China Media Research, 4(4), 2008, Chen, A Harmony Theory of Chinese Communication

Towards Transcultural Understanding:

A Harmony Theory of Chinese Communication
Guo-Ming Chen
University of Rhode Island

Abstract: This chapter developed a general theory of Chinese communication from the perspective of
harmony. Based on the nine concepts, including jen (humanity), yi (appropriateness), li (rites), shi (temporal
contingencies), wei (spatial contingencies), ji (the first imperceptible beginning of movement), guanxi (inter-
relation), mientz (face), and power, a total of four propositions, 23 axioms and 23 theorems were generated.
The functions and interrelationships of these concepts form a holistic system that brings continuity into the
endless transforming process of Chinese communication. It is hoped that the theory will serve as a mirror
reflecting potential problems occurring in the intercultural communication and provide a great opportunity for
reaching transcultural understanding while interacting with Chinese. [China Media Research. 2008; 4(4): 1-
13]

Keywords: Chinese communication, jen, yei, li, shi, wei, ji, guangxi, mientz, power

Abundant studies from different disciplines have explicit verbal messages, (3) highly value self-
indicated that culture and communication have an expression, verbal fluency, and eloquent speech, and
interdependent and reciprocal relationship (Becker, (4) tend to express opinions and intentions freely and
1986; Chen, 1995a; Gudykunst & Nishida, 1984; directly in order to persuade others to accept their
Harnett & Cummings, 1980; Hofstede, 1980; viewpoints.
Nakanishi, 1987). According to Chen and Starosta These studies indicate that in order to understand
(1998a), while communication serves as a carrier of a person’s communication behavior or effectively
culture, what, where, and how we should talk is communicate with a person from a different culture,
regulated by culture. Thus, culture not only it is necessary to first understand the person’s culture.
conditions our thinking, but also is manifested in our In other words, in order to reach “transcultural
communication patterns. realities” people are required to understand a single
The impact of culture on communication culture through interaction and dialogue with the
behaviors was further examined by scholars. For culture (Epstein, 1995). The ability to establish
example, Hsu (1953) found that in interaction “transcultural realties” is similar to intercultural
Americans tend to be more individual-centered and communication competence that demands the ability
emotion-displayed, while Chinese are more situation- of intercultural awareness, intercultural sensitivity,
centered and emotion-constrained. Ma (1990, 1992) and intercultural adroitness (Chen, 1989; Chen &
also reported that Chinese are much less explicit to Starosta, 1996, 1998b, 1999, 2000). This chapter
show their emotions in communication than northern aims to delineate the core values of Chinese culture
Americans. In addition, studies consistently indicate to help people reach transcultural understanding
that a major difference in communication style while interacting with Chinese. Although research
between Chinese and Americans is that Chinese tend attempting to help people better understand and
to be less confrontational and direct (Lindin, 1974; communicate with each other by focusing on the
Schneider, 1985; Wolfson & Pearce, 1983; Yang, study of cultural traits of a specific culture has been
1978). Finally, Gudykunst and Ting-Toomey (1988) increasing over the past years (Benedict, 1946;
and Hall (1976) summarized the differences of Broome, 1996; Condon, 1984, 1985; Kapp, 1983;
communication behaviors between high-context and Stewart & Bennett, 1991), very few of them
low-context cultures. According to the authors, systematically deal with Chinese cultural traits from
people in high-context cultures: (1) less emphasize the communication perspective. To fill this gap, in
explicit verbal messages, (2) transmit important this chapter the author develops a harmony theory
information through contextual cues, (3) highly value based on cultural traits that can be used to understand
harmony, (4) tend to be more silent and use Chinese communication behaviors.
ambiguous language, and (5) tend to avoid saying
“no” directly to their counterparts. People in low- Ontological Foundations of the Theory
context cultures: (1) do not emphasize the situational To understand Chinese communication, it is
context, (2) transmit important information through necessary to recognize the ontological assumptions

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 China Media Research, 4(4), 2008, Chen, A Harmony Theory of Chinese Communication

that guide Chinese beliefs and behaviors. According fundamental definitions and descriptions upon which
to Cheng (1987) and Wilhelm (1979), Chinese subsequent theoretical axioms and theorems can be
consider “change” as the only constant phenomenon assumed or inferred:
of the universe. “Change” is based on the dialectic Assumption 1: Human communication is a
interaction of two opposite but complementary changing and transforming process.
forces: yin and yang. Yin represents the amiable, Assumption 2: Human communication is
yielding or submissive attributes, and yang changing according to the endless but orderly cycle
unyielding or dominant attributes. The interaction of of the universe.
the two forces produces more opposite but Assumption 3: Human communication is never
interdependent pairs of change, such as emptiness vs. absolutely completed or finished.
tangibility, brightness vs. darkness, motion vs.
tranquillity, large vs. small, more vs. less, high vs. Formulation of the Harmony Theory
low, distance vs. closeness, and so on. Thus, the According to Hawes (1975), to constitute a
universe is forever changing - alteration, movement substantive theory it must consist of a primary
without rest, and flowing, rising, and sinking without statement and a theorem as a secondary statement
fixed law. In order to successfully carry out an that can be added to the primary statement. Axiom is
interaction, individuals must bring continuity into the a primary statement that is assumed to be true with a
process of change, because “when a change runs its general scope. From the axiom a theorem is inferred
course, it will alter; through alteration one achieves or derived that is also general in scope and
continuity; and through continuity one achieves empirically valid. Concepts in a theorem should be
duration. This is the key to being blessed by heaven observable and operationally definable and if
and bringing in good fortune” (Chu, 1974, p. 106). necessary a series of hypotheses can be derived from
Based on the concept of “change,” Chai and Chai the theorem. In other words, a hypothesis is a
(1969) generated three ontological assumptions that statement that specifies the necessary conditions of a
guide Chinese communication behaviors. First, the prediction and it can be tested directly. These
universe is a great whole in which all is but a guidelines are followed in this chapter for the
transitional process, with no fixed substance of its development of the harmony theory of Chinese
substratum. Human communication is then ever in a communication.
state of change and transformation. Second, the The Chinese approach to the study of human
transforming process of the universe does not communication differs from Western approaches in
proceed onward, but revolves in an endless cycle. three ways (Chen, 1993). First, it holds that harmony
Human communication is then changing according to is the end rather than the means of human
this cycle of the universe like the succession of day communication. Conflicts are then considered to be
and night and the periodical ebb and flow of the tide harmful to harmony in the process of communication.
(Liu, 1990, 1992). Third, there is no ending for the Second, while many Western scholars treat human
transforming process of the universe. The process of communication as a process of the communicators
human communication is then never absolutely striving to direct the interaction in their own favor,
completed or finished. In this transforming, endless Chinese view it as a process in which the
and cyclic communication process, the role of human communicators continuously adapt and relocate
beings is vital. The process shows a spirit of themselves towards interdependence and cooperation.
enlightenment in which human beings communicate Third, the Chinese approach suggests that the process
with dignity and influence in a mutual and of human communication includes an ethical appeal
interdependent network. The process forms a that induces a sense of duty for cooperation between
continuous chain of natural sequences without interactants, not by interactants’ strategic words or
consciously devaluing the dignity of communicator behaviors but by the sincere display of whole-hearted
and communicatee (Cheng, 1987; Fang 1981). These concern between each other (Chen, 1993). These
ontological assumptions provide a foundation for distinct differences indicate that harmony is the core
reaching a more dynamic, interactive and responsive value of Chinese culture that guides Chinese
notion of human communication. Human communication behaviors. As Legge (1955)
communication from the Chinese perspective is then indicated, Chinese consider that only when harmony
requires individuals to develop and keep a prevails can human society be nourished and
harmonious relationship between interactants in a flourished. Harmony is then the most important
continuously transforming process of mutual element Chinese people use to regulate the
dependency. Thus, three theoretical statements in the transforming, cyclic, and never ending process of
form of assumptions can be made to summarize the human communication. As a result, the ultimate goal
Chinese ontological thinking that serve as of Chinese communication is to pursue a conflict free

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 China Media Research, 4(4), 2008, Chen, A Harmony Theory of Chinese Communication

interpersonal and social relationship (Chen & Chung, reciprocity that requires interactants to show mutual
1994). Thus, the ability to reach a harmonious state responsibility in the process of communication (Chen
of human relationship becomes the main criterion for & Xiao, 1993). The violation of reciprocal principle,
evaluating whether an individual is competent in the such as the lack of returning a goodwill or showing
process of Chinese communication. In other words, to an indifferent attitude, often leads to uncooperation in
Chinese, communication competence is an Chinese communication.
individual’s ability to develop and keep a harmonious Axiom 2: The higher the degree of jen, the higher
relationship between interactants in a continuously the likelihood that harmony will be developed in
transforming process of mutual dependency (Chen, Chinese communication.
1993). An assumption based on the concept of Axiom 3: The higher the degree of being
harmony and an axiom from it can be inferred: humane, the higher the likelihood that jen will be
Assumption 4: Chinese communication aims to maintained in Chinese communication.
reach a harmonious state of human relationship. Theorem 1: The more reciprocal a person is, the
Axiom 1: An increase in the ability to achieve more competent the person will be in Chinese
harmony in Chinese communication will increase the communication.
degree of communication competence. Theorem 2: The more empathic a person is, the
In order to achieve harmony or competence in more competent the person will be in Chinese
the process of communication, Chinese develop three communication.
sets of guidelines (Chen, 1997; Chen & Chung, 1997;
Chen & Starosta, 1997-8; Hwang, 1987; Shenkar & Yi (appropriateness)
Ronen, 1987; Wu, 1964; Yum, 1988): (1) Yi, equivalent with appropriateness or righteous-
intrinsically, individuals must be able to internalize ness, is the internal criterion of communication
three principles: jen (humanism), yi (righteousness), behaviors that stipulates what we ought or ought not
and li (rite); (2) extrinsically, individuals must be to do in the process of social interactions (Chen &
able to accommodate three components: shih Chung, 1994). Chen (1987) indicated that yi provides
(temporal contingencies), wei (spatial contingencies), three functions for human communication. First, it
and ji (the first imperceptible beginning of guides individuals’ behaviors in communication
movement); and (3) strategically, individuals must be process. Second, it regulates individuals’ behaviors
able to exercise three behavioral skills: guanxi (inter- by preventing them from deviating from social
relation), mientz (face), and power. norms. Third, it penetrates into all the behaviors that
are within the boundary of social norms. That is, all
Jen (humanism) appropriate or righteous behaviors are guided and
Jen is an inner force that establishes the close regulated by the principle of yi. These functions
connection between two persons. Chen and Chung denote that the state of yi can be achieved only
(1994) pointed out that self-restraint and self- through appropriate behaviors in the process of
discipline foster this inner force by which people communication. Therefore, appro-priateness becomes
naturally show love, affection and benevolence to the criterion for examining whether an individual’s
others. It is the heart of seeing all human beings as behavior is fit to the demand of yi. At the same time,
brothers and sisters. Jen not only helps to develop appropriate behaviors also refer to the ability of
and maintain ourselves, but also develop and flexibility and adaptability towards the situation. In
maintain others (Fung, 1983). Thus, being empathic other words, yi aims to reach the best outcome of
is a prerequisite for showing the like-hearted feeling human interactions by adopting the most appropriate
towards others and reaching the state of jen (Chang, reaction towards external stimuli that include time,
1992; Chung, 1992; Yum, 1988). Applying to the space, people, and situation (Chen, 1987). Thus, in
daily interaction, Chen (1987) summarized that jen human communi-cation the characteristics of
demands self-discipline towards oneself, filial piety situational orientation embedded in yi allows us to
towards one’s parents, humanity towards people, look beyond personal profit and contribute to the
respect towards the elder, commitment towards one’s betterment of common good from the perspective of
work, and trust towards one’s behaviors. In other original goodness of human nature (Yum, 1988). In
words, jen is a collective virtue of showing love or sum, to Chinese, a harmonious state of human
being humane in interactions. Moreover, in order to communication cannot be reached without the
reach a harmonious state of human communication, guidance of yi that is reflected in appropriate actions,
the practice of jen must be based on the principle of and the appropriate actions are carried out through
reciprocity. Only through a mutually dependent the ability of flexibility and adaptability.
process can the light of jen be fully emitted. Thus, the Axiom 4: The higher the degree of yi, the higher
ideal of harmony is sustained by the principle of the likelihood that harmony will be developed in

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 China Media Research, 4(4), 2008, Chen, A Harmony Theory of Chinese Communication

Chinese communication. just keep quiet without rejoining or discussing a point

Axiom 5: The higher the degree of even they feel they are right, hoping to save each
appropriateness, the higher the likelihood that yi will other's face and keep the harmonious relationship
be maintained in Chinese communication. between the two parties (Chen & Xiao, 1993).
Theorem 3: The more flexible a person is, the According to Shenkar & Ronen (1987), this kind of
more competent the person will be in Chinese formality of social life is a way of avoiding
communication. embarrassing confrontations and a means to handle
Theorem 4: The more adaptable a person is, the socially ambiguous situations and to uphold the
more competent the person will be in Chinese group control over egocentric tendencies.
communication. Axiom 6: An increase of the practice of li will
produce an increase in the development of harmony
Li (rite) in Chinese communication.
Li, holy rite or sacred ceremony, is used as a Axiom 7: The higher the degree of formality, the
metaphor to represent the specifically humanizing higher the likelihood that li will be maintained in
form of the dynamic relation among people. This Chinese communication.
form produces a pattern of human behaviors that in Theorem 5: The more skillful a person is in
turn coordinates social interaction into a civilized managing honorific language, the more competent the
society. Thus, through the image of li we realize that person will be in Chinese communication.
the rites and ceremonies are an emphatic, intensified Theorem 6: The more skillful a person is in
and elaborated extension of everyday civilized dealing with the hierarchical social relations, the
interaction (Fingarette, 1972). In other words, li more competent the person will be in Chinese
symbolizes the formality of human interaction. communication.
Chinese culture treats this formality not only as a Theorem 7: The more polite a person is, the more
human character, a linguistic character, but also a competent the person will be in Chinese
moral and religious character. In the process of communication.
human communication li also refers to norms and Theorem 8: The more skillful a person is in
rules of proper behaviors in a social context. It is an controlling emotion, the more competent the person
external means to achieve the ideal state of harmony will be in Chinese communication.
by showing a feeling of respect or reverence for Theorem 9: The less aggressive a person is, the
social norms. Yum (1988) indicated that Li is "the more competent the person will be in Chinese
fundamental regulatory etiquette of human behavior" communication.
(p. 378). It connects an individual character and These three concepts form the foundation of the
social duties by following the rules of conduct and inner structure of interactants in the process of
speech in communication. Thus, individuals ought to Chinese communication. They are the basis of
follow li in social interactions and to actively adjust reaching harmony and communication competence.
to the harmonious and hierarchical order of society. Individuals are required to internalize these elements
This formality can be easily found in the use of in order to become a successful communicator in the
honorific language in the Chinese daily interaction Chinese cultural context. However, as the intrinsic
and in the sense of order, propriety, and appropriate and preliminary elements of Chinese communication,
behavior between parents and children, inferiors and jen, yi, and li must coordinate three extrinsic
superior, teachers and students, elders and elements: shi, wei, and ji. The integration of the
youngsters, and between friends (Condon & Yousef, intrinsic and extrinsic elements will determine
1975; Chen & Starosta, 1998a). It is also reflected in whether a successful Chinese communication in the
one of the Chinese characters: keqi. This phrase not transforming process can be reached (Wu, 1964).
only denotes the meaning of “politeness,” but also
includes personal attributes such as being courteous, Shih (temporal contingencies)
modest, humble, understanding, considerate, and Shi refers to temporal contingencies in human
well-mannered in the process of human interactions. Chinese use eight symbols, accompanied
communication (Wei, 1983). Hence, showing with the 24-hour time period, to portray the eight
aggressive behaviors and being unable to subdue or stages of the cyclic process of human relationship
control one’s emotion in public indicate impoliteness development through the process of communication
that not only violates the principle of harmony but (Wilhelm, 1979; Chen, 1998). "Thunder," paralleling
also produces an insult not easily forgiven (Eberhard, with four thirty to seven thirty of the morning hours,
1971). An example of lacking aggressive behaviors is symbolizes the arousing power for burgeoning a
the Chinese reluctance to engage in an argument in relationship with others. "Wind," seven thirty to ten
social interactions. When challenged, Chinese may thirty in the morning, symbolizes the continuation of

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 China Media Research, 4(4), 2008, Chen, A Harmony Theory of Chinese Communication

relationship development by a gently penetrating maximizes differences in age, sex, and role or status,
effort. "Fire," ten thirty to one thirty at noon, and encourages an interdependent relationship
symbolizes the desire of interactants to be clinging to between interactants (Condon, 1977). Thus, knowing
each other. "Earth," one thirty to four thirty in the spatial contingencies and appropriately perform what
afternoon, symbolizes the reception of each other's one ought to act in different contexts of human
relationship. "Lake," four thirty to seven thirty in the interaction is the function of wei. In other words,
evening, symbolizes the joyous relationship knowing wei requires the ability to realize and
developed by the interactants. "Heaven," seven thirty distinguish who, what and where in order to initiate,
to ten thirty at night, symbolizes the sublime stage of maintain, and terminate an interaction. Like shi, wei
success of relationship. "Water," ten thirty to one integrates the principle of appropriateness to show
thirty at midnight, symbolizes the deterioration of the impact of spatial contingencies on human
relationship. Finally, "mountain," one thirty to four communication. Therefore, wei also serves as a
thirty of the early morning hours, symbolizes keeping criterion for measuring the degree of harmony and
still without further endeavoring to develop or competence in Chinese communication.
continue the relationship. Knowing the temporal Axiom 10: An increase of knowing wei will
relations and appropriately perform what one ought produce an increase in the development of harmony
to act in different stages of human interaction is the in Chinese communication.
function of shi. In other words, knowing shi requires Axiom 11: The higher the degree of knowing
the ability to decide when is the appropriate time to spatial contingencies, the higher the likelihood that
initiate, maintain, and terminate an interaction. This wei will be maintained in Chinese communication.
element is an application of the principle of Theorem 11: The more a person knows the
appropriateness that is embedded in yi. It is to explain communication environment, the more competent the
the importance of knowing the influence due to the person will be in Chinese communication.
change of temporal contingencies in the process of Theorem 12: The more a person knows the social
human communication. Chinese consider that being context, the more competent the person will be in
unable to recognize the change of temporal contin- Chinese communication.
gentcies in interactions is detrimental to the
achievement of harmony and therefore leads to a Ji (the first imperceptible beginning of movement)
failure of communication. Ji is the first imperceptible beginning of
Axiom 8: An increase of knowing shi will movement that shows the trace of possible
produce an increase in the development of harmony consequences of the ongoing interaction (Wilhelm,
in Chinese communication. 1990). Chinese consider that being competent in
Axiom 9: The higher the degree of knowing communication means that one should know what is
temporal contingencies, the higher the likelihood that hidden and what is evident during the interaction.
shi will be maintained in Chinese communication. This requires the ability of sensitivity by which one
Theorem 10: The more a person knows when is can develop a positive emotion towards under-
the appropriate time to act, the more competent the standing and appreciating the potential differences
person will be in Chinese communication. due to the variations of temporal and spatial
contingencies, and further take an appropriate action
Wei (spatial contingencies) in the process of communication (Chen & Starosta,
Wei refers to spatial contingencies in human 1996). Thus, the ability to recognize the trace of
interactions, i.e., the static aspects of human movement is a necessary condition for individuals to
interactions, including social context and develop harmony and gain a feeling of complete
communication environment. Wei is like a container security in interactions (Chen, 1993). The develop-
carrying li. In other words, the application of rites ment of sensitivity or the ability of knowing ji is
will vary due to the change of social context and based on sincerity that represents the internal
communication environment. To Chinese, wei is consistency of individuals by holding a sincere and
typically reflected in the hierarchical structure of honest mind to themselves and others. A sincere and
human relationship called “the Five Code of Ethics” honest mind not only helps individuals figure out the
that traditionally specifies the relationships between trace of movement and know the right time to behave
ruler and subject, father and son, husband and wife, appropriately in order to fit in with the environment,
older brother and younger brother, and between but also unites the two interactants as one (Wang,
friends (Lin, 1988). This hierarchical structure not 1989; Wu, 1976). Sincerity is then the force
only ensures a unequal and complementary integrating shi, wei, ji and the bridge connecting the
relationship in the Chinese society, but also provides three elements with jen, yi. and li.
a specific context for Chinese communication. It Axiom 12: An increase of knowing ji will

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 China Media Research, 4(4), 2008, Chen, A Harmony Theory of Chinese Communication

produce an increase in the development of harmony interaction. Moreover, particularistic relationships are
in Chinese communication. governed by a set of specific communication rules
Axiom 13: The higher the degree of knowing the and patterns that give individuals a direction
trace of possible consequences of an interaction, the concerning to whom to talk, where, when, and how
higher the likelihood that ji will be maintained in (Chen & Chung, 1997). As a result, Chinese develop
Chinese communication. a clear distinction between strangers and friends in
Theorem 13: The more a person knows the trace the social network. Chinese people would feel more
of possible consequences of an interaction, the more restrained when dealing with strangers and
competent the person will be in Chinese acquaintances, but more free and open to express
communication. themselves to intimate friends (Chen, 1995b). The
Theorem 14: The more sensitive a person is, the ability to distinguish the levels of hierarchical
more competent the person will be in Chinese relationships in a social interaction then functions to
communication. develop a more supportive communication climate
Theorem 15: The more sincere a person is, the and to tightly keep a harmonious relationship
more competent the person will be in Chinese between the interactants. The emphasis of
communication. particularistic relationships also leads to the
Jen, yi, and li, as intrinsic elements and the development of a clear boundary between in-group
latitude of Chinese communication, and shi, wei, and and out-group members. Chinese tend to distrust out-
ji, as extrinsic elements and the longitude of Chinese group members. The "we feeling" among in-group
communication, together weave the contextual members often affects the outcome of Chinese
network of Chinese society. In the soil of this communication (Gu, 1992). Pye (1982) pointed out
contextual network Chinese develop a variety of that in the case of social, political or business
strategic behaviors to deal with their daily negotiation any intention for personal gains is
interactions. Among them, three cardinal and inter- considered threatening to or jeopardizing the group's
dependent skills or strategies are found to be most hierarchy and harmony.
prominent: guanxi, mientz, and power (Chang & Therefore, knowing how to make a good guanxi
Holt, 1991; Chen, 1997; Chiao, 1988a; Chu, 1991; is a prerequisite for the achievement of harmony and
Hwang, 1987, 1988, 1997-8; Jia, 1997-8; Jocobs, competence in Chinese communication. According to
1979; Ma, 1992). The achievement of harmony in Shenkar and Ronen (1987), keeping frequent
Chinese communication is ultimately based on the contacts, developing mutual understanding, giving
exercise of these three concepts. gifts or favors, and establishing personal trust and
mutual interests with one’s counterparts are several
Guanxi (inter-relation) examples for making a good relation with Chinese
Guanxi refers to the relationship between two people.
parties. Jocobs (1979) found that at least nine basic Axiom 14: An enhancement of guanxi will
patterns of inter-relation exist in the Chinese social produce an enhancement in the development of
network. They are formed by the sharing of common harmony in Chinese communication.
background based on geography, blood, work, Axiom 15: The higher the degree of establishing
classmate, sworn brotherhood, surname, teacher- particular relationships, the higher the likelihood that
student, economy, and public affairs. Leung (1988) guanxi will be maintained in Chinese communication.
indicated that Chinese are more likely to pursue a Theorem 16: The more a person knows how to
conflict with a stranger than with a friend. To establish inter-relation with others, the more
Chinese, maintaining these inter-relations is competent the person will be in Chinese
necessary for fulfilling the principle of li, because a communication.
proper inter-relation between people is treated as a Theorem 17: The more skillful a person is in
way to avoid serious conflicts and embarrassing distinguishing in-group from out-group members, the
encounters in daily interactions. Moreover, guanxi more competent the person will be in Chinese
can also be employed as a social resource to resolve communication.
conflicts or to produce functions of persuasion, Theorem 18: The stronger the “we-feeling” a
influence, and control in the Chinese society (Chang person has, the more competent the person will be in
& Holt, 1991; Chung, 1991). Chinese communication.
According to Yum (1988), because Chinese
people emphasize a hierarchical social structure Mientz (face)
based on the Five Code of Ethics, those particularistic Mientze refers to reputation, self-esteem, or face
human relationships specified by Jocobs are much gained from the respect of other persons in
more likely to be developed in the process of social interactions. It represents an individual's social

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 China Media Research, 4(4), 2008, Chen, A Harmony Theory of Chinese Communication

position and prestige gained from the successful renqin is regulated by the principle of reciprocity in
performance of one or more specific social roles that the Chinese society. Hwang (1988) indicated that
are well recognized by other members in the society Chinese often consciously or unconsciously expect to
(Chu, 1988; Hu, 1944). In the Chinese society, in have something in return when they are doing a favor
order to keep a harmonious atmosphere competent (e.g., gift giving) to others. Without returning a favor
communicators must know how to show a due respect to the sender will lose both parties’ face, and in turn
for other parties’ feeling, or to save their face. Any jeopardize their guanxi and further disturb the
conscious act of making others lose face in the harmonious atmosphere. As mentioned previously,
Chinese society will not only cause an emotional the principle of reciprocity requires people to show
uneasiness of others, but also lead to the damage of mutual responsibility in social interactions. This kind
one's own image or self-humiliating (Hwang, 1987; of reciprocally obligatory relationship develops a
Jin, 1988). Thus, to maintain one’s and other’s face feeling of "indebtedness" in which Chinese are
means to maintain friendship between each other in always preparing to return a favor to those who give
the network of quanxi. For example, losing the them a favor. As a result, a great dilemma or anxiety
control of facework in the process of Chinese often occurs in the process of Chinese
negotiations will mean the loss of bargain power and communication, because it is usually difficult to
the denial of any offer (Jia, 1997-8). predicate when, how, and in what situation one’s
The importance of saving each other's face can counterparts will return the favor to oneself (Hwang,
explain, especially in an unavoidable conflict 1988). Based on the discussion, we can fairly
situation, why Chinese people would show courtesy conclude that mientz, guanxi, and the interdependent
before using force to solve a problem. Moreover, relationship between the two concepts determine
Chinese often use an intermediary to help them solve largely the success or failure of Chinese
the problem in order to save face. This indirect communication.
communication pattern leads Chinese to pursue a Axiom 16: An enhancement of mientz will
smooth verbal and nonverbal exchange in social produce an enhancement in the development of
interactions. It also allows Chinese to avoid saying quanxi in Chinese communication.
“no” openly or directly to other’s request, or showing Axiom 17: An enhancement of mientz will
aggressive behaviors that are considered to be produce an enhancement in the development of
detrimental to the harmonious atmosphere of harmony in Chinese communication.
interaction and relationship. Consequently, Chinese Axiom 18: The higher the degree of respect
people would use all possible means to “earn face” or towards others, the higher the likelihood that mientz
to "make face" for their counterparts to establish a will be maintained in Chinese communication.
harmonious atmosphere of interactions(Chiao, 1981; Axiom 19: The higher the degree of renqin
Chu, 1983). Communication competence can then be towards others, the higher the likelihood that mientz
assessed by evaluating the degree of appropriateness will be maintained in Chinese communication.
or skillfulness a person can earn or make face for Theorem 19: The more a person knows how to
others (Chen, 1993). increase others’ mientz, the more competent the
According to Silin (1981) and Pye (1982), as a person will be in Chinese communication.
behavioral skill in daily interactions, face saving is Theorem 20: The more skillful a person is in
not only frequently used by Chinese to manage a doing a favor to others, the more competent the
modern social organization, but also to reach a person will be in Chinese communication.
successful business transaction, especially in Theorem 21: The stronger the “indebtedness”
negotiations. feeling a person has, the more competent the person
For example, Shenkar and Ronen (1987) found will be in Chinese communication.
that Chinese negotiators are likely to make
concessions at the end of a negotiation so that they Power
can save each other's face and keep the harmonious Power refers to the control of resources valued
relationship. Facework therefore becomes one of the by other parties. It is granted by members of a
most influential elements in the Chinese power game society in which they believe that they should obey
(Wang, 1992). the commands and seek the favor and support from
Strategically, to find or create an opportunity to specific members (Conrad, 1994). The power one
express renqin (i.e., doing a favor) to one’s exerts usually sustains moves and countermoves of
counterparts is the most common method Chinese the participants in social interactions (Folger, Poole,
people employ to “make face” (Hwang, 1988). & Strutman, 1993). The basis of power in the Chinese
Through this process a network of guanxi will be society is built on two sources: guanxi and the
developed gradually. However, the practice of hierarchical structure of the social network.

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 China Media Research, 4(4), 2008, Chen, A Harmony Theory of Chinese Communication

Conrad (1994) indicated that people with good seniority and authority therefore works with guanxi
inter-relation are more likely to comply to each and mientz to reinforce the ultimate goal of harmony
other’s wishes or requests and tend to perceive each in the Chinese communication.
other as being more expert, trustworthy, and Axiom 20: An appropriate exertion of power will
powerful. In addition, as previously discussed, guanxi produce an enhancement in the development of
not only functions to avoid conflicts and harmony in Chinese communication.
embarrassing encounters, but also can be used as a Axiom 21: An increase in guanxi will produce an
social resource to produce influence and control in increase in the development of power in Chinese
the process of Chinese communication. Chiao communication.
(1988a) indicated that guanxi has penetrated into Axiom 22: An increase in the degree of seniority
every aspect of the Chinese life. For example, guanxi will produce an increase in the development of power
helps people gain what they desire to get in the areas in Chinese communication.
of marriage, funeral, job, housing, medicare, Axiom 23: An increase in the degree of authority
entertaining, and other social, cultural, political, and will produce an increase in the development of power
economical activities. in Chinese communication.
The Five Code of Ethics in the Chinese society Theorem 22: The more senior a person is, the
dictates a hierarchical and particularistic structure of more competent the person will be perceived in
human relationship. According to Chen (1997), this Chinese communication.
specific structure of social network ascribes power to Theorem 23: The more authority a person
the seniority one holds and authority one possesses. possesses, the more competent the person will be
Seniority is considered as the locus of power and perceived in Chinese communication.
knowledge in Confucianism influenced societies. Taken together, harmony is the axis of Chinese
The elders in the Chinese society continue to receive communication that is sustained by nine spokes: jen,
a high status and respect not only in the family, but yi, li, shi, wei, ji, guanxi, mientz, and power. The
also in community and work place (Bond & Hwang, functions and interrelationships of these concepts
1986; Carmichael, 1991). In addition, the seniors form a holistic system of the ideal Chinese
also enjoy relative freedom in initiating and communication. The interaction and integration of
terminating an idea or decision in social interactions. them brings continuity into the endless transforming
For example, Chung (1996) indicated that the elders process of Chinese communication. Based on this
tend to receive a wide range of prerogatives in the theory, we understand that, to Chinese, harmony is a
situation of conflict resolution and negotiations, and state of equilibrium representing the fulfillment of
their seniority is treated as being equivalent to competent communication by which four ultimate
credibility that may determine whether a cooperative goals of human communication can be reached: a
or competitive stance will be taken in an interaction feeling of security, a feeling of togetherness, a joyful
and often causes changes in social relationships, feeling of interacting, and being benefited from the
including control over the interaction process and interaction (Chen, 1993; Hsu, 1987).
acceptance of others’ influence (Griffin, 1967;
Nadler, Nadler, & Broome, 1985). Discussion and Conclusion
The hierarchical structure of particularistic The theory proposed in this chapter is an initial
relationships also ascribes the superior, father, attempt to formally state a general theory of Chinese
husband, older brother, and those in high status with communication based on the concept of harmony. As
authority to receive more power or control over their a cardinal element of Chinese culture, harmony is the
counterparts. Thus, it is not surprising to find that in ultimate goal Chinese people pursue in the process of
the process of Chinese communication authority human interaction. It is also the main criterion used
often overpowers knowledge and expertise in making to assess communication competence in the Chinese
the final decision. For example, Cai and Gonzalez society. The principle of harmony is regulated by
(1997-8) found that although knowledge and three holistic ontological assumptions of Chinese
expertise can serve as powerful tools in persuading culture, including transformation, orderly cycle, and
the opponents of the Three Gorges Project in China, endless movement. The achievement of harmony
the final decision was still made by the political requires individuals to internalize the principles of
leaders who are culturally accepted as the decision- jen, yi, and li, be able to accommodate shi, wei, and
makers and problem solvers. In other words, in the ji, and to appropriately exercise guanxi, mientz, and
Chinese society persons with a higher status in the power. A total of four propositions, 23 axioms and 23
particularistic relationship structure are considered to theorems were generated. The first three
be more knowledgeable in the process of problem propositions state the ontological foundation of
solving or conflict resolution. Power in the form of Chinese culture. They lead to the fourth proposition

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 China Media Research, 4(4), 2008, Chen, A Harmony Theory of Chinese Communication

that specifies harmony is the basis of Chinese In addition, the structure of hierarchical and
communication behaviors. Except for the first axiom particularistic relationship consequently leads
specifying the relationship between harmony and Chinese to develop a very different attitude and
competence that in turn serves as the basis of behavior towards out-group people. In other words, it
generating more axioms and theorems, all axioms, as is not uncommon to see that the principles of jen, yi,
primary statements with a universal scope in the and li are not followed in the process of Chinese
Chinese society, posit a positive relationship between communication. For example, face saving usually
harmony and the nine concepts. Except for theorem becomes a victim of competition with out-group
9, all the theorems, as secondary statements with a members for scare resources. An abundant record in
general scope and being empirically valid, posit a Chinese literature on compliance-gaining strategies
positive relationship communication competence and used to achieve one’s goal in daily interactions
concepts inferred or derived from the nine concepts. illustrates the opposite side of Chinese
In order to directly test the relationship between communication in which harmony does not play an
concepts to understand Chinese communication, influential role in regulating Chinese behaviors
future research can derive a series of hypotheses (Chen, 1995c; Chen & Zhong, 1996; Chiao, 1988b,
indirectly from axioms or directly from theorems 1989; Chu, 1991; Cleary, 1988; Li, Yang, & Tang,
(Hawes, 1975). 1989; Senger, 1988; Wang, 1976). This contradictory
The harmony theory developed in this chapter phenomenon provides a great opportunity for future
stipulates a complete approach Chinese people use to research to help people better understand Chinese
bring continuity into the endless transforming process communication behaviors.
of human communication. This harmony perspective Finally, an intriguing aspect of Chinese
of Chinese communication is quite different from the communication also deserves a further investigation
Western approach. While effectiveness or goal in future research. When Chinese feel powerless in
attainment is considered as the main element of controlling their destiny, they tend to adopt a
communication competence in Western cultures, deterministic attitude and behavior in the process of
Chinese place much more emphasis on communication. Ming (fate) and yuan (destined
appropriateness and reciprocity through them affinity) represent this aspect of Chinese character
harmony can be reached (Chen & Starosta, 1996). (Chen, 1996; Chen & Starosta, 1997-8). In this
This theory not only serves as a mirror that can situation, to Chinese, to be or not to be connected
reflect potential problems occurring in the with others or in other areas of daily life is the
intercultural communication, but also provides a function of one’s predestined fate (ming). In the
great opportunity for people to better understand development of relationship, for example, if one is
Chinese communication in order to reach predestined to be together with the other, they will
transcultural understanding while interacting with consider it as “yao yuan” (having destined affinity).
Chinese. On the other hand, if they are unable to connect each
Nevertheless, the theory proposed in this other, they will consider it as “wu yuan” (having no
chapter should not give readers an impression that destined affinity). Ming and yuan continue to show a
culture and communication is a linear process. The great impact on the process of developing guanxi in
dynamic and complex nature of culture suggests the Chinese society (Chang & Holt, 1993; Wen,
that human communication is a multiple-facet 1988). To further pursue this line of research will
process in which a prominent cultural value can be prove to make a contribution to the understanding of
consciously or unconsciously used as a tool to Chinese communication.
implicitly or explicitly shaken other core values.
For example, power may be abused in the time of * The article was originally published in V. H.
social and political turmoil and produces a negative Milhouse, M. K. Asante, and P. O. Nwosu (Eds.),
force that seriously challenges the ethical mandate Transcultural realities: Interdisciplinary perspectives
of harmony (Chen & Starosta, 1997-8). Powers’ on cross-cultural relations (pp. 55-70). Thousand
(1997-8) study on conflict genres and management Oaks, CA: Sage. Reprinted by permission of Sage.
strategies during China’s ten years of turmoil
vividly demonstrates how people’s behaviors Correspondence to:
deviate from the ethical principle of Chinese Guo-Ming Chen
communication. Chen’s (1997) study also reflects Department of Communication Studies
how the culturally endowed superiority based on University of Rhode Island
seniority can be used for personal gains in the Kingston, RI 02881
process of decision making. Email: gmchen@uri.edu

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 China Media Research, 4(4), 2008, Chen, A Harmony Theory of Chinese Communication

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