DOI: 10.1002/hrm.

22092

ORIGINAL ARTICLE

The dynamics of diplomatic careers: The shift from traditional

to contemporary careers

Dan Hart1 | Yehuda Baruch2

1
Birmingham Business School, University of
Birmingham, Birmingham, UK Abstract
2
Southampton Business School, University of Career research has focused on the changing structures of careers, mainly in the
Southampton, Southampton, UK
private sector. Recent literature on employment patterns in the public sector sug-
Correspondence gests that career structures are evolving, gradually moving away from their signature
Yehuda Baruch, Southampton Business
traditional structures to contemporary ones. However, empirical evidence of this
School, University of Southampton,
Southampton SO17 1BJ, UK. change is scarce and inconclusive. This qualitative study examines the changes cur-
Email: [email protected]
rently unfolding in the career structure of the civil service by eliciting the experiences
and views of senior Foreign Offices (FOs) staff in four countries: 198 state ambassa-
dors from the United States, the United Kingdom, Israel, and Denmark were inter-
viewed about their career trajectories. The data were analyzed using a thematic
analysis framework. The findings revealed a gradual breakdown of the structures and
policies that support traditional careers, and the emergence of new principles and
practices that characterize contemporary careers. However, as they were captured
midway through the process of change, all FOs display a combination of traditional
and contemporary career structures at this point. The findings offer unique insights
into the drivers of this evolution and highlight some of the consequences.

KEYWORDS
ambassadors, boundaryless career, diplomats, protean career

1 | I N T RO DU CT I O N between employees and their employers (Baruch & Rousseau, 2019;

Rousseau, 1996). With multidirectional trajectories, employees are
For nearly four decades, scholarly research has described and analyzed expected to be more flexible when managing their careers as they
the changing structures of careers, mainly in the private sector (Biemann face uncertain and risky routes (Hall, 2004).
et al., 2012; Kalleberg & Mouw, 2018; Ng & McGinnis Johnson, 2020). Despite mounting research on these topics, critics of career stud-
A growing body of research suggests that traditional organization-based ies, particularly of contemporary career theories, argue that there is
career structures are gradually phasing out while contemporary models significant theoretical fragmentation and ambiguity in this field of
are becoming the norm for individual and organizational careers. inquiry (Lee et al., 2014). They further allude to conflicting findings
The traditional career system is often portrayed as limited to regarding the state of contemporary careers and their impact on orga-
working in one organization that is highly hierarchical, rigid in struc- nizations and their employees (Wiernik & Kostal, 2019). Recent stud-
ture, and linear in its progression trajectory (Arthur, 2008; Hall, 1976). ies have called for a re-examination of the scope and nature of
The progression is based on winning a series of internal competitions changes in career structures (Guan et al., 2019; Inkson et al., 2012),
within a pyramid structure, where top jobs are scarce and hence hard arguing that a significant proportion of the labor market remains tradi-
to attain (Rosenbaum, 1979). In contrast, contemporary careers and tional, particularly in the public sector (Rodrigues et al., 2016).
labor markets are often depicted as dynamic, even chaotic (Tams & Much of the extant empirical research explores the private sector,
Marshall, 2011), reflecting the changes in the psychological contract while research on career orientations, structures, and paths within the

Hum Resour Manage. 2022;61:259–276. wileyonlinelibrary.com/journal/hrm © 2021 Wiley Periodicals LLC. 259
260 HART AND BARUCH

public sector remains limited (McDonald et al., 2005). This makes it (Arthur, 2014; Arthur & Rousseau, 2001) symbolizes the transition
difficult to assess the degree to which their structures and policies from traditional to contemporary careers, driven by the breakdown of
adhere to the traditional models, and whether their perceived security multiple boundaries (organizational, geographical, social, and psycho-
and stability is reality or myth. This gap is problematic since the public logical) that supported traditional career systems. The term “protean
sector has a significant share of the labor market, at 16% in the career” (Hall, 2004) captures the changing nature of employees' view-
United States and 17% in the United Kingdom (e.g., Mayer, 2014; points on contemporary careers: “The protean career is a process
ONS, 2020), and therefore has a considerable impact on the economy. which the person, not the organization, is managing. It consists of all
Additionally, although the public sector is exposed to similar economi- the person's experiences in education, training, work in several organi-
cal, technological and social forces that have driven career changes in zations, changes in occupational field, and so on” (Hall, 1976, p. 201).
the private sector (Rose, 2013), it remains unknown whether or not Thus, the protean career construct describes the experiences of
similar changes have penetrated it. employees as they assume the responsibility for planning, managing,
With these research gaps in mind, we pose two key questions: Are enacting, and evaluating their careers (Hall, 2004).
traditional career structures in the public sector being replaced by contem- A number of contributions to career theories build on these con-
porary structures? If so, what aspects of contemporary careers are being ceptual perspectives (Arthur, 2008; Wolf, 2019), but there is no holis-
adopted in the public sector? We address these questions by exploring tic framework to explore contemporary careers that conceptually ties
changes that are currently unfolding in one of the most distinctively tradi- these models together. Consequently, there is often a disconnect
tional careers in the civil service: The Foreign Office diplomatic service. between individual's and organization's perspectives. The attempt of
In addressing these questions, we contribute to several lines of Briscoe and Hall (2006) to relate these theories did not stimulate sig-
inquiry. Within career literature, there is a lack of clarity around the nificant follow-up research. There is, however, an ongoing debate
nature and outcomes of contemporary careers, and how they com- about the validity of the boundaryless career model (Sullivan &
pare to traditional careers (Crowley-Henry et al., 2019). We contrib- Baruch, 2009; Wiernik & Kostal, 2019). While it has attracted signifi-
ute to the understanding of the changes that took place in career cant attention and support (Arthur, 2014), opponents have highlighted
structures and how these changes develop and unfold within the pub- its logical flaws and have offered contradictory findings regarding its
lic sector—a topic that has attracted only limited empirical investiga- scale and impact (Inkson et al., 2012; Rodrigues et al., 2016). The
tion. This point is of significance to HR managers who need to meaning of “boundaryless” can be multidimensional; Sullivan and
understand and address these changes, for example, in seeking to Arthur (2006) refer to both physical and psychological boundary com-
source and retain future talent for their organizations. We uncover ponents. It should be borne in mind that the term “boundaryless” is a
dimensions of careers that differ between traditional and contempo- metaphor, not a pretentious or inattentive attempt to suggest that all
rary careers, shedding light on specific aspects of career changes. career boundaries have dissolved. There exist, inter alia, professional,
Another area within career research to which we contribute is the legal, cultural, and economical boundaries. Arthur & Rousseau (2001,
study of executives who occupy the higher echelons of organizations. p. 6) also refer to the role of the individual as the lead agent, yet the
Currently, career research on this population is limited, since access to individual is one out of many career actors, and such actors interact to
them is challenging, and a significant share of this field of inquiry generate new meaning for their roles and actions in response to
focuses on demographic factors (Hambrick & Quigley, 2014). We con- changes in the system (Baruch, 2015; Baruch & Rousseau, 2019). The
tribute to this line of research by gaining an understanding on how role of individuals as career agents is prominent within both the pro-
executives perceive contemporary career structures and their impact tean and the boundaryless careers, as they pursue their aspirations
on those in leadership positions and how they manage these and seek careers that satisfy their needs rather than follow an organi-
unfolding structural career changes. We explore the changing expec- zational system that controls and manages them in a regulated man-
tations from both employees in the public sector, and the HR system ner. Individualization processes in society are reflected in the
of talent management for the higher echelons. multitudinous career routes and structures that have become the con-
By drawing on these strands of research, we also integrate career temporary career realities for most people (Reedy et al., 2016).
studies and public administration, two strands of scholarship that have Both models are relevant for the current study, as the article
traditionally been studied separately. The current article addresses focuses on the transition that is currently unfolding in the public sec-
these gaps and debates by examining the pace and degree of the tor, from traditional to contemporary career structures. These changes
changes that the diplomatic service has undergone along its trajectory strongly feature elements of the boundaryless career model, and in
from traditional career structures to the more contemporary ones, this article they are captured from the perspectives of employees,
and some of the consequences. hence exploring the protean career model: how employees experience
the new career structures and manage their new responsibilities and
challenges.
1.1 | Theoretical underpinning Another line of research that is relevant to changes in career
structures is the “psychological contract” (Levinson et al., 1962). It is
This article draws mainly from two contemporary career theories: defined as a set of “individual beliefs, shaped by the organization,
boundaryless and protean careers. The term “boundaryless career” regarding terms of an exchange agreement between individuals and
HART AND BARUCH 261

their organizations” (Rousseau, 1995, p. 9). It is therefore a key aspect suggested by Rousseau (2015) and Crowley-Henry et al. (2019), may
of the relationship between employees and their organizations which lead to a search for future leadership from non-traditional sources
conveys their mutual expectations, that are ultimately shaped by their (not in-grown but recruited from other sectors).
career structures and career progression practices (Granrose & The literature on the public sector indicates that in some coun-
Baccili, 2006). Research has documented the momentous changes tries the public sector offers more lucrative options, thus influencing
that have occurred in the psychological contract in recent decades, career choice (Ng et al., 2016). Recent work identified no differences
and the emergence of the New Psychological Contract, resulting from a between the public and private sectors on some issues such as retire-
shift toward contemporary career structures, as reviewed by Alcover ment patterns (Quinn et al., 2019). However, there are indications
et al. (2017), Cullinane and Dundon (2006), and Rousseau (1996). that those who move from the private to the public sector have higher
Contemporary psychological contracts can be multidirectional, taking prospects of promotion, despite the environmental and structural dif-
into account various factors and actors, and sometimes lead to idio- ferences between the two sectors (Bozeman & Ponomariov, 2009).
syncratic deals (Baruch & Rousseau, 2019). While it is critical for orga- This may influence individuals' motivation to opt for specific employ-
nizations to avoid breaching psychological contracts (Robinson, 1996; ment (Rashid & Rashid, 2012).
Rousseau, 1996), it may be necessary to modify these implicit mutual There is a debate over the fit and relevance of theoretical per-
expectations when the system is undergoing changes in order to spectives embedded in the boundaryless and the protean careers to
accommodate the newly emerging career structures. This study the public sector. Our study offers the opportunity to expand and
applies the psychological contract concept to demonstrate how apply these models to this context (Wiernik & Kostal, 2019).
changes that are taking place in career structures impinge on the rela- As noted earlier, only scarce research has explored transitions
tionships between organizations and their employees, and the expec- from traditional to contemporary career structures within the public
tations that each party brings to the table. sector (Askim et al., 2017; McDonald et al., 2005). In this article, we
The context of this study is also important, and we chose to focus augment this strand of research through qualitative inquiry into diplo-
on a unique type of career—the diplomatic career, often labeled as a mats' experiences and perceptions of the changes that have occurred
“global career” (McNulty & Vance, 2017)—that involves multiple expa- in recent years in their organizations' career structures.
triation cycles. In this context, individual profiles, career aspirations
and preferences combined with organizational needs, policies, and
politics determine employees' career moves. From a career perspec- 1.2 | Research questions
tive, the diplomatic career was characterized by a relatively traditional
and secure career route that involves progression through a ranking The following two research questions guided our inquiry into the
system to reach ambassadorial and leadership roles. As they ascend changing career structures of diplomatic services:
this traditional career ladder, employees typically undergo several
expatriation cycles, taking rotational positions between headquarters Research question 1: Are traditional career structures in the diplomatic
and embassies abroad (Berridge, 2010; Neumann, 2005). service sector being replaced by contemporary structures?
Plischke (1979, p. 33) defines diplomacy as Research question 2: What aspects of contemporary careers are being
adopted in the diplomatic service?
the political process by which political entities (often
States) establish and maintain official relations, direct and
indirect, with one another, in pursuing their respective 2 | METHODS
goals, objectives, interests and substantive, and proce-
dural policies in the international environment… 2.1 | Research approach

A diplomat is a person appointed by a state to help manage interna- We adopted a generic qualitative approach to study the careers of
tional relations with one state or a group of states (Berridge, 2010). senior diplomats (Percy et al., 2015). Informed by the interpretive para-
Diplomacy is often portrayed as a prestigious, high-impact profession digm, qualitative research is rooted in constructivist ontology and epis-
that requires unique interpersonal skills (particularly networking, com- temology. From a methodological perspective, in order to access the
munication, and diplomacy). It confers senior employees with signifi- mental constructions that individuals attribute to events, our data
cant responsibilities, unique legal entitlements (such as diplomatic were derived via dialogs between scholars and participants (Guba &
immunity), a luxurious lifestyle, and many opportunities to travel to, Lincoln, 1994). Such a qualitative design has proven fit for this pur-
and live in, diverse cultures (Berridge, 2010). pose (Low et al., 2016).
Given the complexity of diplomatic careers and the highly tradi- Consistent with the interpretive paradigm, we used
tional global career context, a particularly intriguing question is how semistructured interviews as a data collection tool; we relied primarily
contemporary career structures unfold within this highly traditional on participants' descriptions of and reflections on the changes that
global career context. The context is important as it can relate to the had occurred in their organizations, and their interpretations of these
wider public sector, where talent management processes, as changes. Among the reasons for choosing a qualitative methodology
262 HART AND BARUCH

is the scarcity of in-depth research into the upper echelons of the (influential vs. less influential countries, and male vs. female ambassa-
public service, particularly the case of diplomats, where ambassadorial dors) increases the ability to draw out clear distinctions across cohorts
role clearly represents this level. Another is the recommendation that and organizations, thereby offering potential for deeper insights
researchers “engage with those living the phenomenon and attempt regarding such possible differences.
to understand it from their perspective” (Corley, 2015, p. 2), particu-
larly when the investigated phenomenon is undergoing change (Gioia
et al., 2013). 2.2 | Participants

The sample of 198 ambassadors includes both recently retired (n = 119,

2.1.1 | Sampling 60%) and active diplomats (n = 79, 40%). In terms of gender, there were
more men (n = 158, 80%) than women (n = 40, 20%), reflecting typical
To explore the career paths of diplomats, we employed a purposeful gender distribution across ambassadorial roles, particularly in the past.
sampling approach. The first author conducted interviews with Indeed, Calin and Buterbaugh (2018) report that, among 603 career
198 ambassadors. We were guided by theoretical and purposeful ambassadors appointed during the period 1993–2008, 469 (77.8%) were
sampling principles (Pratt, 2009) to gain access to relevant informants male and 134 (22.2%) were female. Accordingly, among the retired inter-
who could offer in-depth understanding of the unfolding changes in viewees, there were only eight women compared with 32 in the active
their organizations. The key inclusion criterion was holding or having group, possibly reflecting policy tokenism (King et al., 2010). The respon-
held an ambassadorial position; this ensured that the interviewee had dents' age range is 38–67 years for active respondents and 67–82 years
attained a high position in the organization, providing a longitudinal for retirees (although the majority were in their early 70s).
perspective on changes that have occurred over time in their foreign All participants had served at least once as state ambassadors and
office (FO), as well as in the diplomatic profession generally. some had also held other senior positions in their respective FOs. All
The sample therefore included ambassadors from four Western participants are or were employed by their FOs for most or their
countries: the United States, the United Kingdom, Israel, and entire careers (active ambassadors had been employed for 26 years
Denmark. The aim of selecting four countries was to gain insights via on average, while for retired ambassadors this was 37 years). On aver-
international reach on career structure changes in FOs. We specifi- age, they had held between 7 and 10 positions since they began their
cally targeted two countries with strong influence over global affairs careers (three to five positions abroad and four to five positions at
(the United States and the United Kingdom), and two Western coun- home), but this also varied across countries, with Danish ambassadors
tries with much less global influence (Israel and Denmark). The sample mainly having taken positions abroad. All participants' personal details
includes only Western cultures as we wish to gain insight into changes were omitted from the presented quotes, and pseudonyms were used
in a common underlying culture. Future research may explore and to protect their identities.
compare the same for other cultures. It is important to note that the divisions between cohorts and tra-
Participants were approached through networking and referral ditional and contemporary career structures are not completely over-
sampling (snowballing), a method often used when access to partici- lapping. In the text, we use the term “retirees” to identify the group
pants is difficult (Gutierrez et al., 2010). Welch et al. (2002) note that who experienced the traditional structures in their own careers, and
gaining access to elite global career informants is a major challenge, “active ambassadors” to identify the group of younger participants
which may explain the scarcity of research into these populations. currently serving and having experienced the contemporary structures
Therefore, they advocate referral sampling as an appropriate method in their own careers. The “active ambassadors” comprises a group of
for locating and accessing such participants. younger participants who started their career within the traditional
The sample size was mainly driven by the need to reach data sat- structures and experienced career change first-hand. Importantly, in
uration in addressing the research questions. According to Fusch and the analysis that follows, both the retirees and active ambassadors
Ness (2015), saturation is reached when fresh data no longer reveal discuss and explore past and present career patterns in their organiza-
new properties of the main categories; at this point, data collection tions, so their accounts are not limited to their own experiences.
can be brought to an end. Our sample size is far greater than what is Table 1 presents the participants' profiles.
considered the norm in qualitative studies (Saunders &
Townsend, 2016). Three additional factors influenced the sample size:
(a) the need to capture data across several age brackets in order to 2.2.1 | Interview instrument
identify the career changes that have occurred over time in the minis-
tries; (b) the need to acquire sufficient cross-gender data in order to We used interviews to construct a historical perspective of the
compare participants' career patterns over time; and (c) the attempt changes in the career structures that each of the FOs has undergone
to avoid potential network-lock (narrowing of a sample to individuals through recent years. Interviews were conducted face to face and
with similar characteristics) as a result of the referral sampling process audio recorded. They were semi-structured, and each lasted between
(Atkinson & Flint, 2001). This form of sampling differs from random 1:10 and 5:20 h; some required two sessions, and most were held at
sampling; the selection of contrasted countries and participants the ambassadors' residences or their offices.
HART AND BARUCH 263

T A B L E 1 The participants' profile

Participants' profiles and countries US UK Israel Denmark All
and countries
Male, N 44 34 44 36 158
% 88.0 85.0 77.2 70.5 79.8
Female, N 6 6 13 15 40
% 12.0 15.0 22.8 29.5 20.2
Retired, N 46 28 29 16 119
% 92.0 70.0 50.9 31.4 60.1
Active, N 4 12 28 35 79
% 8.0 30.0 49.1 68.6 39.9
Total no. of participants 50 40 57 51 198

The interviews began with general questions about diplomacy, 3 | FI ND I NG S

how the profession has changed over the years, and how career
progression occurs in their organizations, and ended with personal We identified two core categories, traditional careers and contempo-
questions about their career path, their experiences in ambassado- rary careers, with several subcategories in each.
rial roles, their relocation experiences, and how they perceive the Under the traditional career category, we found the following sub-
content and impact of their work. The questions were designed to categories which represent the key characteristics of traditional
prompt participants to reflect on their interest in a diplomatic careers as perceived by respondents: (a) career longevity and stability;
career, their career progression, the benefits and challenges in their (b) linear career progression and hierarchal organizational structure;
profession, their nomination procedures, and their expectations (c) career success assessed by relative position within the organiza-
from their organizations in terms of career management (see Appen- tional hierarchy; (d) strong organizational identification and relational
dix). Much of our data draw on the interview section where the psychological contract; and (e) surplus in the system: the “on the
ambassadors were asked to reflect on how their profession has bench” position, where individuals are inactive while awaiting nomina-
changed and how career progression occurs in their organizations. tion to a new role (Neumann, 2005). The traditional career theme, its
This prompted them to reflect on past and present patterns, along sub-themes and exemplifying quotes are detailed below, and a model
with changes and events currently unfolding in their organizations that draws on these findings by representing the main themes and
and profession. their sub-themes is presented in Figure 1.
Within the contemporary career core category, we found the follow-
ing subcategories, which depict the perceived characteristic of the new
2.3 | Data analysis career structures currently emerging in the diplomatic services included
in our study: (a) boundaryless organizational features; (b) short-term
The interviews were transcribed and analyzed using thematic analysis. contracts and dynamic flows of human talent; (c) protean career fea-
This involved seeking repeated patterns of meaning in the transcripts tures, whereby employees take a leading role in their career manage-
(Braun & Clarke, 2006). We applied an inductive approach guided by ment; (d) fast career progression; (e) career success assessed by pace of
the themes emerging from the data, rather than searching for data to progression and relative position in the organizational hierarchy; (f)
confirm (or reject) pre-existing models or categories (Percy weak organizational identification and transactional psychological con-
et al., 2015). tract; and (g) less surplus in the system: more exits and less “on the
The first author coded the transcripts line by line. A third scholar bench” evident. Details of the contemporary career theme, its sub-
then repeated the process for a data sample to test for external valid- themes and exemplifying quotes are offered below. A model which
ity of the analysis and its interpretation. This involved deep engage- draws on these themes is presented in Figure 2.
ment with the data through repeated readings of the transcripts and To exemplify the changes that occurred in career structures we
note-taking. Initial codes were identified and labeled by proceeding have placed the traditional career structures and the contemporary
methodically through the transcripts and collating these codes into career structure side by side, as these featured in participants'
themes (Gioia et al., 2013). Repeating themes in the transcripts were narratives.
then merged and defined. As several overarching themes and their
sub-themes became identifiable, they were labeled accordingly. The
authors then carefully selected the themes for this article that related 3.1 | Changes in career systems: From traditional
to the changes that participants observed in their diplomatic services to contemporary career structures
over the years. Finally, the codes were arranged to bring together the
main themes and sub-themes, as depicted in Figures 1 and 2 (see The traditional career model involves making a career choice at an
details below). early age and working for a single employing organization for one's
264 HART AND BARUCH

FIGURE 1 Data analysis: Traditional

career (past)

entire working life (Rousseau, 1996). Our data suggest that this was retirement age. The average number of years of service of the retirees
indeed the common career pattern among the retirees in all four FOs; was 33 and, accordingly, they described their career journey as a
the retirees tended to join their organizations in their early 20s, imme- “career for life”:
diately after completing their undergraduate or postgraduate degrees.
The vast majority had barely any previous work experience when they Ambassador Gaon (Israel, retired, male): 20 to 30 years
joined the FOs: ago the diplomatic service was seen as a career for life, so
those who joined came in their early '20s and expected to
Ambassador Hanson (Denmark, active, male). There retire at 60- something… and this career was your entire
used to be a fixed pattern, early entry and life-long career, work-life.
that has led to ambassadorship… Candidates joined the
service immediately upon graduation from university. The benefit of this career pattern was job security and stability:

With very few exceptions, almost all the retirees worked for their Ambassador Gold (Israel, retired, male): So at least you
entire careers at the FO, and retired in their mid-60s, at the statutory know that your career is secured for life. Yes, it's not a
HART AND BARUCH 265

F I G U R E 2 Data analysis: Changes in

contemporary careers* (present).
*Changes in comparison to the traditional
system are in italics

great income, you will not get rich working here, but it's
guaranteed… and that gives you a sense of security that resulting in more dynamic flow of talent. The first sign of change is
you don't have in other careers today. that diplomatic careers are no longer considered careers for life:

Ambassador Bush (US, retired, male): In the past people

In contrast to the fairly linear and highly structured career patterns expected to have a life-long career… Today people look to
depicted by the retirees, the active ambassadors portrayed a career five or six different careers.
system that, for the past decade, has been undergoing a transition
and is beginning to exhibit some characteristics of contemporary The long-term organizational career outlook has been replaced by a
career models. The boundaryless organization model (Ashkenas shorter-term contract, and this is manifested through personal employ-
et al., 1995) suggests that entry points to and exits from the organiza- ment contracts that are being gradually introduced in some FOs (in the
tion are much more flexible than in the traditional career model, with Danish FO). In these contracts, the starting position, salary and career
a short-term employment contract becoming the norm. In line with progression are agreed upon at the outset. Furthermore, new entrants
this model, participants in all four FOs provided evidence to suggest to the FOs are likely to be in their late 20s or 30s, with higher educa-
that their organizations are gradually becoming more boundaryless, tional credentials, and often with some relevant work experience:
266 HART AND BARUCH

Ambassador Bergen (Denmark, active, male): All new Ambassador Gilman (Israel, active, male): The invest-
diplomats and ambassadors are now on personalized con- ment [in terms of training] in the diplomat is huge and
tracts, not necessarily limited by number of years, but it is then there's the experience they gained on the job—and
also not necessarily life-long. Salaries, for example, are both are lost if he leaves….
different between ambassadors.
Ambassador Ball (UK, active, female): We take people
on the merit of their competencies, …we check their 3.2 | From linear, organization-driven career to
leadership and communication skills… and someone protean non-linear, individual-driven career features
who is older is more likely to bring what we are
looking for. For the retirees, career progression followed the core characteristics
of traditional careers (Arthur, 2008; Hall, 1976), since it occurred
Some participants also reported that new entrants are ready to leave within the FO and was linear, gradual, and incremental.
early, to launch a second career: From the organization's perspective, the traditional model
requires a hierarchical structure (with several layers), which would
Ambassador Sharon (Israel, active, female): When I enable linear progression (Sullivan, 1999). Our findings revealed that
entered the MFA, we had an understanding among us all four FOs indeed adhered to such hierarchical structure which was
21 cadets that it is a career for life. However, by now both restrictive and competitive. Progression in the traditional career
a third of us have left…. People today see it as an model involves competing for internal positions and progressing
experience that they want to have—not a commitment upward in the organization's hierarchy, in accordance with employees'
for life. length of tenure and achievements (Rousseau, 1996), which entails a
Ambassador Fitzgerald (US, retired, male): Now they slow pace of progression:
enter the Service not intending to stay 20 or 30 years.
They may intend to stay 6, 8 or 10 years, achieve their Ambassador Einhorn (UK, retired, male): There used to
objectives, and then go and do something else. be a rather steady progression, where everyone floated
upward in a steady pace.
With regards to retirement, the US and Israeli FOs still impose a statu- Ambassador Fry (US, retired, male): In the past you were
tory age: for US diplomats it is 65 and for their Israeli counterparts it first appointed as ambassador in your mid-50s, having
is 67. However, UK and Danish diplomats no longer have age-related served some 20 or 25 years in the Foreign Office in vari-
restrictions on retirement: ous junior and senior positions….

Ambassador Cooper (UK, active, male): We have For the retirees, this meant that the FOs managed their careers by
recently changed the law; there is no retirement age, and inviting them to either take a particular position or to apply for one.
they can carry on to their late '60s or even '70s. Accordingly, there was an expectation that the FOs would offer them
Ambassador Newman (US, retired, male): 65 is the year a clear and relatively assured career course, which is another charac-
of compulsory retirement, no matter how well you are teristic of the psychological contract in traditional careers (Greenhaus
doing. et al., 2009; Rousseau, 1996).
Ambassador Hanson (Denmark, active, male): There is The following narrative depicts the degree to which career moves
no mandatory retirement age, but most colleagues retire were office-directed:
between the age 60 and 70. A few continue carry on past
the age of 70. Ambassador Andersen (Denmark, male, retired): I have
had a life-long career… it was the Ministry [of Foreign
These quotes suggest that the key manifestation of boundaryless Affairs] that asked me to do certain things and to go to
organizational structures is through the more flexible entries and certain places… and I have always done what I have been
exits, and more personalized career contracts, and no long-term asked to do.
commitment. From the organization's perspective, the contempo- Ambassador Gaon (Israel, male, retired): I held a second-
rary career model affords the organization more flexibility in ary position in … (a Western country) and we were there
searching for and recruiting the human capital that can support their for a very short period—barely settled in…. Then I was
competitive advantage in their particular market. As noted, this pat- sent back to head office for a training, and while training,
tern of employment is becoming prevalent in all FOs, although in the Head of the… Department approached me and asked
some more than others. me to take a position in… [a Mediterranean country]. I
However, these trends also have downsides, for example: protested… My wife didn't want to move… But the For-
departing the service earlier than retirement age means that valuable eign Office put a lot of pressure on us, and in the end I
knowledge and experience are lost: took the position.
HART AND BARUCH 267

However, as can be seen in the quotes below, these expectations are the psychological contract in traditional careers (Heslin, 2005; Spurk
currently changing (and this is noted by veterans who can compare et al., 2019). These assessments diverge from the contemporary
past and current practices and expectations) as more contemporary career model, in which career success is assessed through varied
arrangements are being introduced. means, such as one's accomplishment of organizational goals, fulfill-
ment of interests, satisfaction, earnings, work-life balance, degree of
Ambassador Kendy (UK, female, retired): Up until freedom, status, or power (Heslin, 2005; Spurk et al., 2019):
15 years ago our career was office-directed….Ambassa-
dor Ole (Denmark, female, retired): There was an under- Ambassador Abbot (US, retired, male): Promotion, more
standing that this is a life-long contract that was than money, is the objective of our diplomatic system, so
informed by the office… the higher you get, the more satisfied you are… the dream
of one day having your own embassy and going into
In contrast to these traditional career expectations and practices, the retirement being called 'Mr. Ambassador' is still one of the
contemporary career model and its associated psychological contract great incentives to people….
features rests on the philosophical tenets of individualism; people Ambassador Levin (Israel, active, male): Once you enter
choose organizations that fit their interests and values and enable the system, you are looking for progression all the time…
them to fulfill their perceived career ambitions as and when they see Naturally in our line of work the highest position is the
fit (Sullivan et al., 1998). Reflecting on this philosophy, several respon- ambassador….
dents noted that the younger entrants expect to and tend to take
greater charge of their career routes, and make career choices and As can be seen from these quotes, similar expectations for career pro-
moves at various points, in accord with their personal circumstances gression are voiced by both veteran and younger diplomats, despite
and preferences. the fact that other aspects of the psychological contract (such as
career longevity and security, responsibility for career management,
Ambassador Jensen (Denmark, active, male): The career level of investment, commitment and risk) are showing more contem-
is definitely driven by the individual these days.Ambassa- porary career expectations (Baruch & Rousseau, 2019).
dor Gardner (UK, retired, female): Now you 'run' your While this indicates that no change has occurred in participants'
own career. perceptions on this point, our data suggest that because of the typical
pyramid structure of traditional organizations, among both cohorts only
This adheres to the features of protean careers as described above a few employees were able to secure the top positions (Sullivan, 1999).
(Hall, 2004), where employees form with their organizations psycho- Therefore, the promise of linear progression did not always materialize:
logical contracts where it is mutually understood that they expect to
take charge of their own careers. Ambassador Hanson (Denmark, active, male): It is con-
Yet, as the quote below suggests, we are witnessing career sys- sidered a failure if you do not become an ambassador or
tems that are undergoing significant change, and although employees a senior diplomat, and that's the challenge in our career,
are showing some features of protean careers and their associated because we cannot all be promoted, because there are a
expectations, some respondents felt that the changes have not yet limited number of positions.
reached maturation:
Several participants made a point regarding the competition in their
Ambassador Ball (UK, active, female): On a scale of 0 to organizations:
10, where 10 is self-directed and 0 is office-directed, we
are now at 3 and we are heading toward 6; we are defi- Ambassador Berg (Israel, active, male): The competition
nitely not aiming for 10. here for internal positions is fierce, and it's very difficult…
It's the hardest aspect of this career. There are so many
intelligent and highly talented people here and… only few
3.3 | No change: Career success is assessed can get those top jobs; the rest will spend most of their
through attaining high status top positions by both careers at the bottom.
cohorts—Young cohorts are seeing faster career Ambassador Jones (UK, retired, male): There's [now] a
progression than veteran cohorts greater degree of competition from the very start
between members of the Service, which I don't think it is
Interestingly, both retired and active ambassadors noted that they a very positive development.
assessed their career success through the seniority, authority, or sta-
tus of the positions they held. Hence, for both cohorts, attaining the Throughout their career, ambassadors experience many cycles of
ambassador's position was considered the highest achievement. These expatriation and repatriation. One of the most frustrating aspects of
are considered typical criteria for career evaluation and an aspect of global careers is said to be repatriation (Baruch et al., 2016) since, for
268 HART AND BARUCH

many, “the return position is frequently a lateral move rather than a reach the peak of their career much quicker.Ambassador
promotion” (Dowling & Welch, 2004, p. 166), entailing loss of status, Lewis (US, retired, male): Colleagues spend [now] too
autonomy and income (Dickmann & Baruch, 2011). Dowling and much time on the next job, scanning the pages of the Per-
Welch (2004, p. 164) noted that “unmet expectations or unfulfilled sonnel Department posting reports, thinking how they
promises… can provoke intense feelings of betrayal and violation of can get in 10 years-time to be an Ambassador.
the psychological contract.” In line with these observations some par-
ticipants in our study had to make lateral or downward career moves, One of the key factors that has fostered faster progression rates
which they considered a career failure as well as a breach of the psy- among younger cohorts is their unwillingness to accept nominations
chological contract (Robinson, 1996): in hardship countries. In order to incentivize diplomats to serve in
such countries, some of the FOs have had to offer higher-ranking
Ambassador Rosen (Israel, active, male): The main frus- positions to those who are willing to assume these positions, thereby
tration is when you return from a mission abroad, and accelerating their pace of progression. The result of this move was the
expect to be promoted…, but then you can't, because the creation of a relatively young cohort of ambassadors. From the young
few pinnacle positions that you want are all taken… So diplomat's perspective, the motivation is clear, since they can secure a
you come back having been the ambassador somewhere top position in a very short span of time:
with all the rewards and managerial power that it entails,
and they offer you a head of project position… That's very Ambassador Eldan (Israel, active, male): … since there
frustrating and difficult to handle…. are no senior candidates for these [hardship] positions…
you have an absurd situation where relatively young dip-
While the veterans were more willing to endure these lateral or down- lomat are appointed as ambassadors.
ward career moves and the frustration that these generated, there Ambassador Whitehead (UK, active, female): …people
were some indications in our data that, due to their short-term con- who want to get faster to the top have to go to these
tacts, the younger cohorts are less willing to tolerate such career [hardship] places.
moves. They are also willing to leave if their aspirations for promotion
are not met: This is in stark contrast to the retirees for whom serving in a hardship
country was considered the usual and expected career path:
Ambassador Skov (Denmark, active, male): It is chang-
ing now… you are not guaranteed to become an ambas- Ambassador Goodheart (US, retired, male): You had to
sador. Now there is more mobility of moving in and out, be prepared to go to tough places, to serve under difficult
and I see colleagues leaving to go to the private sector conditions… at times to be target for terrorists.
and international organizations and into academia. Ambassador Gold (Israel, retired, male): In the past we
went to hardship countries, and this was part of the deal.
As noted, the literature on protean careers provides arguments that
career moves may not always lead to progress (Hall, 2004). While
some career moves may result in upward mobility, they can at times 3.4 | From strong to weak organizational
involve lateral or downward moves which, in contemporary careers, identification and from relational to transactional
are no longer perceived as failure (Lyons et al., 2012). Such moves, if psychological contract
self-directed, may be perceived positively, but if they are mandated,
as the case is with these moves, then they are unlikely to be viewed One of the distinctive features of the traditional career model is the
positively because they are not in the person's control. However, as strong identification and relational psychological contract that
seen above, the narratives of the younger participants in our study do employees have forged with their organization over the many years of
not align with these typical characteristics of contemporary careers. their employment (Rousseau, 1995). This was indeed the case among
Furthermore, contrary to our predictions, our participants senior participants who demonstrated strong organizational identifica-
witnessed faster upward career progression among the younger tion, dedication, and loyalty:
entrants to the FOs compared with earlier cohorts. They noted that
while it usually takes some 15–20 years to become an ambassador, Ambassador Amiad (Israel, retired, male): I did my job
some of the new entrants who see their engagement with the FO as a with utmost dedication and loyalty, and I think everybody
short-term career, negotiated an early ambassadorial assignment as should do it in that way…You have to be loyal to the job,
part of their contracts, and therefore were able to secure an ambassa- the country and the government….
dor's post in less than 10 years:
The psychological contract in the traditional career model entails
Ambassador Levin (Israel, active, male): The speed of employee willingness to offer long-term loyalty, diligence, and com-
progression is much faster… and therefore some people mitment in return for career stability, job security, and a fairly linear
HART AND BARUCH 269

progression trajectory (Rousseau, 1996; Solinger et al., 2008). Our meager civil service salaries, and (c) the negative impact on the career
participants' commitment and loyalty to their organizations was prospects of diplomats' spouses due to frequent relocations:
clearly manifested through their diligence and career longevity. The
participants' age, duration with the organization, and the fact that Ambassador Fulbright (US, retired, male): Today there's
most stayed to retirement both manifests and strengthens their com- lower tolerance for risk to family and children compared
mitment. Such commitment is also displayed in their willingness to to when I was a young diplomat.
endure the downsides of the job: Ambassador Murray (US, retired, male): People tend to
retire earlier because when you finish your career in the
Ambassador Gordon (Israel, retired, male): On a per- Foreign Service you are hard pressed to live a life of dig-
sonal level I took grave risks for the country.… At least nity if you don't earn some additional income….
3-4 times I was asked to go to countries with security Ambassador Gross (Israel, active, male): Today, diplo-
issues… but I had no question whether or not to go…. It mats' spouses are quite educated, with the potential to
was clear to me that those risks are worth taking for the have their own career, and they are forced to trail the dip-
country, and that the purpose is important enough for me lomats from one location to another—which is a source of
to take such risks. friction between the couple.
Ambassador Curtis (UK, retired, male): Conditions in the
In contrast to these strongly committed narratives, the literature sug- [Foreign] Service are far less generous [than before] … it
gests that the short-term, transactional career relationship with an might just allow you to provide a way [of living] that you
organization, which is considered the norm in contemporary careers, would like for your family, but only just.
results in a transactional rather than a relational psychological con-
tract, which characterizes fragile versus robust career ecosystem
(Baruch & Rousseau, 2019). People manifest low levels of obligation 3.5 | The “on the bench” phenomenon: From
toward their organization (Janssens et al., 2003) and their motives are surplus in the system to less staff “on the bench”
more personal and less pro-organization orientated:
A phenomenon related to repatriation that was observed in all four
Ambassador Hirsch (UK, retired, male): When people FOs is what has become known in the global career literature as
spot [now] an opportunity outside [The Foreign Service], “deadwood” (Veiga, 1981) or “the drying loft” (Neumann, 2005). To
they would do a secondment for up to 5 years, and will avoid derogatory wording, we use here the term “on the bench.” It
review their position toward the end of the 5 years… and describes those repatriates who return from their missions abroad but
sometimes they see that 'the grass is green on the other have not been allocated a position, and consequently remain
side' and they prefer to stay in the private sector. unassigned for several months (in some cases longer). Several authors
Ambassador Gilman (Israel, active, male): Before, when (Carette et al., 2013; Neumann, 2005) noted that these uncomfortable
you thought about the career in the Foreign Office as a “in-between” positions, are often conceptualized by employees as
'career for life' there was more 'discipline': if you were sent career plateaus, and can result in dissatisfied, bored, frustrated, and
somewhere, you went there knowing that next time you underperforming staff. Neumann (2005) noted the derogatory word-
will be sent to a better place. Today diplomats are ing used by diplomats to describe these positions.
'sprinters who run short distances'; their requirements are However, this surplus in the system does have advantages for the
for the 'here and now!' organization, that should be acknowledged. Firstly, it enables retaining
highly qualified workers. It also enables the organization some flexibil-
In this case, employees offer organizations short-term, diligent perfor- ity that otherwise cannot be achieved. For example, it allows the orga-
mance, and productivity; in return they expect to gain career experi- nization to fill positions quickly when needed, which is crucial in
ences and training tailored to enhance their future employability emergency or crisis situations, when an assignment is quickly needed,
(Rousseau, 1995, 1996; van der Heijde & van der Heijden, 2006). or in positions that cannot go vacant for a long period without creat-
Among our younger participants, there were indications of a weaker ing unmanageable back-logs or significant costs (Neumann, 2005).
organizational identity and a more transactional psychological con- The participants' accounts revealed that all four FOs have had
tract, which is manifested through lower levels of commitment to (and still have) some structural arrangements in place to deal with
their organization (Rothausen et al., 2017) and could be the result of these situations. These included having a pool of non-assigned diplo-
generational differences (Baruch & Rousseau, 2019). mats awaiting re-positioning (the United States, the United Kingdom,
Other quotes suggest that the younger ambassadors are less willing and Israel), offering returnees short-term assignments (Denmark, the
to tolerate the downsides of the job, that retirees accepted as a given. United Kingdom, and Israel), and allowing employees to take unpaid
Three factors seem to drive younger cohorts to depart the FO early: study leave (all FOs), or secondment elsewhere in the civil service (the
(a) the personal risks involved in particular positions, (b) the relatively United Kingdom, Denmark, and Israel):
270 HART AND BARUCH

Ambassador Skov (Denmark, active, male): It happens Ambassador Austin (US, retired, male): There is a policy
to ambassadors who return to headquarter and there is in the Foreign Service that if you are an ambassador and
no suitable position… they will be employed in what we you are not reassigned within a certain time… then you
call "floating positions" where they are assigned to differ- are automatically retired… but it would be extremely rare
ent tasks. that someone went for more than a year without assign-
Ambassador Dvir (Israel, active, male): It happens quite ments while actively looking for something to do.
often even to senior ambassadors… and some find them-
selves 'measuring corridors' [doing nothing] for a period of
time. Some people may be assigned to ad-hoc jobs. 4 | DI SCU SSION

Similar to Newmann's (Neumann, 2005) findings, our participants Our findings reveal the gradual breaking down of structures and poli-
seem to use negative terms to describe these positions. These cies that support traditional careers, and the emergence of new
accounts correspond to the often-voiced critique regarding traditional arrangements, guiding principles, and practices that characterize con-
careers (Inkson et al., 2012), where the rigidity of organizational struc- temporary careers. However, it should be noted that the picture
ture and long-term employment contracts may result in ineffective depicted by our findings features characteristics of both traditional
and wasteful arrangements or appointments. These are difficult to and contemporary careers; none of the FOs has yet transformed into
change as they become entrenched in the organizational culture, and, a fully-fledged contemporary model (Arthur, 2008). Retirees and older
as our data suggest, these structures indeed still exist in some form in active ambassadors perceived their careers as traditional, character-
all FOs. At the same time, our participants highlighted the flexibility ized by slow and incremental progress, and involving strong organiza-
advantage of these arrangements that enable quick assignments to tional identification and highly committed psychological contracts.
various tasks. They expected the organization to manage their careers and offer
The literature on contemporary careers suggests that flexible them clear and fairly assured career paths, although expectations of
organizational structures and short-term employment contracts are linear progression were not always met. This required organizations to
more cost-effective than traditional structures, as employees can be have highly hierarchical structures and strict procedures in place to
moved around or laid off with relative ease (Brand, 2015). A signifi- manage the internal job applications and placements.
cant question regarding the changes reported here is how they impact In contrast to the orderly career structure portrayed by the
the “on the bench” phenomenon (Veiga, 1981). As noted above, seniors, the active young ambassadors describe a much more dynamic
because exits from the diplomatic service prior to retirement age are system. Being protean-oriented, they take the initiative regarding the
now more common, one would expect this to reduce the number of planning and management of their careers. Careers are reportedly no
unassigned people to a position upon repatriating, as they may choose longer for life, and young entrants may join the FOs at a later age and
to leave. Our data did reveal that “sitting on the bench” is now less initiate earlier exits. Their shorter-term, transactional relationships
common, and time-restricted. Diplomats are now expected to find a with their organizations have led to less strong organizational identifi-
position at the FO head office by “bidding” for an internal position cation and less committed psychological contracts; employees are
while stationed abroad, prior to their repatriation: willing to offer the organization short-term, diligent performance, but
are unwilling to bear the downsides of the job unless they are offered
Ambassador Kennedy (UK, active, female): Initially you faster progression in return. Accordingly, career setbacks, such as lat-
will try to bid for a job while you are still abroad, and if eral or downward moves, are deemed a failure and a breach of the
not successful, you will try to bid again while you are back psychological contract and may lead to early exits. The need to adjust
in London. And if you haven't got it, then we have a sys- and adapt mutual expectations for resource investment by both sides
tem called 'the corporate pool' that you will belong to, has already been discussed in the past (Tsui et al., 1992). FOs, there-
and you will be assigned to temporary jobs while trying to fore, no longer strictly manage their employees' careers, but rather are
bid for another permanent assignment…. expected to offer them choices over routes to professional develop-
ment and progression that will fit their career aspirations. Career man-
This is a far more individual-oriented, proactive approach than in agement has, therefore, unofficially become a risk-management
other public organizations (Seibert et al., 2001). Consequently, the process since FOs may lose their investment in employees' training if
structures in place that enable staff to “sit on the bench” until they exit early. On the other hand, the combination of boundaryless
the next assignment is offered are less often utilized. Also, in the careers and high demand for diplomatic careers enables FOs to recruit
United States, these arrangements are time-limited, and a continued talent with much higher credentials and relevant work experience
refusal to assume available positions (which may involve a lateral or than before. Hence, they can potentially achieve a better match
downward career move) may place the employee's job at risk. Thus, between employees and positions based on employees' track record,
the contemporary career patterns seem to have caused some reduc- using less targeted training. The traditional system enables good
tion in the “on the bench” phenomenon by reducing the number of person-organization fit, as it relies on long-term “in-house” training,
diplomats awaiting assignment: development and monitoring along their career progress. Yet, relying
HART AND BARUCH 271

solely on that system means missing on potential external talent that One phenomenon examined in some detail as a means of explor-
would not have access to the system. ing the consequences of these changes was the “on the bench” expe-
In our cross-country comparison, we were surprised to discover rience (Daraei et al., 2015). The FOs do not apply an “up-or-out”
similarities in practices and changes reported by participants. This system. Having a period “on the bench” does not impede one's capac-
could be explained by the strength of formal and informal networks in ity to remain with their organization or to find a different and more
the international diplomatic community (Hafner-Burton et al., 2009), suitable role within the public sector (Ghosh & Waldman, 2010). Our
through which news of FO changes is quickly disseminated globally, findings around this point offer an indication that the relatively flexi-
resulting in the gradual convergence of HRM-policy on career prac- ble organizational structures and shorter employment contracts of the
tices (Bagdadli & Gianecchini, 2019). contemporary career model are seen as more cost-effective;
Similarly, in comparing males and females, only a few differences employees can be moved around or laid off with relative ease, thereby
were found in how they perceived the currently unfolding changes in reducing the prevalence of staff that are “on the bench” awaiting
their respective FOs. However, in discussing their own career trajec- deployment. However, we also found that those procedures for deal-
tories, both veteran and newly recruited women perceived diplomacy ing with unassigned returnees remain in place, hence offering the
as a male-dominated profession, highlighting the challenges they face capacity to assign people quickly to positions when needed.
in competing for senior positions. They also noted the challenges they We should note here that no data are available to us on the pro-
faced in career paths that require frequent moves abroad as a requi- file of employees who have left the FOs. As a result, we cannot iden-
site to progress. At times, these challenges stemmed from their family tify whether it occurred as a function of the FOs not having an
situations rather than from their organizations. Instances cited include assignment waiting for their repatriating diplomats, or a function of
husbands' career aspirations or moves, pregnancies and childbirth tim- the diplomats themselves not being proactive in pursuing opportuni-
ings, children's health or educational needs, and elderly parent care. ties. The onus of responsibility is therefore unclear, though it is likely
These all featured much more strongly in their accounts compared to be a combination of both.
with the accounts of the men. Some were articulated as reasons for
not competing for particular positions.
Interestingly, it seems that, among the retirees, spouses were 4.2 | Unexpected findings
more willing to sacrifice their careers to support their partners'
careers. As seen above, the retirees noted that while this was a signifi- An interesting and unexpected point that emerged from the data per-
cant sacrifice, at least their own careers were secured for life. How- tains to the questions: What drives the changes currently unfolding in FOs?
ever, among the younger cohorts, whose careers are no longer Are these changes triggered by protean career-driven employees, or insti-
secured for life, both genders find it more difficult to disrupt their gated by boundaryless career-driven environments? Our findings suggest
spouses' careers. As seen, their unwillingness to bear the downsides that the protean career characteristics of self-direction, the ability to
of the job has led to faster career progression as well as early exits. change, and the will to explore alternative career paths that employees
may bring to the FO seem to form a significant driving force behind the
changes that have led FOs to become more boundaryless (see Sullivan &
4.1 | Addressing the research questions Arthur, 2006). Organizational career planning and management are
changing, adapting to the contemporary career orientations that younger
Our main research question referred to the changes occurring in employees endorse. Early cohorts who have entered the FOs with more
career structures and processes in the public sector, in the context of traditional concepts and expectations need to be able to adapt their
the diplomatic service. The career of a growing number of ambassa- career orientations to the new ideas and structures that are gradually
dors began in non-governmental sectors and involved several moves, becoming the norm in their organizations (Schoar & Zuo, 2017).
even across disciplines, in line with contemporary career trends The case of the quick progression exemplifies this situation: Peo-
(Bozeman & Ponomariov, 2009; Chetkovich, 2003). Such moves are ple who are recruited at a later age, with higher levels of education
not always easy due to potential cross-sectorial differences, and can and previous work experience, expect to progress rapidly in the rank-
also be risky (Su & Bozeman, 2009). Our findings suggest that the ing system, particularly since they consider the FO career as only one
expected trajectories of FO career structures are becoming more con- among several that they may embark on throughout their working life.
temporary, leaving behind old norms and behaviors (Foroughi & Hence, entrants are less committed and less willing to assume posi-
Al-Amoudi, 2020). However, this is a gradual process, and currently, tions in hardship locations, and are less willing to tolerate other down-
all FOs still feature a mix of traditional and contemporary career struc- sides of the job, seen by earlier cohorts as a given. Since FOs find it
ture characteristics. Certain characteristics and practices of global difficult to fill such positions, they are incentivized to offer young dip-
careers—such as length of time stationed abroad, movement from lomats quick promotions to ambassadorial positions, in return for ser-
peripheral to central countries as one's career progresses, assignment vice in hardship locations. As a result, the pace of progress among
of senior diplomats to key countries, and assurance of employment to new recruits is faster than it was traditionally, and employees can
returnees—seem to retain some of the traditional career scripts reach the top—namely, to become ambassadors—earlier than was pos-
(Cappellen & Janssens, 2010). sible in the past.
272 HART AND BARUCH

4.3 | Theoretical contribution careers in the diplomatic services is now shared between the institu-
tion and employees, with individuals taking greater initiative and con-
Our analysis addresses a gap in the literature regarding the state of trol than they used to (Hall, 2004). This strongly indicates that the
career systems in the public sector. The study offers a vivid depiction changes from traditional to contemporary career systems that have
of contemporary career systems in four diplomatic services, through been occurring in the private sector for nearly four decades are
the lens of diplomats' individual experience and perception. Through indeed beginning to emerge in the public sector.
this analysis we contribute to career theory by identifying the ways in This study also contributes to the comprehension of the connec-
which careers are becoming boundaryless, and by providing evidence tion between the boundaryless and protean concepts (Arthur, 2008;
for the validity of the boundaryless model (Arthur, 2014). Our findings Lee et al., 2014). While the current literature tends to juxtapose these
suggest that FOs' career systems are becoming more dynamic, less theoretical models, it does not explain the relationship between them
predictable, and less rigid, in line with the boundaryless career model (Wiernik & Kostal, 2019). Based on our findings, we propose that the
(Arthur, 2014), although not yet fully boundaryless in nature (Inkson boundaryless and protean career models are not only complementary,
et al., 2012). The aggregate dimensions identified by our data clearly but also mutually reinforcing through what we term “a cyclical rela-
indicate a shift from a traditional to a contemporary career system. tionship”: The protean career orientation that employees may hold
The debate about whether the so-called “New Careers” reflect reality seems to be the motivating force behind the changes that propel FOs
or is utopic idea still exist, but we suggest that the truth is somewhere to become more boundaryless across the various dimensions of
along a continuum where very traditional career systems and very boundarylessness. This particularly applies to the psychological rather
dynamic and turbulent systems co-exist. We identified a shift from than the physical aspects (Sullivan & Arthur, 2006).
the past dominant system to a contemporary system, with clear dis- Another instance of boundary-crossing rarely highlighted is
tinction between the two (as presented in Figures 1 and 2). The find- movement across sectors, as most studies on boundaryless careers
ings should help the field realize where we stand, and conclude that refer to organizational boundaries. We expand the investigation of
the debate of “all change” versus “no change” is a theoretical dichot- boundary-crossing to include this dimension. Cross-sectoral moves
omy, whereas reality is about a continuum of change. that were not an option in traditional FO careers have become feasi-
We identified how different subsystems in the wider career eco- ble, and it is easier for individuals to move into ambassadorial roles
system interact and create more opportunities for boundary-crossing even when joining the FO from another sector, whether public or pri-
that were unavailable in the past. The findings illustrate how the vate. That is, the move from traditional to contemporary careers in
changes in careers are manifested within the public sector, in line with the diplomatic services seems to have taken a bottom-up trajectory.
the boundaryless career theory and the career ecosystem theory. The changes to the FO career system encourage people with a pro-
The traditional career system was characterized by: (a) job secu- tean career orientation to follow their chosen path, which in the past
rity; (b) career progression based on personal initiative in a restricted was suppressed. It has also become more open for more protean-
opportunities structure; (c) strong organizational identification; but oriented individuals to join the system. In a cyclical manner, being
(d) involves having surplus in the system to maintain job security. The populated with more protean-oriented individuals, the system accepts
shift is reflected in a new system, characterized by (a) short-term per- new behavioral values and norms which include crossing boundaries
spective job insecurity; (b) career progression based on personal initia- that were not permeable previously. Further, the contemporary
tive in a dynamic opportunity structure; (c) weaker organizational instrumental perspective of careers suggests that individuals with a
identification; and (d) less surplus in the system. These finding lend protean career orientation will flourish in the boundaryless career
support to the expansion of contemporary careers (Sullivan & environment (Arthur, 2008). Our findings confirm that this is indeed
Baruch, 2009) from the private to the public sector. the case: new entrants to the diplomatic services are benefitting from
We also address recent critique of the boundaryless career con- more rapid progression that was not available to more senior partici-
cept regarding its relevance and applicability (Inkson et al., 2012; pants within the traditional career model. We suggest that individuals
Rodrigues & Guest, 2010). Our findings demonstrate that the bound- with a protean career orientation will be better able to fulfill their
aryless model is applicable to the FO case, and is useful for conceptu- career aspirations and planned trajectories in a boundaryless career
alizing the changes currently unfolding in the public sector. Typical environment. In turn, career systems will be less bounded when indi-
changes, such as the emergence of opportunities to transfer into a viduals' career orientations like the protean type are accepted and
diplomatic career at later career stages, transfer from other disciplines, encouraged. The global landscape for our study means that the find-
early exit, and remaining beyond retirement age, represent career ings also demonstrate how this cyclical relationship operates in the
boundary-crossing. context of global careers (Baruch et al., 2016).
Our evidence also suggests that employees increasingly tend to These changing career structures are also reflected in the evolv-
hold a protean career orientation and are ready to take their destiny ing nature of the psychological contract, which has had to be adapted.
into their own hands, try different options, and no longer abide by The new FOs' psychological contracts seem to be shorter-term and
past norms. People are open to starting a second career after early more transactional, hence resulting in lower mutual commitment,
departure, and do benefit from this, as is evident in different sectors weaker employee identification with their organization, and lower
(Anderson, 2015). Our findings also reveal that the management of willingness to take risks and make sacrifices, compared with the
HART AND BARUCH 273

traditional model of the past. The challenge for the FO career system control and knowledge, and particularly the prospect of losing promis-
is how to avoid a fragile and non-sustainable career ecosystem while ing future executives. The advantage is the ability to acquire external
aiming to benefit from refreshing and diversifying the ways careers talent, while releasing those who would otherwise end up “on the
fulfill people in the sector (Baruch, 2015; Baruch & Rousseau, 2019). bench.” This forms part of the revised psychological contract within
Beyond career theory and organizational psychology, the findings traditional organizational systems.
are also relevant to the sociology of occupations, where professions At the individual level, in the past, to become an ambassador, one
previously considered bounded by silos become open to transitions had to endure rigid prescribed pathways (as a cadet, with slow pro-
(Adams, 2015). Such transitions can involve moves from the external gress within an office); in contrast, millennials and later generations
labor market to specific FO positions, and even into high-level roles will have more options for their future. Our study shows that the sys-
(Koch et al., 2017), and similarly, they can involve lateral moves from tem can appreciate diverse potential talent and contributions and can
the diplomat service into other organizations within the public allow different entry points to the pathways leading to top positions.
service. Last, regarding diversity, despite the need for so-called “symbolic
representation” (Riccucci & Van Ryzin, 2017), there were very few
female ambassadors. This calls for improved representation of our
4.4 | Managerial implications diverse populations. Whereas in the past female ambassadors were a
rarity, the move to equality may involve “token appointments” in the
Moving to a more boundaryless system where protean careers can first instance, and then wider gender representation in these roles
flourish reduces the “on the bench” phenomenon but increases the over time. This may lead to a change in the way females approach this
chances of redundancy. The message for individuals in the public sec- career and the strategies they apply (Bowles et al., 2019). Our sample
tor, particularly in the diplomatic service, is to take charge of their had few females, but the situation is changing across the board, not
career management and not assign responsibility entirely to Human merely in FOs (Calin & Buterbaugh, 2018). These lessons, both the rel-
Resources. This would also help improve managerial effectiveness, evance of opening the system to different sources of talent, and the
which is vital in the public sector (Cohen, 1998), as it allows for more use of greater agility in the management of careers, as well as improv-
freedom in managerial decisions relating to flow of talent in and out ing diversity at the higher echelons within organizations, is relevant
of the organization (Dries, 2013). While the FO may be a distinct sec- not merely for FOs but for the whole public sector.
tor, careers and their management share many similarities with other
segments of the public sector; for example, when senior military per-
sonnel transition to a civilian career (Baruch & Quick, 2007). This 4.5 | Limitations and recommendations for future
means that although changing psychological contract is not simple research
and not a short-term fix, in the long term the service will continue
with the restructuring of the psychological contract with its The study was conducted in one domain (FOs) of a single sector (the
employees, including those in top positions. Like many institutions, public sector). We interviewed leaders, although adding HR managers'
individualization has to be acknowledged in traditional organizations perspectives might complement our data. Also, all the represented
(Bernstein, 2006). countries are from the Organization for Economic Co-operation and
Our study offers Human Resource managers an outlook of cur- Development (OECD). Future studies may usefully focus on other sec-
rent career trajectories. The message to Human Resource managers tions of the public sector and in other countries—in particular, non-
and to other decision makers within the diplomatic services is to revi- OECD countries. Another limitation lies in our choice of methodology,
talize psychological contracts to fit a more dynamic system, and to which was qualitative and examined the outcomes of changes; how-
offer broader training programs. Talent management is critical for sus- ever, we are yet to understand exactly how and why these changes
tainable people management systems. Idiosyncratic-deals (individual took place. Complementary quantitative studies would help validate
tailored arrangements—Rousseau, 2015) that offer non-traditional our findings. The challenges in undertaking quantitative data collec-
career paths are a way forward in many sectors, including the public tion from such a high-level group include gaining access to partici-
sector. There is a much greater supply of talent to draw upon, and this pants and typical poor response rates.
expands opportunities to refresh the ranks. In the long term, this will
produce a better talent pool from which to draw upon for succession
planning. Well-formulated policies should be in place to manage the 5 | CONC LU SIONS
process of expatriation and repatriation, and offer long-term career
planning (Baruch et al., 2016). This article examines career changes unfolding in one of the icons of
There is also further need for “risk management” to maintain and traditional civil service—the diplomatic service. We evaluate the degree
nourish the talent pool. Risk management is a critical factor for the to which changes are taking place, and explain the dynamics involved
future of HRM (Becker & Smidt, 2016) and should be applied to in the transition from traditional to contemporary careers. We have
career management too. When people adopt a protean career orienta- benefitted from an exceptional dataset, gaining access to an elite
tion within a boundaryless system, the risk for employers is loss of group that has hardly been studied before.
274 HART AND BARUCH

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APPENDIX
research. International Business Review, 11, 611–268.
Wiernik, B. M., & Kostal, J. W. (2019). Protean and boundaryless career
orientations: A critical review and meta-analysis. Journal of Counseling The interview protocol
Psychology, 66, 280–307. 1. What is diplomacy in your view?
Wolf, C. (2019). Not lost in translation, managerial career narratives and
2. What changes have you witnessed over the years in diplomacy
the construction of protean identities. Human Relations, 72, 505–533.
and the Ministry of Foreign Affairs?
3. In your opinion, what qualities and skills are required in order to
AUTHOR BIOGRAPHI ES perform the ambassadorial role?
4. Can you tell me about the career path that led you to your cur-
rent job?
Dan Hart (PhD Birmingham University) is a researcher, social
5. What training or formal education have you had over the years in
entrepreneur and a businessman. Soon after graduation as
preparation to become an ambassador?
Mechanical Engineer (MSc) he founded and managed for 15 years
6. How was the expatriation experience for you and your family?
a software company specializing in engineering applications for
What have you and your family found easy or difficult?
the water industry. In 2004 he developed, and later implemented
7. How do you see your work? How important is it for you? Why?
an urban renewal model aimed at improving the living conditions
8. What do you like about your career, and what do you (and your
in underprivileged neighborhoods. In 2010 he embarked on a PhD
family) dislike about it? Why?
looking into the career perceptions and experiences of State
9. What were the highlights of your career?
Ambassadors. Since then, he has been an adjunct scholar at
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