Article

Australian Journal of Career Development

2016, Vol. 25(1) 7–22
Career management attitudes ! Australian Council for Educational
Research 2016
among business undergraduates Reprints and permissions:
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DOI: 10.1177/1038416215604002
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Denise Jackson
School of Business, Edith Cowan University, Joondalup, Australia

Nicholas Wilton
Business and Management – Bristol Business School, University of the West of England,
Bristol, UK

Abstract
Globalisation, organisational restructuring and new technology have been connected with a shift to ‘protean’ and
‘boundaryless’ career attitudes with workers, including new graduates, increasingly required to be self-reliant in suc-
cessfully navigating their careers. This study explores protean and boundaryless career attitudes among Business under-
graduates and the influence of demographic, background and employment characteristics on these attitudes. Data were
collected for Business undergraduates at a UK (N ¼ 88) and Australian university (N ¼ 284). Results indicate the students
score more highly, on average, in the self-direction and boundaryless mindset dimensions. Relatively lower mean scores
for physical mobility and values-driven suggest a ‘one high, one low’ pattern among the two items that constitute protean
and boundaryless career attitudes. Employment status and Business degree specialisation were found to significantly
predict career attitudes. Findings develop our understanding of whether emerging professionals are equipped to effect-
ively self-manage their careers and implications for educators and professional practitioners are discussed.

Keywords
Career management, graduate, protean, boundaryless, career attitudes

A range of both recent and long-term trends asso- management from the organisation to individual
ciated with the labour markets of developed econo- (Clarke & Patrickson, 2008).
mies have been connected with a shift in the attitudes Allied to the blurring of work–life boundaries
associated with successful career self-management. (Sturges, 2008) and the shift in focus to careers that
The globalisation of labour markets, the restructuring develop outside of clear boundaries (Inkson, 2006),
of organisations and internal labour markets and the workers are now expected to develop a range of
rapid development and diffusion of new technology career management capabilities and attitudes.
have had far-reaching implications for the experience Individuals are required to become self-reliant in
of work, jobs and careers. This new world of work managing their careers and self-reflective about
has created both new opportunities for career self- motives and capabilities. They are expected to
management as well as significant employment inse- assume greater ownership of career development
curity and risk (Grote & Raeder, 2009). While the full and to acquire and to develop a demonstrable set of
impact of these shifts on careers is contested (Baruch, portable skills and knowledge which fosters adapt-
2006; Inkson, Gunz, Ganesh, & Roper, 2012), and ability in any environment (O’Connell, McNeely, &
undoubtedly varies between contexts and occupa- Hall, 2008). Savickas (1997) emphasises the import-
tional group (Pringle & Mallon, 2003), changes to ance of developing career adaptability, described as
the nature of work and employment have widely ‘the readiness to cope with . . . the unpredictable
been associated with a weakening relationship adjustments prompted by changes in work and work-
between employer and employee (Bennett, Pitt, & ing conditions’ (p. 254), through exploring oneself
Price, 2012) and a shift in responsibility for career and the environment, career planning and

Corresponding author:
Denise Jackson, School of Business, Edith Cowan University, 2.361b, 270 Joondalup Drive, Joondalup, WA 6027, Australia.
Email: [email protected]
8 Australian Journal of Career Development 25(1)

decision-making. Many workers, including graduates associated with new career forms would seem critical
entering the labour market, are therefore expected to for recent and future graduates. Deepening our under-
be able to successfully navigate their career across standing of career attitudes among contemporary
endless possibilities (Briscoe & Hall, 2006). This is undergraduates will inform both employers and
deemed particularly important during periods of eco- Higher Education Institutions (HEIs) in developing
nomic uncertainty (Briscoe, Henagan, Burton, & appropriate strategies to ensure emerging profes-
Murphy, 2012), apparent in many developed coun- sionals are equipped with the attributes necessary
tries post-Global Financial Crisis (GFC). for career success.
Associated with the dominant discourse of the Specifically, this paper: (i) explores the adoption of
‘death of career’ and the evolution of new deals in protean and boundaryless attitudes to career manage-
employment (Adamson, Doherty, & Viney, 1998), in ment; (ii) examines the relationships among protean
the past two decades, these new careers have been and boundaryless attitudes to career management and
variously conceptualised and labelled as ‘boundary- (iii) identifies variations in career attitudes by
less’ (Arthur, 1994), ‘protean’ (Hall,1996), ‘free-form’ demographic, background and/or employment char-
(Leach & Chakiris, 1998), ‘post-corporate’ (Pepeirl & acteristics. The research objectives are addressed by
Baruch, 1997) and ‘multi-directional’ (Baruch, 2004). exploring career attitudes among Business under-
While distinctive in emphasis, these conceptualisa- graduates, in the UK and Australia. The paper is
tions offer variations on a theme whereby the new structured to first provide a background review of
career is contrasted with the ‘traditional’ career asso- literature relating to career management attitudes
ciated with structured and status-oriented career and the influential role of individual characteristics.
progression and have dominated the recent literature Second, the study’s methodology is outlined, followed
on career attitudes (see Clarke, 2009). These new by a summary of results, based on descriptive and
career types necessitate the adoption and development hierarchical multiple regression analyses. Findings
of commensurate orientations by workers. For and the implications for education and human
instance, a protean career orientation is concerned resource practitioners are discussed and, finally, the
with self-invention, autonomy and self-direction limitations and directions for future research set out.
(Hall, 2002). It is characterised by a ‘values driven’
approach (Briscoe & Hall, 2006) where internal prin-
ciples and attitudes motivate and guide career deci- Background
sions, rather than extrinsic factors such as pay. The
Protean and boundaryless career attitudes
degree to which an individual internalises such an
approach to career management reflects the extent While acknowledging debates regarding the extent to
to which they possess a protean career orientation which the career landscape is ‘all change’ (Baruch,
(see Segers, Inceoglu, Vloeberghs, Bartram, & 2006), it is inarguable that there has been a significant
Henderickx, 2008) and, consequently, how adept shift in the responsibility for one’s career from the
they are likely to be at navigating the new context organisation to self. This is recognised in the boun-
of careers. The notion of the boundaryless career is daryless and protean career concepts, which focus on
associated with both ‘physical mobility’ (Sullivan & individual career self-management and personal
Arthur, 2006), across organisations, occupations and responsibility for the continuous development of
geography, and a ‘boundaryless mindset’, described one’s employability (de Vos, Dewettinck, & Buyens,
by Briscoe, Hall, and DeMuth (2006) as individual 2009). The extent of career self-management is defined
capacity for ‘initiating and pursuing work-related by King (2004) as ‘the degree to which one regularly
relationships across organizational boundaries’ gathers information and plans for career problem sol-
(p. 31). This dimension focuses on the degree to ving and decision making’ (p. 3) and encompasses
which individuals can manage psychological bound- activity in seeking opportunities, strategic networking
aries such as work–life balance and advance their and labour market awareness (Sturges, Conway,
perceived marketability. Guest, & Liefooghe, 2005). In contrast, organisational
This paper explores the career attitudes among career management involves assisting employees in
undergraduate students in the UK and Australia. developing career pathways though internal hierar-
Pringle and Mallon (2003) suggest that new career chies, structures and functions, using initiatives and
forms are most applicable to professional and man- programs such as mentoring, training, counselling
agerial occupations and, therefore, have particular and project working (King, 2004). Whatever the
resonance for graduates who are most likely to enter extent and formality, organisational career manage-
such professions. Moreover, given contemporary pat- ment and individual career management are intri-
terns of youth unemployment and underemployment cately entwined and together influence both
(Graduate Careers Australia, 2012; Purcell et al., individual career success and organisational commit-
2013) in many developed economies and an increas- ment (see de Vos et al., 2009). The limitation of organ-
ingly competitive and volatile graduate labour isational career management in assisting employees in
market, the adoption of the flexible mindset following career trajectories beyond the organisation,
Jackson and Wilton 9

in combination with wider changes to the experience attitudes to produce 16 possible career orientations
of work and employment, has led to greater focus on (see Segers et al., 2008 for a detailed discussion of
the development of boundaryless and protean career these profiles). Segers et al. argue an individual’s pos-
attitudes. Some commentators believe these contem- ition on the protean and boundaryless continua will
porary career orientations substitute more traditional influence what motivates them at work and will have
ones (Baruch, 2006), yet evidence suggests that the implications for how to manage effectively individuals
traditional career remains entrenched among workers with different orientations. Self-directed individuals
(Currie, Tempest, & Starkey, 2006). require challenging assignments and opportunities
Despite the significant attention paid to career for personal growth and organisations should imple-
change in recent years, Jain and Jain (2013) argue ment initiatives that facilitate the discussion and nego-
career attitudes remain relatively underexplored. tiation of career pathways aligned with personal
This represents a notable deficit in research as, for values, rather than simply offering extrinsic rewards.
individuals, awareness of one’s own career orientation For the boundaryless career orientation, those with
is important for making informed career decisions high physical mobility seek positions and opportu-
and, for recruiters, appreciation of both individual nities which have high rewards and are less concerned
and pervasive career orientation is critical for the with job security, while those demonstrating the
effective recruitment, management and retention of boundaryless mindset require autonomy and scope
talent (Segers et al., 2008). Career attitudes have for developing diverse networks.
been shown to be both the product of a range of indi-
vidual attributes and an influential factor in shaping
Career attitudes among undergraduates
labour market behaviour and achievement (see, e.g.
Herrmann, Hirschi, & Baruch, 2015). Protean atti- Jain and Jain (2013) suggest that new graduates cor-
tudes augment identity awareness, better equipping respond to the exploration stage of Cron’s (1984) four
individuals to manage change (Briscoe et al., 2012) career stages: exploration, establishment, mainten-
and career success (Park, 2009). Boundaryless atti- ance and disengagement. They argue new graduates’
tudes encourage individuals to seek support and attitudes are transferred from their university experi-
opportunities beyond their current workplace, can ence and will affect job performance during this and
lead to active coping and well-being (Briscoe et al., the establishment stages. The development of positive
2012) and are linked to career success (Inkson, 2006). and helpful career attitudes during academic study is
In respect of the protean career orientation, therefore critical for short- and long-term career suc-
Briscoe and Hall (2006) argue the degree to which cess and organisational performance. That said, while
an individual displays the constituent dimensions of prior studies have shown a correlation between the
‘self-directedness’ and ‘values driven’ will result in adoption of Protean and boundaryless mindsets and
four different career orientations. First, individuals career success, evidence also suggested there are
whose values have little influence on their career deci- attendant risks associated with such orientations.
sions and which demonstrate little self-directedness Verbruggen (2012) found that although a boundary-
are considered ‘dependant’. Those who self-manage less mindset was positively associated with high wages
their careers but are not directed by internal values, and more promotion, organisational mobility prefer-
instead placing emphasis on external rewards, are ence led to fewer promotions, lower job satisfaction
considered ‘reactive’. A lack of self-directedness com- and lower career satisfaction among Business gradu-
bined with motivation by values will result in a ‘rigid’ ates. This is perhaps a reflection of the reality of
orientation, which implies individuals will not be able contemporary careers where the benefits of new
to shape their career pathways. Finally, the ‘protean’ career forms are realised for some but not others, des-
orientation will result from individuals demonstrating pite adoption of commensurate attitudes. Such car-
both dimensions. Sullivan and Arthur (2006) also eers have been found to result in a trade-off between
define quadrants for the different ways an individual subjective and objective career success (Cohen &
may be positioned on the boundaryless orientation Mallon, 1999) and that there is inevitable accretion
continua, depending on the degree to which they dem- of risk associated with the transference of career
onstrate the two constituent dimensions of ‘boundary- responsibility from employer to employee (Grote &
less mindset’ and ‘physical mobility’. Eby, Butts, Raeder, 2009). In other words, the adoption of atti-
and Lockwood (2003) also argue ‘knowing why’, tudes commensurate with new career forms does not
‘knowing whom’ and ‘knowing how’ will determine lead to universally positive outcomes. Consequently,
the degree to which one will succeed in the boundary- HEIs appear to have an additional responsibility of
less career, stressing the importance of networking ensuring students are cognisant of the challenges of
and relationship building, the portability and market- the contemporary labour market and are sufficiently
ability of one’s human capital and self-knowledge and flexible and resilient in their outlook to cope with both
one’s sense of personal identity (Arthur, 1994). complexity and change.
Briscoe and Hall (2006) combine the four under- King (2003, 2004) argues it is younger and more
lying dimensions of protean and boundaryless career highly skilled workers who have internalised messages
10 Australian Journal of Career Development 25(1)

about the decline of traditional careers. It could, 2003). Briscoe et al. (2006) also assert the distinct
therefore, be assumed the adoption of protean or nature of the different dimensions of career attitudes,
boundaryless orientations is most vital, and also arguing an individual could demonstrate boundary-
more likely, among those entering initial employment less attitudes, yet expect and rely on their organisation
post-graduation. However, evidence (King, 2003; to cultivate their career. They believed the relation-
Sturges et al., 2005) also suggests that many gradu- ship among career attitudes would vary with work
ates, while paying lip service to the notion of the new context and this was confirmed in their study of
career, held attitudes more aligned with conventional undergraduates, MBA students and management
career development and high expectations of organ- executives which reported different relationships
isational career management. among the four dimensions. Briscoe et al. found
Briscoe et al. (2006) found variations across the some evidence of a lack of relationship between phys-
four dimensions relating to protean and boundaryless ical mobility and the other three dimensions in the
career attitudes by career stage (namely undergradu- undergraduate sample, attributing this to their rela-
ates, MBAs and executives) and context. To them, tive inexperience and lack of desire to explore the
this suggested that the dimensions reflect attitudes unknown. They reported a significant relationship
that are malleable and could be taught and developed. between the two protean dimensions and also a cor-
Their data demonstrated a ‘high-low’ phenomenon relation between both and boundaryless mindset. As a
for all three samples whereby a higher mean rating result, the following hypotheses have been developed:
for self-direction and a lower mean rating for
values-driven within the protean orientation was Hypothosis 2a: Self-direction and values-driven are
reported. According to Briscoe and Hall (2006), indi- positively associated among Business undergraduates.
viduals with high self-direction and low values-driven Hypothesis 2b: Self-direction and boundaryless
are ‘reactive’ and manage their careers, but let organ- mindset are positively associated among Business
isational values, rather than internal ones, guide their undergraduates.
decisions. For boundaryless attitudes, Briscoe et al. Hypothesis 2c: Values-driven and boundaryless
also reported a ‘high-low’ pattern with a higher mindset are positively associated among Business
mean rating for boundaryless mindset and a lower undergraduates.
mean rating for physical mobility. This is categorised Hypothesis 2d: Physical mobility is not associated
by Sullivan and Arthur (2006) as individuals belong- with boundaryless mindset or protean career attitudes
ing to ‘quadrant three’ whom ‘sustain high expect- among Business undergraduates.
ations of their own employability . . . without
changing employers’ (p. 24). Subsequently, this dis-
cussion leads to the following hypotheses:
Influence of individual characteristics
Hypothosis 1a: Average ratings for self-direction will There are a broad range of antecedents of career
be relatively higher than values-driven among orientation and attitudes, including career stage and
Business undergraduates. preference for mobility (Briscoe & Finkelstein, 2009),
Hypothesis 1b: Average ratings for boundaryless socioeconomic status (Greenbank, 2011), cultural
mindset will be relatively higher than physical mobil- context (Sullivan & Arthur, 2006), personality
ity among Business undergraduates. (Creed, Macpherson, & Hood, 2011) and industry
sector (Schneider, Smith, Taylor, & Fleenor, 1998).
Interpreting where an individual is positioned on the
Relationship among protean and boundaryless boundaryless and protean career continua requires,
however, an understanding of their demographic
career attitudes
and background characteristics (Gerber, Wittekind,
Often considered interchangeable, protean and boun- Grote, & Staffelbach, 2009). Age is broadly con-
daryless career orientations are distinct and influence sidered to be positively related to the values-driven
behaviour in different ways (see Segers et al., 2008). dimension with the more mature being motivated by
They both encapsulate, however, the notion that con- societal values and guided by a moral compass
temporary career self-management no longer simply (see Briscoe, Hall, & DeMuth, 2006; Segers et al.,
concerns vertical advancement within a single or lim- 2008). The relationship between self-direction and
ited set of employers, but navigating more complex age is less clear. Some assert individuals are less
and less stable career pathways. These routes are driven to adapt and self-develop as they age, advocat-
often cross-cultural organisational and national ing a negative association (see Segers et al., 2008).
boundaries (Tams & Arthur, 2007), requiring the In Briscoe et al.’s study, a slight positive effect was
development and exploitation of strategic relation- recorded between self-direction and age for the
ships and networks in order to realise personal undergraduate, MBA and executive samples.
needs and expectations (Eby, Butts, & Lockwood, This, however, may be attributed to the documented
Jackson and Wilton 11

positive association between education level and Hypothesis 4b: Gender is not associated with
career attitudes (Gerber et al., 2009; see Segers boundaryless career attitudes among Business
et al., 2008). Given this study’s sample are all partici- undergraduates.
pating in undergraduate study, and their enrolment
has demonstrated an element of self-direction irre- Employment background is also deemed influential,
spective of their age and circumstances, it is projected including organisational tenure (Gerber et al., 2009;
there will be no association between age and self- Mathieu & Zajac, 1990), industry sector (Segers et al.,
direction. Accordingly: 2008) and number of years of full-time working,
number of employers and number of voluntary job
Hypothesis 3a: Age is not associated with self-direc- changes (Briscoe et al., 2006). Gerber et al. found
tion among Business undergraduates. employment status produced different career attitudes
Hypothesis 3b: Age is positively associated with values- with those in full-time work, in contrast to those
driven attitudes among Business undergraduates. working part time, being more independent in orien-
tation. They define an independent career orientation
In relation to the boundaryless career, Segers, as ‘a positive attitude towards frequent changes of
Inceoglu, Vloeberghs, Bartram, and Henderickx organizations and also, commitment to oneself
(2008) found no evidence to support the assertion rather than the employer’ (p. 3). This suggests that
that boundaryless mindset increases with age. those with greater exposure to working will adopt
Briscoe et al.’s (2006) slight positive effect among more protean and boundaryless attitudes to career
undergraduates, MBAs and executives could, again, management, leading to the following hypotheses:
be attributed to education level. While a negative
association between age and physical mobility has Hypothesis 5a: Employment status is positively asso-
been reported (see Segers et al., 2008), current pres- ciated with protean career attitudes among Business
sure on new graduates to be flexible and ‘go where the undergraduates.
work is’ in tough economic conditions could pre-empt Hypothesis 5b: Employment status is positively asso-
similar mobility preferences among all ages. This leads ciated with boundaryless career attitudes among
to the following hypothesis: Business undergraduates.

Hypothesis 3c: Age is not associated with boundary- While specialisation is limited to within the field of
less career attitudes among Business undergraduates. Business, this has produced variations in career
management competency (Kuijpers & Meijers,
Many believe gender is unrelated to career attitudes 2012), and both short- and long-term employment
(Hall, 2004) and Briscoe et al. (2006) did not detect a outcomes for graduates (Wilton, 2012). Further,
gender effect for any of the four attitude dimensions. variations in the labour market trends for different
For the protean orientation, support for gender vari- Business specialisations exist (see Graduate Careers
ation in self-directedness is absent in previous studies Australia, 2015) and may also influence attitudes to
(see Segers et al., 2008). While there is some evidence career management. As Li and Miller (2013) assert,
to suggest females are more values-driven (Mainiero ‘it is what graduates studied, rather than where they
& Sullivan, 2005), findings are not always consistent graduated from, which made a large difference in
and variations may apply to those more advanced in their labour market outcomes’ (p. 25). It has been
their careers. There is some evidence suggesting included in our analysis to contribute to a more
lower levels of physical mobility among females nuanced understanding of career decision making
(Segers et al., 2008; Sullivan & Arthur, 2006) due that might ultimately influence labour market experi-
to concerns for work–life balance, fewer opportu- ence and achievement. Certain specialisations may
nities and supporting their partner’s career (Forett nurture a more independent attitude to career man-
et al., 2010). Men are also reported to have lower agement and accentuate the importance of social
psychological mobility due to following a linear values rather than instrumental motivators for
career pathway with little room for career explor- career success. Some may also highlighted the
ation, associated with conformity to societal expect- broad range of employment contexts for that par-
ations of their role as breadwinner (Forett et al., ticular field and the importance of being open and
2010). Given the mixed evidence, early career stage able to navigate different trajectories for career suc-
of the sample, and prevalent economic uncertainty cess. Accordingly:
which may generate heightened flexibility among
undergraduates, we do not expect an association Hypothesis 6a: Protean career attitudes among
between boundaryless attitudes and gender. This dis- Business undergraduates will vary by degree
cussion leads to: specialisation.
Hypothesis 6b: Boundaryless career attitudes among
Hypothesis 4a: Gender is not associated with protean Business undergraduates will vary by degree
career attitudes among Business undergraduates. specialisation.
12 Australian Journal of Career Development 25(1)

Method of their undergraduate degree studies, ensuring

respondents had the experience necessary to confi-
Participants dently gauge their career attitudes. The average age
Second- and third-year Business undergraduates study- of the Australian sample was 26 years; the UK sample
ing at a UK (N ¼ 88) and an Australian university 21 years and, overall, 25 years. The associated stand-
(N ¼ 284) participated in the study. Both universities ard deviations were 7.69, 2.63 and 7.09 respectively
are vocationally focused with an emphasis on quality and mean ages between the two samples differed sig-
teaching and learning at both undergraduate and post- nificantly (p ¼ .000). The Australian sample comprises
graduate levels. Although the universities are situated in a relatively high number of mature-age students,
different labour market contexts, these have similar reflecting the range of different entry pathways
labour market conditions at the time of the survey. encouraged at the university. The higher proportion
Both experienced high levels of graduate unemployment of females is a reasonable representation of student
and underemployment (Graduate Careers Australia, enrolments at both universities. In relation to discip-
2014; United Kingdom Commission for Employment line, there are considerably more Australian students
and Skills (UKCES), 2015) and economic uncertainty. specialising in the Finance and Tourism groupings,
The cross-national focus of the study may develop our counterbalanced by more specialising in Marketing
understanding of career attitudes within broader con- and completing generalist Business degrees in the
texts and the impact of demographic, background and UK. The distribution of students across employment
employment characteristics among countries with simi- status was not dissimilar for the two samples, yet dif-
lar labour market contexts. ferences were apparent for stage of degree with rela-
Table 1 summarises the characteristics for both tively more third-year students from the UK
university samples. A prerequisite for participation university. Greater numbers meeting the required
was employment within the previous 12 months or work experience prerequisite may explain the higher
completion of a work placement/internship as part response rate in Australia.

Table 1. Summary of participants by institution.

Australia (N ¼ 284) UK (N ¼ 88) Total (N ¼ 372)

Variable Subgroup N Valid % N Valid % N Valid %

Gender Male (0) 84 29.6 36 40.9 120 32.3

Female 200 70.4 52 59.1 252 67.7
Specialisation Finance/accounting (0) 87 30.6 7 8.0 94 25.3
Tourism, hospitality, recreation and events 41 14.4 0 0.0 41 11.0
Marketing, public relations and advertising 39 13.7 27 30.7 66 17.7
Human resource management 47 16.5 5 5.7 52 14.0
Generalist 27 9.5 26 29.5 53 14.2
Management 28 9.9 13 14.8 41 11.0
Other 15 5.3 10 11.4 25 6.7
Stage of degree Second year 174 61.3 18 20.5 192 1.6
Third year 110 38.7 64 72.7 174 51.6
Employment status Not working (0) 44 15.5 26 29.5 70 46.8
Working part time 164 57.7 36 40.9 200 18.8
Working full time 76 26.8 26 29.5 102 53.8
Months with employer Less than 6 months 44 17.5 11 14.9 55 5.8
Between 6 and 12 months 35 13.9 29 39.2 64 16.9
Between 1 and 2 years 53 21.1 26 35.1 79 19.7
More than 2 years 119 47.4 8 10.8 127 24.3
Size of organisation 1–49 (small) 105 42.0 19 25.7 124 39.1
50–149 (medium) 47 18.8 9 12.2 56 38.3
150 þ (large) 98 39.2 46 62.2 144 17.3
Sector Public sector 81 32.4 18 24.3 99 44.4
Private sector 149 59.6 54 73.0 203 62.7
Not-for-profit 20 8.0 2 2.7 22 6.8
Jackson and Wilton 13

specialisation and employment status. Base variables

Procedures are marked with (0) in Table 1.
Participation in the study required the completion of
an online survey. Business undergraduates were
Diagnostic analysis
invited to participate in the study through announce-
ments, in addition to direct emails, via the respective Preliminary analysis of the continuous predictor vari-
universities’ virtual learning environment. Data were able, age, indicated normality with measures of kur-
gathered over a three-month period between May and tosis and skewness within ‘normal limits’, less than 10
July 2014. The survey response rate is difficult to and 5, respectively (see Curran, West, & Finch, 1996).
gauge, given a lack of information regarding the
extent of work experience among the population.
Results
Instrument Career attitudes among undergraduates
Demographic and background characteristic Exploratory factor analysis was performed on the pro-
measures. Survey participants initially answered ques- tean and boundaryless career attitude scales using prin-
tions on the demographic, background and employ- cipal axis factoring (PAF) and direct oblimen rotation.
ment characteristics summarised in Table 1. Exploratory Factor Analysis (EFA) was used, given
the purpose of evaluating the constructive validity of
Career orientation measures. The questionnaire then established scales and ‘proving’ the proposed theory of
sought responses to questions reflecting the 27 items four dimensions (see Williams, Brown, & Onsman,
developed by Briscoe and Hall (2005) to gauge an 2012). PAF is a commonly used extraction method,
individual’s position on the continua for protean along with principal components analysis. Debate on
and boundaryless career attitudes. The Protean the selection of which method is ongoing, yet
Career Attitudes Scale, comprising 14 items, was Thompson (2004) argues there is little difference
used to measure self-directed and values-driven when measures demonstrate high reliability. Direct
career management dimensions and the oblimin rotation was used due to the expectation for
Boundaryless Career Attitude Scale, comprising 13 correlated factors.
items, was used to measure boundaryless mindset For the protean attitudes scale, a three-factor solu-
and physical mobility. Candidates were asked to indi- tion emerged, yet the scree plot indicated a two-factor
cate the extent to which the items were true for them. model was appropriate. Scree analysis was used for
A 5-point rating scale was used with a negative anchor ease and a two-factor solution was clearly visible.
of ‘to little or no extent’ (1) and positive anchor of ‘to Further analysis of how many factors to extract
a great extent’ (5). The 27-item scale has been used in using, for example, parallel analysis was not deemed
a number of more recent studies (e.g. Briscoe et al., necessary. Restriction to a two-factor solution pro-
2006; Hall, Kossek, Briscoe, Pichler, & Lee, 2013). duced the pattern matrix presented in Table 2. The
eigenvalue for the first factor, self-direction, was
4.38 and counts for 31% of the explained variance.
Statistical analysis
The eigenvalue for the second factor, values-driven,
Data were analysed in two parts. First, an explora- was 1.76 and counts for 13% of the explained vari-
tory factor analysis of the career attitude scales, ance. Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin (KMO) measure of sam-
descriptive statistics and bivariate correlations pling adequacy was .86, above the recommended
among measured variables was conducted. Second, value of 0.6 (Pallant, 2001, p. 182), and Bartlett’s
hierarchical multiple regression models were tested test of sphericity was significant (p < .001). The final
to address hypotheses relating to influences on item in the self-direction dimension – ‘In the past I
career attitudes. Analysis was conducted using have relied more on myself than others to find a new
SPSS 22.0. Prior to analysis, mean differences in job when necessary’ – was removed from the analysis
the career attitudes of Business undergraduates in due to its low factor loading. Removing it also
the UK and Australia were analysed with none increased the reliability of the self-direction dimen-
reported. Measurement and structural invariance sion. Also problematic was the values-driven item,
were also computed to ensure the equivalence of ‘What’s most important to me is how I feel about
the survey instrument and comparability for the my career success, not how other people feel about
UK and Australian samples. Factor structures were it’. This not only produced a relatively low factor
confirmed for both samples individually and the loading but there was some evidence of cross-loading
combined sample with item-factor loadings ranging onto self-direction, leading to the item being removed.
from .31 to .94 across all measured variables. Again, removing the item increased the reliability
Invariance was demonstrated and the samples com- score for the dimension. The final rotated pattern
bined. For the hierarchical analysis, dummy vari- matrix is presented in Table 3. The eigenvalue for
ables were created for gender, institution, degree the first factor, self-direction, was 4.03 and counts
14 Australian Journal of Career Development 25(1)

Table 2. Protean career attitude scales (see Briscoe et al., 2006).

Dimension Item Factor 1 Factor 2

Self-direction When development opportunities have not been offered by my company, I’ve .34 .01
sought them out on my own
I am responsible for my success or failure in my career .55 .04
Overall, I have a very independent, self-directed career .65 .02
Freedom to choose my own career path is one of my most important values .55 .06
I am in charge of my own career .77 .08
Ultimately, I depend upon myself to move my career forward .70 .09
Where my career is concerned, I am very much ‘my own person’ .62 .07
In the past I have relied more on myself than others to find a new job when .20 .15
necessary [item removed]
Values-driven I navigate my own career, based on my personal priorities, as opposed to my .25 .47
employer’s priorities
It doesn’t matter much to me how other people evaluate the choices I make in my .18 .43
career
What’s most important to me is how I feel about my career success, not how other .31 .27
people feel about it [item removed].
I’ll follow my own conscience if my company asks me to do something that goes .04 .71
against my values
What I think about what is right in my career is more important to me than what .09 .76
my company thinks
In the past I have sided with my own values when the company has asked me to do .05 .63
something I don’t agree with

for 35% of the explained variance. The eigenvalue for protean and boundaryless career attitude scales was
the second factor, values-driven, was 1.76 and counts confirmed. Here, the mean rating for self-direction
for 15% of the explained variance. The correlation was higher than for values-driven, and Briscoe and
between the two factors obtained was .433. Hall’s (2006) ‘reactive’ career profile is confirmed,
The boundaryless career attitudes produced two and the mean rating for boundaryless mindset is
clean factors (see the rotated pattern matrix in higher than physical mobility, confirming Sullivan
Table 2) in alignment with Briscoe et al.’s (2006) and Arthur’s (2006) quadrant three career profile.
development and testing of the scale. The eigenvalue
for the first factor, boundaryless mindset, was 4.56 Relationship among protean and boundaryless
and counts for 35% of the explained variance. The
career attitudes
eigenvalue for the second factor, values-driven, was
2.88 and counts for 28% of the explained variance. The pattern of significant correlations among the four
KMO measure of sampling adequacy was .86 and career attitude dimensions replicated those for under-
Bartlett’s test of sphericity was significant (p < .001). graduates in Briscoe et al.’s (2006) study and
See Table 3 for the rotated pattern matrix. The cor- Hypotheses 2 a, 2 b, 2 c, and 2 d are supported.
relation between the two obtained factors was .022. There was a positive, significant correlation between
The means, standard deviations, Cronbach alpha the self-direction and values-driven dimensions within
scores and correlations of variables are presented in protean career attitudes and the self-direction dimen-
Table 4. Discrimant validity was evidenced with vari- sion was positively correlated to the boundaryless
ables we would expect to be correlated observed as mindset dimension. Similarly, values-driven was posi-
such and the absence of correlations among variables tively correlated with boundaryless mindset. Finally,
we would not expect to be related. Results indicated the physical mobility dimension was not significantly
the students score more highly, on average, in correlated with any of the other three dimensions.
self-direction, closely followed by the boundaryless
mindset dimension. Physical mobility achieved the
Influence of individual characteristics
lowest mean rating and most variability with the high-
est recorded standard deviation. Its mean is not dis- The results of the hierarchical multiple regression
similar from the values-driven dimension and, in exploring the extent of protean and boundaryless
support of Hypotheses 1 a and 1 b, the ‘high-low’ pat- career attitudes are presented in Table 5. Two
tern among the two items that constitute each of the models were generated for each of the four
Jackson and Wilton 15

Table 3. Boundaryless and protean career attitude scales (see Briscoe et al., 2006).

Dimension Item Factor 1 Factor 2

Protean career attitudes

Self-direction When development opportunities have not been offered by my company, I’ve .332 .018
sought them out on my own
I am responsible for my success or failure in my career .542 .031
Overall, I have a very independent, self-directed career .653 .035
Freedom to choose my own career path is one of my most important values .541 .066
I am in charge of my own career .759 .062
Ultimately, I depend upon myself to move my career forward .698 .073
Where my career is concerned, I am very much ‘my own person’ .610 .081
Values-driven I navigate my own career, based on my personal priorities, as opposed to my .255 .467
employer’s priorities
It doesn’t matter much to me how other people evaluate the choices I make in .177 .396
my career
I’ll follow my own conscience if my company asks me to do something that goes .036 .705
against my values
What I think about what is right in my career is more important to me than .076 .767
what my company thinks
In the past I have sided with my own values when the company has asked me to .043 .650
do something I don’t agree with
Boundaryless career attitudes
Boundaryless mindset I seek job assignments that allow me to learn something new .46 .02
I would enjoy working on projects with people across many organizations .76 .03
I enjoy job assignments that require me to work outside of the organization .74 .10
I like tasks at work that require me to work beyond my own department 75 .01
I enjoy working with people outside of my organization .87 .03
I enjoy jobs that require me to interact with people in many different .83 .05
organizations
I have sought opportunities in the past that allow me to work outside the .55 .18
organization
I am energized in new experiences and situations .68 .02
Physical mobilitya I like the predictability that comes with working continuously for the same .02 .54
organization
I would feel very lost if I couldn’t work for my current organization .00 .72
I prefer to stay in a company I am familiar with rather than look for employment .13 .71
elsewhere
If my organization provided lifetime employment, I would never desire to seek .07 .75
work in other organizations
If my ideal career I would work for only one organization .06 .66
a
Items for physical mobility are reverse coded.

dimensions of career attitudes. Institution was entered explaining 5% of variance in the first model for this
in the first step to isolate any influence pertaining to dimension. For protean career attitudes, background
university type/location on the four dimensions. This characteristics represent significant sets of predictor
was deemed important, given that the sample com- variables for both the values-driven and self-direction
prises students from both UK and Australian univer- dimensions. Using R2, background characteristics
sities. The second step assessed the influence of explained 6% of variance for self-direction and 7%
background characteristics on each dimension. of variance for values-driven. These low variance
There was no evidence of multicollinearity, with regression models for both boundaryless and protean
Variance Inflation Factor (VIF) ranging between career are common to other studies on career attitudes
1.05 and 1.91 and, therefore, within the recommended (see, e.g. Segers et al., 2008). Background characteris-
threshold (Hair, Black, Babin, & Anderson, 2010). tics also significantly predicted both dimensions of
Institution was not a significant predictor for either boundaryless career attitudes. The standardised
dimension of protean career attitudes or boundaryless regression coefficients for individual variables are pre-
mindset. It did, however, predict physical mobility, sented in each model. For R2, they explained 6% of
16 Australian Journal of Career Development 25(1)

Table 4. Descriptive statistics and correlations (N ¼ 372).

Variable M SD a 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15

1. Age 25.15 7.09

2. Gender .02
3. Specialisation: .08 .02
Tourism
4. Specialisation: .18** .10 .16**
Marketing
5. Specialisation: .02 .08 .14** .19**
HRM
6. Specialisation: .08 .03 .14** .19** .16**
Generalist
7. Specialisation: .05 .09 .12* .16** .14** .14**
Management
8. Specialisation: .09 .14** .10 .13* .11* .11* .09
Other
9. Employment status: .21** .09 .07 .02 .00 .04 .02 .05
Working part time
10. Employment status: .20** .05 .08 .02 .08 .01 .05 .00 .66**
Working full time
11. Self-direction 4.03 .56 .78 .00 .01 .08 .10 .03 .01 .06 .04 .08 .05
12. Values-driven 3.48 .75 .78 .06 .05 .02 .10 .06 .00 .12* .01 .10* .07 .40**
13. Boundaryless mindset 4.00 .69 .88 .03 .08 .04 .08 .10 .07 .02 .03 .01 .10 .44** .20**
14. Physical mobility 3.43 .91 .81 .02 .03 .06 .14** .05 .04 .01 .02 .02 .10 .07 .01 .02
15. Institution .27** .10* .20** .19** .13* .24** .07 .10* .14** .03 .03 .09 .03 .21**
*p < .05 (two tailed); **p < .01 (two tailed).

Table 5. Hierarchical multiple regression results for protean and boundaryless career attitudes.

Protean Boundaryless

Self-direction Values-driven Boundaryless mindset Physical mobility

Model 1 Model 2 Model 1 Model 2 Model 1 Model 2 Model 1 Model 2

Step 1: Control variable

Institution .01 .02 .09 .07 .03 .00 .21** .26**
Step 2: Background characteristics
Age .04 .05 .01 .09
Gender .02 .06 .07 .02
Tourism .05 .01 .06 .01
Marketing .15* .01 .18** .08
HRM .05 .07 .17** .04
Generalist .07 .06 .17** .09
Management .08 .14* .11 .03
Other .00 .03 .06 .05
Employment status: Working part time .24** .26** .11 .15*
Employment status: Working full time .18* .21** .16* .18**

F value .05 2.06* 3.03 2.62** .435 2.157* 17.27** 3.24**

R2 .00 .06 .01 .07 .00 .06 .05 .09
Adjusted R2 .00 .03 .01 .05 .00 .03 .04 .06
R2 .06 .07 .06 .05
*p < .05. **p < .01.
Jackson and Wilton 17

variance for boundaryless mindset and 9% for phys- are considered attitudinal, they can be taught and
ical mobility. learned’ (p. 36). The findings presented here therefore
There was no evidence of an age or gender effect have the potential to inform organisations as to
for protean and boundarylesss career attitudes, sup- where to concentrate their efforts for structured
porting Hypotheses 3 a, 3 b, 4 a, and 4 b are sup- graduate development programs and/or ongoing pro-
ported. Hypothesis 3 b, that age is positively fessional development opportunities for incoming
associated with values-driven, was not supported. graduate recruits. Moreover, reflecting this viewpoint,
There was evidence for the influence of employment HEIs have a crucial role to play in shaping career
status on career attitudes with both Hypotheses 5 a predisposition, either through reinforcement or
and 5 b partially supported. There was a consistent encouraging adaptation, to be commensurate with
positive effect for those working part time or full that required for success whether in the graduate
time on both of the protean career attitude dimensions, labour market generally or in a particular occupa-
apart from full-time work on self-direction. The posi- tional or sectoral field. Consequently, the findings
tive effect was relatively stronger for protean career have important implications for curriculum and peda-
attitudes and moderately stronger for those working gogic development in higher education conducive to
part time than full time. The influence of employment the development of independent, proactive, agentic,
status was slightly less pronounced for boundaryless open-minded and self-reflective graduates.
career attitudes and, conversely, the effect was rela- Consideration should be given, however, by profes-
tively stronger for those working full time. A positive, sional and education practitioners – and stakeholders
significant effect was recorded for both full-time and more broadly – as to whether developing protean and
part-time working on physical mobility. For those boundaryless career attitudes are preferable in all
working full time, employment status had a positive students and incoming graduate recruits. Fostering
significant effect on boundaryless mindset. protean attitudes appears critical for graduates to suc-
In relation to Hypothesis 6 a, the data only par- cessfully navigate a sustainable career pathway amid
tially supported the influence of business degree spe- flat organisational structures, contract working and
cialisation on protean career attitudes. Significant soft labour markets. While boundaryless attitudes
results were recorded for the Marketing subgroup may provide more opportunities for individuals seek-
on self-direction and Management subgroup on ing career success, what does it mean for the product-
values-driven, both scoring significantly higher in ivity and efficiency of organisations already managing
relation to the base subgroup of Finance and the significant movement of graduates between jobs
Accounting. For boundaryless mindset, Hypothesis (see Abreu, Faggian, & McCann, 2015)? Perhaps
6 b was also partially supported with a positive developing elements of the four dimensions, yet still
effect for the Marketing, Generalist and Human promoting organisational career management will
Resource Management (HRM). Overall, for all vari- better meet the needs of individuals, organisations
ables, the effect sizes were fairly moderate with signifi- and the nation’s economy. Given the interrelated
cant results ranging from .14 to .26 across both nature of boundaryless and protean career attitudes,
protean and boundaryless attitudes. developing one, without the other, does not appear
feasible. It is the responsibility of stakeholders to
foster an appreciation of and opportunities for both
Discussion/implications
effective career self-management and organisational
HEIs are responsible for ensuring students are cogni- career management for emerging professionals.
sant of the challenges of the contemporary labour The correlation between self-direction and boun-
market and are sufficiently flexible and resilient in daryless mindset is not surprising. Arguably, the
their outlook to cope with both complexity and self-reliance and independent decision making
change. Given the association between career atti- denoted by high levels of ‘self-directedness’ are the
tudes and both work performance and career success, psychological foundations upon which the proactive
understanding such orientations among potential establishment of networks to facilitate career success
recruits and employees should lie at the heart of effect- are based. The relatively high scores in both dimen-
ive talent management. Understanding and develop- sions is a positive result and resonate with those of
ing orientations have implications for the ‘career previous research which suggest, at least, the intern-
proposition’ being sold to prospective employees, alisation of the rhetoric of the new career reality if not
the means and criteria by which new recruits are the adoption of commensurate career orientations
selected and how employees are managed for both (King, 2003, 2004). The finding that undergraduates
performance and retention. nearing the completion of their degree display clear
preference for self-direction and recognise the value of
networks has significance for key stakeholders in the
Career attitudes among Business undergraduates graduate labour market. For HEIs, an appreciation of
Briscoe, Henagan, Burton, and Murphy (2012) sug- dominant career attitudes among undergraduates
gest that as ‘protean and boundaryless orientations would allow for more nuanced preparation of
18 Australian Journal of Career Development 25(1)

students for graduate employment. That undergradu- transfer new skills and knowledge successfully with-
ates exhibit attitudes associated with ‘new’ careers, out culture shock (see Reid, Dahlgren, Petoczm, &
such as self-directedness and a boundaryless mindset, Dahlgren, 2008). The formation of a positive gradu-
provides an opportunity to develop associated abil- ate, or pre-professional, identity is associated with
ities in environmental scanning, independent decision career success (Purcell et al., 2013), thus it would be
making, and networking that enable the effective deficient of HEIs to fail to seek to adequately equip
enactment of such orientations. graduates with particular attitudes particularly where
For employers, the high levels of self-direction and they increasingly form ‘desirable’ criteria for appoint-
boundaryless mindset among current students may be ment to graduate roles. In regards to enhancing
concerning, given the assumption that these attitudes values-driven attitudes among undergraduates, indus-
produce diminished organisational commitment try collaboration with HEIs is critical. For instance,
among employees (see Çakmak-Otluoğlu, 2012). Work-Integrated Learning (WIL) initiatives, such as
There is, however, mixed evidence of a negative asso- internships, client-based projects, case studies and
ciation between self-direction and boundaryless mind- practicums, are important ways of exposing under-
set with organisational commitment (Briscoe & graduates to professional ideology, values and beliefs
Finkelstein, 2009), important given the link between (West & Chur-Hansen, 2004). They also offer a valu-
commitment and actual and intended labour turnover able opportunity for students to evaluate their per-
(Çakmak-Otluoğlu, 2012). To ensure both individual sonal values and reconcile them with those upheld
career success and organisational effectiveness, best in their intended profession (see Trede et al., 2012).
practice in managing individuals who demonstrate As HM Treasury (2006) notes, ‘we must begin a new
higher levels of self-direction and boundaryless mind- journey to embed a culture of learning; employer and
set should focus on cultivating an organisational cul- individual awareness must increase’ (p. 2).
ture of flexibility through practices such as job The data indicate that among undergraduates a
rotation, short-term projects and opportunities for preference for physical mobility does not correlate
virtual, internal and external networking (Clarke, with either a protean career orientation or boundary-
2009). Individuals with self-direction and boundary- less mindset. This may suggest tentativeness among
less mindset are more likely to engage in the career undergraduates at the outset of their careers, con-
development behaviours of seeking external relation- nected to inexperience and lower self-assuredness,
ships, active coping and identity awareness, even regarding the desirability and necessity of mobility.
during periods of economic downturn (Briscoe Indeed, it may be expected that mobility preferences
et al., 2012). These behaviours, to differing degrees, tend to be more conservative before the demands of a
may ultimately lead to greater well-being, better per- chosen career are fully known. It also echoes King’s
formance at work, more effective job searching and (2003) study, albeit among graduates, that despite
enhanced career success (Briscoe et al., 2012). The paying ‘lip service’ to the new career, there remains
benefits, therefore, prevail at both an individual and a preference for more traditional careers that are less
organisational level. likely to require intra-firm, intra-sectoral or geo-
The relatively low levels of values-driven attitudes graphic mobility. As such, physical mobility should
may be explained by the sample predominantly not necessarily be used as a primary proxy for either
comprising young people at the outset of career and, boundaryless or protean career attitudes among emer-
therefore, may not yet have a clear sense of their ging professionals. This finding does, however,
values in relation to work and employment. The contradict the more recent suggestion that graduates
‘high–low’ phenomenon for self-direction and demonstrate increasing job mobility, particularly
values-driven confirms Briscoe and Hall’s (2006) among the international cohort (Australian
‘reactive’ profile among undergraduates. This is of Universities International Directors’ Forum, 2013).
concern and emphasises the importance of career The high–low phenomenon for boundaryless mindset
development learning, by both universities and gradu- and physical mobility, the ‘quadrant 3’ career profile
ate employers, as students ‘would not ultimately have (Sullivan & Peter, 2006), could be problematic for
the perspective to guide his or her own career suffi- undergraduates. The profile suggests a confidence in
ciently’ (Briscoe & Hall, 2006, p. 8). The importance employability, yet this is not complemented with an
of developing the values-driven dimension draws on openness to mobility across occupations, sectors, geo-
the notion of fostering a ‘healthy self-concept’ graphical regions or organisations. As a result, stu-
(Stewart & Knowles, 1999) and ‘graduate identity’ dents could become isolated in their future job roles,
(Holmes, 2013) during university as the basis for jeopardising their ability for career growth.
effective career decision making. It suggests a clear
need for HEIs to support students in better under-
Influence of individual characteristics
standing motives, values and attitudes. Higher educa-
tion plays a vital role in socialising students in Perhaps the most notable finding with respect to the
professional philosophy (see Trede, Macklin, & influence of background characteristics on career
Bridges, 2012) and is critical for new graduates to orientation is the influence of degree specialisation.
Jackson and Wilton 19

The positive associations with boundaryless mindset suggesting further exploration in this area is required.
of the Marketing, HRM and the Generalist sub- The data do not suggest that, while malleable, these
groups, in contrast to the Finance and Accounting orientations necessarily develop with age. This might
base group, may reflect their less technical nature of be explained by the fact that while diverse in age and
their degree programs and the less specific relation- prior employment experience, respondents in our
ship between higher education and employment in sample were at the same stage in their ‘educational’
these occupations. We might speculate that the rela- career and, therefore, more likely to share common
tionship between degree subject choice and the orientations commensurate with their undergraduate
adoption of particular career orientations is mediated status, thus limiting the age effect. Gender was not
by the relationship between subject of study and found to be a significant influence on the adoption
intended career. The more ‘bounded’ or specific the of orientations. It may be that the influence of the
intended occupation, the lowered likelihood of inter- partner’s career on one’s own attitudes, detected in
nalising attitudes associated with the boundaryless previous studies (Clarke, 2009; Forett et al., 2010),
career. The more values-driven attitude among the is less apparent in this relatively young sample.
Management subgroup may be accounted for by the Individuals, along with their partners, are largely at
increasing focus on business ethics, corporate respon- the stage of entering their profession and are less
sibility and sustainability in management curriculum likely to have carer responsibilities. The potential
in recent years, as well as some internalisation of mes- influence of partners’ careers on an individual’s
sages within the employability discourse and the value career attitudes, and the moderating influence of age
in developing self-knowledge. High levels of self- and career stage, highlights an interesting area for
direction among the Marketing subgroup might be future research. In relation to variations by institu-
attributed to their enhanced participation in extracur- tion, students in the UK reported a more favourable
ricular activities – including informal internships and attitude to physical mobility than their Australian
volunteering at community events. This may be par- counterparts. This could perhaps be explained by
tially due to a greater number of opportunities avail- the widely accepted practice of undergraduates relo-
able in their field than for the Finance and cating for their studies in comparison to undergradu-
Accounting base group. These variations by degree ates in Australia who are more likely to remain in
specialisation highlight to both HEIs and employers their home cities during their studies and are therefore
that different student groups require careers support less predisposed to the notion of relocation at the time
in different ways. of the survey.
The most significant influence was found to be
between employment status and career orientation,
particularly the significantly lower scores in all four
Limitations and future research
dimensions among those not working at the time of While this study contributes to our understanding of
the survey. This may reflect the fact that ongoing career attitudes among undergraduates, a number of
work experience reinforces the adoption of particular limitations are acknowledged. In alignment with
attitudes and exposure to the realities of work and the Briscoe et al.’s (2006) study (Gerber et al., 2009), we
workplace tend to manifest in a stronger propensity do not evaluate the more traditional career orienta-
towards career orientations that are commensurate tion among respondents, in particular whether in fact
with contemporary employment. This finding high- one orientation substitutes another and in which
lights the importance of undergraduates gaining career contexts this may occur. Further, the study
work experience during their academic studies (see relies on the self-reporting of career attitudes
Reid et al., 2008). Relevant work experience – through (Douglas et al., 2012). While student perceptions
part-time employment (see Greenbank, Hepworth, & matter, an alternative approach could be objective
Mercer, 2009) or WIL activities (Cornelissen & Van assessment by career management providers in
Wyk, 2007) – can improve a student’s understanding the university setting. Further, collecting data using
and connection with their intended profession. It also one survey raises concerns with common method vari-
provides students with an insight into their chosen ance (Podsakoff, MacKenzie, Lee, & Podsakoff,
discipline or function and the antecedents of success 2003). Finally, the inclusion of additional control
within their field of activity. HEIs and employers can variables, which could tease out the employment his-
enhance work experience for undergraduates through tory of the undergraduate sample would enhance our
greater collaboration on opportunities such as cadet- understanding of the precise influence of working
ships, vacation programs and internships, as well as prior to and during one’s studies – in addition to
actively promoting part-time work opportunities WIL – on career orientations. An additional area of
through online career management portals or univer- future research would be developing our understand-
sity learning management systems. ing of the ‘types’ of protean and boundaryless pro-
Interestingly, demographic variables were not files, among undergraduates or other samples, using
found to be significantly related to differences in cluster analysis. This could provide rich insight into
orientation, despite their presence in previous studies, how the four different elements interact and align with
20 Australian Journal of Career Development 25(1)

each other and could be conducted using latent class Funding

analysis and latent profile analysis, or finite mixture The author(s) disclosed receipt of the following financial
modelling. support for the research, authorship, and/or publication
It is also important to note the potential limita- of this article: Denise Jackson was granted internal funding
tions of this research associated with the sample for this study in the form of a Faculty Strategic Grant and
under analysis. Both institutions that participated Collaborative Network funding from the Faculty of
in this study are newer HEIs in their respective mar- Business and Law, Edith Cowan University.
kets specialising in vocational or semi-vocational
education and with clear strategic focus on preparing References
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