COST EFFECTIVE HOUSING TECHNIQUES

G PULLAIAH COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

COST EFFECTIVE HOUSING TECHNIQUES

Prepared by: K ANAND Asst. Professor

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UNIT – V:-
HOUSING IN DISASTER PRONE AREAS:
Introduction – Earthquake - Damages to houses - Traditional prone areas - Type of Damages and Railways of
non-engineered buildings - Repair and restore action of earthquake Damaged non-engineered buildings
e o e datio s fo futu e o st u tio s. Re ui e e t s of st u tu al safet of thin pre-cost roofing units
against Earthquake forces -Status of R& D in earthquake strengthening measures - Floods, cyclone, future safety

TEXT BOOKS
1. Hand book of Low Cost Housing by A.K.Lal – New Age International Publishers.
2. Low cost Housing – G.C. Mathur, IBH publishers.
3. Housing in India by Francis Cherunilam and Odeyar D Heggade, Himalaya Publishing House, Bombay, 1997.

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Introduction

A large proportion of the countryside as well as the majority of urban areas in Bangladesh is flood-
prone. During heavy flood, more than 60% of the land is inundated. Recent floods in 2004 has destroyed
many houses and about 1 million people became homeless. To a large extent, the patterns and causes of
destruction seem to result from poor technical knowledge and wrong perceptions. Technocrats do not
adequately support housing projects for low-income, flood-vulnerable communities undertaken by NGOs
and the government, and houses are mostly owner-built without proper technical guidance. One of the
AUDMP findings of post disaster losses of the housing stock in Bangladesh after 2004 floods is that most of
these designs are prepared by people who are not trained as building professionals, so when implemented,
many problems emerge. The usual tendency is to apply the same model irrespective of context - for
example, the same house design is built on highland and low-lying flood prone areas. In most cases, the
cost is significantly prohibitive in terms of microcredit recovery from poor people and this high cost
prevents providing subsidized housing to a large number of people who need them. There is thus a need
for developing housing which is appropriate for flood pro e a eas, he e the suggested solutio s a e ost-
effe ti e - that is, rationalization of economy without compromising quality. Those who work in the low-
income housing sector in Bangladesh in general are still to adopt such techniques.

Earthquake Resistance:

Concrete is resistant to earthquakes. Earthquakes in Guam, the United States (Richter scale 8.1);
Manila, the Philippines (Richter scale 7.2); and Kobe, Japan (Richter scale 6.9) have subjected concrete
uildi gs to so e of atu e s deadliest forces. Concrete framing systems have a proven capacity to
withstand these major earthquakes. Another pertinent example is the 1994 Northridge, CA, earthquake
(Richter scale 6.8). It was one of the costliest natural disasters in U.S. history, with total damages estimated
at $20 billion. Most engineered structures within the affected region performed well, including structures
with concrete components. It should be noted that parking structures with large plan areas—regardless of
structural system—did not perform as well as other types of buildings.

Built according to good practices, concrete homes can be among the safest and most durable types of
structures during an earthquake. Homes built with reinforced concrete walls have a record of surviving
earthquakes intact, structurally sound and largely unblemished. In reinforced concrete construction, the
combination of concrete and steel provides the three most important properties for earthquake resistance:
stiffness, strength, and ductility.

Studies of earthquake damage consistently show well-anchored shear walls are the key to earthquake
resistance in low-rise buildings. Optimal design conditions include shear walls that extend the entire height
and are located on all four sides of a building. Long walls are stronger than short walls, and solid walls are
better than ones with a lot of openings for windows and doors. These elements are designed to survive
severe sideways (in-plane) forces, called racking and shear, without being damaged or bent far out of
position. Shear walls also must be well anchored to the foundation structure to work effectively. Properly
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installed steel reinforcing bars extend across the joint between the walls and the foundation to provide
secure anchorage to the foundation.

Low-rise buildings most vulnerable to earthquakes do not have the necessary stiffness, strength, and
ductility to resist the forces of an earthquake or have walls that are not well anchored to a solid
foundation, or both. Three types of buildings sustain the most significant damage:

 Multi-story buildings with a ground floor consisting only of columns;

 Wood-frame houses with weak connections between the walls and foundation;
 Unreinforced masonry or concrete buildings

Reinforced concrete walls work well because of the composite system: Concrete resists compression
forces, and reinforcing steel resists tensile forces produced by an earthquake. Even a lightly reinforced
concrete shear wall has over six times the racking load resistance as framed wall construction.

As with continental drift theory two of the proofs of plate tectonics are based upon the geometric fit of the
displaced continents and the similarity of rock ages and Paleozoic fossils in corresponding bands or zones in
adjacent or corresponding geographic areas Ocean topography also provided evidence of plate tectonic
theory. Nineteenth century surveys of the oceans indicated that rather than being flat featureless plains, as
was previously thought, some ocean areas are mountainous while others plummet to great depths.
Contemporary geologic thinking could not easily explain these topographic variations, or "oceanscapes."
Surveys in the 1950s and 1960s provided an even more detailed picture of the ocean bottom. Long,
continuous mountain chains appeared, as well as numerous ocean deeps shaped like troughs. Geoscientists
later identified the mountainous features as the mid-oceanic ridges (MORs) where new plates form, and
the deep ocean trenches as subduction zones where plates descend into the subsurface.
Modern understanding of the structure of Earth is derived in large part from the
interpretationofseismicstudies that measure the reflection of seismic waves off features in Earth's interior.
Different materials transmit and reflect seismic shock waves in different ways, and of particular importance
to theory of plate tectonics is the fact that liquid does not transmit a particular form of seismic wave
known as an S wave. Because the mantle transmits S-waves, it was long thought to be a cooling solid mass.
Geologists later discovered that radioactive decay provided a heat source with Earth's interior that made
the athenosphere plasticine (semi-solid). Although solid-like with regard to transmission of seismic S-
waves, the athenosphere contains very low velocity (inches per year) currents of mafic (magma-like)
molten materials.

Another line of evidence in support of plate tectonics came from the long-known existence of ophiolte
suites (slivers of oceanic floor with fossils) found in upper levels of mountain chains. The existence of
ophiolte suites are consistent with the uplift of crust in collision zones predicted by plate tectonic theory.

As methods of dating improved, one of the most conclusive lines of evidence in support of plate tectonics
derived from the dating of rock samples. Highly supportive of the theory of sea floor spreading (the
creation of oceanic crust at a divergent plate boundary (e.g., Mid-Atlantic Ridge) was evidence that rock
ages are similar in equidistant bands symmetrically centered on the divergent boundary. More importantly,
dating studies show that the age of the rocks increases as their distance from the divergent boundary
increases. Accordingly, rocks of similar ages are found at similar distances from divergent boundaries, and

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the rocks near the divergent boundary where crust is being created are younger than the rocks more
distant from the boundary. Eventually, radioisotope studies offering improved accuracy and precision in
rock dating also showed that rock specimen taken from geographically corresponding areas of South
America and Africa showed a very high degree of correspondence, providing strong evidence that at one
time these rock formations had once coexisted in an area subsequently separated by movement of
lithospheric plates.

Similar to the age of rocks, studies of fossils found in once adjacent geological formations showed a high
degree of correspondence. Identical fossils are found in bands and zones equidistant from divergent
boundaries. Accordingly, the fossil record provides evidence that a particular band of crust shared a similar
history as its corresponding band of crust located on the other side of the divergent boundary.

The line of evidence, however, that firmly convinced modern geologists to accept the arguments in support
of plate tectonics derived from studies of the magnetic signatures or magnetic orientations of rocks found
on either side of divergent boundaries. Just as similar age and fossil bands exist on either side of a
divergent boundary, studies of the magnetic orientations of rocks reveal bands of similar magnetic
orientation that were equidistant and on both sides of divergent boundaries. Tremendously persuasive
evidence of plate tectonics is also derived from correlation of studies of the magnetic orientation of the
rocks to known changes in Earth's magnetic field as predicted by electromagnetic theory. Paleomagnetic
studies and discovery of polar wandering, a magnetic orientation of rocks to the historical location and
polarity of the magnetic poles as opposed to the present location and polarity, provided a coherent map of
continental movement that fit well with the present distribution of the continents.

Paleomagnetic studies are based upon the fact that some hot igneous rocks (formed from volcanic magma)
contain varying amounts of ferromagnetic minerals (e.g., Fe3O4) that magnetically orient to the prevailing
magnetic field of Earth at the time they cool. Geophysical and electromagnetic theory provides clear and
convincing evidence of multiple polar reversals or polar flips throughout the course of Earth's history.
Where rock formations are uniform—i.e., not grossly disrupted by other geological processes—the
magnetic orientation of magnetite-bearing rocks can also be used to determine the approximate latitude
the rocks were at when they cooled and took on their particular magnetic orientation. Rocks with a
different orientation to the current orientation of the Earth's magnetic field also produce disturbances or
unexpected readings (anomalies) when scientists attempt to measure the magnetic field over a particular
area.

Building damage through disasters:

Building damage assessment & damage repair or restoration procedures. Guides for entering,
inspecting & repairing buildings damaged by earthquake, fire, flooding, hurricane, windstorms. Here we
discuss building safety & damage assessment following earthquake, fire, flood, hurricane, windstorm or
similar catastrophes. The articles in this series explain safe building entry procedures, priority of action or
repair, and also damage prevention.

Each article includes citations providing authoritative information on damage assessment, codes, safety
procedures as well as sources of emergency or re-build assistance.

This article series provides residential & light construction building damage assessment procedures for
buildings following disasters such as from earthquake, fire, flood, hurricane, tropical storm, or wind
damage.
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Seismic vulnerability of traditional houses:

History of past earthquakes 1897 Earthquake this was one of the most powerful earthquakes in the
Indian sub-continent and probably one of the largest known anywhere. The quake created havoc across
southwest of the present states of Assam, Meghalaya and Bangladesh. About 1542 people were killed and
hundreds more injured. It had a magnitude of M 8.7. 1950 Earthquake the 1950 Assam-Tibet earthquake
also known as the Assam earthquake occurred on August 15, 1950, and had a magnitude of M 8.4. The
epicentre was actually located near Rima, Tibet. The earthquake was destructive in both Assam and Tibet,
and 1,526 people were killed. It was the 10th largest earthquake of the 20th century. It was caused by two
plates converging i.e. Eurasian Plate and Indian Plate.

Performance of traditional houses Performance of traditional houses has been extremely good in several
past earthquakes in the region. In the recent 18 September 2011 earthquake (M 6.9), severe damage was
observed in reinforced concrete construction. On the other hand, the only damage observed in Ikra houses
due to earthquake shaking alone (not due to landslides) was to additional class rooms of Ikra type
constructed on third storey of Govt. Secondary School building. Therefore, such houses may not be suitable
for construction on higher stories due to possible amplification of ground motion along of the height. No
injury has been reported due to falling light weight debris of Ikra walls. On the other hand, damage
sustained by the reinforced concrete part of the school building was severe. These traditional constructions
are more flexible and hence, do not break under pressure due to rigidity

Types of Damages and failures of non Engineered Buildings:

URM structures are vulnerable to collapse in an earthquake. One problem is that most mortar used to hold
bricks together are not strong enough. In California, construction of new unreinforced masonry
buildings was prohibited in 1933, and state law (enacted in 1986) required seismic retrofitting of existing
structures.
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A o je t that is ot pa t of the st u tu al f a e o k is a o st u tural component. This includes

bookshelves, windows, televisions, computers, water heaters, lights, dishes, paintings, office equipment,
file cabinets, and ventilation ducts, to name a few. Nonstructural components become hazards during an
earthquake when they are thrown down, shaken, or toppled. This hazard can be avoided by securing,
relocating, replacing, removing, and taking cover from nonstructural hazards .

Bracing is often used to reduce the distortion experienced by structural systems. Distortion can impact and
damage elements that are attached to the structural system, such as windows and plaster walls. The
bracing does NOT reduce the effect of vibration on the contents of the building, thus, it is important to
restrain objects to avoid injury to both occupants and the contents.

Definitions:
“Structural - The structural portions of a building are those that resist gravity, earthquake, wind, and other
types of loads. These are called structural components and include columns (posts, pillars); beams (girders,
joists); braces; floor or roof sheathing, slabs, or decking; load-bearing walls (i.e., walls designed to support
the building weight and/or provide lateral resistance); and foundations (mat, spread footings, piles). For
buildings planned by design professionals, the structure is typically designed and analyzed in detail by a
civil or structural engineer.

Nonstructural - The nonstructural portions of a building include every part of the building and all its
contents with the exception of the structure (in other words, everything except the columns, floors, beams,
etc.) Common nonstructural components include ceilings, windows, office equipment, computers,
inventory stored on shelves, file cabinets, heating, ventilating, and air conditioning (HVAC) equipment,
electrical equipment, furnishings, and lights. Typically, nonstructural items are not analyzed by engineers
and may be specified by architects, mechanical engineers (who design HVAC systems and plumbing for
larger buildings), electrical engineers, or interior designers; or they may be purchased without the
involvement of any design professional by owners or tenants after construction of a building. Figure 1 on
the next page identifies structural and nonstructural components of a typical building. Note that most of
the structural components of a typical building are concealed from view by nonstructural materials.

Identification of nonstructural elements

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The Benefits of Bracing

Building Distortion

During an earthquake, building structures distort, or bend, from side to side in response to the
earthquake. For example, the top of a tall office tower may displace a few feet in each direction during an
earthquake. The displacement over the height of each story, known as the story drift, might range from ¼
inch to several inches, depending on the size of the earthquake and the characteristics of the particular
building structure. Windows, partitions, and other items that are tightly locked into the structure are
forced to go along for the ride. As the columns or walls distort and become slightly out of square, any
tightly confined windows or partitions must also distort the same amount. The more space there is around
a pane of glass where it is mounted between stops or molding strips, the more distortion the glazing
assembly can accommodate before the glass itself resists the distortion. Brittle materials like glass, plaster
or drywall partitions, and masonry infill or veneer cannot tolerate any significant distortion and will crack
when the perimeter gaps close and the building structure pushes directly on the brittle elements. Most
architectural components, such as glass panes, partitions, and veneer, are damaged because of this type of
building distortion, not because they themselves are shaken or damaged by inertial forces.

Earthquake Damage Effects

No st u tu al ele e ts a e o e ul e a le to ea th uake da age tha is the st u tu al f a i g of the

building. There are several reasons for this, most notably the lack of earthquake design and construction of
nonstructural elements. As a result, even light to moderate earthquake shaking can cause damage to
nonstructural elements and this damage may result in life safety hazards, loss of function of the
nonstructural elements, and monetary loss due to the damage. Cost of repair and disruption due to
earthquake damage to nonstructural elements often exceeds the structural repair costs.

Typical examples of nonstructural damage include:

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Brick chimneys and parapets falling away from the building, Ceiling tiles and light fixtures falling, Exterior
glass windows cracking, Spilling contents of shelve Breakage and leakage of pipes, including sprinkler pipes,
gas pipes, water pipes and sewerage Building utility equipment sliding off of their supports or overturning.

Repair and Restoring of earth quake damaged non engineered buildings:

TYPICAL REASONS FOR A BUILDING SURVEY BY AN EARTHQUAKE MANAGEMENT TEAM

1) To define building failure mechanisms and sitting conditions.

2) To define economic losses to building stock.

3) To identify buildings that can be reinstated or have to be demolished.

4) To consider if it is safe to reoccupy a building.

5) To understand weaknesses in construction and performance so no damaged existing buildings of the

same type can be appropriately strengthened.

6) To document historic buildings and damage to them and their contents.

7) To assess the effectiveness of emergency procedures and disaster management.

8) To design new earthquake resisting buildings that utilize traditional materials and construction methods.

9) To consider local designs and what can be done to improve them

TYPICAL REASONS FOR AN EEFIT SURVEY

1) To determine the pre-earthquake condition, a product of material and structural decay, and the 'use'
and also 'abuse' of the structure.

2) To determine the damage characteristics and distribution from the main shock and successive
aftershocks.

3) To determine damage resulting from rescue and demolition activities.

4) To estimate the need for local, national and international aid – particularly related to building
reconstruction.

5) To aid the understanding of mortality/morbidity of the building occupants.

6) To aid the introduction of better design and construction processes of new buildings.

7) To help detect stresses and strains that may result in future damage.

The following pages therefore describe how to survey damaged buildings and how to do it as safely as
possible. The type of data to be collected and the interpretation of building survey data is a very complex
subject and must be related to the reason for the survey and the methods that have been used. This

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publication can only guide the field researcher by suggesting many useful techniques that have been used
and developed by EEFIT members in disasters since the Italian earthquake of November 1980. EEFIT
considers that these guidelines are primarily intended to aid in the collection of data that helps determine
the structural performance of buildings before and after the earthquake, and relate building damage to the
seismic induced ground motions. Another aim is to determine the relationship of building damage to
mortality/morbidity. The guidelines are not so much concerned with nonstructural damage and
performance of ornamental features and fixtures. However, it should be remembered that these items can
give useful clues, particularly to the scale of structural motions during the earthquake. For example, the
fact that an object has not fallen off a shelf can be significant and may also be very valuable. The guidelines
can play an important role in the development of improved building and/or rebuilding techniques and can
be an important aid for building conservators who will want to record damage to historic buildings and
later restore them. Therefore, it is important to note that the survey can be of use to third parties whose
interests are different to yours. It is difficult to forecast the time that will be spent in the field and also the
ease and safety of access. The guide provides information for undertaking a comprehensive survey but this
may not be possible. In this case, the guide recommends attention should be given to the process
presented below:
ESSENTIAL APPROACH FOR A LIMITED FIELD WORK PERIOD
1) Carry out fieldwork safely - utilising recommendations in the guide.
2) Keep away from rescue activities, do not go in damaged buildings and avoid walking on loose rubble.
3) Keep field equipment in a rucksack or in pockets - avoid hand held cases in the field.
4) Join in with individuals and teams who are undertaking similar fieldwork and forge links with
international, national, and local authorities.
5) Collect and share reports and paper data with others.
6) Use a local interpreter and apportion time beforehand between meetings and fieldwork.
7) Divide up team support tasks and field work objectives.
8) Focus attention on major specific concerns - reduce the scope of fieldwork given it is likely that there will
be much duplication.
9) Use photography as much as possible and record information on a handheld tape recorder.
10) Codify data types and use pre-forma data collection sheets and write notes and reports after daily
fieldwork is complete.
EXTREME CONDITIONS Earthquake damage surveys are best done under ideal climatic conditions and the
following are recommendations:

• HIGH WINDS: Do ot o k in or near to moderately to severely damaged buildings and structures that
have loose roof coverings.

• RAIN: Do ot o k i o ea to da aged uildi gs a d slopes ith la dslides. Mo ito ate u off

routes and points of entry into cracks.

• SNOW: Avoid walking on snow covered areas in and around ruined structures and only enter buildings if
safe to do so and if there is no snow accumulation on roofs.

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• THERMAL: A oid e te i g ode atel to se e el da aged uildi gs at ti es he the e a e e t e es

of day to night temperature changes.

• NIGHT: Shado s a ask da ge ous lo atio s so o l o k if the e a e good lighti g s ste s. Wo ki g

with small torches in dark spaces should be a last resort.

Cyclones
Cyclones are caused by atmospheric disturbances around a low-pressure area distinguished by swift
and often destructive air circulation. Cyclones are usually accompanied by violent storms and bad weather.
The air circulates inward in an anticlockwise direction in the Northern hemisphere and clockwise in the
Southern hemisphere. Cyclones are classified as: (i) extra tropical cyclones (also called temperate cyclones);
and (ii) tropical cyclones. The word Cyclone is derived from the Greek word Cyclos meaning the coils of a
snake. It was coined by Henry Peddington because the tropical storms in the Bay of Bengal and the Arabian
Sea appear like coiled serpents of the sea.
Classifications
Cyclones are classified as extra tropical cyclones (also called temperate cyclones); and tropical cyclones.

The Wo ld Meteo ologi al O ga isatio WMO, uses the te 'T opi al C lo e to o e eathe
s ste s i hi h i ds e eed Gale Fo e i i u of k ots o kph . T opi al lo es a e the
progeny of ocean and atmosphere, powered by the heat from the sea; and driven by easterly trades and
temperate westerlies, high planetary winds and their own fierce energy.
In India, cyclones are classified by:
 Strength of associated winds,
 Storm surges
 Exceptional rainfall occurrences.

Extra tropical cyclones occur in temperate zones and high latitude regions, though they are known to
originate in the Polar Regions.
Cyclones that developin the regions between the Tropics of Capricorn and Cancer are called tropical
cyclones. Tropical cyclones are large-scale weather systems developing over tropical or subtropical waters,
where they get organized into surface wind circulation.
Worldwide terminology
Cyclones are given many names in different regions of the world – They are known as typhoons in the
China Sea and Pacific Ocean; hurricanes in the West Indian islands in the Caribbean Sea and Atlantic Ocean;
tornados in the Guinea lands of West Africa and southern USA.; willy-willies in north-western Australia and
tropical cyclones in the Indian Ocean.
The criteria below has been formulated by the Indian Meteorological Department (IMD), which classifies
the low pressure systems in the Bay of Bengal and the Arabian Sea on the basis of capacity to damage,
which is adopted by the WMO.

Type of Disturbances Wind Speed in Km/h Wind Speed in Knots

Low Pressure Less than 31 Less than 17

Depression 31-49 17-27

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Deep Depression 49-61 27-33

Cyclonic Storm 61-88 33-47

Severe Cyclonic Storm 88-117 47-63

Super Cyclone More than 221 More than 120

Cyclones are classified into five different levels on the basis of wind speed. They are further divided
into the following categories according to their capacity to cause damage:-

Cyclone Category Wind Speed in Km/h Damage Capacity

01 120-150 Minimal

02 150-180 Moderate

03 180-210 Extensive

04 210-250 Extreme

05 250 and above Catastrophic

Storm surges (tidal waves) are defined as the rise in sea level above the normally predicted astronomical
tide. Major factors include:
 A fall in the atmospheric pressure over the sea surface
 Effect of the wind
 Influence of the sea bed
 A funnelling effect
 The angle and speed at which the storm approaches the coast
 The tides
The very high specific humidity condenses into exceptionally large raindrops and giant cumulus clouds,
resulting in high precipitation rates. When a cyclone makes landfall, rain rapidly saturates the catchment
areas and the rapid runoff may extensively flood the usual water sources or create new ones.

Cyclone Formation:
The development cycle of tropical cyclones may be divided into three stages:
The formation and initial development of a cyclonic storm depends upon various conditions. These are:
 A warm sea (a temperature in excess of 26 degrees Celsius to a depth of 60 m) with abundant and
turbulent transfer of water vapour to the overlying atmosphere by evaporation.
 Atmospheric instability encouraging formation of massive vertical cumulus clouds due to
convection with condensation of rising air above ocean surface.
Mature Tropical Cyclones:

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When a tropical storm intensifies, the air rises in vigorous thunderstorms and tends to spread out
horizontally at the tropopause level. Once air spreads out, a positive perturbation pressure at high levels is
produced, which accelerates the downward motion of air due to convection. With the inducement of
su side e, ai a s up o p essio a d a a E e is ge e ated. Ge e all , the E e of the sto s
has three basic shapes: (i) circular; (ii) concentric; and (iii) elliptical. The main physical feature of a mature
tropical cyclone in the Indian Ocean is a concentric pattern of highly turbulent giant cumulus thundercloud
bands.

Modification and Decay

A tropical cyclone begins to weaken in terms of its central low pressure, internal warmth and extremely
high speeds, as soon as its source of warm moist air begins to ebb, or is abruptly cut off. This happens after
its landfall or when it passes over cold waters. The weakening of a cyclone does not mean that the danger
to life and property is over.
Indian Context
The Indian subcontinent is one of the worst affected regions in the world. The subcontinent with a long
oastli e of kilo et es is e posed to ea l pe e t of the o ld s t opi al lo es. Of these, the
majority of them have their initial genesis over the Bay of Bengal and strike the East coast of India. On an
average, five to six tropical cyclones form every year, of which two or three could be severe. More cyclones
occur in the Bay of Bengal than the Arabian Sea and the ratio is approximately 4:1. Cyclones occur
frequently on both the coasts (the West coast - Arabian Sea; and the East coast - Bay of Bengal). An analysis
of the frequency of cyclones on the East and West coasts of India between 1891 and 1990 shows that
nearly 262 cyclones occurred (92 of these severe) in a 50 km wide strip above the East coast. Less severe
cyclonic activity has been noticed on the West coast, where 33 cyclones occurred the same period, out of
which 19 were severe.

Tropical cyclones occur in the months of May-June and October-November. Cyclones of severe intensity
and frequency in the North Indian Ocean are bi-modal in character, with their primary peak in November
and secondary peak in May. The disaster potential is particularly high during landfall in the North Indian
Ocean (Bay of Bengal and the Arabian Sea) due to the accompanying destructive wind, storm surges and
torrential rainfall. Of these, storm surges cause the most damage as sea water inundates low lying areas of
coastal regions and causes heavy floods, erodes beaches and embankments, destroys vegetation and
reduces soil fertility.

Cyclones vary in diameter from 50 to 320 km but their effects dominate thousands of square kilometers of
ocean surface and the lower atmosphere. The perimeter may measure 1,000 km but the powerhouse is
located within the 100-km radius. Nearer the Eye, winds may hit at a speed of 320 km. Thus, tropical
cyclones, characterized by destructive winds, torrential rainfall and storm surges disrupt normal life with
the accompanying phenomena of floods due to the exceptional level of rainfall and storm surge inundation
into inland areas. Cyclones are characterized by their devastating potential to damage structures, viz.
houses; lifeline infrastructure-power and communication towers; hospitals; food storage facilities; roads,
bridges and culverts; cropss etc. The most fatalities come from storm surges and the torrential rain
flooding the lowland areas of coastal territories.

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Masonry Houses:
These are usually regarded as being safe in cyclones. There are countless examples where the
loss of roofs has triggered the total destruction of un-reinforced masonry walls.

Timber Houses

The key to safe construction of timber houses is the connection details. The inherent vulnerability of
light-weight timber houses coupled with poor connections is a dangerous combination which has often
led to disaster.

Reinforced Concrete Frames

The design of reinforced concrete frames is usually controlled by the seismic hazard. In countries where
this is not an issue care still needs to be exercised to ensure that the concrete frames can accommodate
the wind forces. There have been a few isolated examples where, ignoring this, has led to disaster.

Component Failures

Roof Sheeting

This is perhaps the commonest area of failure in cyclones. The causes are usually inadequate
fastening devices, inadequate sheet thickness and insufficient frequencies of fasteners in the known
areas of greater wind suction.

Roof Tiles

These were thought to have low vulnerability in storms but past cyclones have exposed the problem
of unsatisfactory installation practices.

Rafters

Of particular interest in recent cyclones was the longitudinal splitting of rafters with the top halves
disappearing and leaving the bottom halves in place. The splitting would propagate from holes drilled
horizontally through the rafters to receive holding-down straps.

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Total loss of unreinforced concrete block walls and destruction of reinforced concrete supports

Destruction of expensive timber framed residence (Bahamas)

Windows and Doors

After roof sheeting, these are the components most frequently damaged in cyclones. Of course, glass
would always be vulnerable to flying objects. The other area of vulnerability for windows and doors is the
hardware - latches, bolts and hinges.

Walls

It is not uncommon for un-reinforced masonry to fail in severe cyclones. Cantilevered parapets are most
at risk. But so are walls braced by ring beams and columns have remained safe.

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Damaging Effects of Cyclone on Houses:

Due to the high wind pressure and improper connection of the

house to the footings it can be blown away.

Design Wind Speed and Pressures

The basic wind speed is reduced or enhanced for design of buildings and structures due to following factors:

The risk level of the structure measured in terms of adopted return period and life of structures. Terrain
roughness determined by the surrounding buildings or trees and, height a bed size of the structure. Local
topography like hills, valleys, cliffs, or ridges, etc. Thus general basic wind speed being same in a given zone,
structures in different site conditions could have appreciable modification and must be considered in
determining design wind velocity as per IS:875 (Part 3) – 1987.

The value of wind pressure actually to be considered on various elements depends on

(i) Aerodynamics of flow around buildings.
(ii) The windward vertical faces being subjected to pressure.
(iii) The leeward and lateral faces getting suction effects and
(iv) The sloping roofs getting pressures or suction effects depending on the slope. The
projecting window shades, roof projections at eave levels are subjected to uplift pressures.
These factors play an important role in determining the vulnerability of given building
types in given wind speed zones.
Roofs

Lightweight flat roofs are easily blown off in high winds. In order to lessen the effect of the uplifting
forces on the roof, the roof Pitch should not be less than 22º. Hip roofs are best, they have been found
to be more
General Design Considerations

1. Avoid a low pitched roof, use a hip roof or a high pitched gable roof.
2. Avoid overhanging roofs. If overhangs or canopies are desired, they should be braced by ties
held to the main structures.
3. Avoid openings which cannot be securely closed during a cyclone. Where openings are already
in existence, cyclone shutters should be provided.

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Wall Openings:

Openings in general are areas of weakness and stress concentration, but needed essentially
for light and ventilation. The following are recommended in respect of openings.
(i) Openings in load bearing walls should not be within a distance of h/6 from inner corner for
the purpose of providing lateral support to cross walls, where h is the storey height upto eave
level.
(ii) Openings just below roof level be avoided except that two
small vents without shutter should be provided in
opposite walls to prevent suffocation in case room gets
filled with water and people may try to climb up on lofts or
pegs.
(iii) Since the failure of any door or window on the wind-ward
side may lead to adverse uplift pressures under roof,
the openings should have strong holdfasts as well
as
Closing/ locking arrangement.

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