipping the elemental and natural (environmental) forces like sky,air,water,earth,rivers,
mountains , plants etc.(Rig Veda refers to these Devas as luminous ones.) and
Fellow beings : by cultivating compassion, fellow- feeling (saha bhava) and by showing hospitality.

SB further says that the fulfillment of these obligations should be the preliminary aim of human beings and it would
add value to their life. The Atharva remarks, pursuit of the four purusharthas would be meaningful when one fulfils
ones primary obligations or is in the process of doing so.

Chandogya Upanishad (2.23) describes the duties in three stages of life as off shoots or branches of Dharma" (trayo
dharma_skandha). This mentions the obligations and privileges of a householder, hermit and a student. Rna is at the
core of this trayo dharma The Emperor Ashoka (272 to 132 BC) in his edicts highlights a persons indebtedness (rna)
to parents and elders and calls upon the people to live in accordance with the dharma and not interfere with the
natural order (rta). In one of the edicts, he points out that practice of dharma is not possible for a person devoid of
good conduct. In another edict he proclaims that if a person practices great liberty but does not possess self-control
(sayama_bhava), purity of thought (sudhi) gratitude (kitaranta) and firm devotion (dridhabhatita), it is of no avail. In
Indian tradition, the practice of art, be it music, dance, literature or other forms art, is an act of worship. The traditional
artist through his creation pays homage to his ancestors (pitrs) and rishis (his teachers). He views the public services
he creates (temples, dams, tanks, buildings etc.) as fulfillment of his obligation to his fellow beings. Even poets,
philosophers and writers conclude their work with a prayer seeking welfare of all beings. The fulfillment of three
purposes of life (dharma, artha and Kama) acquires meaning only in the context of felt obligations. Rig Veda (8.1.6)
gives a call, Man, you must reach upward, not go down below. In the present context , the concept of Rna could
perhaps be better appreciated as commitment to certain obligations, causes and ideals including those discussed
above.

NISHKAM KARMA

Nishkam Karma (self-less or desireless action), is an action performed without any expectation of fruits or results,
and the central tenet of Karma Yoga path to Liberation. Its modern advocates press upon achieving success following
the principles of Yoga, and stepping beyond personal goals and agendas while pursuing any action over greater
good, which has become well known since it is the central message of the Bhagavad Gita.
In Indian philosophy, action or Karma has been divided into three categories, according to their intrinsic qualities or
gunas. Here Nishkam Karma belongs to the first category, the Sattva (pure) or actions which add to calmness; the
Sakam Karma (Self-centred action) comes in the second rjasika (aggression) and Vikarma (bad-action) comes
under the third, tmasika which correlates to darkness or inertia.

The opposite of Sakam Karma (Attached Involvement) or actions done with results in mind, Nishkam Karma has
been variously explained as 'Duty for duty's sake' and as 'Detached Involvement', which is neither negative attitude or
indifference; and has today found many advocates in the modern business area where the emphasis has shifted to
ethical business practices adhering to intrinsic human values and reducing stress at the workplace.

Nishkam Karma, gets an important place in the Bhagavad Gita, the central text of Mahabharata, where Krishna
advocates 'Nishkam Karma Yoga' (the Yoga of Selfless Action) as the ideal path to realize the Truth. Allocated work
done without expectations, motives, or thinking about its outcomes tends to purify one's mind and gradually makes an
individual fit to see the value of reason and the benefits of renouncing the work itself. These concepts are vividly
described in the following verses:
To action alone hast thou a right and never at all to its fruits; let not the fruits of action be thy motive; neither
let there be in thee any attachment to inaction.
"Fixed in yoga, do thy work, O Winner of wealth (Arjuna), abandoning attachment, with an even mind in
success and failure, for evenness of mind is called yoga"
"With the body, with the mind, with the intellect, even merely with the senses, the Yogis perform action
toward self-purification, having abandoned attachment. He who is disciplined in Yoga, having abandoned
the fruit of action, attains steady peace..."

SVA-DHARMA

Svadharma usually means both in traditional and modern setting that ones own dharma, duty and responsibility.
Every person has unique duties and responsibilities.

Svadharma is unique to that person because everyone has different capacities and righteousness. It appears that
sticking to ones own dharma need not suggest a sense of egoism or aloofness from social relationship but is to
commensurate with the socio-individual relationship. Svadharma and specific social obligations of different types of
man according to the Bhagavad Gita, is found to have been indicated in the doctrine of caturvarna on the scheme of
four social orders. But all social orders is supposed to have equitable status of different members of the society to
sustain the classification of Varna in effective manner. It means, better is ones own duty, though devoid of merit, than
the duty of another well discharged. Better is death in ones own duty, the duty of another is productive of danger. For,
the duty of another leads to danger such as hell (naraka).

Now, let there be a probe into the concept of Svadharma and paradharma as enunciated in the Gita. It is said that
SvadhArma is sreya (preferable as good) and Paradharma is bhayabahabi.e. dangerious or un preferable. By
implication such rendering of both the concepts suggest that svadharma has the sole sense of goodness and
paradharma has the sole sense of avoidance. It seems, such radical dichotomy between the two is neither practical
nor reasonable.

TRI-RATNA IN JAINISM

Jainism prescribes a path to liberation (Moksha), consists of the following trinity (ratna-traya):
Right perception - samyak darsana
Right knowledge - samyak jnana
Right conduct - samyak charitrya
Right perception creates an awareness of reality or truth, right knowledge impels the person to proper action, and
proper conduct leads him to the attainment of the total freedom. They must coexist in a person if one is to make any
progress on the path of liberation.
Right Perception (Samyak Darsana):
The first step in the process of self-realization is to discard superstitious beliefs and to adopt a rational attitude in life.
Right perception consists in seeing the true nature of every substances of the universe. Jainism advocates that one
should first try to know, comprehend, and understand the nature of reality, one's own self, religious goal, and the
path. One should analyze it, examine it, test it, verify it, and then, if satisfied, be convinced of its truth and efficacy.
From the practical point of view, perception in the nature of the reality means to have a total faith in the preachings of
Tirthankars (Arihantas or Jain Gods), and their scriptures known as agams.
Right Knowledge (Samyak Jnana):
Right perception or faith makes us realize the reality of life, and the seriousness of our purpose in life.
Right knowledge is the true, correct, proper, and relevant knowledge of the reality. To understand reality, one should
know the constituent elements of universe and their relationship.
From the practical point of view, right knowledge means the proper knowledge of the six universal substances and
nine principles or tattvas.
Six Universal Substances are:
Soul, matter, motion, rest, space, and time
Nine Tattvas are:
soul, matter, asrava, bandh, punya, papa, samvara, nirjara, and moksha
Philosophically, the knowledge of reality is known as the theory of non-absolutism (Anekantvada) and calls for an
attitude of openness. Our limitations of knowledge dictate a style of relativity. The style of Syadvada allows no room
for assertions. This Jain theory of knowledge, incorporating the two principles of non-absolutism and relativity, has
made an esteemed contribution toward liberalizing the mind of human being.
Right knowledge makes us examine in detail the matter brought into the mind by right perception or conviction. Both
are mental processes.
Right knowledge must be free from three main defects: doubt, delusion, and indefiniteness.
Right Conduct (Samyak Charitrya):
Proper, correct, appropriate, and truly natural conduct of the living being (soul) is known as right conduct.
The main purpose for a human being is to free himself from attachment (raga) and aversion (dvesha). That is to be
free from all impure activities of thought, word, and deed. This will attain the state of perfect equanimity.
For practical purposes, right conduct comprises ethical codes, rules, and disciplines, which a human being is required
to pursue for the ultimate freedom.
This resolves into taking the five great vows of an ascetic or five limited vows of householder.
Non-violence - Ahimsa
Truth - Satya
Non-stealing - Achaurya
Chastity - Brahmacharya
Non-possession/Non-attachment - Aparigraha
Right faith and right knowledge are required for right conduct, and all are interdependent.
Jains dedicate themselves to proper conduct through vows and subvows. Vows are at the heart of Jain morality and
are undertaken with a full knowledge of their nature and a determination to carry them through.
The trinity is necessary for a successful life. This threefold discipline helps us realize our own intrinsic purity. The
trinity must be cultivated collectively to ensure liberation. Individually, they are incomplete and insufficient because
they are mutually dependent. In isolation, perception, knowledge or conduct causes conflicts or tensions and vitiates
the environment. Collectively, the three jewels produce harmony, contentment, and blissfulness with the progressive
march of the soul to higher planes.
An individual, in his conduct can be guided by the examples of five benevolent personalities (panch parameshthi).
They are:
Supreme human beings - Arihants
Pure or perfect souls - Siddhas
Master teachers - Acharyas
Scholarly monks - Upadhyayas
Ascetics (monks) - Sadhus
Arihantas are human beings who have realized perfect vision, knowledge, power, and bliss. They have preached the
religion principles, philosophy of life, and the path of liberation. At the end of their human life they will be totally
liberated and will become siddhas.
Siddhas are souls that are completely free from karmic bondage and have attained liberation. They are bodyless and
live in Moksha at the top of the universe (lokakash).
Both arihantas and siddhas are the Gods of Jain religions. At present in the absence of arihantas, ascetics (acharyas,
upadhyayas, and sadhus) provide the spiritual guidance.

DASHVIDH DARMA
Das-Dharma (ten righteous virtues) are mentioned in the Jain text, Tattvartha Sutra.

In the full form, it is a 10-day vrata that comes every year. It may be undertaken during Shukla Panchami to
Chaturdashi of Bhadrapada, Magh or Chaitra months. However it is common to do it during Bhadrapada.
The Das-dharmas are all prefixed by the word Uttam (Supreme) to signify that they are practiced at the highest level
by the Jain monks. The householder practises them to a lesser extent. It lasts over a period of ten days, each day
being dedicated to one of the ten Dharmas. In the sections below a) stands for the temporary point of view of modes
and modification (vyavahar nay) b) stands for the permanent point of view of underlying substance (nshynay).

Forgiveness (Uttam Kshama)

a) We forgive those who have wronged us and seek forgiveness from those we have wronged. Forgiveness is sought
not just from human colleagues, but from all living beings ranging from one sensed to five sensed. If we do not forgive
or seek forgiveness but instead harbor resentment, we bring misery and unhappiness on ourselves and in the
process shatter our peace of mind and make enemies. Forgiving and seeking forgiveness oils the wheel of life
allowing us to live in harmony with our fellow beings. It also attracts meritorious karma.
b) Forgiveness here is directed to oneself. The soul, in a state of mistaken identity or false belief, assumes that it
consists of the body, the karmas and the emotions likes, dislikes, anger, pride etc. As a result of this incorrect
belief, it inflicts pain upon itself and is thus the cause of its own misery. Nischay Kshama Dharma teaches the soul to
correctly identify itself by encouraging it to contemplate in its true nature and hence achieve the state of right Belief
(Samyak Darshan). It is only by achieving Samyak Darshan that the soul ceases to inflict pain on itself and attains
supreme happiness.

Modesty/Humility (Uttam Maardav)

a) Wealth, good looks, reputable family or intelligence often lead to pride. Pride means to believe one to be superior
to others and to look down on others. By being proud you are measuring your worth by temporary material objects.
These objects will either leave you or you will be forced to leave them when you die. These eventualities will cause
you unhappiness as a result of the dent caused to your self-worth. Being humble will prevent this. Pride also leads to
the influx of the bad karmas.
b) All the souls are equal, none being superior or inferior to another. The Nischay view encourages one to understand
his true nature. All souls have the potential to be liberated souls. The only difference between the liberated souls and
those in bondage is that the former have attained liberation as a result of their effort. With effort, even the latter can
achieve liberation.

Straightforwardness (Uttam Aarjav)

a) The action of a deceitful person is to think one thing, speak something else and do something entirely different.
There is no harmony in his thought, speech and actions. Such a person loses credibility very quickly and lives in
constant anxiety and fear of his deception being exposed. Being straightforward or honest, oils the wheel of life. You
will be seen to be reliable and trustworthy. Deceitful actions lead to the influx of karmas.
b) Delusion about ones identity is the root cause of unhappiness. The soul is made up of countless qualities like
knowledge, happiness, effort, faith, and conduct. It has the potential to achieve omniscience and reach a state of
supreme bliss. Again, the body, the karmas, the thoughts and all the emotions are separate from the true nature of
the soul. Only by practicing Nischay Arjav Dharma will one taste the true happiness that comes from within.

Contentment/Purity (Uttam Shauch)

Contentment or happiness, derived from material objects, is only perceived to be so by a soul in a state of false
belief. The fact is that material objects do not have a quality of happiness and therefore happiness cannot be
obtained from them. The perception of enjoying material objects is only a perception. This perception rewards the
soul with only misery and nothing else. Real happiness comes from within, as it is the soul that possesses the quality
of happiness.

Truth (Uttam Satya)

a) If talking is not required, then do not talk. If it is required then only use the minimum of words, and all must all be
absolutely true. Talking disturbs the stillness of the mind. Consider the person who lies and lives in fear of being
exposed. To support one lie he has to utter a hundred more. He becomes caught up in a tangled web of lies and is
seen as untrustworthy and unreliable. Lying leads to an influx of karma.
b) Satya comes from the word Sat, whose one of the meaning is "existence". Existence is a quality of the soul.
Recognising the souls true nature as it really exists and taking shelter in the soul is practising Nischay Satya
Dharma.

Self-Restraint (Uttam Sanyam)

a) Temporary (Vyavahara nay) 1. Restraining from injury to life Jains go to great lengths, compared to other world
religions, to protect life. This encompasses all living beings, from one-sensed onwards. The purpose of not eating
root vegetables is that they contain countless one-sensed beings termed nigod. During Paryushan the Jains also do
not eat green vegetables to reduce harm to the lower sensed beings. 2. Self-restraint from desires or passions
These lead to pain and are therefore to be avoided.
b) Permanent (nshynay) 1. Restraining injury to the self This has been elaborated upon in Nischay Kshma
Dharma. 2. Self restraint from desires or passions Emotions, e.g. likes, dislikes or anger lead to misery and need to
be eradicated. They are not part of the true nature of the soul and only arise when the soul is in a state of false belief.
The only method to free oneself from these is to contemplate on the true nature of the soul and in the process
commence the journey to liberation or moksha.

Penance (Uttam Tap)

a) This does not only mean fasting but also includes a reduced diet, restriction of certain types of foods, avoiding
tasty foods, etc. The purpose of penance is to keep desires and passions in control. Over-indulgence inevitably leads
to misery. Penance leads to an influx of meritorious karmas.
b) Meditation prevents the rise of desires and passions in the soul. In a deep state of meditation the desire to intake
food does not arise. The first Tirthankara, Rishabha is said to have meditative in such a state for six months, during
which he observed Nischay Uttam Tap.

Renunciation (Uttam Tyaag)

a) Renouncing worldly possessions leads to a life of contentment and assists in keeping desires in check. Controlling
desires not only leads to an influx of meritorious karma, but also absolving oneself from bad karma. Renunciation is
done at the highest level by Jain ascetics who renounce not only the household but also their clothes. A persons
strength is measured not by the amount of wealth he accumulates but by the amount of wealth he renounces.
b) Renouncing the emotions, the root cause of misery, is supreme renunciation, which is only possible by
contemplating on the true nature of the soul.

Non-attachment (Uttam Aakinchan)

a) This assists the person in detaching from external possessions. Historically ten possessions are listed in Jain
scriptures: land, house, silver, gold, wealth, grain, female servants, male servants, garments and utensils. Being
unattached from these, helps control our desires and leads to an influx of meritorious karmas.
b) This assists us in being unattached from our internal attachments: false belief, anger, pride, deceit, greed,
laughter, liking, disliking, lamentation, fear, disgust, sexual desires. Ridding the soul of these leads to its purification.

Supreme Celibacy (Uttam Brahmacharya)

a) This means refraining from all pleasures associated with the sense of touch, e.g. a cool breeze on a hot
summer day or using a cushion for a hard surface. The monks practice this to the highest degree with all
their body, speech and mind.
 PANCHA-MAHAVRATA

To achieve Moksha we need the right knowledge, right faith, and right conduct known as three jewels of Jainism.
Regarding right conduct, we must achieve control over our inner desires and reach a stage where there is no
attachment or hatred. It is not as easy as it sounds, for we will have to form new habits and discard old habits. In
order to change our habits, we take vows which help us to restrict what we do and eventually live naturally restrained.
Although different people take different vows and despite the outer differences in the observance of these vows, the
goal of all is to attain right conduct. As we find in the scriptures, there are different vows for monks and nuns, and for
male and female house holders. When one makes a resolution to restrain will fully from something with full
understanding and faith then that resolution becomes a vow. The scriptures have divided these vows into two main
groups:

1) Maha Vrats (Major Vows or Absolute Vows)

2) Anu Vrats (Minor Vows or Relative Vows)

Maha Vrats

In these vows, non-violence, truthfulness, non-stealing, celibacy, and non-possessiveness are observed mentally,
verbally, and physically in total. Each of these three aspects are further observed in three ways: not committing
yourself, not asking anyone else to do so, and not encouraging anyone else to do so. Those who wish to observe
these vows renounce their worldly lives and become known as sadhus (monks) and sadhvis (nuns) or Anagari.

1) Savvao Panaivayao Virman Vrat (Absolute Non-Violence Vow)

In this vow, non-violence is observed mentally, verbally, and physically in total including for daily needs.

2) Savvao Musavayao Virman Vrat (Absolute Truthfulness Vow)

In this vow, lying is given up mentally, verbally, and physically in total. Only the truth is spoken.

3) Savvao Aadinnadanao Virman Vrat (Absolute Non-Stealing Vow)

In this vow, stealing is given up mentally, verbally, and physically in total. Nothing is taken unless it is offered by the
owner, and meets the restrictions of the monkshood life.

4) Savvao Mehunao Virman Vrat (Absolute Celibacy Vow)

Celibacy is observed mentally, verbally, and physically in total. Upon taking this vow, one can not even touch or think
about a member of the opposite sex.

5) Savvao Pariggrahao Virman Vrat (Absolute Non-Possessiveness Vow)

Greed and material possessions are given up mentally, verbally, and physically in total. Only items which are needed
on a daily basis are kept.

CONCEPT OF ANUPREKSHA

To achieve this end the seers have prescribed some formula, the most important of which is the prescription of
constantly keeping in view twelve Bhavanas as under :

(1) Anitya Bhavana - Bhavana' means conception', Anitya' means transitory'. All material things of the
universe are transitory in nature. It is an ever changing world. Nothing is still and permanent here. What gives us pain
is not the changing moods but our insistence to see that the things of our liking remain permanent. Unthinking man
never reconciles himself to the fact of change and this is the root of human misery because no one who belongs to
this universe, and is a part of it, can free himself from the laws by which he universe is governed. It is really tragic to
stay behind. We experience every moment that all objects of pleasure, wealth, the power and everything around us
undergoes changes. The moment we are born, we begin to die. Change is the rule. The only exception is our spirit
(Cetana). But we tend to forget the spirit which is permanent and cling to the thing which is transitory, and if in the
process we become unhappy we blame others. Obviously the pangs of our pain would be greatly relieved if we
constantly remember, that change is the rule and clinging to changing modes is pure ignorance.

(2) Asaruna Bhavana - Sarana' means refuse. Asarana means want of refuse or helplessness. It should be
constantly borne in mind that we have to find out our own course in life. Pure religion ought to be alone accepted as a
help in life. Seers and scriptures can only guide us. We have to tread on the path by our own efforts, discrimination
and wisdom. When we are, overtaken by pain, physical or mental, no one can save us from its pangs. We are the
makers of our own future and our pleasures and pains are of our own making. We have to learn to bear them with
equanimity and without depending on others.

(3, 4) Ekatva-Anyatva Bhavana - Ekatva means aloneness or Soleness and Anyatva means separateness. We enter
the world alone and we leave it also alone. Each one of us has to suffer the fruits of our individual karmas. Our
cooperation in worldly affairs, love and affection for others should not be allowed to be degenerated into attachment
because no amount of attachment either for our family or friends can save us from pangs of life. Consciousness that I
am alone, and alone have I to chart my course of life. As also that my family, my friends and my belongings are not
mine, does not breed selfishness, but bugging, to all these things, does bring selfishness because such bugging is
the result of gross attachment which is the worst vice in human nature. In fact both these Bhavanas of Ekatva and
Anyatva are not only complimentary to each other but are also the logical consequence of the Asarana Bhavana
referred to above. What these two Bhavanas prescribe, is to suggest that you have to bear the fruits of your own
karmas - others cannot relieve you of them. Similarly you cannot relieve others of the fruits of their karmas. If we
cultivate such an objectivity of outlook we would be better equipped to serve ourselves and others around us.

(5) Nivrtti Bodha or Samsara Bhavana - Nivrtti means retirement. This Bhavana asks us to remember that this self is
wandering in this Samsara from one life to another, time immemorial. In words of the Great Sankara "Punarapi
maranam punarapi jananam, Punarapi janani jathare Sayanam. This endless wandering from one life to the other
must have some purpose. Can there be an end to it ? Surely it cannot be the scheme of Nature that this Atman
should go on endlessly to experience pleasures and pains, hopes and despairs during life after life without any
purpose. And if there is any purpose I must find it out. It is found that I have not gained anything by repeating this
endless cycle of birth and rebirth, life and death and all the ups and downs, tensions and turmoils of aimlessly moving
in this samsara. What can I do to avoid it ? A mind of a Sadhaka constantly occupied with this type of perception
finally leads him to a state of Nirgrantha (Granthi) where every knot of bondage is dissolved.

(6,7,8) Asrava-Samvara-Nirjara Bhavana - The concepts of Asrava, Samvara and Nirjara have been discussed in
earlier chapters. These Bhavanas are to remind us how the inflow of karmas - good as well as bad - result in
bondage and how by the process of Samvara and Nirjara the inflow of new karmas can be stopped and the
accumulated karmas can be destroyed.

(9) Asuci Bhavana - Every man is most deeply attached to his body. In fact all pleasures and pains are of our body.
Our attachment to our family and our worldly possessions is in the ultimate analysis the attachment to our body. But
what is this body ? When the self withdraws from the body what is its condition ? Even when the self does not
withdraw what this body consists of ? How various diseases arise in our body ? Why it gradually decays ? If we give
deeper thought to all these questions we find two important aspects of our body:
(a) Without the existence of the spirit (soul) within it, it is nothing but a conglomeration of dirt and diseases.
(b) Even with the existence of spirit within, it is constantly under the process of decay and deterioration.
To keep these aspects of the body constantly in mind is called Asuci Bhavana. The constant reminder of these
aspects blunt our attachment to our body and keep us alive to the fact that self is something distinct and different
from body, and the body can be best utilised not for enjoying the transitory objects of the world but for liberating the
self from the shackles of karmas. This Bhavana is called Asuci' as it points out to the impure aspects of the body.
This is required to be done to mitigate our attachment to the body and not for cultivating hatred towards it, as
misunderstood by some. All the roads of Sadhana - roads of self-realization - are requires to be traversed through
body and it is this body which is the best vehicle to take us to the final destination. It is therefore, quite necessary to
take its proper care and to keep it properly nourished, healthy and efficient. What is discounted here is indulgence in
material objects of life to satisfy the indisciplined cravings of the body, so that it remains a fit and efficient vehicle to
carry us safely in our spiritual journey.

(10) Dharma Bhavana - A constant reminder that ten virtues, viz., Samyama (Self-control), Suntra (Truthfulness),
Sauca (Purity), Brahma (Chastity), Akincanata (Absence of greed), Tapas (Penances), Ksanti (Forbearnce), Mardava
(softness), Rjuta (sincerity) and Mukti (Emancipation are quite necessary to uphold the world order (Dharma).
(11, 12) Loka-bhavana and Bodhi-bhavana - Both these Bhavanas are meant to remind us the nature of this universe
and its functioning through the interplay of Jiva and Ajiva.
A constant reminder of these twelve Bhavanas mitigates our pangs of pains and expands our understanding of the
life's problems, and even in uncomfortable situations of life does not appear burdensome.

FOUR NOBLE TRUTHS

"I teach suffering, its origin, cessation and path. That's all I teach", declared the Buddha 2500 years ago.
The Four Noble Truths contain the essence of the Buddha's teachings. It was these four principles that the Buddha
came to understand during his meditation under the bodhi tree.
1. The truth of suffering (Dukkha)
2. The truth of the origin of suffering (Samudya)
3. The truth of the cessation of suffering (Nirodha)
4. The truth of the path to the cessation of suffering (Magga)

The Buddha is often compared to a physician. In the first two Noble Truths he diagnosed the problem (suffering) and
identified its cause. The third Noble Truth is the realisation that there is a cure.
The fourth Noble Truth, in which the Buddha set out the Eightfold Path, is the prescription, the way to achieve a
release from suffering.

The First Noble Truth

Suffering (Dukkha)
Suffering comes in many forms. Three obvious kinds of suffering correspond to the first three sights the Buddha saw
on his first journey outside his palace: old age, sickness and death.
But according to the Buddha, the problem of suffering goes much deeper. Life is not ideal: it frequently fails to live up
to our expectations.
Human beings are subject to desires and cravings, but even when we are able to satisfy these desires, the
satisfaction is only temporary. Pleasure does not last; or if it does, it becomes monotonous.
Even when we are not suffering from outward causes like illness or bereavement, we are unfulfilled, unsatisfied. This
is the truth of suffering.
Some people who encounter this teaching may find it pessimistic. Buddhists find it neither optimistic nor pessimistic,
but realistic. Fortunately the Buddha's teachings do not end with suffering; rather, they go on to tell us what we can
do about it and how to end it.

The Second Noble Truth

Origin of suffering (Samudya)

Our day-to-day troubles may seem to have easily identifiable causes: thirst, pain from an injury, sadness from the
loss of a loved one. In the second of his Noble Truths, though, the Buddha claimed to have found the cause of all
suffering - and it is much more deeply rooted than our immediate worries.
The Buddha taught that the root of all suffering is desire, tanh. This comes in three forms, which he described as the
Three Roots of Evil, or the Three Fires, or the Three Poisons.

The Third Noble Truth

Cessation of suffering (Nirodha)

The Buddha taught that the way to extinguish desire, which causes suffering, is to liberate oneself from attachment.
This is the third Noble Truth - the possibility of liberation.
The Buddha was a living example that this is possible in a human lifetime.

The Fourth Noble Truth

Path to the cessation of suffering (Magga)

The final Noble Truth is the Buddha's prescription for the end of suffering. This is a set of principles called the
Eightfold Path.
The Eightfold Path is also called the Middle Way: it avoids both indulgence and severe asceticism, neither of which
the Buddha had found helpful in his search for enlightenment.
The eight stages can be grouped into Wisdom (right understanding and intention), Ethical Conduct (right speech,
action and livelihood) and Meditation (right effort, mindfulness and concentration).
The Buddha described the Eightfold Path as a means to enlightenment, like a raft for crossing a river. Once one has
reached the opposite shore, one no longer needs the raft and can leave it behind.

The Eightfold Path

The eightfold path, although referred to as steps on a path, is not meant as a sequential learning process, but as
eight aspects of life, all of which are to be integrated in every day life. Thus the environment is created to move closer
to the Buddhist path.
The eightfold path is at the heart of the middle way, which turns from extremes, and encourages us to seek the
simple approach.
The eightfold path is Right Understanding, Right Intent, Right Speech, Right Action, Right Livelihood, Right Effort,
Right Mindfulness, and Right Concentration.
No doubt all of you are aware of the moral codes in other religious groups such as Christianity, the Jews, and
Muslims. While there is a degree of correspondence across these groups, the interpretation of the code in each
philosophy is different. In the example of the Ten Commandments, there is an authoritarian feeling of decree, of a
direct order that these be fulfilled.
In Buddhism, the eightfold path is meant as a guideline, to be considered, to be contemplated, and to be taken on
when, and only when each step is fully accepted as part of the life you seek. Buddhism never asks for blind faith, it
seeks to promote learning and a process of self-discovery.

The meaning of Right has several aspects, and includes an ethical, and a balanced, or middle way. When things go
"right", we often experience a special feeling inside which confirms that this is the correct decision or action.

Right Understanding:
The first step of the eightfold path is Right Understanding or Right View.
This is a significant step on the path as it relates to seeing the world and everything in it as it really is, not as we
believe it to be or want it to be. Just as you may read the directions on a map, and then make the journey, studying,
reading and examining the information is important, but only the preparation for the journey. At a deeper level, direct
personal experience will then lead us to Right Understanding.

Thich Nhat Hanh tells the story of the Buddha. The Buddha says "my teaching is not a dogma or a doctrine, but no
doubt some people will take it as such." The Buddha goes on to say "I must state clearly that my teaching is a
method to experience reality and not reality itself, just as a finger pointing at the moon is not the moon itself. A
thinking person makes use of the finger to see the moon. A person who only looks at the finger and mistakes it for the
moon will never see the real moon."
Knowing reality is of very little value if we dont put it to personal use in our lives.

Right Intent:
The second step on the Eightfold Path is Right Intent. This is the step where we become committed to the path. Right
Understanding shows us what life really is and what lifes problems are composed of, Right Intent urges us to decide
what our heart wants.
Right Intent must come from the heart and involves recognising the equality of all life and compassion for all that life,
beginning with yourself.
Right Intent means persistence and a passion for the journey. Setting out to climb a high mountain means you must
understand the lay of the land and the pitfalls, the other team members, and the equipment you need. This is similar
to Right Understanding. But you will only climb the mountain if you really want to and have a passion for the climb.
This is Right Intent. The mountain we climb here is our journey though life.
To summarise, Right Understanding will eliminate ignorance. With Right Intent and correct understanding, we then
remove desire, which in turn causes the suffering defined in the Four Noble Truths.

Right Speech:
Right Speech is the next step of the Path. We tend to underestimate the power of the spoken word, and often regret
words said in haste. Each of us has experienced the disappointment associated with harsh criticism, whether justified
or not, and we also are likely to have felt good when kind words encouraged us.
Right speech involves recognition of the truth, and also an awareness of the impact of idle gossip and of repeating
rumours. Communicating thoughtfully helps to unite others, and can heal dissention. By resolving never to speak
unkindly, or in anger, a spirit of consideration evolves which moves us closer to everyday compassionate living.

Right Action:
Right Action recognises the need to take the ethical approach in life, to consider others and the world we live in. This
includes not taking what is not given to us, and having respect for the agreements we make both in our private and
business lives.
Right Action also encompasses the five precepts which were given by the Buddha, not to kill, steal, lie, to avoid
sexual misconduct, and not to take drugs or other intoxicants.
This step on the path also includes a whole approach to the environment, with Right Action being taken whenever
possible to safeguard the world for future generations.

Right Livelihood:
The next on the Eightfold Path follows on from Right Action, and this is Right Livelihood. If your work has a lack of
respect for life, then it will be a barrier to progress on the spiritual path. Buddhism promotes the principle of equality of
all living beings and respect for all life.
Certain types of work were discouraged by the Buddha, in particular those where you deal in harmful drugs and
intoxicants, those dealing in weapons, and those harmful to animal or human life. So a dedicated Buddhist would not
be recommended to have a liquor store, own a gun shop, or be a butcher. In his time, he also discouraged the slave
trade, which dealt in human workers. And he was also against the practice of fortune telling as this made
assumptions about a fixed future, where his teaching stresses that the future is created by what we do today.
Right Livelihood also implies that a Buddhist who is able, will undertake some work, either as part of a Buddhist
community, or in the workplace, or, alternatively, do home based or community service. Many communities of monks
ensure that each member has daily chores, which remind him of this step on the Eightfold Path.

Right Effort:
Right Effort means cultivating an enthusiasm, a positive attitude in a balanced way. Like the strings of a musical
instrument, the amount of effort should not be too tense or too impatient, as well as not too slack or too laid back.
Right Effort should produce an attitude of steady and cheerful determination.
In order to produce Right Effort, clear and honest thoughts should be welcomed, and feelings of jealousy and anger
left behind. Right Effort equates to positive thinking, followed by focused action.
The Buddha was well ahead of his time on this one, and many books have been written about the power of the right
attitude.

Right Mindfulness:
While Right Effort is a very easy concept for most of us, Right Mindfulness is somewhat trickier to grasp, and may
involve quite a change of thinking.
I suggest that you take a short break, stand up and walk (or cruise if you are mobile) around the room or house, and
then come back here before reading on.
Right Mindfulness means being aware of the moment, and being focused in that moment. When we travel
somewhere, we are hearing noises, seeing buildings, trees, advertising, feeling the movement, thinking of those we
left behind, thinking of our destination. So it is with most moments of our lives.
Right Mindfulness asks us to be aware of the journey at that moment, and to be clear and undistracted at that
moment. Right Mindfulness is closely linked with meditation and forms the basis of meditation.
Right Mindfulness is not an attempt to exclude the world, in fact, the opposite. Right Mindfulness asks us to be aware
of the moment, and of our actions at that moment. By being aware, we are able to see how old patterns and habits
control us. In this awareness, we may see how fears of possible futures limit our present actions.
Now, having read this, try the same walk as before but with a focused mind, which now concentrates only on the
action of the walking. Observe your thoughts before reading on.
Sometimes you may be absorbed in what you are doing. Music, art, sport can trigger these moments. Have you ever
done anything where your mind is only with that activity? At that moment, you are mindful, and the Buddha showed
how to integrate that awareness into our everyday lives.

Right Concentration:
Once the mind is uncluttered, it may then be concentrated to achieve whatever is desired. Right Concentration is
turning the mind to focus on an object, such as a flower, or a lit candle, or a concept such as loving compassion. This
forms the next part of the meditation process.
Right concentration implies that we select worthy directions for the concentration of the mind, although everything in
nature, beautiful and ugly, may be useful for concentration. At deeper levels, no object or concept may be necessary
for further development.
The benefits of Right Mindfulness and Right Concentration are significant as they teach the mind to see things, not as
we are conditioned to seeing them, but as they really are. At the same time, they also lead to a feeling of calm and
peace with the world. By being in the moment and being able to concentrate effectively, a sense of joy in the moment
is felt. Release from the control of past pains and future mind games takes us closer to freedom from suffering.
SIX PARAMITAS

The Six Perfections, or paramitas, are guides for Mahayana Buddhist practice. They are virtues to be cultivated to
strengthen practice and bring one to enlightenment.
The Six Perfections describe the true nature of an enlightened being, which, in Mahayana practice, is to say they are
our own true buddha-nature. If they don't seem to be our true nature, it is because the perfections are obscured by
our delusion, anger, greed, and fear.
By cultivating these perfections, we bring this true nature into expression.

The Six Perfections in Practice

Each of the Six Perfections supports the other five, but the order of the perfections is significant also.
For example, the first three perfections--generosity, morality, and patience--are virtuous practices for anyone. The
remaining three--energy or zeal, meditation, and wisdom--are more specifically about spiritual practice.

1. Dana Paramita: Perfection of Generosity

In many commentaries on the Six Perfections, generosity is said to be an entry way to the dharma. Generosity is the
beginning of bodhicitta, the aspiration to realize enlightenment for all beings, which is critically important in
Mahayana.
Dana paramita is a true generosity of spirit. It is giving from sincere desire to benefit others, without expectation of
reward or recognition. There must be no selfishness attached. Charity work done to "feel good about myself" is not
true dana paramita.

2. Sila Paramita: Perfection of Morality

Buddhist morality is not about unquestioning obedience to a list of rules. Yes, there are precepts, but the precepts are
something like training wheels. They guide us until we find our own balance. An enlightened being is said to respond
correctly to all situations without having to consult a list of rules.
In the practice of sila paramitA, we develop selfless compassion. Along the way, we practice renunciation and gain an
appreciation for karma.

3. Ksanti Paramita: Perfection of Patience

Ksanti is patience, tolerance, forbearance, endurance, or composure. It literally means "able to withstand." It is said
there are three dimensions to ksanti: the ability to endure personal hardship; patience with others; and acceptance of
truth.
The perfection of ksanti begins with acceptance of the Four Noble Truths, including the truth of suffering (dukkha).
Through practice, our attention turns away from our own suffering and toward the suffering of others.
Accepting truth refers to accepting difficult truths about ourselves--that we are greedy, that we are mortal--and also
accepting the truth of the illusory nature of our existence.

4. Virya Paramita: Perfection of Energy

Virya is energy or zeal. It comes from an ancient Indian-Iranian word that means "hero," and it is also the root of the
English word "virile." So virya paramita is about making a courageous, heroic effort to realize enlightenment.
To practice virya paramita, we first develop our own character and courage. We engage in spiritual training, and then
we dedicate our fearless efforts to the benefit of others.

5. Dhyana Paramita: Perfection of Meditation

Dhyana, Buddhist meditation is a discipline intended to cultivate the mind. Dhyana also means "concentration," and in
this case, great concentration is applied to achieve clarity and insight.
A word closely related to dhyana is samadhi, which also means "concentration." Samadhi refers to a single-pointed
concentration in which all sense of self falls away. Dhyana and samadhi are said to be the foundations of wisdom,
which is the next perfection.

6. Prajna Paramta: Perfection of Wisdom

In Mahayana Buddhism, wisdom is the direct and intimate realization of sunyata or emptiness. Very simply, this is the
teaching that all phenomena are without self-essence or independent existence.

PANCHASHEELA

The broad category of moral conduct has been codified throughout the history of Buddhism, beginning in the
Buddhas time, into five precepts for conduct. The number of precepts for the behavior if monks has run into the
hundreds in some sects. For laypeople, the Theravada tradition has five precepts.
These five precepts have common elements with most moral conducts in the other major traditions. Some aspects,
especially the precept to refrain from taking life, have been a continuing focus of attention throughout the history of
Buddhism. Today, we shall explore them in depth through teachings from between the fifth and the twentieth
centuries.

The Five Precepts

I undertake to observe the rule:

1. to abstain from taking life
2. to abstain from taking what is not given
3. to abstain from sensuous misconduct
4. to abstain from false speech
5. to abstain from intoxicants as tending to cloud the mind

Abstain from taking life

In the five precepts, taking life means to murder anything that lives. It refers to the striking and killing of living
beings. Taking life is the will to kill anything that one perceives as having life, to act so as to terminate the life-force in
it, in so far as the will finds expression in bodily action or in speech. With regard to animals it is worse to kill large
ones than small. Because a more extensive effort is involved. Even where the effort is the same, the difference in
substance must be considered.
In the case of humans the killing is the more blameworthy the more virtuous they are. Apart from that, the extent of
the offense is proportionate to the intensity of the wish to kill. Five factors are involved: a living being, the perception
of a living being, a thought of murder, the action of carrying it out, and death as a result of it. And six are the ways in
which the offense may be carried out: with ones own hand, by instigation, by missiles, by slow poisoning, by sorcery,
by psychic power.

Abstain from taking what is not given

To take what is not given means the appropriation of what is not given. It refers to the removing of someone elses
property, to the stealing of it, to theft. What is not given means that which belongs to someone else. Taking what is
not given is then the will to steal anything that one perceives as belonging to someone else, and to act so as to
appropriate it. Its blameworthiness depends partly on the value of the property stolen, partly on the worth of its owner.
Five factors are involved: someone elses belongings, the awareness that they are someone elses, the thought of
theft, the action of carrying it out, the taking away as a result of it. This sin, too, may be carried out in six ways. One
may also distinguish unlawful acquisition by way of theft, robbery, underhand dealings, stratagems, and the casting of
lots.

Abstain from sensuous misconduct

Sensuous misconduct here sensuous means sexual, and misconduct is extremely blameworthy bad
behavior. Sensuous misconduct is the will to transgress against those whom one should not go into, and the
carrying out of this intention by unlawful physical action. By those one should not go into, first of all men are meant.
And then also twenty kinds of women. Ten of them are under some form of protection, by their mother, father,
parents, brother, sister, family, clan, co-religionists, by having been claimed from birth onwards, or by the kings law.
The other ten kinds are: women bought with money, concubines for the fun of it, kept women, women bought by the
gift of a garment, concubines who have been acquired by the ceremony which consists in dipping their hands into
water, concubines who once carried burdens on their heads, slave girls who are also concubines, servants who are
also concubines, girls captured in war, temporary wives. The offense is the more serious, the more moral and
virtuous the person transgressed against. It involves four factors: someone who should not be gone into, the thought
of cohabiting with that one, the actions which lead to such cohabitation, and its actual performance. There is only one
way of carrying it out: with ones own body.

Abstain from false speech

False speech is the will to deceive others by words or deeds. One can also explain: False means something which
is not real, not true. Speech is the intimation that that is real or true. False speech is then the volition which leads
to the deliberate intimation to someone else that something is so when it is not so.
The seriousness of the offense depends on the circumstances. If a householder, unwilling to give something, says
that he has not got it, that is a small offense; but to represent something one has seen with ones own eyes as other
than one has seen it, that is a serious offense. If a mendicant has on his rounds got very little oil or butter, and if he
then exclaims, What a magnificent river flows along here, my friends! that is only a rather stale joke, and the offense
is small.
But to say that one has seen what one has not seen, that is a serious offense. Four factors are involved: something
which is not so, the thought of deception, an effort to carry it out, the communication of the falsehood to someone
else. There is only one way of doing it: with ones own body.
Abstain from intoxicants as tending to cloud the mind
The last of the five precepts is to refrain from taking intoxicants that cloud the mind and cause heedlessness. This
means drugs and alcohol (but not prescription medication). This precept is a traditional way of detoxifying our bodies
and minds. And it can be challenging at events where alcohol is considered a means of socialization and relaxation.
However, with commitment, these situations often prove to be less awkward than we had feared. The benefits of
keeping the vow turn out to be even more fruitful than we had hoped.

Brahmavihar

The Buddha taught his monks to arouse four states of mind, called the "Brahma-vihara" or "four divine states of
dwelling." These four states are sometimes called the "Four Immeasurables" or the "Four Perfect Virtues."
The four states are metta (loving kindness), karuna (compassion), mudita (sympathetic joy or empathy) and upekkha
(equanimity), and in many Buddhist traditions these four states are cultivated through meditation.
These four states also inter-relate and support each other.
It's important to understand that these mental states are not emotions. Nor is it possible to simply make up your mind
you are going to be loving, compassionate, empathetic and balanced from now on. Truly dwelling in these four states
requires changing how you experience and perceive yourself and others. Loosening the bonds of self-reference and
ego is especially important.

Metta, Loving Kindness

"Here, monks, a disciple dwells pervading one direction with his heart filled with loving-kindness, likewise the second,
the third, and the fourth direction; so above, below and around; he dwells pervading the entire world everywhere and
equally with his heart filled with loving-kindness, abundant, grown great, measureless, free from enmity and free from
distress." -- The Buddha, Digha Nikaya 13
The importance of metta in Buddhism cannot be overstated.
Metta is benevolence toward all beings, without discrimination or selfish attachment. By practicing metta, a Buddhist
overcomes anger, ill will, hatred and aversion.
According to the Metta Sutta, a Buddhist should cultivate for all beings the same love a mother would feel for her
child. This love does not discriminate between benevolent people and malicious people.
It is a love in which"I" and "you" disappear, and where there is no possessor and nothing to possess.

Karuna, Compassion
"Here, monks, a disciple dwells pervading one direction with his heart filled with compassion, likewise the second, the
third and the fourth direction; so above, below and around; he dwells pervading the entire world everywhere and
equally with his heart filled with compassion, abundant, grown great, measureless, free from enmity and free from
distress." -- The Buddha, Digha Nikaya 13
Karuna is active sympathy extended to all sentient beings. Ideally, karuna is combined with prajna (wisdom), which in
Mahayana Buddhism means the realization that all sentient beings exist in each other and take identity from each
other (see shunyata). Avalokiteshvara Bodhisattva is the embodiment of compassion.
Theravada scholar Nyanaponika Thera said, "It is compassion that removes the heavy bar, opens the door to
freedom, makes the narrow heart as wide as the world. Compassion takes away from the heart the inert weight, the
paralyzing heaviness; it gives wings to those who cling to the lowlands of self."

Mudita, Sympathetic Joy

"Here, monks, a disciple dwells pervading one direction with his heart filled with sympathetic joy, likewise the second,
the third and the fourth direction; so above, below and around; he dwells pervading the entire world everywhere and
equally with his heart filled with sympathetic joy, abundant, grown great, measureless, free from enmity and free from
distress." -- The Buddha, Digha Nikaya 13
Mudita is taking sympathetic or altruistic joy in the happiness of others. People also identify mudita with empathy. The
cultivation of mudita is an antidote to envy and jealousy. Mudita is not discussed in Buddhist literature nearly as much
as metta and karuna, but some teachers believe the cultivation of mudita is a prerequisite for developing metta and
karuna.

Upekkha, Equanimity
"Here, monks, a disciple dwells pervading one direction with his heart filled with equanimity, likewise the second, the
third and the fourth direction; so above, below and around; he dwells pervading the entire world everywhere and
equally with his heart filled with equanimity, abundant, grown great, measureless, free from enmity and free from
distress." -- The Buddha, Digha Nikaya 13
Upekkha is a mind in balance, free of discrimination and rooted in insight.
This balance is not indifference, but active mindfulness. Because it is rooted in the insight of anatman, it is not
unbalanced by the passions of attraction and aversion.