SLAC-PUB-10973

January 2005

Synchrotron and Simulations Techniques Applied to

Problems in Materials Science: Catalysts and Azul Maya
Pigments
Russell R. Chianelli1*, Myriam Perez De la Rosa1, George Meitzner1,
Mohammed Siadati1, Gilles Berhault2, Miguel José Yácaman3,
Apurva Mehta4, John Pople4, Sergio Fuentes5, Gabriel Alonzo6 and
Lori A. Polette1.
1
M.R.T.I., University of Texas at El Paso, El Paso, Texas. 2LACCO-CNRS, Poitiers,
France. 3Department of Chemical Engineering, University of Texas at Austin, Austin,
Texas. 4SSRL, Stanford, California. 5Centro de Ciencias de la Materia Condensada,
Ensenada, B.C., México.6CIMAV, Chihuahua, Chihauhua, México. * E-mail –
[email protected]

Development of synchrotron techniques for the determination of the structure of

disordered, amorphous and surface materials has exploded over the past twenty years

due to the increasing availability of high flux synchrotron radiation and the

continuing development of increasingly powerful synchrotron techniques. These

techniques are available to materials scientists who are not necessarily synchrotron

scientists through interaction with effective user communities that exist at

synchrotrons such as the Stanford Synchrotron Radiation Laboratory (SSRL). In this

article we review the application of multiple synchrotron characterization techniques

to two classes of materials defined as “surface compounds.” One class of surface

compounds are materials like MoS2-xCx that are widely used petroleum catalysts used

to improve the environmental properties of transportation fuels. These compounds

may be viewed as “sulfide supported carbides” in their catalytically active states. The

second class of “surface compounds” is the “Maya Blue” pigments that are based on

technology created by the ancient Maya. These compounds are organic/inorganic

Work supported in part by the Department of Energy contract DE-AC02-76SF00515

SSRL, SLAC, Stanford University, Stanford, California 94309
“surface complexes” consisting of the dye indigo and palygorskite, a common clay.

The identification of both surface compounds relies on the application of synchrotron

techniques as described in this report.

Keywords: XAFS, WAXS, SAXS, XANES, Catalysts, Maya Blue.

1. Introduction

The availability of high quality synchrotron radiation and the ability to apply

synchrotron techniques routinely to problems in materials science has greatly

enhanced our ability to solve materials problems that involve highly disordered,

amorphous or surface states. The application of synchrotron techniques to materials

problems has been recently reviewed1,2,3. Techniques such as WAXS (Wide Angle X-

ray Scattering), XAFS (X-ray Adsorption Fine Structure) and XANES (X-ray

Adsorption Near Edge Structure) have become routine techniques for the materials

scientist, improving our ability to understand difficult issues related to the structure

and function of modern advanced materials. In-situ techniques and surface techniques

including surface scattering are developing rapidly and will become routine in the

near future to help us further understand complex materials. It is the high signal-to-

noise ratio of synchrotron sources along with the tenability of the beam that make

synchrotron techniques so valuable for the problems described in this report

An example of how a simple synchrotron technique such as XRD (X-Ray

Diffraction) can add new insight into an old problem can be found in a recent paper

about the magnetic structure of Aurivillius’ ceramics4. Members of this class such as

BaBi4Ti4O15 are of interest because of the high-temperature ferroelectricity and their

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potential as magnetoelectric sensors. The crystalline structure of these materials is

formed by perovskite octahedra, sandwiched between bismuth oxide layers. For

temperatures above the Curie point, Tc (600°C ~ 800°C), Aurivillius crystals adopt

centro-symmetrical tetragonal structures, with space group Fmmm. In the

ferroelectric temperature domain (T < Tc) tetragonal symmetry breaks down to

orthorhombic or monoclinic, with lattice parameters slightly different from those

corresponding to the high-temperature configuration. Determining the crystal

symmetry group is difficult, but it is important, because symmetry is a decisive factor

in the structure polarization relationship. This symmetry breakdown is clearly seen in

synchrotron diffraction as described in the publication but has been difficult or

impossible to see by conventional in-house x-ray methods.

In addition, synchrotrons have become “friendlier” places to work due to the

presence of user support groups and synchrotron support staffs who are encouraged to

interact with users who may not be familiar with synchrotron techniques. This

follows from the pioneering work of synchrotron scientists that made possible the

high quality beam and experiments that materials scientists enjoy today5. In this

report we discuss two classes of surface compounds: The SSC (Sulfide Supported

Carbides) of the type MoS2-xCx and Maya Blue Pigments. The application of

synchrotron techniques to these classes of materials has greatly enhanced our

understanding of them.

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2. Synchrotron Studies and Sample Preparation

All synchrotron studies were performed at Stanford Synchrotron Radiation

Laboratory from 2000 to 2003 under a grant from the DoE (Department of Energy)

BES (Basic Energy Sciences). The grant is a training grant called the “Gateway

Grant” designed to bring students from the United States/Mexico border into the

synchrotron community. Sample preparation techniques can be found in the cited

references.

The X-Ray scattering data were collected at SSRL on beam line 2-1. The

vertical collimation and high brightness of the synchrotron beam allowed use of a Si

(111)-based detector suitable to resolve lattice changes of the order of 0.1 %. The size

of the focused beam was 2 X 1 mm and approximately 1011 photons/sec are incident

on the sample. The XRD patterns were collected in the 5o-75o 2θ range at the Zn K-

edge (9.659 keV). The NEXAFS (Near Edge X-ray Adsorption Fine Structure

experiments were carried by Joachim Stöhr on beam line 8–2. Samples were pressed

into In foil. The spectra were recorded as a function of incident X-ray photon energy

in the vicinity of the C K – edge (275-325 eV). The partial electron-yield with a mean

free path of about 1nm was measured. The method is sensitive only to the surface

layers yielding information very similar to Auger Electron and X-ray Photoelectron

techniques. XAFS samples and standards were separately loaded into 0.5 mm – thick

aluminum sample holders, that were sealed using Mylar tape. The samples were

placed on rods and frozen under liquid nitrogen prior to being placed into the

cryostat. Appropriate K-edge absorption spectra for the various samples were

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collected on SSRL beamline SB07-3 (1.8 T Wiggler field) using a Si (220) double

crystal monochromator and a 13-element solid-state germanium array detector. The

SPEAR storage ring was normally operating at 55–90 mA at 3.0 GeV. Harmonics

were rejected by detuning the two-crystal monochromator to 50% of the maximum

intensity. During data collection, samples were maintained at approximately 10 K

using an Oxford Instruments CF1204 liquid helium flow cryostat. Further details can

be found in the references cited later.

3. Surface Compounds

Many compounds that have practical importance are most effective as small particles.

Heterogeneous catalysts are a prime example. Catalysts that can be stabilized as small

particles have more effective surface area to perform the desired reactions. As the

particles become smaller the way in which the particle terminates its surface becomes

more extensive and easier to characterize. Atomically clean surfaces reconstruct in

vacuum. However, catalysts are in reactive environments and may terminate their

surfaces by chemistry involving the surrounding reactants. This is especially true in

catalytic environments at temperatures lower than 400oC. Higher temperatures may

be required to obtain bulk equilibrium phases. Catalytic surface compounds can be

thought of as three-dimensional polymers with terminating groups that reflect the

environment in which they operate.

Perhaps the most extensively studied and understood example of this is the

industrially important Ziegler-Natta polymerization catalyst6. Originally, based on

small particles of TiCl3, it was recognized that the desirable polymerization properties

5
could be enhanced by modifying the surface of the TiCl3 with agents such as AlCl3 or

alkyl aluminum compounds. The TiCl3 crystallites are terminated with Al compounds

that interface with the reacting polymers. The TiCl3 provides the appropriate redox

(electron) substrate and the Al surface provides the proper polymerization

stereochemistry for the desired reaction. The field progressed until the particle

became smaller and smaller and the surface structure more important, until finally the

“single site” metallocene catalyst emerged. The reference cited above discusses

“control of the architecture or three-dimensional structure of the catalyst” that has

enabled not only the success of the polymer industry but also “opening the way to the

creation of new and completely revolutionary families of materials.” The author

describes the catalyst as a “reactor granule…with it’s own energy and materials

balance”. Today we might call it a nano-reactor with all of the elements of a chemical

reactor on the nanoscale. The examples of surface compounds given in this report

include a catalyst similar to that just described and an entirely unexpected example in

the Maya Blue pigments.

4. Transition Metal Sulfide Catalysts

Catalysts based on TMS (Transition Metal Sulfides) such as MoS2 and WS2 are used

by refineries around the world to meet environmental requirements for heating and

transportation fuels through the removal of sulfur, nitrogen and other pollutants. It is

expected that heavy crudes containing larger amounts of sulfur, nitrogen and metals

will become the major source of petroleum hydrocarbons in the future. Faced with

increasing amounts of heavier crudes and increasingly strict regulations regarding

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sulfur content of fuels, better HDS (hydrodesulfurization), HDN

(hydrodenitrogenation) and HDM (hydrodemetallization) catalysts are sought. In

addition it has been found recently that the TMS catalysts are promising sulfur

tolerant fuel cell anodes7. In order to meet the increasing environmental demands and

to develop new uses for the TMS, a deeper understanding of their structure and

function in stable operating conditions is required.

The most important basic aspect of catalysis by the TMS (transition metal

sulfides) is the determination of the CSS (Catalytic Stable State) as a function of

position in the periodic table. The first report of the periodic effect in catalysis by

TMS emphasized the importance of determining the “stable catalytic state8. This

paper established the bulk crystalline structure of the transition metal sulfides for the

HDS reaction and was the first paper to describe the extremely active RuS2 catalyst as

the peak of the ‘volcano plot” for HDS catalysis. RuS2 catalysts also have recently

been show to be very effective anodes for hydrogen activation in fuel cells. Both the

HDS activity and the hydrogen activation activity point to the importance of the 4d

and 5d electrons in catalysis by the TMS particularly in reactions involving hydrogen.

This is the most fundamental rule in catalysis by TMS and this phenomenon has been

underpinned theoretically in recent studies9. Additionally, commercial catalysts are

“promoted systems”: catalysts based on MoS2 or WS2 that are “promoted” with Co or

Ni but not by Fe or Cu. This effect is also explained by the concept of “pseudo-

binary” catalysts. Catalysts based on Co/Mo, Ni/Mo, Co/W and Ni/W behave has

“pseudo-binaries” because they acheive 4d and 5d electron configurations that mimic

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noble metal configurations by creating a “surface compound” with the promoter

phase at the surface of the “support phase.” Thus, Co supported on MoS2 has

enhanced activity and behaves as a noble metal sulfide, though RuS2 activity is not

achieved. A complete discussion of this subject is beyond the scope of this report but

is another example of the importance of surface compounds in catalysis10.

5. Transition Metal Sulfide Surface Compounds

Recent results indicate that the surfaces of the TMS in their catalytic stable state

(CSS) contain carbon directly bonded to the catalytic metals11,12. Carbon XANES

spectra described in these references clearly show that the transition metal is bound

directly to carbon on the surface of the catalyst. The Auger electron yield is shown

for a MoS2 catalyst in figure 1. The Auger electron yield comes from the first

nanometer of the surface and the flouresecent yield comes from the bulk phase (not

shown) but has very little indication of carbon. This key information coming from

synchrotron studies is confirmed by EELS, IR and other techniques confirming the

existence of the surface compounds. These compounds are shown schematically in

figure 2. In this figure RuS2-xCx. Is shown schematically as a cross section of a

spherical particle with the carbide phase covering the surface of the sphere and MoS2-

xCx is shown as a cylindrical particle with the edge of the cylinder covered with the

carbide phase.

Thus, the CSS for Mo is MoS2-xCx and for Ru is RuS2-xCx. For example, a

catalyst that is originally RuS2 with the Pyrite structure and an average particle size of

10 nm was run in an HDS reactor with the model compound DBT for over 1000

8
hours. The resulting catalysts retained the bulk Pyrite structure and particle size but

had lost sulfur and gained carbon such that the stoichiometry was now RuS1.7C0.3.

This corresponds to removing the surface layer of sulfur and replacing it with carbon

in a 10 nm particle13. This is an example of a description of the CSS of a TMS

catalyst. It is this description that is the proper starting point for a dsicussion of the

“active sites” in a stabilized TMS catalyst.

A similar situation exists for Mo and W catalysts that are promoted with Co or

Ni. Thus, any description of TMS catalysts that fail to take into account the important

role of carbon in stabilized HDS catalysts cannot give an accurate description of the

fundamental origin of catalytic properties in these catalysts. It is also true that

promotion must be described as a symmetrical synergism, rather than promotion of

one phase by another, for example, in order to understand the true nature of the

effect14.

The demonstration of the existance of surface compounds in operating

catalysts has long been overdue, especially in the field of TMS catalystic materials.

Understanding of discrete surface phases in operating catalysts adds important

information for process operation. For example, refinery operators have for many

years recognized the existence of “hard carbon” (carbide carbon) and “soft carbon”

(coke) in hydrotreating catalysts. Soft carbon, but not hard carbon can be removed

through regeneration processes. However, attempts to remove hard carbon result in

destruction of the catalyst and this can be explained by the development of surface

phases during the catalysts activation process. Catalysts particularly unsupported

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TMS catalyst tend to activate when first put on line in catalyst reactors again because

of the formation of the surface compounds described above15. It is also important to

again emphasize the importance of understanding the total catalyst structure stable

under active operating conditions to understand the basis for catalyst activity in a

fundamental way.

6. CSS for Industrial Catalysts

Industrial MoS2 HDS catalysts are usually supported on Al2O3 and promoted with Co

or Ni depending on the petroleum feedstock being treated. Thus, a typical HDS

catalyst is Co/Mo/Al2O3 and this catalyst used in an industrial reactor might remain

active for years again depending on the petroleum feedstock being treated. The

catalysts will deactivate if the petroleum feedstock is heavy, containing high

quantities of sulfur, nitrogen, aromatic compounds and metals such as vanadium. The

evolution and the structure of the catalytically stabilized active phase has been the

subject of controversy for many years including the mechanism for their deactivation.

In order to illuminate this subject industrial catalysts have been studied that

were operated in commercial HDS units for more than four years leading to a new

understanding of the catalytic phases that are stabilized under these conditions16. In

these studies three commercial Co/Mo/Al2O3 that had been run in an industrial

reactor for one week, one month and four years were studied using synchrotron XRD

techniques. A catalyst was removed from the industrial reactor after four years in a

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“regularly scheduled turn around” and was still active as confirmed by model

compound reaction studies. Figure 3 shows the wide-angle scattering from these

catalysts in the region from approximately 6 – 20o 2θ. In this region the 002

reflection of the MoS2 bulk structure can be seen just below 2θ. The intensity of the

002 reflection from the MoS2 bulk structure reflects the degree of stacking of the

MoS2 anisotropic layers. Analysis of the excess (diffuse) scattering under the 002

reflection led to an estimate of the number of stacked layers verses single layers

(figure 4). The term excess scattering refers to the scattering that is above the

background but not part of the Bragg 002 reflection. This excess scattering is due to

single layers and appears in all catalysts described17. It is obvious from figure 3 that

the stacking decreases as the catalyst is subject to longer times in the reactor.

Analysis of the excess scattering due to single layers shows that single layers

predominate after four years in the reactor as indicated in figure 5. Furthermore, the

study also indicates that previous HRTEM studies of these catalysts over looks the

single layers that are determined by the excess scattering measured by synchrotron

diffraction. Thus, industrial hydrotreating conditions induce a “destacking” process

resulting in the stabilization of single-layered nanoparticles with the MoS2 structure

indicated schematically in (figure 5). This surprising conclusion is made possible by

the application of synchrotron radiation and radically alters the way in which the

aging of these catalysts is viewed. These results are summarized:

1. Scattering from the active phases is easily by subtraction of the alumina

support contribution.

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 2. Analysis of the active phase scattering indicates that the catalyst consists of

mainly single layers of MoS2 in contrast to HRTEM studies that “see” only

stacked layers.

3. Catalysts that have been run for long periods of time under high-pressure

conditions tend to “destack”.

Future work will focus on the change in structure with deactivation and selectivity of

the HDS reaction that has been associated with stacking in MoS2 based catalysts18

7. Maya Blue: An Ancient Organic/Inorganic Pigment

The ancient Maya people who inhabited Mesoamerica approximately 1000 years ago

produced a remarkable blue pigment known today as Maya Blue. This pigment was

used to produce beautiful murals and pottery that survives today in many places in

Mexico and Central America19. Its longevity and stability are due an unusual

chemical composition that brings together an organic dye (indigo) and an inorganic

clay (palygorskite). The exact nature of the complex organic/inorganic material has

only recently been elaborated using advanced probes and simulation.

Synchrotron techniques, XAFS and WAXS have been combined with

simulation modeling to develop an understanding of this fascinating material20. These

studies found that Maya Blue is a “surface compound” with the indigo molecule

inserted into channels at the clay surface and bonded to chemical sites in the

channels. CERIUS2 (Accerlyrus Inc.) simulation shows how the indigo molecules slip

12
into the exposed surface channels (figure 6). This channel binding and the resulting

charge transfer is responsible for the stability of the complex and its remarkable

color. Maya Blue becomes a prototype for useful complex organic/inorganic

materials with potential application as environmentally friendly pigments.

Experimental verification of the strucutre of the surface complex comes from

XRD studies. The low angle region of the WAXS data is shown in figure 7. The

major diffraction peaks are due to the inorganic clay, Palygorskite. Indigo (6 wt.%)

is mixed with Palgorskite and gives the composite pattern shown in the figure 7. Two

diffraction peaks due to the indigo occur a just below 9o 2θ and just above 12o 2θ and

are compared with a simulated indigo pattern. When heated to 140oC the surface

compound is formed and the two indigo peaks disappear. This surface compound is

“Maya Blue”. The success of the synchrotron XRD technique in demonstrating the

existance of the surface compound has opened the way for future developments in

extending the ancient knowledge of the Maya into modern materials science.

8. Conclusions

The examples described above demonstrate the usefulness of synchrotron techniques

in help to solve complex materials problems. The examples of “surface compounds”

are particularly powerful examples of understanding how useful compounds may

terminate their surfaces as the particle size is reduced. Surface compounds are

becoming more important as the world of materials delves further into regions of

nanoscale materials. The importance of understanding their structure and behavior is

a challenge for materials scientists that is greatly assisted by synchrotron techniques.

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9. Acknowledgements

Portions of this research were carried out at the Stanford Synchrotron Radiation

Laboratory, a national user facility operated by Stanford University on behalf of the

U.S. Department of Energy, Office of Basic Energy Sciences. We thank the U.S.

Department of Energy Gateway Program and the Robert A. Welch Foundation for

financial support.

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List of Figures:

Figure 1: Carbon Auger electron yield NEXAFS spectrum from MoS2 catalyst
stabilized under HDS conditions,showing equivalence to the surface of Mo2C (from
reference 11).

Figure 2: Schematic representation of a spherical particle of RuS2-xCx in cross section

and a two dimensional particle of MoS2-xCx surface compounds. Black represents
carbide surface supported on sulfide (yellow) core.

Figure 3: XRD data from three catalysts: 1 week, 1month and 4 years run times in the
range from 6 to 20o 2θ.

Figure 4: XRD pattern of poorly crystalline MoS2-xCx (from reference 16).

Figure 5: Schematic representation of promoted MoS2-xCx spreading across the Al2O3

support with time under operating conditions.

Figure 6: CERIUS2 “Sorption” simulation of Maya Blue.

Figure 7: WAXS XRD data in the region from 6 to 13o 2θ. The red line is the
inorganic clay, palygorskite (Attagel 50), the green line is the simulated diffraction
pattern of indigo, the blue line is a mixture of 6% indigo and 94% palygorskite not
heated and the yellow line is the same mixture heated to 140oC.

15
Figure 1:

2.5
MoS2 + DBT
2
Isc/I0 (normalized,

1.5 Mo2C

1
a.u.)

0.5

0.0
280 285 290 295 300 305 310

Photon Energy (eV)

16
Figure 2:

RuS2-xCx MoS2-xCx

17
Figure 3

4 years
1 week
1 month

002 MoS2

18
Figure 4

70
002
2H-MoS2 crystalline peaks
60
Excess Asymmetric 100
Scattering
50
100+101

40
I / I0

102+103
30
110
105
20
108+203+116
10

10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

2θ

19
Figure 5

Al2O3 Al2O3 Al2O3

1 week 1 month 4 years

20
Figure 6

21
Figure 7

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