White Paper Fundamentals of Orifice Meter Measurement en 188730
White Paper Fundamentals of Orifice Meter Measurement en 188730
White Paper Fundamentals of Orifice Meter Measurement en 188730
This white paper provides an overview of orifice meter technology, its advantages and general installation
recommendations, as well as describes basic gas flow laws and the variables of orifice meter flow equations.
White Paper
February 2017 - Page 2 Fundamentals of Orifice Meter Measurement
Table of Content
1 Overview 3
2 Overview of Orifice Meter Technology 5
3 How an Orifice Meter Works 5
4 History of Orifice Flow Measurement 6
5 Gas Law Fundamentals 6
6 Orifice Gas Flow Equation 7
7 Critical Flow 10
8 Major Advantage of Orifice Meter Measurement 10
9 The Three “R’s” 11
10 The Orifice Plate 12
11 Meter Tap Location 15
12 Primary Element Orifice Flanges 16
13 Dual-Chamber Orifice Fitting 16
14 Single-Chamber Orifice Fittings 16
15 Meter Tubes 16
16 Visual Manometers 17
17 Differential Pressure (DP) Cells 17
18 Daniel Senior Orifice Fitting 18
™
List of Figures
1. Overview
Fluid meters are divided into two functional groups: one measures quantity
(positive displacement) and the other measures rate of flow (inferential). All fluid
meters consist of two distinct parts, each of which has a different function to
perform. The first part is the primary element which is in contact with the fluid,
resulting in some form of interaction. This interaction may be that of imparting
motion to the primary element (i.e. the fluid may be accelerated, etc.). The
second part is the secondary element that translates the interaction between the
fluid and primary element into a signal that can be converted into volume, weight
or rate of flow. The device then indicates or records the results.
With an orifice meter, the orifice together with the adjacent part of the pipe
and the pressure connections constitute the primary element. The secondary
element consists of a differential pressure device together with a mechanism
that translates the pressure difference into a rate of flow and indicates the result.
In some cases, the device also records the result graphically and integrates the
data with respect to time. This combination of primary and secondary elements
is typical in most types of fluid meters, including:
0.90
Orifice with
Flange Taps
0.80
% Permanent Pressure Loss
0.70
0.60
Flow Nozzle
0.50
0.40
0.30
0.10
Lo-Loss Tubes
0
0 0.10 0.20 0.30 0.40 0.50 0.60 0.70 0.80 0.90 1.00
Due to the ease of duplication and the simple construction, the thin, sharp-edged
orifice has been adopted as a measurement standard. Extensive calibration
work has also been performed on the device, making it widely accepted as
a standard means for measuring fluids. Provided the standard mechanics of
construction are followed, no calibration is required. An orifice installed in a
pipeline along with a manometer for measuring the drop in pressure (differential)
as the fluid passes through the orifice is shown in Figure 2. The minimum
cross-sectional area of the jet immediately after the orifice is known as the “vena
contracta.”
P2 P3
P1
Permanent
Pressure Loss
Differential P (P1 - P3)
(P1 - P2)
The pressure decrease as fluid passes through the orifice is due to the
increased velocity of the natural gas passing through the reduced area of the
orifice. When the velocity decreases as the fluid leaves the orifice, the pressure
increases and tends to return to its original level. The pressure loss is not fully
recovered due to loss of friction and turbulence in the stream. The pressure drop
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February 2017 - Page 6 Fundamentals of Orifice Meter Measurement
across the orifice (Figure 2) increases when the rate of flow increases. When
there is no flow, there is no differential pressure. The differential pressure is
proportional to the square root of the velocity. Therefore, it follows that if all other
factors remain constant the differential is proportional to the square root of the
flow rate.
From 1924 to 1935, a significant amount of research and experimental work was
conducted by the American Gas Association (AGA) and the American Society of
Mechanical Engineers (ASME) that resulted in the development of orifice meter
coefficients and standards of construction for orifice meters. In 1935, a joint
AGA-ASME report was issued, “History of Orifice Meters and The Calibration,
Construction, and Operation of Orifices for Metering” that remains as the basis
for most present day orifice meter measurement installations. In early 1991, the
American Petroleum Institute (API) issued an updated version of this standard
based on new data titled, “Manual of Petroleum Measurement Standards,
Chapter 14, Section 3, Parts 1-4.” Several additional publications are available
to simplify measurement by orifice meters, including “ASME Fluid Meters 6
th
Edition, ASME Power Test Code, Chapter 4 on Flow Measurement” and The
Flow Measurement Engineering Handbook by R.W. Miller.
Boyle’s Law states that in an ideal gas the volume is inversely proportional to
the absolute pressure. If a cylinder has a volume of gas at an absolute pressure
of 14.7 psi and a piston was to displace the volume in the cylinder until the
pressure doubled, the cylinder would contain half of its original volume.
Charles’ Law states that the volume of an ideal gas is directly proportional to
the absolute temperature. If a cylinder has a volume of gas at +16°C (+60°F) or
+514.67°R and a piston was used to displace the volume in order to maintain
a constant pressure while the absolute temperature was doubled to +304°C
(+580°F) or +1039.67°R, the cylinder would then contain twice its original
volume.
The combined ideal Boyle’s and Charles’ Law is commonly written in the form of
the equation:
Where:
P = Pressure at condition 1 or 2
V = Volume at condition 1 or 2
T = Temperature at condition 1 or 2
1 = Flowing conditions
2 = Base conditions
Where
Cd = Orifice plate coefficient of discharge
d = Orifice plate bore diameter calculated at flowing temperature (Tf) (mm or
inches)
Gr = Real gas relative density (specify gravity)
hw = Differential pressure (kPa or inches of water at +60°F)
E = Velocity of approach factor
Pb = Base pressure (bara or psia)
Pf1 = Flowing pressure (upstream tap) (bara or psia)
3
Qv = Standard volume flow rate (Nm /hr or SCF/hr)
Tb = Base temperature (°R)
Tf = Flowing temperature (°R)
Y2 = Expansion factor (downstream tap)
Zb = Compressibility at base conditions (Pb, Tb)
Zf1 = Compressibility (upstream flowing conditions - Pf1, Tf)
Where
d is the plate bore in mm (inches)
D is the pipe I.D. in mm (inches)
7. Critical Flow
The gas flow equation applies to subsonic flow only. Sonic or critical flow
occurs when the velocity of the gas or vapor reaches the speed of sound
(approximately 1200 kph, or 700 mph in air). A gas cannot travel any faster
and remain in the same state. A guideline to approximate when critical gas flow
is reached is when the downstream pipe tap registers an absolute pressure of
approximately 50% or less than the upstream pipe tap.
With the exception of the orifice meter, almost all flow meters require fluid flow
calibration at flow and temperature conditions closely approximating of those
when the meter will be in service in order to establish accuracy. Orifice meters
do not require direct fluid flow calibration and offer the advantages of being
simple to operate, rugged, widely accepted, reliable and relatively inexpensive
with no moving parts.
9.2 Rangeability
Rangeability, also referred to as turndown, is the ratio of maximum flow to
minimum flow throughout which a stated accuracy is maintained. For example,
if an orifice meter installation is said to be accurate to ±1% from 16,990 to
5,663 m³/hour (600,000 to 200,000 SCFH), the rangeability would be 3:1.
9.3 Repeatability
Repeatability is the ability of a flow meter to indicate the same readings
each time the same flow conditions exist. These readings may or may not be
accurate but will repeat. This capability is important when a flow meter is used
for flow control.
ntal Eccentric Quart Round
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February 2017 - Page 12 Fundamentals of Orifice Meter Measurement
Pipe
ID
specified by purchaser
10.2 Eccentric Orifice Plate B
The eccentric orifice plate has a round opening (bore) tangent to the inside
wall of the pipe. This type of plate is most commonly used to measure fluids
Pipe Pipe
ID ID
Hole diameter
Pipe Pipe
(see chart) ID ID
Bore diameter to be
specified by purchaser
B
ore diameter to be
ecified by purchaser
Pipe Pipe
ID ID
Pipe
ID
diameter to be
fied by purchaser
B
Pipe Taps
Flange Taps
Corner Taps
Radius Taps
Vena Contracta Taps
The lower chamber of the dual-chamber fitting holds the orifice plate in the
fluid flow. The lower chamber is bolted to an upper chamber. Separating
the two chambers is a slide valve that is operated (i.e. opened and closed)
with a gear shaft. By opening the slide valve, the plate carrier and orifice
plate are elevated into the top chamber. Once the slide valve is closed again
and pressure bled from the top chamber, the plate carrier and plate can be
removed.
of pipe are known as meter tubes, meter runs, flow sections and/or meter
sections. However, the most generally accepted terminology is meter tubes.
Tests have proven that the length and condition of the pipe used in meter
tubes has a significant impact on the overall accuracy of the measurement.
The proper manufacture of orifice meters and orifice fittings is critical.
conditions for metering accuracy and ease-of-use. It meets all AGA 3/API 14.3
recommendations for sizes and tolerances, pressure ratings and tap locations.
The dual-chamber design permits the orifice plate to be removed from
pressurized lines safely and quickly, resulting in considerable savings. Regular
inspection and replacement of orifice plates results in higher accuracy. The
Senior fitting is available from 50mm to 1200mm (2-inch to 48-inch) line sizes
and pressure ratings up to ANSI Class 2500.
solution. This single-chamber fitting has all of the qualities of the Senior fitting
with the exception of offering plate removal under pressure. An operating
shaft is provided to raise the plate carrier. The Junior fitting is designed for
large volume meter stations and saves valuable time with no labor required to
break apart large orifice flanges. To ensure compliance, all Junior fittings are
manufactured to AGA 3/API 14.3 recommendations.
Two types of end connections (i.e. body styles) are available and all Simplex
holders are made to AGA 3/API 14.3 recommendations. Pressure ratings are
available up to ANSI Class 2500.
Orifice fittings and orifice flanges are available with a wide variety of end
connections and extra care is taken to ensure against steps or offsets in the
line bore between the tube and fitting.
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