DRRR Reader

Disaster Readiness
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and Risk Reduction
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feedback, comments, and recommendations to the Department of

Education at [email protected].
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Department of Education
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All rights reserved. No part of this material may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means -
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Disaster Reduction and Risk Management – Core
Reader
First Edition 2017
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Published by the Department of Education

Secretary: Leonor Magtolis Briones, PhD
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Undersecretary: Dina S. Ocampo, PhD
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Development Team of the Reader
John Dale B. Dianala
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Mario A. Aurelio
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Introduction
The creation and inclusion of the Disaster Readiness and Risk Reduction (DRRR)
subject in the Philippines’ K-12 Curriculum aims to facilitate the integration of knowledge
from various perspectives into the relevant and timely issues on learning how to live with
the forces of nature. Given the records of history, every Filipino should be familiar with the
impact of disasters to the development of their community and the country as a whole. And
while disasters can also arise from man-made hazards, more emphasis is given to natural
hazards that are inevitable given the Philippines geographic and geologic setting.
This Reader for the DRRR subject is divided into chapters based on the content
indicated in the Department of Education Curriculum Guides. Each chapter includes the
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most basic materials that can eventually impart to the user the backbone of disaster risk
reduction.
Aside from the basic content provided in this reader, each chapter also includes
“Supplementary Materials” that may enhance the understanding of each topic. These
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materials may include online videos, manuals, posters, maps, and other resources that, if
accessible, can be used in more in-depth exploration of each topic.
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Important note
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As you browse the contents of this compilation, be aware of the new developments
from the government and other reputable institutions that may be improvements of what is
found here. Most materials in this Reader come from internationally-recognized
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government and non-government organizations, local and foreign, that have a strong
background and widespread involvement in hazard identification, and disaster prevention
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and response. Being at the frontline during disasters, these organizations have the
capability to gather more information as devastating events happen or, preferably, are
prevented. In effect, some of the contents of this Reader may become dated as new ideas
are constantly put forward.
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For example, agencies of the Department of Science and Technology (DOST)—the

Philippine Atmospheric, Geophysical, and Astronomical Services (PAGASA) and the
Philippine Institute of Volcanology and Seismology (PHIVOLCS)—and the Mines and
Geosciences Bureau (MGB) of the Department of Environment and Natural Resources
(DENR), continually monitor our environment, update their databases, and provide
information on natural hazards that we are at risk of facing. The National Disaster Risk
Reduction and Management Council (NDRRMC), which has regional and local components,
coordinates these agencies along with several other government offices for the purpose of
developing a functional disaster risk reduction and management plan.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Introduction ..................................................................................................................................... iii
TABLE OF CONTENTS ......................................................................................................................... v
I. Basic Concept of Hazard ................................................................................................................. 1
II. Basic Concept of Disaster and Disaster Risk................................................................................... 3

Introduction to Disaster Risk Reduction.............................................................................................. 5
Governance and civil society............................................................................................................. 11
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Environmental degradation and disasters ........................................................................................ 16
Health and healthcare ...................................................................................................................... 20
The City as a Risk Area ...................................................................................................................... 27
How food insecurity influences disaster risk ..................................................................................... 33
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III. Earthquake Hazards ................................................................................................................... 42
School Earthquake and Tsunami Awareness and Preparedness ...................................................... 45
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Earthquake and Earthquake Hazards........................................................................................... 46
What to do before, during and after an Earthquake ................................................................... 55
Understanding Tsunami and Tsunami Preparedness .................................................................. 59
How to Organize and Conduct an Earthquake Drill in School ...................................................... 65
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Designing an Earthquake Evacuation Plan for a School ............................................................... 70
IV. VOLCANO HAZARDS ................................................................................................................... 75

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Volcanoes and Volcanic Hazards ...................................................................................................... 80
V. OTHER RELATED GEOLOGICAL HAZARDS ................................................................................... 104

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Landslide Types and Processes ....................................................................................................... 104

Sinkholes ......................................................................................................................................... 111
Homeowner’s Guide to Landslides.................................................................................................. 117
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MGB Embarks on Subsistence Susceptibility Assessment ............................................................... 122
VI. HYDROMETEOROLOGICAL HAZARDS ....................................................................................... 125

Understanding Hydrometeorological and Other Weather-Related Hazards .................................. 126
Weather Forecasting and Interpretation ........................................................................................ 140
Flood Forecasting and Early Warning System ................................................................................ 169
Climate Variability, Extreme Events, and Climate Change ............................................................. 190
Natural Hazards .............................................................................................................................. 215
VII. FIRE HAZARD ........................................................................................................................... 234
Prevent Fire through Good Housekeeping ...................................................................................... 234
Preparing for disasters: Fire ............................................................................................................ 241
VIII. EXPOSURE AND VULNERABILITY ............................................................................................. 245

Vulnerability and Risk ..................................................................................................................... 249
Understanding Vulnerabilities: Vulnerability of Physical Structures ............................................... 261
Understanding Vulnerabilities: Social, Cultural and Economic ....................................................... 281
IX. CONCEPT OF DISASTER RISK REDUCTION (DRR) AND DISASTER RISK REDUCTION AND
MANAGEMENT (DRRM) ................................................................................................................. 295
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Introduction to Disaster Risk Reduction.......................................................................................... 297
Help Is Here: Top Ten Things You Can Do In Your Neighbourhood ................................................. 305
How Do We Bounce Back From Disasters? ..................................................................................... 306
Here to Help: Dealing With Post-Disaster Stress ............................................................................. 308
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Ready, Set, Go! ................................................................................................................................ 309
Become Risk-Smart ......................................................................................................................... 310
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#1: Creating a Risk Map.............................................................................................................. 311
#2: Making Murals and Exhibitions ............................................................................................ 313
#3: Initiating and Supporting Risk Reduction Activities ............................................................. 314
Become Prepared ............................................................................................................................ 316
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#1: Where? When? How? .......................................................................................................... 316
#2: Making A Family Disaster Preparedness Plan ...................................................................... 317
#3: Packing an Emergency Bag ................................................................................................... 319
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#4: Making Disaster Warning Signs ............................................................................................ 320

Become Resilient ............................................................................................................................. 321
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#1: Purifying Water .................................................................................................................... 321

#2a: Putting on a puppet or theatre show ................................................................................ 322
#2b: Planning a Theatre Show ................................................................................................... 323
#3: Sharing Experiences ............................................................................................................. 324
#4: Improving Your School Safety .............................................................................................. 325
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X. WHAT TO EXPECT BETWEEN THE STATE AND THE CITIZENS ...................................................... 326
Philippine Disaster Risk Reduction and Management System (PDRRMS) ....................................... 327
Republic Act 10121: The DRRM Act of 2010 ................................................................................... 345
Implementing Rules and Regulations of RA 10121 ......................................................................... 360
APPENDIX: ..................................................................................................................................... 381

2009 UNISDR Terminology on Disaster Risk Reduction .................................................................................... 381
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I. Basic Concept of Hazard
The definitions of terms are the key to community or society to cope using its own
understand the concepts referred to in this resources.
subject. As such, the United Nations
International Strategy for Disaster Reduction Comment: Disasters are often described as a
(ISDR) has a set of widely-used and accepted result of the combination of: the exposure to
definitions for terms commonly used when a hazard; the conditions of vulnerability that
discussing Disaster Risk Reduction. are present; and insufficient capacity or
measures to reduce or cope with the
The following is a selection of essential terms potential negative consequences. Disaster
for this chapter, along with their definitions impacts may include loss of life, injury,
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and contextual comments directly lifted disease and other negative effects on human
from the "2009 UNISDR Terminology on physical, mental and social well-being,
Disaster Risk Reduction". together with damage to property,
destruction of assets, loss of services, social
Hazard and economic disruption and environmental
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A dangerous phenomenon, substance, degradation.
human activity or condition that may cause
loss of life, injury or other health impacts, Natural hazard
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property damage, loss of livelihoods and Natural process or phenomenon that may
services, social and economic disruption, or cause loss of life, injury or other health
environmental damage. impacts, property damage, loss of livelihoods
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and services, social and economic disruption,
Comment: The hazards of concern to disaster or environmental damage.
risk reduction as stated in footnote 3 of the
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Hyogo Framework are “… hazards of natural Comment: Natural hazards are a sub-set of
origin and related environmental and all hazards. The term is used to describe
technological hazards and risks.” Such actual hazard events as well as the latent
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hazards arise from a variety of geological, hazard conditions that may give rise to
meteorological, hydrological, oceanic, future events. Natural hazard events can be
biological, and technological sources, characterized by their magnitude or
sometimes acting in combination. In intensity, speed of onset, duration, and area
technical settings, hazards are described of extent. For example, earthquakes have
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quantitatively by the likely frequency of short durations and usually affect a relatively
occurrence of different intensities for small region, whereas droughts are slow to
different areas, as determined from historical develop and fade away and often affect
data or scientific analysis. large regions. In some cases hazards may be
coupled, as in the flood caused by a
Disaster hurricane or the tsunami that is created by
A serious disruption of the functioning of a an earthquake.
community or a society involving widespread
human, material, economic or Technological hazards
environmental losses and impacts, which A hazard originating from technological or
exceeds the ability of the affected industrial conditions, including accidents,
dangerous procedures, infrastructure and other geological events, they are
failures or specific human activities, that may essentially an oceanic process that is
cause loss of life, injury, illness or other manifested as a coastal water-related
health impacts, property damage, loss of hazard.
livelihoods and services, social and economic
disruption, or environmental damage. Hydrometeorological hazard
Process or phenomenon of atmospheric,
Comment: Examples of technological hydrological or oceanographic nature that
hazards include industrial pollution, nuclear may cause loss of life, injury or other health
radiation, toxic wastes, dam failures, impacts, property damage, loss of livelihoods
transport accidents, factory explosions, fires, and services, social and economic disruption,
and chemical spills. Technological hazards or environmental damage.
also may arise directly as a result of the
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impacts of a natural hazard event. Comment: Hydrometeorological hazards
include tropical cyclones (also known as
Biological hazard typhoons and hurricanes), thunderstorms,
Process or phenomenon of organic origin or hailstorms, tornados, blizzards, heavy
conveyed by biological vectors, including
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snowfall, avalanches, coastal storm surges,
exposure to pathogenic micro-organisms, floods including flash floods, drought, heat
toxins and bioactive substances that may C waves and cold spells. Hydrometeorological
cause loss of life, injury, illness or other conditions also can be a factor in other
health impacts, property damage, loss of hazards such as landslides, wildland fires,
livelihoods and services, social and economic locust plagues, epidemics, and in the
disruption, or environmental damage. transport and dispersal of toxic substances
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and volcanic eruption material
Comment: Examples of biological hazards
include outbreaks of epidemic diseases, plant Supplementary Materials:
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or animal contagion, insect or other animal 1. International Federation of Red Cross

plagues and infestations. and Red Crescent Societies. (2016). Types of
disasters: Definition of hazard. Available at:
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http://www.ifrc.org/en/what-we-do/disaster-
Geological hazard management/about-disasters/definition-of-
Geological process or phenomenon that may hazard/
cause loss of life, injury or other health 2. National Disaster Risk Reduction and
impacts, property damage, loss of livelihoods Management Council. (2014, June). National
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and services, social and economic disruption, Disaster Response Plan. Available at:
or environmental damage. http://www.ndrrmc.gov.ph/attachments/article/
1334/NDRP_Hydro_Meteorological_Hazards_as_
Comment: Geological hazards include
of_2014.pdf
internal earth processes, such as
earthquakes, volcanic activity and emissions,
and related geophysical processes such as
mass movements, landslides, rockslides,
surface collapses, and debris or mud flows.
Hydrometeorological factors are important
contributors to some of these processes.
Tsunamis are difficult to categorize; although
they are triggered by undersea earthquakes
II. Basic Concept of Disaster and Disaster Risk
Disaster Risk is often defined by the Extensive risk; Intensive risk; Prospective
following relationship: disaster risk management; Residual risk;
Risk assessment; Risk management; Risk
transfer.
𝐸𝑥𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑡𝑜 ℎ𝑎𝑧𝑎𝑟𝑑 𝑥 𝑉𝑢𝑙𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑏𝑖𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑦
𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑎𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑟𝑖𝑠𝑘 =
𝐶𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑡𝑜 𝑐𝑜𝑝𝑒 Disaster risk
The potential disaster losses, in lives, health
The following is a selection of additional
status, livelihoods, assets and services,
essential terms for this chapter, along with
which could occur to a particular
their definitions and contextual comments
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community or a society over some specified
directly lifted from the "2009 UNISDR
future time period.
Terminology on Disaster Risk Reduction".
Consult the whole publication of
Comment: The definition of disaster risk
terminologies (Appendix) for related
reflects the concept of disasters as the
concepts. These are also discussed in the
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outcome of continuously present conditions
"Introduction to disaster risk reduction" by
of risk. Disaster risk comprises different
the United States Agency for International
types of potential losses which are often
Development (USAID, 2011), excerpts of
which are included here.
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knowledge of the prevailing hazards and the
patterns of population and socio-economic
Risk development, disaster risks can be assessed
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The combination of the probability of an and mapped, in broad terms at least.
event and its negative consequences.
Exposure
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Comment: This definition closely follows

People, property, systems, or other
the definition of the ISO/IEC Guide 73. The
elements present in hazard zones that are
word “risk” has two distinctive
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thereby subject to potential losses.

connotations: in popular usage the
emphasis is usually placed on the concept of
Comment: Measures of exposure can
chance or possibility, such as in “the risk of
include the number of people or types of
an accident”; whereas in technical settings
assets in an area. These can be combined
the emphasis is usually placed on the
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with the specific vulnerability of the exposed

consequences, in terms of “potential losses”
elements to any particular hazard to
for some particular cause, place and period.
estimate the quantitative risks associated
It can be noted that people do not
with that hazard in the area of interest.
necessarily share the same perceptions of
the significance and underlying causes of
different risks. Vulnerability
See other risk-related terms in the The characteristics and circumstances of a
Terminology: Acceptable risk; Corrective community, system or asset that make it
disaster risk management; Disaster risk; susceptible to the damaging effects of a
Disaster risk management; Disaster risk hazard.
reduction; Disaster risk reduction plans; Comment: There are many aspects of
vulnerability, arising from various physical,
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social, economic, and environmental Detailed analysis of these variables is
factors. Examples may include poor design complex and will be the subject of Chapter
and construction of buildings, inadequate VIII. One of the learning competencies of
protection of assets, lack of public this chapter is to start developing an
information and awareness, limited official appreciation of a multi-faceted approach to
recognition of risks and preparedness disaster risk by understanding the nature
measures, and disregard for wise and effects of disasters from "different
environmental management. Vulnerability perspectives (physical, psychological, socio-
varies significantly within a community and cultural, economic, political, and
over time. This definition identifies biological)" (DepEd DRRR curriculum guide).
vulnerability as a characteristic of the
element of interest (community, system or The "World Risk Reports", by the United
asset) which is independent of its exposure. Nations University - Institute for
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However, in common use the word is often Environment and Human Security, provide
used more broadly to include the element’s in-depth analysis of disaster risk from
exposure. various angles. Excerpts from each report
since 2011 are included in this compilation,
Capacity but the entire reports may be accessed
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The combination of all the strengths, online (see citation) if a more detailed and
attributes and resources available within a C comprehensive approach is required.
community, society or organization that can
Supplementary Materials:
be used to achieve agreed goals. 1. Dilley, M. & Golnaraghi, M. (2005). Risk identification:
a critical component of disaster risk management.
Comment: Capacity may include Available at:
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infrastructure and physical means, https://www.ldeo.columbia.edu/chrr/pdf/grip/Dilley
AndGolnaraghi.pdf
institutions, societal coping abilities, as well
2. Dillon, C. (2015, March 17). Exposed: Why Vanuatu is
as human knowledge, skills and collective
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the world's most 'at-risk' country for natural hazards.

attributes such as social relationships, Available at: http://www.dw.com/en/exposed-why-
leadership and management. Capacity also vanuatu-is-the-worlds-most-at-risk-country-for-
natural-hazards/a-18319825
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may be described as capability. Capacity

3. Garschagen, M. (2015, September 21). Cities: Drivers
assessment is a term for the process by of risk or resilience? Available at United Nations
which the capacity of a group is reviewed University – Institute for Environment and Human
against desired goals, and the capacity gaps Security: http://ehs.unu.edu/blog/opinion/cities-
are identified for further action. drivers-of-risk-or-resilience.html
4. Onita, L. (2014, September 17). Floods, storms and
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quakes uproot 22 million in 2013, numbers to rise.

Factors to disaster risk Available at Reuters UK:
Essentially, the factors of disaster risk are http://uk.reuters.com/article/uk-foundation-
the variables in the equation (exposure to disasters-displaced-idUKKBN0HB2PC20140916
hazard, vulnerability, and capacity).
Introduction to Disaster Risk Reduction
From “Introduction to disaster risk reduction,” USAID Disaster Risk Reduction Training Course for
Southern Africa, 2011.
1. INTRODUCTION Africa has come a long way since the

Disasters have always been a result of global arena emphasized the need for
human interaction with nature, multi- stakeholder disaster risk reduction
technology and other living entities. rather than continuing the unsustainable
Sometimes unpredictable and sudden, cycle of disaster management. The 2000s
sometimes slow and lingering, various saw a number of declarations, policies,
types of disasters continually affect the strategies, plans and programmes
way in which we live our daily lives. Human developed. Yet very little real
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beings as innovative creatures have sought implementation of the above is evident on
new ways in which to curb the devastating the African continent, despite a number of
effects of disasters. However, for years, inter-regional and high-level discussions
human conduct regarding disasters has and forms of collaboration.
been reactive in nature. Communities,
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sometimes aware of the risks that they The following module will introduce you to
face, would wait in anticipation of a the field of disaster risk reduction. The first
disastrous event and then activate plans
C part of the module will focus on defining
and procedures. Human social and the basic, but most important, terms in
economic development has further relation to disaster studies. The different
contributed to creating vulnerability and elements of disaster risk management will
thus weakening the ability of humans enjoy attention, and how these different
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to cope with disasters and their effects. elements contribute to our
understanding and better management
Disasters impede human development. of risk and disasters will be explained.
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Gains in development are inextricably Different types of hazards, vulnerability

linked to the level of exposure to domains and risks will also be discussed.
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disaster risk within any given This module also provides a more
community. In the same light, the level theoretical look at the evolution of the
of disaster risk prevalent in a study of disasters and in doing so
community is linked to the emphasis will be placed on the trans-
developmental choices exerted by that disciplinary nature of disaster risk
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community (UNDP, 2004). The link reduction. After the theoretical foundation
between disasters and development is for the understanding of disaster risk
well researched and documented. The fact management has been laid, the emphasis
that disasters impact on development (e.g. will shift towards an understanding of how
a school being washed away in a flood) disaster risk management functions as an
and development increases or decreases integrated approach within the context of
the risk of disasters (e.g. introducing sustainable development. The last part
earthquake-resistant building techniques) of this module will provide you with
is widely accepted. Yet, every year Africa insight into some of the cross-cutting
suffers disaster losses which set back issues such as climate change and
development and leave our communities adaptation, disaster risk governance and
living in a perpetual state of risk. gender and disaster risk issues.
2. DEFINING THE CONCEPTS Probably one of the most debated terms
Various terms linked to the activities in disaster reduction remains the basic
which we have come to understand as definition of a disaster. Many scholars
disaster risk reduction, have evolved and (see the work of Quarantelli, 1998b;
been refined over the past 50 years. An Quarantelli & Perry, 2005) have expressed
over- emphasis on disaster and diverse views on what exactly constitutes
humanitarian relief has made way for the a disaster. Some link the existence of a
contemporary terms such as disaster disaster to a specific amount of losses
reduction and disaster risk management. sustained (e.g. number of people killed
However, a common understanding of the and injured), others judge an event to be a
various terms underlying disaster risk disaster if a certain predefined threshold is
reduction is crucial if one aims to ensure a breached (e.g. a trigger to a certain
standardized approach by all stakeholders. contingency measure is reached), some
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The section that follows aims to give judge disasters on their geographical
perspective on the most important terms extent and significance with regard to
used in the field of disaster reduction. The “normal” conditions, while some express a
definition of these terms has been disaster in terms of its monetary value in
universally accepted to be valid and is a losses. However, since the International
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compilation of the definitions according to Decade of Natural Disaster Reduction
the published terminology of the United (IDNDR) the various scientific
Nations International Strategy for Disaster understandings of disaster have
Reduction (UNISDR, 2009). UNISDR is the
C culminated in a globally accepted
secretariat of the International Strategy definition.
for Disaster Reduction (ISDR). It was
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created in December 1999 and is part The UNISDR (2009) defines a disaster as:
of the UN Secretariat with the purpose of “A serious disruption of the functioning of
ensuring the implementation of the a community or a society involving
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International Strategy for Disaster widespread human, material, or

Reduction. An alignment of the environmental losses and impacts which
terminology used in disaster risk exceeds the ability of the affected
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reduction in Africa with the internationally community to cope using only its own
acceptable concepts is logical. resources.”
2.1 Disaster Some aspects of this definition need to be

Although the focus of disaster reduction is highlighted. Firstly the emphasis of the
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not on any actual disaster event itself, definition is on “a serious disruption”.

disaster remains the main focus. Thus our One can therefore expect a disaster
efforts must be geared towards the event to be something which significantly
reduction of the risk of a disaster changes the “normal”. It is an event which
occurring. Before one can therefore focus the majority of the affected community
on the more technical and complex terms will perceive as removing them from the
of disaster risk reduction and disaster risk “normal”. Second and most important is
management, one must have a very the distinction which the definition places
clear understanding of what in actual on abnormal events and an event which
fact a “disaster” entails. we can classify as being a disaster. If the
event “exceeds the ability” of the affected
community to handle the consequences by destruction of assets, loss of services, social
making use of all their resources, then and economic disruption and
the event can be classified as “a environmental degradation.”
disaster”. Lastly, note should be taken of
the concept “community”. Various It is important to note that the term
disciplines define “community” quite “natural disaster” has not been used, the
differently. A community is a collection of reason being it is inaccurate and
people sharing common interests and misleading to refer to “natural disasters”.
values. Despite being culturally diverse,
mobile or unstable, members of a Disasters: Natural or not?
community communicate with or on Disaster risk can be determined by the
behalf of each other in order to achieve a presence of three variables: hazards
mutually beneficial outcome – they are (natural or anthropogenic); vulnerability to
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bound together by a common goal, a hazard; and coping capacity linked to
their sense of belonging and a sense of the reduction, mitigation and resilience
to the vulnerability of a community
place. However, the management of
associated with the hazard in question.
disasters and the risk associated with For example, let’s assume we are dealing
disasters in most Southern African
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with a poor African community (i.e. an
Development Community (SADC) countries informal settlement situated in the 1/50
becomes the responsibility of year flood-line). Certain socio-economic
Government. One should therefore and political dynamics in the country force
appreciate the fact that in order for a
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conditions (e.g. distance from employment
government to adequately manage opportunities, urbanisation, poor land use
disasters, the definition of “community” planning etc.). Along comes a natural
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must be very clear. To this end it has hazard such as a significant flood, and the
become common practice for community settled in the flood-line is
governments to use their administrative exposed to the point of experiencing a
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disaster. However, this should not be seen

units to define the affected “community”.
as a natural disaster. Although a natural
Thus if an event exceeds the coping ability hazard was the trigger for the disaster, it
of a village, or local municipality, or
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was in fact human- made. If proper

district, or state/province or even the settlement planning, land use planning,
nation, then a specific type of disaster can building codes, community awareness,
be declared (i.e. local, state/provincial or economic policies, and the like had been
in place, then this “natural disaster” would
national).
have been mitigated. Almost all exposure
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to natural hazards and vulnerability can be

The UNISDR goes on to indicate: “Disasters reduced. Thus human actions lead to
are often described as a result of the natural hazards becoming natural
combination of: the exposure to a disasters.
hazard; the conditions of vulnerability
that are present; and insufficient capacity The above example highlighted a number of
or measures to reduce or cope with the other terms which are important to
potential negative consequences. Disaster understand to gain a full picture of what
impacts may include loss of life, injury, disaster risk reduction entails.
disease and other negative effects on
human physical, mental and social well-
being, together with damage to property,
2.2 Risk and disaster risk are therefore more at risk than
Risk has various connotations within communities that do have the capacity to
different disciplines. In general risk is cope.
defined as “the combination of the
probability of an event and its negative Risks exist or are created within social
consequences” (UNISDR, 2009). The term systems. The social context in which risk
risk is thus multidisciplinary and is used in occurs is an important consideration. It
a variety of contexts. Risk is usually should also be noted that people therefore
associated with the degree to which do not share the same perceptions of risk
humans cannot cope (lack of capacity) and their underlying causes due to their
with a particular situation (e.g. natural social circumstances. To determine
hazard). disaster risk three aspects need to be
present: a hazard, vulnerability to the
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One should be mindful that we as hazard and some form of coping
humans do not have absolute capacity
capacity. These terms will now enjoy
and have sustained and will sustain
significant losses due to natural greater attention.
hazards in future. We however need
to realize that we also have capacity 2.3 Hazard
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to make the right decisions, implement A hazard is defined as “a dangerous
the right measures, and engage in phenomenon, substance, human activity
intelligent development planning which
or condition that may cause loss of life,
will reduce the risk of disasters
occurring. The reduction of a risk
C injury or other health impacts, property
manifesting in a disaster therefore damage, loss of livelihoods and services,
requires a very broad multi-sectoral and social and economic disruption, or
multidisciplinary focus where the
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environmental damage” (UNISDR, 2009).
structural engineer, politician, social
worker, agricultural extension worker
and even kindergarten teacher all
Hazards can be single, sequential or
E
have equally important roles in combined in their origin and effects. Each
ensuring natural hazards do not hazard is characterized by its location,
become disasters. intensity, probability and likely frequency.
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Typical examples of hazards can be the

The term disaster risk therefore refers to absence of rain (leading to drought) or the
the potential (not actual and realized) abundance thereof (leading to flooding).
disaster losses, in lives, health status, Chemical manufacturing plants near
settlements can also be regarded as
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livelihoods, assets and services, which

could occur in a particular community or hazardous; similarly, incorrect agricultural
society over some specified future time techniques will in the long run lead to
period. Disaster risk is the product of the possible disasters. Hazards can either be a
possible damage caused by a hazard due creation of humans (anthropogenic) or the
to the vulnerability within a community. It environment (natural). Although the
should be noted that the effect of a hazard former can more easily be planned for than
(of a particular magnitude) would affect the latter, in both cases the management
communities differently (Von Kotze, of the hazard will remain the same. Our
1999:35). This is true because of the level development efforts and attention should
of the coping mechanisms within that therefore be focused on the presence of
particular community. Poorer communities
various hazards and this must inform our 2.4 Vulnerability
planning. Vulnerability is defined as the
characteristics and circumstances of a
A distinction should also be made between community, system or asset that make it
normal natural occurrences and natural susceptible to the damaging effects of a
hazards. Natural phenomena are extreme hazard. Vulnerability is a set of prevailing
climatological (weather), hydrological or consequential conditions arising from
(water), or geological (earth) processes various physical, social, economic and
that do not pose any threat to persons or environmental factors which increase
property. A massive earthquake in an the susceptibility of a community to the
unpopulated area (e.g. the Sahara desert) impact of hazards (UNISDR, 2002:24). It
is a natural phenomenon. Once the can also comprise physical, socio-
consequences (a possible hazardous economic and/or political factors that
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situation) of this natural phenomenon adversely affect the ability of communities
come into contact with human beings, it to respond to events (Jegillos, 1999).
becomes a natural hazard. If this natural Blaikie et al. (1994) are of the opinion that
hazard (due to the unplanned or poorly vulnerability is constituted by the
planned activities of the human beings), characteristics of a person or group in
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affects them so that they are unable to terms of their capacity to anticipate, cope
cope, the situation becomes a disaster. with, resist and recover from the impact
of a hazard. Vulnerability can be expressed
C as the degree of loss resulting from a
Difference between a hazard and a potentially damaging phenomenon or
disaster hazard. It is therefore the extent to
“Strictly speaking there are no such
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which a community will degrade when
things as natural disasters, but subjected to a specified set of hazardous
there are natural hazards. A conditions.
E
disaster is the result of a hazard’s

impact on society. So the effects of Vulnerability has some distinct underlying
a disaster are determined by the causes. The magnitude of each disaster,
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extent of a community’s
measured in deaths, damage, or costs
vulnerability to the hazard
(for a given developing country)
(conversely, its ability, or capacity
to cope with it). This vulnerability is increases with the increased
not natural, but the result of an marginalization of the population. This can
be caused by a high birth rate, problems
D
entire range of constantly

changing physical, social, of land tenure and economic opportunity,
economic, cultural, political and and the misallocation of resources to
even psychological factors that meet the basic human needs of an
shape people’s lives and create the expanding population. As the population
environments in which they live.” increases, the best land in both rural and
Twigg (2001:6). urban areas is taken up, and those seeking
land for farming or housing are forced to
accept inadequate land. This offers less
productivity and a smaller measure of
physical or economic safety, thus
rendering the community vulnerable.
2.5 Coping capacity improve and refine existing structures,
Coping capacity for disaster risk systems and environments in order to
reduction refers to the ability of progress. Returning to an original or
people, organizations and systems, using previous state therefore corresponds with
available skills and resources, to face and the tendency of certain communities to
manage adverse conditions such as return to vulnerable locations and rebuild
hazards, emergencies or disasters. Coping their houses, without improving conditions
capacities contribute to the reduction of and increasing chances to progress.
disaster risks (UNISDR, 2009). The focus Resilience, however, implicitly requires
here should therefore not only be on the improvement.
individual or the community but also the
capacity of the supporting mechanisms to The UNISDR defines resilience as “the
the individual and the community at large. ability of a system, community or society
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For example, one specific community exposed to hazards to resist, absorb,
might consist of a number of new accommodate to and recover from the
immigrants but this new community might effects of a hazard in a timely and efficient
enjoy the support of the local municipality. manner, including through the
In themselves, the new community might preservation and restoration of its
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not have cohesion yet, but their capacity essential basic structures and functions”
lays in the support, which they have. (UNISDR, 2009). This definition therefore
Similarly an impoverished community considers the presence of a hazard and
might not be the focus of development,
C not a disaster. Thus once a disaster
but inherent in their internal social and actually occurs, it would be incorrect to
economic structures they might possess refer to resilience but rather to coping
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significant coping capacity and resilience. capacity. Resilience and the building of
Coping capacity is therefore just as much resilience should therefore be seen as an
about what a community internally integral part of disaster risk reduction
E
possesses, as the external structures on activities.

which they depend.
Resilience therefore means the ability to
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2.6 Resilience “spring back from” a shock. The resilience

In the natural environment, resilience of a community in respect of potential
means that an area or eco-system under hazard events is determined by the
threat is restored to its original pristine degree to which the community has the
state. In the construction and engineering necessary resources and is capable of
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industry, resilience would be the ability of organising itself both prior to and during
metal or a structure to return to an times of need (UNISDR, 2009).
original state – being able to withstand
shock, weight or pressure. However, Excerpt from:
United States Agency for International
human systems cannot be untouched by Development. (2011, August). Introduction to
life events – they do not necessarily return disaster risk reduction. Retrieved from
to an original or former state and the http://www.preventionweb.net/files/26081_kp1
concepdisasterrisk1.pdf
challenge is to continuously develop,
10
Governance and civil society
From World Risk Report 2011, United Nations University - Institute for Environment and Human
Security. http://weltrisikobericht.de/english/
What risks are caused by “fragile” states, Weak governance – big risk
regarding natural hazards? What influence
on disaster prevention do actors of the civil Weak governance is one of the most
society have? How can they demand important risk factors with regard to the
responsible and effective governance? The impact of natural hazards, which is shown,
focal topic of World Risk Report 2011 deals inter alia, in the number of deaths: states
with the complex relationship of with strong institutions have fewer deaths
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“Governance and civil society” in the field after extreme natural events than those
of disaster prevention and disaster with weak or inexistent institutions (Kahn
management. In addition to two keynote 2005).
articles, it features case studies of projects
of Bündnis Entwicklung Hilft member In states considered weak according to the
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organizations, which show how civil society Failed States index of the Fund for Peace,
initiatives for disaster risk reduction and the government cannot or can only partially
good governance work hand in hand. C provide its citizens with basic government
functions, such as security and welfare
State failure as a risk factor – How benefits, or rule of law. Many of these
natural events turn into disasters states primarily act as “skimming devices”:
most available funds are used for their own
D
Whether natural events turn into disasters personnel and do not flow into public
depends critically on the coping and interest-oriented development processes.
adaptive capacities of governments. In Often, there is an oversized police and
E
2010, when an earthquake with a military apparatus, which cannot ensure

magnitude of 7.0 on the moment appropriate security due to poor education
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magnitude scale struck Haiti, the and low pay of their personnel, especially in
consequences were devastating. More than the lower echelons, as well as widespread
220,000 people were killed in the disaster corruption. Most weak states have only a
(CRED EM-DAT 2011), as many people small taxable income base since no taxes
injured and 1.5 million became homeless. In can be collected from the usually large
segments of poor people, and the citizens
D
some villages, about 90 per cent of

buildings were destroyed. Although it was with higher income are not properly
the worst earthquake in Haiti in 200 years recorded or are rarely asked to pay because
and the epicenter was only about 25 km of corruption. The resulting poor condition
from Port au Prince, the capital of the of infrastructure leads to further weakening
country, it soon became clear that the of the enforcement capacity of the state. In
impact of the earthquake was so severe and addition, there is often a lack of qualified
destructive not only because of its natural personnel or the administration is
force, but also the almost complete failure characterized by clientelistic structures that
of the Haitian State, as could be observed lead to inefficient administrative
later through a comparison with a much procedures and, not infrequently, to
stronger earthquake that occurred in Chile. individuals taking advantage of the state
11
and its structures for private interests. the lack of monitoring capacities of the
government and high levels of corruption,
building regulations – if they exist – can be
Haiti – a reason for concern bypassed. The development of disaster
preparedness plans is often prevented by
the low qualification or sheer non-existence
of state personnel. Further, insufficient
government revenue hinders the regular
conduct of awareness campaigns and the
Haiti is a “fragile state”. In the Failed States index of installation of early warning systems and
the Fund for Peace, Haiti is ranked 11th, only slightly information portals. Also, public health care
behind Somalia, Afghanistan, the Democratic in poor states is often provided
Republic of the Congo and Sudan (The Fund for
insufficiently. Only rarely is it possible to
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Peace 2011). Although the President, the Prime
Minister and many government Members are
develop public services so as to be prepared
credited for their great interest and involvement, for coping with disasters. Lack of
the Government is barely able to act effectively. The investment in education and research, and
political system is fractioned and decision-making the resulting low level of education limit the
processes are extremely difficult (Collier 2009). possibilities of the population to develop
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strategies to cope with disasters and thus
Furthermore, political corruption is a widespread reduce the adaptive capacities of society
phenomenon among the elite. Although the Haitian (see box on Haiti). Yet, examples from
government has recognized for a long time that it is
responsible for the provision of welfare benefits in
C states that have succeeded in recent years
in significantly strengthening their
the sectors of health and education, it does not have
a successful track record. Most social services have
institutions prove much more successful in
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been and still are delivered by NGOs. In general, the coping with and adapting to disasters (see
quality of government services is very poor. The box on Chile).
inefficiency of the government and its predecessors
E
is also reflected by the lack of building regulations When neighbors save lives
and standards in the country as well as the fact that
national disaster management systems have been How hard a natural hazard strikes a society
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introduced only very gradually and emergency

does not exclusively depend on the strength
services have received no assistance (Oxfam 2010).
In addition to the severe poverty of the country,
of the state. For instance, there are
Haiti being the poorest country in the Western relatively strong, autocratic states that
hemisphere, the serious shortcomings of the theoretically have the capacity of
functioning disaster preparedness, but not
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Government contributed significantly to the impact

of the earthquake of 12 January 2010, which was the will to protect their citizens accordingly.
one of the biggest disasters in the world in recent Examples include the Democratic People’s
years. Republic of Korea and Myanmar. For
instance, when Cyclone Nargis swept
through the Bay of Bengal in 2008 and
The effects of weak governance, particularly devastated five regions of Myanmar,
on the capacities of societies to cope with including the former capital of Yangon, it
and adapt to natural hazards are enormous. quickly became clear that that the military
The state is rarely able or ready to establish regime ruling the country was barely able to
a functioning system of disaster provide on its own the urgently needed
preparedness and to implement it. Due to emergency aid for the affected population.
12
In addition, the Junta declared the 15,000 management systems, there are other
km2 of Irrawaddy Delta a “restricted area” effective social mechanisms that can help to
to international aid workers and journalists, reduce the disaster risk. Scientists and
making it greatly difficult to supply aid to practitioners who deal with the issue agree
the victims. that, particularly in the first days after a
However, in addition to national disaster disaster such as an earthquake, a flood or a
Chile – a high performer
Shortly after the devastating earthquake in Haiti, another and

even stronger earthquake hit Chile. This earthquake, with a
magnitude of 8.8 points on the moment magnitude scale was
the fifth strongest earthquake worldwide in over a hundred
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years. More than three million people live within 200 km of
the epicentre of the earthquake. Even in Santiago de Chile,
the capital located some 325 kilometres away, in many places
in Argentina and even in São Paulo at a distance of a few
thousand kilometres, the earthquake was still strongly felt.
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Despite its magnitude, the earthquake claimed only 562
victims (CRED EM-DAT 2011). The mortality rate was thus
about 400 times lower than that of Haiti. A crucial difference
C
was due to the good governance of Chile. Chile ranks 155th in
the Failed States index of the Fund for Peace and is thus
positioned on the diametrically opposed side of the spectrum
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from Haiti (The Fund for Peace 2011).
In particular, two dimensions of good governance are

E
discussed in the literature for good disaster management:

public sector efficiency and the good anti-corruption policy of
the government. In 2009, Chile ranked 21st in the
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“Corruption Perception Index”, ahead of Belgium, the United

States and France. Since the 1960s, the government
institutions have continuously established and enforced
better building regulations. The stable building structure, at
least of newer buildings, might be an important reason for
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the low number of deaths.
In addition, innovative technologies were established in

disaster risk management and regular training sessions held
in educational institutions. The fact that the tsunami caused
by the earthquake claimed many lives was due to serious
errors committed by the Marine Unit in early warning and the
complete collapse of telephone and internet lines after the
temporary failure of power supply. (Kaufmann and Tessada
2010).
13
cyclone, it is above all the informal aid Conference of the International Council of
provided in the local context and solidarity Voluntary Agencies (ICVA) in Geneva,
among people that are critical. In fact, most Switzerland, in March 2011 that hardly any
first aid is provided by family and real cooperation between the Haitian
neighborhood networks. In addition, almost Government and the international
all societies have coping and adaptation community is evident; instead, there is a
strategies at their disposal. In fact, many climate of mistrust. Rather than closely
disasters are not single events; they occur accompanying the Government’s work and
every year and repeatedly reveal to the taking common action, the promised
affected societies the need of developing government aid is handled through
coping and adaption strategies, such as a international NGOs or not even disbursed.
change in building design or the creation of This creates a vicious circle: the
evacuation plans. Government does not have the necessary
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financial resources to implement actions
Supporting, not replacing the State and therefore cannot demonstrate success,
which in turn would be the prerequisite for
The relief aid and development work faces gaining assertiveness and obtaining
immense challenges, given the coincidence additional funds. Therefore, there is
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of weak governance and extreme natural currently a real risk that the Haitian
events. With which actors and institutions is Government will be replaced by
collaboration possible in the event of a international NGOs in the implementation
disaster? How can these actors be
C and planning processes.
strengthened? Which tasks can be assumed
by the government and which by civil Disaster risk reduction and disaster
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society or private actors? It is certain that management in fragile states is
both government and local civil society play undoubtedly a challenging task. However, it
a crucial role in disaster preparedness and cannot be solved by undermining local state
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that each must be strengthened actors. As long as the concerned

accordingly. governments have a minimum level of
development targets, they must be
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Given the often severe corruption, the low supported in close partnership in bilateral
capacities of the state and a virtually non- and multilateral development cooperation
existent local civil society, it seems often when they implement and execute
easier for international public donors to development measures. More responsibility
entrust the funds earmarked for disaster and more money must gradually be
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preparedness and reconstruction after a transferred to them. This can be successful

disaster to international NGOs that if the governments are supported in setting
implement their projects. However, this up effective anti-corruption programmes. In
creates the danger of removing addition, long-term plans to create local
responsibility from the state and weakening government capacities must be developed,
it even more in the long term. training programmes set up, and the
support of government officials by
In Haiti, the risk of undermining state international experts guaranteed. According
authority by the international community is to the subsidiarity principle, which states
currently real. Joel Boutroué, Adviser to the that the higher and more remote level of
Haitian Prime Minister, pointed out at the government should only regulate what the
14
lower level or the nearest level to the processes, or the influence of national
citizens cannot, it is important that local political processes and legislative
government structures in particular be procedures in disaster risk reduction.
strengthened. They must be allowed access
to the institutions in charge of In parallel to building state capacity, civil
reconstruction and disaster preparedness. society’s coping and adaptive capacities
should be encouraged at the local level. If
the government fails in disaster
Civil society as a lever to strengthen preparedness, then the catastrophic
the state consequences of natural disasters can at
least be mitigated at a lower level. The
Only when bilateral development organizations that collaborate within
Bündnis Entwicklung Hilft promote the
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cooperation is impossible because of gross
human rights violations or extremely weak already set up social, self-help strategies,
governance resources can be provided for instance, by using traditional knowledge
solely through NGOs. This approach, of construction design or pre-existing early
however, should remain temporary. An warning systems and further developing
important function of NGOs is, in this case, them with local partner organizations.
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also the strengthening of state structures in
disaster preparedness. The member These organizations also support
communities that, for example, due to
organizations of Bündnis Entwicklung Hilft
achieve this by involving government
C migration or abject poverty, have no
officials in the planning processes and, with disaster preparedness mechanisms by
the help of their partner organizations, ensuring a common risk analysis,
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supporting the local population to actively transferring knowledge and providing
demand state action in the field of disaster training, and supporting necessary
preparedness and beyond. Examples preventive measures, such as dike
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include the consideration of local reinforcements or salt-water sealing for

government officials in local risk water wells.
assessments or in planning and training
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D
15
Environmental degradation and disasters
From World Risk Report 2012, United Nations University - Institute for Environment and Human
Hundreds of thousands of trees toppled by the livelihoods of inhabitants and supply

a severe hurricane are a visible sign of essential goods.
environmental destruction wrought by a + Ecosystems can enhance coping capacity
disaster. And flooded coastal villages and in the event of a disaster. For example, if
washed away beaches whose natural supply lines are severed, food and fresh
protective belt of mangroves has been water can be obtained from the immediate
chopped down in pursuit of economic environment when that environment is
interests are, in turn, a sign of the healthy and intact.
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considerably greater risk in the wake of a + Ecosystems also directly influence
natural disaster where the natural adaptive capacities. When the environment
environment has been destroyed. There is is in good condition, there is a greater
an interactive link between environmental diversity of future planning options. For
destruction and disasters that many example, in Haiti and other deforested and
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examples can serve to describe. But so far, environmentally degraded areas, the
these insights have been given too little opportunities for diversified strategies for
attention by politics and science. reducing future vulnerability are greatly
C reduced. It is much easier to manage to
Environmental degradation as a risk reduce future risks when your natural
factor resources currently are viable and intact;
D
Torsten Welle, Michael W. Beck, Peter Mucke your choices simply are greater.
Intact ecosystems can significantly reduce The role of the ecosystems and the link
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disaster risk in four ways, corresponding to between environmental degradation and

the components of the World Risk Index. the increased impact of disasters were
clearly made in the Millennium Ecosystem
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+ Forests and riparian wetlands or coastal Assessment (MA) in 2005 particularly with
ecosystems such as mangroves, coral reefs regards to risks from flooding and forest
and sea-grass reduce exposure to natural fires. This UN MA study also showed that 60
hazards by acting as natural buffers and % of the ecosystems are not being
protective barriers that thus reduce the sustainably used or are in a state of ongoing
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impacts of extreme natural events such as degradation (MA, 2005). The UN Global
landslides or tidal waves. Assessment Report on Disaster Risk
+ When sustainably managed and in good Reduction 2009 identified environmental
condition, intact ecosystems such as degradation and the decline of ecosystems
grasslands, forests, rivers or coastal areas as one of the chief factors raising the risk of
can reduce vulnerability. They contribute to disasters.
nutrition, income and wellbeing. In addition
to food, they can also provide medicine and However, scientists have only recently
building materials, or they can represent begun to systematically establish the extent
new sources of income, for example via to which ecosystems have a direct influence
nature-based tourism. Thus they support on disaster risk. The Secretariat of the
16
United Nations Office for Disaster Risk has a profound impact on disaster risk.
Reduction (UNISDR) has applied the
ecosystem approach and referred to the Increased disaster risk through
role of the environment and its buffering environmental degradation
capacities vis-à-vis natural hazards several
times in reports. It has called for detailed There are numerous local- and regional-
studies and analyses on an understanding scale examples of the links between
of ecosystems and their influence on the ecosystem condition and disaster risk. For
reduction of disaster risks (UNEP/ISDR example, the loss of ecosystems, such as
2008). Here, there is still a considerable the degradation of wetlands and mangroves
need for research and action. along river courses, results in increased
flooding. This link has been demonstrated
There are a large number of local and
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along the Mississippi River in the USA. Here,
regional studies demonstrating that the floodwater storage capacity of the soil
ecosystem functions and services and their has fallen by 80 percent owing to the
sustainable management have a mitigating degradation of forest-covered wetlands
effect on disaster risk (PEDRR 2010, along the river through canal building
Sudmeier-Rieux et al. 2006). For example it measures, leveling and draining for
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is well known that agribusiness increases development purposes (MA 2005, Chapter
soil erosion and that deforestation 16). In combination with severe
increases risks of landslides.
C precipitation, snowmelt and a low level of
evaporation, the degradation of alluvial
As a rule, ecosystem functions are very zones along the courses of rivers, river
complex, and the disaster risk is influenced regulation and the sealing of the land
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by many factors. At the global level, enhance surface runoff.
available data so far allow for restricted The result is a higher risk of flooding since
statements on the quantitative link the ground and the vegetation can no
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between environmental degradation and longer absorb the water (Disse and Engel
risk. A correlation has however been 2001). Furthermore, deforestation and crop
established between the frequency of farming on slopes also lead to an increase in
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flooding and deforestation (Bradshaw et al. flood risk since deforestation and
2007). agriculture in river catchment areas
contribute to increased soil erosion and this
There are several reasons why we believe in turn raises the sediment load in rivers.
that it is difficult to find global correlations This process can result in the silting up of
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in overall degradation and risk. First we rivers, as has been demonstrated with the
find that the nature of the relationship examples of the Ganges and the
depends strongly on the respective hazard Brahmaputra (Ali 2007).
and habitat type. And second, we believe
that the global analysis requires higher The link between deforestation and flood
resolution data of the type which are so far risk has also been examined in several
usually only available from local and studies in experimental hydrological
regional surveys. Although there is an research. Deforestation raises the annual
obvious need for further research in this run-off volume and maximum throughflow
area, there is widespread scientific evidence and reduces the evaporation rate. These
showing that the state of the ecosystems properties cause an increased flood risk
17
since the natural buffering capacity of the disaster risk in coastal areas. For example,
forest as an ecosystem is lowered (ADPC the alteration of wetlands in coastal
2004). Degradation of this kind can lead to a watersheds exacerbated flooding events in
roughly fourfold increase in the extent of Florida and Texas (Brody et al. 2007). In
flooding in comparison to riparian looking at the impacts of cyclones at global
landscapes with intact, undisturbed level, the areas covered by even semi-
vegetation cover (Atta-ur-Rahman and Khan altered coastal ecosystems were correlated
2011). with lower human mortality (Perez-Maqueo
et al. 2007).
++ 23rd to 29th August 2005 ++
Hurricane Katrina in the USA The threat of a landslide is increased by
Reaching speeds of more than 250 kilometers an hour, severe precipitation, snowmelt, thawing of
Hurricane Katrina at some points built to a category 5 the ground, tremors due to earthquakes
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hurricane (the strongest) and hit the Gulf Coast of the and, last but not least, loss of vegetation
USA, especially Florida, Louisiana and Mississippi, as well through anthropogenic influence (BAFU
as Alabama and Georgia. New Orleans was particularly 2009). Peduzzi (2010) examined the link
severely affected. Causing more than 1,800 deaths,
Hurricane Katrina was one of the five deadliest hurricanes
between landslides and vegetation cover
in the history of the USA. Many coastal ecosystems were with reference to the earthquake in
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heavily damaged by Katrina and the follow-up Hurricane northern Pakistan in 2005. He used
Rita, one month later. Louisiana’s Chandeleur Islands lost geological data for this purpose (such as
around 85 percent of their surface area; these barrier remote sensing data like satellite images)
islands were critical nesting and feeding grounds and their
loss directly impacted hundreds of thousands birds from
C from which the vegetation was deduced,
sandwich terns to brown pelicans. Through these storms digital elevation models, data on active
and through saltwater intrusion inland, more than 570 earthquake zones and digital infrastructure
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square kilometers of marshland and coastal forests of the data (roads and rivers), and he compiled a
Gulf Coast were lost, which was on top of the already rapid regression model. The result was that
decline of these coastal habitats. vegetation can reduce the occurrence of
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landslides by 15 %, thus representing a

significant risk reducing component.
++ 14th to 18th April 2006 ++
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Sandstorms in China
The sandstorms are a meteorological phenomenon that
Disasters as a cause of environmental
occurs in the months of the spring in China. Industrial destruction
pollution and an over-cultivation of the soil, deforestation
and overgrazing are massively increasing their intensity A number of local and regional studies deal
and their impact. with damage to ecosystems that have been
D
caused by natural events. The state of the

Owing to the storms, China’s deserts grow by up to 10
meters each year, which leads to a loss of fertile soil. environment is examined before and
Sandstorms also contain toxic harmful substances (sulfur, immediately after the event – usually with
soot, ash, carbon monoxide) and heavy metals, which can the aid of remote sensing data, provided
result in an impairment of air, soil and water properties – that it is available in data banks.
for instance through acid rain. Additionally, the heavy In China, an analysis of surface vegetation
metals can cause sustained contamination of forage plants
was carried out following the earthquake in
for animals as well as their habitats.
Wenchuan (with a magnitude of 8.0) in May
2008. Degradation by the earthquake was
Marshes, mangrove forests, corals and sea- at 22 percent. One of the phenomena
grass beds have a direct impact on the resulting from the earthquake was a large
18
number of landslides. However, after four numbers of corals were killed throughout
months, the recovery level of the the Indian, Pacific and Caribbean seas.
vegetation was already at almost 100 These events are predicted to be much
percent (Liu et al. 2010). more common in the coming years.
In Thailand, following the tsunami in 2004, ++ July/August 2010 ++

the extent of damage to five different forest Flooding in Pakistan
ecosystems was examined with the aid of The floods were caused by very heavy monsoon rainfalls
high-resolution remote sensing data and were aggravated by deforestation in the Himalayas.
(Roemer et al. 2010). One aspect revealed The water masses flooded 20 percent of Pakistan’s area,
here was that in the area examined, 55 affecting 21 million people.
percent of the mangrove forests had
Food supplies and wide stretches of land used for
suffered immediate damage while others,
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agricultural purposes were rendered useless. More than 3.2
such as tea tree forests, had only suffered a million hectares, which is just under 16 percent of the
little damage. cultivable area, were destroyed. The availability of clean
drinking water was dramatically reduced.
Cyclones can cause considerable damage to
ecosystems. For example, throughout the
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Gulf of Mexico, cyclones consistently ++ 11th March 2011 ++
destroy oyster reefs and beds to the extent Earthquake in Japan
that tens of millions of dollars have been In the course of the Tohuku earthquake and the subsequent
spent in the past decade to help revive
C Tsunami, 15,860 people were killed, while a further 3,000
were reported lost. The quake hit the Japanese Fukushima
oyster fishing grounds for small-scale fishing Nuclear Power Plant, resulting in a core meltdown and the
communities. Cyclones have seriously emission of radioactive material.
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harmed coral reefs throughout the
Caribbean, including many of those that are This led to a contamination of the air, soil, rivers and lakes,
extremely important to communities for and food (fruit, vegetables, livestock, fish and seafood) for
several decades or even centuries.
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tourism and diving.
In Pakistan, damage to the environment

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A large number of local and regional

caused by flooding was examined. For not surveys demonstrate that the environment
only does heavy flooding lead to a loss of directly influences disaster risk. However,
livestock and harvests. Erosion processes do further examinations of case studies and
lasting harm to the topsoil, strongly country analyses are required to improve
affecting the livelihoodsof people and
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our understanding of these processes;

resulting in an increase in vulnerability. further we need better data for
However, no detailed quantification of comprehensive global correlations. At the
damage is available (Atta-ur-Rahman 2011). same time, it is important to enhance
environmental conservation and
The warming of the oceans is already sustainable environmental management
having dramatic effects on reefs and from the local to the global level and
wetlands around the world. When sea actively integrate all these aspects into
surface temperature increases, coral reef disaster preparedness.
ecosystems are badly impacted. In the 1998
El Nino ocean warming events, huge
19
Health and healthcare
From Word Risk Report 2013, United Nations University - Institute for Environment and Human
A society’s vulnerability towards natural hazards depends considerably on its health and
healthcare. But in times of the global financial crisis, the health systems worldwide are being
subjected even more strongly to economic principles. The poorest of the poor are suffering
most from the austerity and privatization measures. Their already unacceptable
vulnerability threatens to continue to rise. And yet they are the ones who are, as a rule,
most hard-hit by extreme natural events.
Health and healthcare as risk factors
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Michael Marx
Health is an essential aspect of risk of the impact spectrum (UNDP 2004). For
assessment in the context of disasters. A example, after earthquakes or floods,
society’s poor state of health and injuries have the greatest impact. Just like
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insufficient healthcare are crucial drivers of infectious diseases, chronic diseases, mental
vulnerability and, hence, of risk factors. health or disablement, they belong to what
However, the causal link works both ways. are known as the morbidity indicators.
Not only do health and healthcare
C Morbidity refers to the frequency of a
determine the disaster risk, but disasters disease related to a certain section of the
have a negative impact on a society’s state population. The ratio between morbidity
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of health and its healthcare system. and mortality in connection with disasters is
Research on the impacts of disasters shows rated as 3.5 to 1 (CRED, 2006). This means
that mortality represents only a small part that for each dead person, there are 3.5 sick
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or injured people. With the Disaster

Characteristics Assessment Scale, crucial
characteristics can be assigned to different
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disasters: predictability, lethality, extent and

delay in outbreak.
For example, earthquakes feature a high

lethality, a short delay in outbreak (limited
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time for early warning), a low level of

predictability and geographically localized
impacts. In contrast, famine disasters that
develop only slowly are at the opposite end
of this scale (Guha-Sapir 1986, Guha-Sapir
and Lechat 1986b).
The course of development that a disaster

may assume is a crucial factor in assessing
suitable preventive as well as curative
Figure 1: “Disaster Characteristics Assessment Scale” measures in the health sector.
(Guha-Sapir 1986; Guha-Sapir and Lechat 1986b)
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“The double burden of diseases“ or infirmity”. This definition underscores the
Independently of the type of natural important aspect that health has not only a
hazards, developing countries are generally biomedical but also a psychosocial
more vulnerable than industrialized dimension. Already in the mid 19th century,
countries owing to the usually poorer initial Rudolph Virchow recognized the interacting
situation of the population. The acute, effects of poverty, disease and
usually infectious diseases have long ceased underdevelopment. Factors determining
to be the only illnesses that people in health and causing disease occur above all
developing countries suffer from. For a in the living and working conditions
number of years, “civilization diseases”, i.e. (including income, education, social
chronic, non-communicable diseases (NCD), integration) and environmental conditions
have also been spreading in the countries of (including water and energy supply and the
the South. They include cardiovascular availability of transport). Food plays a very
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conditions, diabetes, chronic lung diseases, important role as well. The influence of
cancer and depression (Miksch and Ledig social status on health is undisputed. As a
2012). These diseases occur more rule, poorer people are more ill and have
frequently in older age, and since life less access to medical facilities. To varying
expectancy is steadily growing in all degrees, this applies to industrialized and
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countries the world over, their proportion is developing countries alike.
continuously increasing. According to the
WHO, 63 percent of fatalities worldwide In other words, health is a complex good
were caused by these chronic diseases in
C that is influenced by manifold variables. One
2008, 80 percent of which were in emerging important variable is the functionality of the
and developing countries. health system (Phalkey et al. 2010). In its
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2000 World Health Report, the WHO defines
NCD pose a considerable challenge for the a health system as the totality of
healthcare systems of the developing organizations, actors and initiatives whose
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countries, which have so far above all been aim it is to maintain and promote health
oriented on the treatment of acute episodes and appropriately treat diseases and
of disease. This widening range of diseases disabilities that occur. This definition covers
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is turning into a double burden of diseases activities outside the health services such as
for the already weak healthcare systems of health promotion and traditional healers
these countries, which are struggling with and midwives as well as traffic safety
what are sometimes massive financing measures (WHO 2000). To address these
problems. various components, the WHO developed a
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framework concept in 2007 that illustrates

In order to develop action strategies to the basic roles of a health system with the
reduce the health hazard in these countries, aid of six building blocks (WHO 2007). These
we first of all have to answer two basic building blocks are:
questions: • Leadership and governance
• How do we define “health”? • Healthcare
• What is a “health system”? • Human resources
• Financing
According to the WHO, health is a “state of • Drugs and medical technology
complete physical, mental and social well- • Information systems.
being and not merely the absence of disease
21
These components mutually influence one own health in an independent and
another, and their manifold interplay is an responsible manner (WHO 1986).
indispensible precondition for a functioning
health system. The Ottawa Charta adopted in 1986 (Siebert
Critics have pointed to an insufficient and Hartmann 2010) encourages a
representation of the interaction between reorientation from a view focusing on
these building blocks and with other sectors disease to health promotion and the issue of
outside health. A more recent WHO analysis how health develops. It refers to three
(Savigny and Adam 2009) acknowledges the central action strategies:
danger that individually supported • actively campaigning for health by
components can segment and thus block a influencing political, economic, social,
holistic development of the system. cultural and environmental and
behavioral factors
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More than mere provision • promoting skills and enabling people to
According to this more recent definition, a take self-determined action
health system reaches far beyond a • active and lasting cooperation between
superficially perceived system providing all actors.
health services. Rather, it is a complex social
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system in which the various actors — the The Ottawa Charter and its political
target population including the patients, approach have since proven their worth in
service providers, government officials, practice, as is borne out by numerous laws
funding organizations, representatives of
C relating to health issues, such as
other sectors — are in permanent environmental and industrial safety laws,
interaction and thus in a state of constant road traffic acts or food regulations.
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internal development (World Bank 2007).
Thus it represents not a mechanical but a Prevention is aimed at avoiding or slowing
complex, adaptive, i.e. open system. down the development of risk factors and
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the genesis of diseases. One distinguishes

This system as a whole is, in turn, embedded measures focusing on people (behavioral
in a complex field of influence comprising prevention) and measures addressing the
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genetic and social factors, the environment conditions in which people are living and
and other sectors such as labor, education working (conditional prevention). Behavior-
and agriculture/nutrition. related measures are to enable individuals
to improve their personal health prospects
So how can measures to reduce health through self-determined action (e.g.
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hazards in the countries of the South be refraining from smoking, promoting physical
designed — both independently of disaster exercise and good nutrition), whereas
situations and during or after a disaster? condition-related measures aim at social,
Basically, there are two aspects to bear in ecological and economic framework
mind here: at the level of the individual and conditions (e.g. workplace safety, emissions
at the level of the system. Health promotion reduction).
and prevention address the former. Health
promotion refers to a preventive strategy Prevention is worthwhile
aimed at recognizing and strengthening Health promotion and prevention are an
health potentials and factors protecting effective first step towards challenging the
health and enabling people to treat their spread of chronic diseases that create the
22
disastrous “double burden of diseases” for construction measures, the distribution of
developing countries. And they are an mosquito nets or salary increases for a
important step in strengthening capacity to certain period. It also includes measures
cope with disasters or prepare for them in relating to certain selective disease
the sense of adapting. Also, the long-term programs. Success depends on the extent
positive economic effects of health and duration of investment, although it can
promotion are undisputed. Greater fitness generally also be achieved within a short
of those concerned results in their being period.
able to take more strain and develop
greater productivity in professional and Strengthening the system as a long-
private life as well as a lower level of term task
absence from work owing to sickness In contrast, measures seeking to strengthen
(Aldana 2001). This figures out both from a
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the health system cause more
business management and a national comprehensive and lasting changes in the
economy angle. system as a whole — e.g. in the
organizational structure, efficient
Since the first UN Summit on the topic of management or personnel skills
NCD in September 2011, in which 132 development. Usually, success can only be
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countries participated, the NCD have been reached in the long term. Nowadays, the
high on the international political agenda. strengthening of health systems is
An intensive international and partly
controversial discussion on strategies and
C attributed a key role in achieving the health
targets (e.g. of the Millennium Development
implementation has been started. What are Goals) and in preparing for possible
the roles that the family, the community disasters.
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and the government have to assume?
Should the government urge people to Various principles and demands regarding
change their behavior? Should it allow “risky improvements in the functioning of the
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behavior”, or should such behavior even be health system are regarded as indispensible
punishable? to reaching such goals:
• Improving accessibility for the
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There is agreement on the issue that both population as a whole: geographical,

treatment and prevention and health cultural, social, financial accessibility
promotion have to cover the social causes • Reaching out to the respective target
of diseases and can only be effective and groups for preventive and health
lastingly successful if they are based on promotion measures
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transsectoral approaches. • Equity in service provision: Equal

access to services addressing the
This is the interface with the second aspect same needs for all citizens
that needs addressing in the context of • High quality of service provision:
measures to reduce the health risk in the considering proof-oriented methods,
countries of the South: the health system. quality management and the efficient
Here, a distinction has to be made between employment of resources.
supporting and strengthening the system. These principles and demands have to be
Support comprises measures aimed at one applied to all building blocks of the system:
or more acute problems of the system and
usually leading to short-term success — e.g.
23
Leadership and governance (also referred Human resources: Health workers form the
to by the WHO as stewardship) first of all central contact point between the
refers to the responsible role that population and the health system. A
governments assume in the health sector sufficient number of qualified health
and how they relate to the actors in the personnel are crucial to the quality of the
sector. This comprises steering the entire health services. At an average 42 percent,
health system – public and private — in the personnel costs account for the largest
interest of the public. proportion of the worldwide health budget.
On a world scale, there is a lack of more
Provision of healthcare: Healthcare services than four million health specialists, 1.5
should be easily accessible and affordable billion in Africa alone. Within individual
for all and provide high-quality, effective countries, too, there is often an extremely
services addressing respective needs. This unequal distribution of medical personnel —
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applies both to individual measures and 60 percent of all nurses and 75 percent of all
those related to the population as a whole, physicians work in towns (WHO 2006). The
and in the area of prevention as well as in causes and consequences of the health
that of curative and rehabilitative medicine. personnel crisis are manifold and mutually
As a rule, the health services are organized conditioned: training of an insufficient
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at three levels of the health system: health number of health workers, inadequate pay
centers at the primary level, district levels and few other performance
hospitals as referral facilities at the incentives, difficult living and working
secondary level and major hospitals and
C conditions and enticement and exodus of
specialized facilities at the national, tertiary health workers to other, better-paid sectors
level. Here, the services of both the or abroad, especially to Europe, North
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government and the private and not-for- America and Australia. For example, 37
profit operators are included. Alternative percent of the physicians trained in South
models of provision offering the population Africa are working in OECD countries
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easier access can be tested and integrated (Mundt, 2011). The exodus of health
— for example community based health personnel frequently results in the closure
workers and traditional midwives as well as of health facilities, above all in rural areas.
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information campaigns (social marketing). Often, inadequately trained personnel have

to be taken on. Corruption also plays a role,
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Figure 2: Reasons for exodus of medical personnel from five African countries (Stilwell et al . 2004)
24
for example when unofficial payments are health insurance contributions, external
demanded for services in order to top up financing contributions) or direct payment
salaries. such as service fees (out of pocket
payments). Most countries have a mixture
Financing: Only a small number of African of prepayment and fee systems.
countries have attained the target set by the Appropriate regulations have to be applied
African Union in the 2001 Abuja Declaration for sections of the population that are
of spending 15 percent of the government particularly disadvantaged, such as the
budget on health. The WHO estimates that poor, disabled people or orphans, in order
at most, eight of the 49 income poor to enable their access to health services —
countries are going to raise sufficient e.g. community certificates or vouchers.
revenue to achieve the targets stipulated in Pooling of revenue allows for a balancing of
the Millennium Development Goals (MDG) risks between the users as long as fees are
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by 2015. Thus the need for support calculated on a uniform basis rather than
continues to be high (WHO 2010). The WHO relating to risk. Thus contributors with a low
devoted the World Health Report 2010 to disease risk subsidize people with a high
the financing of health systems (WHO disease risk, and emergencies resulting in
2010). In the context of global health ruinous expenses in the event of illness are
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financing, efforts are being made to avoided. However, both tax-financed and
mobilize additional funding to achieve the health insurance prepayment systems
MDG with innovative financing methods, require a sophisticated institutional
such as the International Financing Facility
C framework that most of the developing
(IFF) or the use of debt swaps. The IFF is a countries cannot provide at the moment.
fund that was launched in 2006 to raise
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additional finance on the capital market for Drugs and medical technology: Access to
immunization (GAVI). So far, a total of 6.3 affordable vital drugs, vaccines and
billion US dollars has been reached. This technologies whose quality and
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fund is supported by Australia, South Africa, effectiveness is assured represents a vital

Brazil and seven European countries, but building block of the health system and is
not by Germany. The World Bank acts as a also stipulated in the Millennium
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fund administrator. In a dept swap, a debtor Development Goals. Although nearly all
country is relieved of a debt by a creditor countries in the poorest regions of Asia and
country provided that the sum involved is Africa have introduced the Essential
spent in the debtor country e.g. on Medicines List as the basis of logistics and
combating poverty, on schools or on the procurement, up to 50 percent of the
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health system. A functioning system of population still have only restricted access
mutual health financing is aimed at ensuring to these medicines. The AIDS pandemic, an
that people have access to health services aging population and the increase in chronic
they happen to need while being diseases are a further burden. Each year,
safeguarded against ruinous expenses and millions of people die as a result of diseases
resulting impoverishment. Thus there is a that could be treated or prevented with the
close link between health financing aspects aid of safe and affordable essential
and social security. A nationwide medicines and vaccines. Twenty to 60
achievement of this goal is also referred to percent of expenditure in the health sector
as universal coverage. Revenue is raised via is spent on medicine and medical products
prepayment systems (public tax revenue, alone and exerts a heavy burden on the
25
government budgets. At the same time, ten Rights Charter of 1948. Article 25 states:
to 25 percent of public procurement “Everyone has the right to a standard of
expenditure worldwide is lost through living adequate for the health and well-
corruption (WHO 2009). being of himself and his family, including
food, clothing, housing and medical care
Information systems: Every health system and necessary social services”. The UN
needs an information system that provides Social Pact of 1976, which obliges the
reliable data on a) the factors influencing government to create the conditions “which
health b) the efficiency of the health system would assure to all medical services and
and c) the population’s state of health. medical attention in the event of sickness”
Possible threats to the public through acute (Article 12), puts these aspects into more
epidemics or other health hazards require concrete terms. Thus the right to health
special attention. Without this information, opens up a claim to access to the existing
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it is impossible to analyze a situation, set infrastructure of public healthcare.
priorities, plan measures. That match needs Healthcare services must above all be
and are efficient, monitor their accessible and affordable for those
implementation and evaluate impacts. concerned. Currently, this demand is being
emphasized considerably by the
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Today, modern information systems bear propagation of universal coverage.
two essential characteristics. They are no
longer paper-based but computer-aided, Traditional health “impact” analyses often
and they are no longer limited to national or
C overlook the fact that a community’s
sub-national dimensions but are conceived resilience is a function of the socio-
at a global or regional level in a demographic, socioeconomic, sociopolitical,
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transnational sense (Reichertz 2006). Here, socio-cultural and socio-structural variables
data quality as well as data security are of (Phalkey et al. 2010). In spite of the close
paramount importance. mutual relations between social, health and
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economic effects, the focus continues to be

In a nutshell, multi-sectoral or trans-sectoral largely on isolated impact assessments.
cooperation in strengthening the health
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system can generally develop in all areas of What counts today is to overcome the
society but above all affects the areas of theoretical limits and simplifying
labor and social affairs, education, dichotomies of health and healthcare in
environment and agriculture/food. order to understand the risks of disasters
Experience has shown that it is in these and their impacts on human life and the
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sectors that the chief causes of restricted social and economic sectors. We are
health can be found. convinced that only a holistic understanding
of health and disease within the functional
Health as a human right domain of a health system can enable an
Precisely because weak health systems effective limitation and prevention of harm,
often even exacerbate the fatal impacts of both in normal circumstances and in
disasters, it is crucial for health to be connection with disasters.
addressed in the United Nations Human
26
The City as a Risk Area
Security, http://weltrisikobericht.de/english/
Urbanization is one of the megatrends of our climate change.

times – and as such it bears a vast
In this context, special attention needs to be
complexity. While the pull of the cities often
given to developing countries and emerging
creates problems for rural regions in the
economies. This is because unlike
industrialized countries, massive urban
industrialized nations, most often located in
population growth is posing great challenges
temperate climates, these countries are
for the metropolises in many developing
expected to experience particularly strong
countries. For often enough, the growth of
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changes in terms of both urbanization and
cities exceeds the capacity of authorities to
the projected impacts of climate change
develop and maintain adequate social and
(IPCC 2012, UN DESA 2012). Therefore, key
physical infrastructure. One of the most
questions emerge for the field of
pressing results is the formation of marginal
international development cooperation:
settlements in which urban dwellers lack
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does urbanization produce exclusively
basic civil rights and frequently face high
negative effects on vulnerability? Or can
levels of vulnerability towards natural
development and economic growth help
hazards.
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break the alleged cycle of detrimental
Urbanization and risk – challenges and feedbacks in this relationship?
opportunities
Matthias Garschagen To date, urban risk trends have all too often
been explained by changes in natural hazard
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What influence does urbanization have on patterns (such as sea level rise or the
social vulnerability towards natural hazards? increase in extreme weather events) or, at
Which effects can be observed in terms of
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most, by shifts in physical exposure (caused,

exposure, susceptibility, coping capacities for example, by rapid growth of cities in
and adaptive capacities? How do these coastal areas). However, what is typically
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interactions vary between countries and the underemphasized is the influence that
different social groups within individual urbanization has on the other components
countries? of risk defined in the World Risk Index, i.e.
These questions are of key importance not on susceptibility, coping capacity and
only for gaining an understanding of the city adaptive capacity. This is problematic given
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as a “risk area” but also for developing that neglecting the effects of urbanization on
applied risk mitigation strategies. However, these other risk components results in highly
finding answers is anything but simple owing simplified and ultimately distorted appraisals
to the partly contradictory implications of of the dynamics in urban risk.
urbanization on risk. In addressing this topic,
one cannot solely concentrate on examining In the following, these effects will therefore
current urban risk patterns and the lessons be examined more closely. The focus will be
learned from past disasters. Rather, it is especially directed towards the crosslinks
necessary to also consider future trends between the individual components, i.e. on
since urban risk at the global level is self-reinforcing but also contradictory effects
increasingly shaped by the interaction of two of urbanization on susceptibility, coping
unfolding megatrends: urbanization and capacity and adaptive capacity.
27
Urbanization and exposure
With regard to exposure, multifaceted
Terms for “The city as a risk area”
impacts of urbanization can be observed. On  Urbanization: The growth of urban population
a global scale, much of the urban growth (largely through migration) and the spread of urban
takes place in highly exposed coastal and lifestyles as well as the resulting spatial processes
delta regions, particularly in developing affecting the respective area and its physical
countries and emerging economies. In Asia, structure. These include predominantly the
for example, more than 18 percent of the construction of buildings and the development of
urban population lives in the Low Elevation urban infrastructure for water, sewage,
Coastal Zone, i.e. the contiguous area along transportation, communication and energy supply.
the coast that is less than 10 meters above  Urban area: An urban area is determined
sea level (McGranahan et al. 2007). Ho Chi geographically by the physical extent of a city. It
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Minh City, Mumbai and Jakarta are comprises the characteristics typical for a city, such
prominent examples. In contrast, only about as a larger number of inhabitants, a high density of
settlements and population as well as central
eight percent of Europe’s and North
functions in terms of administration, education, health
America’s urban population lives in this
care and other social services. Further criteria include
coastal zone. At the same time, out of the a concentration of employment outside the
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350 million urban inhabitants of this zone, agricultural sector, an economy based on a high
around 30 percent live in low income division of labor and a large proportion of inhabitants
countries and another 36 percent in lower- working in the industrial and services sectors.
middle-income countries (according to the
C  Informal settlement: An informal settlement is
World Bank classification) (ibid.) characterized by its inhabitants’ complete or partial
lack of basic rights and institutional as well as legal
On a meso-scale, it can be observed that
security. This particularly includes formal
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many cities, especially in developing landownership or land use titling and the right to
countries and emerging economies with access basic (social) infrastructure. Informal
rapid urbanization, are sprawling into hazard settlements are often marginal settlements in places
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exposed areas which had previously been with unfavorable settlement conditions (e.g. close to
exempted from development. Much of the dumpsites, in flood plains or at steep slopes).
damage caused by the Bangkok flood in Informal settlements consist predominantly of
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2011, for example, resulted from unplanned makeshift housing. Their inhabitants often live below
sprawl of the city along the Chao Phraya the poverty line. In most cases informal settlements
River and the filling of tributaries and canals are unplanned urban quarters.
(Kraas 2012). Similar developments can also  Slum: An inner-urban settlement with substandard
be observed in many other rapidly growing living conditions which is, unlike informal or marginal
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metropolises such as in Ho Chi Minh City settlements in peri-urban or newly urbanized areas,
(Storch and Downes 2011). In addition, in originally understood as an emergency
many megacities, the threat of flooding is accommodation in dilapidated parts of the existing
increased by an anthropogenic land city. The housing standards and the infrastructure
conditions are correspondingly poor. In developing
subsidence – mainly caused by the
countries, but also in some industrialized countries,
extraction of groundwater, as is the case, for
they often serve to absorb new urban immigrants.
example, in Jakarta (Ward et al. 2011). Slums are frequently of informal status.
Some of the exposure effects of urbanization
can be traced to even smaller scales down to Source: glossary based in part on “Diercke-Wörterbuch
the neighborhood or individual housing Allgemeine Geographie” (Leser 1995).
level. In many developing countries with
28
rapid urbanization and shortages of In addition, large parts of the urban
affordable housing, labor migrants and other population, especially in developing
poor groups often have to settle in urban countries and emerging economies, have to
waste- lands. These areas frequently carry a face an increased social susceptibility since
hazard potential and are therefore avoided their access to social goods and services is
by other user groups (Satterthwaite et al. severely restricted or entirely blocked.
2007). Prominent examples include marginal Important examples include sanitation
settlements on steep and landslide-prone infrastructure, clean drinking water, health
slopes in South American cities such as Rio care facilities, sufficient food supply,
de Janeiro, or slums along the flood- and educational facilities or formal employment
erosion-prone banks of rivers and canals in (Moser and Satterthwaite 2008). While all of
many Asian or African cities such as Mumbai these aspects potentially have great impact
or Lagos. on the immediate vulnerability in crisis
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situations related to floods, cyclones or
However, problematic exposure effects of earthquakes, they also bear great relevance
urbanization can also be observed in for shaping the baseline susceptibility and
industrialized countries For example, in Gold the likelihood of indirect or secondary
Coast in Australia or in Miami, it is pre- impacts.
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dominantly the high-priced holiday or luxury
domiciles that are constructed along the However, susceptibility related to
coast and are exposed to flooding and, urbanization can be observed not only in
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partly, to cyclones. Also in European cities, developing countries and emerging
residential development projects in close economies but also in countries with higher
proximity to rivers or coasts are generally in income levels (for example group 2 in the
high demand due to perceived advantages in
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table on page 16/17). For example, the
terms of recreation and life-style. increased dependence on urban
infrastructure in the information, energy and
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Urbanization and susceptibility transport sectors results in a high

susceptibility towards impact cascades that
Feedbacks between urbanization and reach far beyond the respective city limits.
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susceptibility can most notably be observed The shutdown of city airports or central
in relation to urban marginalization administrative institutions, for instance, can
processes. Marginalized urban residents cripple regions or even entire countries in
such as labor migrants in, for instance, Dhaka the event of a disaster. Further, susceptibility
or Manila are all too often not only forced to can be propelled by demographic aging and
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live in highly exposed locations, but the fact that, especially in Western urban
frequently have to make do with improvised lifestyles, the elderly or people with
housing structures which are highly disabilities are often- times fairly isolated
susceptible to damage or destruction, e.g. and lack social networks to support them
through flooding or storms. At the same when natural hazards strike.
time, the inhabitants of such settlements in Nevertheless, urbanization does not
many countries do not hold any formal land inevitably lead to an increase in social
titles. This institutional insecurity typically susceptibility. On the contrary, urbanization
restricts the possibilities to reduce the opens up a number of options to mitigate
susceptibility of buildings (for example with and reduce susceptibility, particularly in
regards to long- term investments for developing countries and emerging
renovation).
29
economies. Cities continue to be central How does urbanization affect risk?
drivers of economic growth and they often Group Features Examples of Countries
enable a rise in income both for the 1  very high Bahrain, Kuwait, Qatar, Saudi Arabia,
economy as a whole and for individuals. In  high United Arab Emirates
 high
turn, this increased income can be high to very high
reinvested into reducing susceptibility (e.g.
2  medium-high to very Australia, Brunei Darussalam,
through measures to improve the structure  high Germany, Greece, Hong Kong,
of buildings or the availability of sanitation  high Japan, Oman, Portugal, Puerto Rico,
low to medium
or health care infrastructure). Hence, it is Rep. Korea, Singapore, United States
low to very high
of America, United Kingdom
hardly surprising that national urbanization
3  moderate to medium- Armenia, Bulgaria, Estonia, Latvia,
rates are – on a global scale – positively  high Lithuania, Moldova, Poland,
correlated with per capita income levels and  middle to high Romania, Russian Federation,
negative
national HDI scores (UNDP 2013). Slovenia, Ukraine
medium to high
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4  moderate Barbados, Equatorial Guinea,
 high Liechtenstein, St. Kitts and Nevis,
Urbanization and coping capacities  low to high Trinidad and Tobago
low to very high
Also with respect to the capacities to cope 5  very high Argentina, Brazil, Chile, Colombia,
with natural hazards and crisis situations,  middle Cuba, Djibouti, Gabon, Jordan,
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 low to medium Lebanon, Libya, Mexico, Uruguay,
urbanization can imply both challenges and low to very high
Venezuela
opportunities. In most developing countries 6  medium-high Angola, Belize, Cameroon, Côte
and in many emerging economies, the rapid  middle d’Ivoire, Ghana, Indonesia, Malaysia,
urbanization pressure leads to urban growth
C  high
medium to very high
Panama, Philippines, Rep. Congo,
São Tomé and Príncipe, Syria
rates that exceed the capacity of
government authorities to adequately 7  medium-high Algeria, Bolivia, Botswana,
 middle Dominican Republic, Georgia, Iraq,
D
develop and operate urban infrastructure  low to medium Kazakhstan, Macedonia, Mongolia,
low to very high
e.g. for healthcare, flood protection, storm Nicaragua, Peru, Seychelles, South
evacuation or, simply, an effective municipal Africa, Turkey, West Bank and Gaza
 moderate Albania, Bhutan, China, Egypt,
E
administration (Kraas 2007). At the same 8

 middle Guatemala, India, Laos, Namibia,
time, small towns and medium-sized cities,  low to high Nigeria, Pakistan, Papua New
high to very high
equally experiencing rapid growth, often lack Guinea, Solomons, Senegal, Sri
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Lanka, Uzbekistan, Vietnam, Yemen,

technical staff with distinctive urban
Zambia
expertise altogether. 9  moderate Grenada, Guyana, Kiribati,
 middle Micronesia, Samoa, St. Lucia, St.
In Vietnam, for example, the legal and  low to medium Vincent and the Grenadines,
low to medium
Swaziland, Tonga
institutional set-up of disaster risk
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moderate to medium- Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Cambodia,

management perpetuates a mindset that 10 high Chad, Ethiopia, Haiti, Kenya,
frames natural hazards as chiefly a problem  low Kirgizstan, Liberia, Madagascar,
medium to high
of remote rural areas, rather than urban Malawi, Mali, Mozambique,
low to very high
Myanmar, Nepal, Rwanda, Uganda,
centers (Garschagen 2013).
Zimbabwe
 Level of urbanization:
 Very high: >75 %; medium-high: 50 – 75 %; moderate: <50 %
 Level of income (per capita gross national income per year):
 low: ≤1,025 US$; middle: 1,026 – 12,475 US$; high: ≥12,476 US$
 (in accordance with World Bank classification)
 Average urban population growth per year (2000 – 2010):
 high: >3 %; medium: 1.01 – 3 %; low: 0 – 1 %; negative: <0 %
Per capita GDP growth per year (2000 – 2010):
negative to low: <1 %; medium: 1 – 3 %; high: 3.01 – 5 %; very
high: >5 %
30
A Look at Different Country Groups Effects of urbanization on the WRI
components
Description Exp Susc. Cup. Adapt
1 This group consists of oil-exporting countries of the Middle East with high \\\\\\\\\ xxxxxx
GDP per capita and high urbanization levels as well as with high rates of \\\\\\\\\ xxxxxx
urban and GDP growth. \\\\\\\\\ \\\\\\\\\\\\ xxxxxx
xxx
2 This group comprises high income OECD countries in Europe, Northern \\\\\\\\\
America and East Asia as well as some of the city-states in Asia with \\\\\\\\\
\\\\\\\\\ \\\\\\\\\\\\ \\\\\\\\\
matured economies and consolidated urbanization levels. \\\\\\\\\\\\ \\\\\\\\\
3 This group is constituted mainly by states of the former Soviet Union. It is
the only group with negative rates of urban population growth, while
comprising middle to high income countries with relatively dynamic \\\\\\\\\\\\
economic growth. \\\\\\\\\\\\
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4 This rather small group comprises a number of small and geographically \\\\\\\\\
fairly dispersed countries with very low levels of urbanization but \\\\\\\\\
comparatively high average per capita income rates and different \\\\\\\\\
\\\\\\\\\ \\\\\\\\\\\\ \\\\\\\\\
dynamics in urban and economic growth. \\\\\\\\\\\\ \\\\\\\\\
5 This group consists of some countries in Latin America, the Middle East ///////// Xxxxxx
and Africa which have already reached high levels of urbanization and ///////// xxxxxx
O
middle income but which experience continued urban growth and mixed ///////// xxxxxx
\\\\\\\\\\\\ \\\\\\\\\
economic development. ///////// xxxxxx
\\\\\\\\\\\\ \\\\\\\\\
//////// xxxxxx
6
C
This is a group of middle income countries with medium urbanization
levels to date, yet with high dynamics in both urban and economic growth,
\\\\\\\\\
\\\\\\\\\
\\\\\\\\\\\\
\\\\\\\\\\\\
Xxxxxx
xxxxxx
comprising countries in Africa, Asia and the Middle East. \\\\\\\\\ \\\\\\\\\\\\ xxxxxx
\\\\\\\\\ \\\\\\\\\\\\ xxxxxx
7 Similar to group 6, the countries in this group have medium current levels \\\\\\\\\
D
of urbanization and income. Yet, their growth in urbanization is less rapid. \\\\\\\\\
The group includes countries in the Maghreb, in Southern Africa, Central \\\\\\\\\ \\\\\\\\\\\\ \\\\\\\\\
\\\\\\\\\ \\\\\\\\\\\\ \\\\\\\\\
and South America, Central Asia, the Middle East and Eastern Europe.
E
8 The group consists of developing countries and emerging economies ///////// xxxxxx
mostly in Asia and Africa with current urbanization levels of below or ///////// xxxxxx
around 50 percent and with mid-income levels (largely lower-middle- ///////// \\\\\\\\\\\\ \\\\\\\\\ xxxxxx
///////// xxxxxx
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income), yet with very dynamic urban and particularly economic growth. \\\\\\\\\\\\ \\\\\\\\\
9 This group mainly includes countries with low urbanization and middle \\\\\\\\\ \\\\\\\\\\\\ \\\\\\\\\
income (as in group 8) , but with less dynamic urbanization and especially \\\\\\\\\ \\\\\\\\\\\\ \\\\\\\\\
with lower economic growth. \\\\\\\\\ \\\\\\\\\\\ \\\\\\\\\
10 The countries of this group are largely developing countries in Africa and ///////// //////////// \\\\\\\\\
Asia with comparatively low current urbanization levels and low income ///////// //////////// \\\\\\\\\
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but with highly dynamic growth in urbanization that is, however, in most ///////// //////////// \\\\\\\\\
cases not corresponding with high economic growth rates. ///////// //////////// \\\\\\\\\
Exp. = Exposure; Susc. = Susceptibility; Cop. = Lack of coping capacities; Adapt. = Lack of adaptive capacities
xx = strong improvement for the overwhelming majority of urban residents
= improvement for the overwhelming majority of urban residents
= no significant effect
\\ = deterioration for the overwhelming majority of urban residents
// = strong deterioration for the overwhelming majority of urban residents
\\
= strong differences in the effects experienced by different urban population groups
Source of data and assessment methodology: The data sources and the methodology for the country grouping is based on
the analysis in Garschagen and Romero- Lankao (2013). The assessment of effects of urbanization on risk (right column) is
based on a comprehensive literature review and the expert judgment by urban scholars in UNU-EHS. Owing to the overview
character and the generalizing approach, this assessment needs to be regarded as an approximation only.
31
In addition, socio-economically marginalized Therefore, such metropolises have, at least
groups face particularly grave difficulties in in theory, the potential to play a pioneering
compensating for the lack of public hazard role in the accumulation of adaptive
protection (e.g. with regard to flood barriers capacities and the development and
or emergency relief) through individual implementation of adaptation measures. In
action or private market products (for this context, the crucial question for
example by purchasing health or property developing countries and emerging
insurance or maintaining financial reserves economies will be whether the projected
to cope with crises). future urbanization (see chapter 1) is going
to trigger sufficient economic growth and
However, urbanization also carries equitable socio-economic development so as
considerable potential for strengthening to provide the resources necessary for
coping capacities. In principle, the high successful adaptation – or whether
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density of buildings and other infrastructure urbanization will be paralleled by economic
in cities allows for an efficient stagnation, truncating the urban potential
implementation and operation of protective for development and adaptation.
measures such as dyke systems or pumping
stations. At the same time, cities concentrate Conclusions
O
large numbers of people, putting them into
direct reach of central disaster management The above exploration demonstrates that
facilities such as ambulance services or fire there are multi-facetted and often
brigades. Further, the previously mentioned
C ambiguous feedbacks in the relationship
urban potential for boosting economic between urbanization and urban risk which
growth can also be translated directly into make it extremely difficult to predict future
D
the enhancement of individual as well as risk dynamics – especially in highly
public coping capacities in cities, under the transformative developing countries and
condition of an appropriate and functioning emerging economies. This is due to the fact
E
institutional and legal framework. that urbanization can – depending on the

context – drive up urban disaster risk while,
Urbanization and adaptive capacities at the same time, unleashing potential for
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risk mitigation. Most notably, urbanization

Urbanization also implies a duality of often leads to increasing levels of exposure
challenges and opportunities with respect to towards natural hazards, frequently coupled
key adaptive capacity factors (e.g. with growing susceptibility, while on the
investments, educational standards or public other hand contributing to a strengthening
D
participation). Grave shortages in these of the capacities to cope with and adapt to
factors can be observed to date particularly these hazards. The question of whether
in cities in developing countries and individual countries and cities will be able to
emerging economies. At the same time, harness the urban opportunities for
however, many strongly exposed cities mitigating the impacts of natural hazards
muster high levels of capital, innovation and ultimately depends on the implementation
political attention – e.g. New York City and of integrative and effective risk governance.
London on the part of rich countries, but also
Jakarta or Lagos on the part of developing
countries and emerging economies.
32
How food insecurity influences disaster risk
The authors:
Dr. Matthias Garschagen heads the Vulnerability Assessment, Risk Management & Adaptive
Planning Section at UNU-EHS.
Dr. Michael Hagenlocher, Dr. Julia Kloos and Joana Pardoe are research associates in the
Section.
This chapter looks at whether, and if so, how, food insecurity results in higher disaster risk.
What direct but also indirect influence does food insecurity have on the type and the extent
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of natural hazards and a society’s susceptibility? How do the consequences of food
insecurity influence coping capacities and adaptive capacities regarding natural hazards such
as floods or cyclones?
Causes of food insecurity all four dimensions contribute to food
O
insecurity and therefore have to be looked at
In order to analyze the influence of food in terms of their combined effects.
insecurity on disaster risk, it is necessary to
C
look at the causes of food insecurity along Food insecurity therefore results from the
the four dimensions of availability, stability, interaction of multiple environmental and
access, and utilization. Over the last decades, socio-economic factors: natural hazards, the
this has led to numerous discussions. Early level of technology, and insufficient
D
approaches tended to concentrate on redistribution or trade systems are
technological conditions affecting the examples. Poverty is a central factor since it
productivity of agro-ecosystems and the complicates access to means of production
E
biophysical carrying capacity of various and results in lower purchasing power on

climate zones and soil conditions as the main food markets (Smith et al. 2000). Insufficient
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causes of food insecurity. The publication of infrastructure plays a role if it hinders access
Amartya Sen’s seminal research on poverty to means of production, markets and
and famines (Sen 1981) brought institutional transportation, thus restricting production
explanations more to the fore, particularly and distribution. This problem is often
regarding access to food and the caused by a lack of government or private
corresponding entitlements: Food insecurity sector investments. Political instability,
D
is not only determined by the limits of corruption and/or conflicts also lead to a
production and yields but crucially result lower capacity of governments to maintain
from an unbalanced institutional and food security.
economic system. Here, problems in the
distribution and the financial as well as Rapid increases in food prices, unstable food
institutional availability of food are often the markets, shifts in trade, and food speculation
chief cause of food insecurity. Recently, the can be further causes of food insecurity. In
utilization dimension has also been given addition, the rising demand for food owing
increasing attention and has raised questions to population growth, biofuels, livestock
regarding the quality and use of food. Today, farming, and fodder cultivation is
most scientists and practitioners agree that increasingly being discussed as a threat to
33
food security. Looking at the household For example, fishers in Southeast Asia often
level, a large share of dependent household have to extend their fishing activities into the
members, for example those who are too typhoon season, particularly in times of food
young or too old to contribute their labor to insecurity (Arnason 2006). Also, cropping
food production, are of central importance. that extends into the flood or dry season is
If members of the household who normally an issue in many cases. Such effects drive up
maintain food production fall sick, this can disaster risk not only with regard to physical
put a considerable strain on the entire wellbeing but also in relation to economic
household. The lack of sufficient land and losses. In addition, food insecurity frequently
water provides further limitations to leads to a direct increase or intensification of
achieving food security. Hence, natural hazards, and therefore exposure, by
environmental factors such as climate exacerbating local overexploitation and
variability (Wheeler/ von Braun 2013) and degradation of ecosystems (Munang et al.
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soil degradation (Pimentel 2006) can 2013). The research fields of political ecology
threaten and reduce food security. deals with a wide range of case studies in
which food insecure communities (have to)
How food insecurity raises disaster risk overexploit their local environments in a bid
to secure their food-production.
O
According to the World Risk Index, disaster
risk, i.e. the risk of suffering harm in the Deforestation of hill-slopes, for instance, has
event of earthquakes, floods, cyclones, in many cases been stepped up in order to
create some additional space for agricultural
droughts or sea level rise, is shaped by four
components: spatial and temporal exposure
C production). However, while there are only
to natural hazards, susceptibility, coping marginal additional yields, such measures
capacities, and adaptive capacities. Food rapidly increase the risk of landslides and
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insecurity can have an effect on all of these flash floods (Mugagga et al. 2012). In a
components, as science and practice have similar manner, overgrazing in semi-arid
clearly shown. ecosystems has, in many parts of the world,
E
resulted in the degradation of vegetation

Food insecurity and exposure: and an intensification of natural hazards
such as flooding or desertification. At global
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Food insecurity often forces people to

level, too, intensive food production is
expand their agricultural production into
indirectly contributing to an amplification of
areas with greater natural hazards. Due to
climate change-related natural hazards,
scarcity of land, migrants from regions with
since agriculture is currently contributing ten
undernourishment often have to settle and
to twelve per cent of annual greenhouse gas
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farm in locations with a greater exposure

emissions (IPCC 2014a).
that have previously not been used by the
local population. For example, it has been Food insecurity and susceptibility:
observed that in years of drought,
smallholders in West Africa are increasingly Susceptibility can be understood as the
extending their crops to plains threatened by inherent predisposition to experience harm
floods (Pardoe et al. in press). In addition to when exposed to natural hazards. The
these spatial effects, food insecurity can also susceptibility of communities and individuals
amplify temporal exposure patterns. This is strongly depends on food supply, i.e. on the
primarily the case where people are forced availability, stability, access to, and
to move their growing or production period utilization of food. For instance,
to risky seasons.
34
Country example: Philippines
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O
C
Getting to the food package in a wheelchair
The Philippines is among the countries with the highest disaster risk in the world. In
D
the list of 171 countries in the World Risk Index 2015, this island nation comes up
third. In addition to earthquakes, it is above all the cyclones occurring each year that
represent a considerable danger to the country. In November 2013, Cyclone Haiyan,
E
one of the strongest cyclones ever measured, resulted in high numbers of victims
and destruction on a massive scale in the islands of Samar, Leyte, Cebu and Panay.
More than 6,000 people were killed, and hundreds of thousands had to abandon
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their homes and seek refuge in tent camps. Entire cities were hit, and destruction is
still visible in many towns and villages.
In Concepcion and Estancia, in the north of the island of Panay, Christoffel-

Blindenmission (CBM) had a team on site just a few days after the cyclone had
struck in order to hand out food and provide other relief services in cooperation with
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the local partner organization “Association of Disabled People Iloilo” (ADPI).
undernourished children run a greater risk undernourishment but to an increasing

of suffering physical harm in the event of degree also in terms of obesity, diabetes,
flooding or another crisis situation. In and other consequences of malnutrition,
addition, undernourishment usually leads to especially in countries with high and
a lowering of physical performance, which medium income (Shrimpton/ Rokx 2012).
further impedes the food security of people Effects include, for example, a greater
working in agriculture. At the same time, incidence of cardio-vascular diseases during
linkages between food and disaster risk can heat waves (Kenny et al. 2010).
be observed not only with regard to
35
Food insecurity and coping This enabled 23,000 people to be supplied with, for
capacities: example, rice, noodles, tinned food, sugar, salt, and oil.
The families received food twice as well as non-food
Food insecurity has negative items such as toothbrushes, soap and blankets to last
for two to three weeks respectively. A total of more than
impacts on the ability to cope
200,000 euro worth of goods was distributed.
with natural hazards and crisis
situations. Typically, food In the Philippines, too, there was the typical risk for
insecurity also implies a such centralized distribution measures of certain
shortage or lack of food stock population groups being left out, such as sick, elderly or
reserves at national and local disabled people and pregnant women. For them, the
distribution point is often too far off, or waiting in the
level (Hendriks 2015). Hence,
queue while the goods are handed out is too
food cannot be obtained when exhausting. Relatives caring for their next of kin who
it is needed most: in times of
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cannot leave them alone for a longer period are also at
acute disasters and crises in a disadvantage. In order to prevent such families from
which local food production missing out on relief supplies, the municipal authorities
comes to a standstill and trade provided CBM with data on residents. On the basis of
the data, some particularly vulnerable households were
or even external emergency
identified that the relief packages had to be brought to
relief cannot be performed
O
personally, which saved those affected the tedious walk
effectively due to infrastructure to the distribution point and waiting long in the queues.
disruptions. In addition, during
crisis situations, there are Also, whenever possible, already in the preparatory
short- or long-term increases in
C
stages of a distribution, it is important to choose a spot
that is accessible for people with disabilities and easy
food prices. Households and quick to get to for all households in a region. In
affected by food insecurity are Concepcion, for example, the local city hall was used
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therefore frequently forced to for food distribution. It is situated in the city center and
sell valuables or assets, which provides access for everyone via wide approaches and
in turn erodes their long-term thanks to the hall being at ground level, so that no
E
coping and adaptive capacities steps have to be climbed and older as well as blind
people and wheelchair users can reach the distribution
and raises vulnerability to point easily and without being at any risk. Thanks to the
natural hazards as a whole.
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facility being roofed, people waiting at the distribution

point were also protected from exposure to the strong
Food security and adaptive sunshine typical of the Philippines.
capacities
During the food distribution in Concepcion, CBM and
their local partner, ADPI, also trained more than 100
Food security ranks as one of
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volunteers who helped pack the food and distribute the

the most fundamental goods – many of them people with disabilities. The
development needs, and it is integration of the local population both in the
usually a key policy goal. In preparatory phase and in distributing the goods
many countries, resources are contributed to relief measures reaching those people
more quickly who were most in need. Moreover,
used chiefly for this purpose. In involving disabled people in distributing goods reduces
most cases, excess resources prejudice by demonstrating the vital contributions that
can only be increasingly they can make in an emergency situation.
allocated to other areas of
sustainable development such Oliver Neuschäfer, Emergency Coordinator at
as disaster preparedness or Christoffel- Blindenmission
adaptation to climate change
36
once food security has been achieved. As correlation between hunger and the two
the indicators of the World Risk Index show, dimensions of the WRI: exposure and
activities relevant to adaptation include, for vulnerability. Since susceptibility, one of the
example, measures in the areas of three sub-components of vulnerability in
education, environmental protection, and the WRI, contains an indicator that relates
healthcare. Reallocation of resources into directly to food and would distort the
such areas can be observed, once food- results of the correlation analysis,
security has been taken care of, at various vulnerability and the WRI were newly
levels ranging from the household level to calculated for the 171 countries leaving out
national or global development policies the indicator “Share of undernourished
(FAO/ IFAD/ WFP 2011). At the same time, population” (in the following marked as
food insecurity represents a significant vulnerability * and WRI* respectively). The
obstacle to generating resources for analyses were conducted with the latest
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adaptation. A recent study by the World indexes from 2015.
Food Programme, for instance, revealed
that child undernourishment leads to Based on the correlation analysis of the
significant productivity losses (AUC et al. country data, a moderate positive
2015). In turn, the resources generated for relationship was identified between hunger
O
example for disaster risk reduction and disaster risk (correlation coefficient r =
measures lag behind. Similarly, food 0.33 on a scale from -1 to +1). However, the
insecurity has a wide range of impacts on individual components of the WRI* vary
concrete adaptation parameters such as
C with regard to their statistical association
education (by tying children to securing with hunger. For example, if vulnerability*
food supplies at the expense of school (i.e. susceptibility and the lack of coping and
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activities), gender balance (when precarious adaptive capacities) is considered
food situations lead to a structural exclusively, a very strong association with
discrimination of women and girls) or the hunger situation emerges (r = 0.91). In
E
environmental protection (when, as contrast, the above-described effects of

described above, unsuitable production hunger on exposure are spatially distinct. A
methods result in an intensification of statistical correlation between exposure
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environmental degradation and natural (according to its measure in the WRI) and
hazards). hunger (as measured in the GHI) can
therefore not be detected at the global
Hunger and disaster risk at global level level (r = -0.02).
D
What is the link between food insecurity The three maps (Figures 4a, 4b and 4c) on
and disaster risk at global level? In order to page 22 show in which countries disaster
examine this question, the following section risk and hunger overlap spatially (according
looks at the correlation between the World to GHI 2015) – and where they do not. In
Risk Index (WRI) and the Global Hunger order to visualize the differences and
Index (GHI). The GHI serves as a tool to overlaps, 34 countries with (1) the highest
represent the hunger situation worldwide. disaster risk (i.e. the highest WRI* values),
A global index for food insecurity could so (2) the highest exposure, (3) the highest
far not be compiled by the FAO due to data vulnerability* and (4) the highest GHI values
gaps. Therefore, the following analysis respectively were included in the analysis.
focuses particularly on the level of The threshold of 34 is chosen so as to
37
World Risk Index* and Global Hunger Index
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Overlapping of World Risk Index (WRI)* top 34 and Global Hunger Index (GHI) top 34
WRI*: Top 34 country (GHI: not Top 34 country)
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GHI: Top 34 country (WRI*: not top 34 country)
WRI*: Top 34 country (GHI: no data)
WRI*: Top 34 country (GHI: not calculated since classified as industrialized country)
C
Figure 4a: Disaster risk* and hunger overlaps
D
Exposure and Global Hunger Index
E
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D
Overlapping of exposure (top 34) and GHI (top 34)

Exposure: Top 34 country (GHI: not top 34 country)
GHI: Top 34 country (exposure: not top 34 country)
Exposure: Top 34 country (GHI: no data)
Exposure: Top 34 country (GHI: not calculated since classified as industrialized country)
Figure 4b: Exposure to natural hazards and hunger overlaps
38
Vulnerability* and Global Hunger Index
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Overlapping of vulnerability* (top 34) and GHI (top 34)
Vulnerability*: Top 34 country (GHI: not Top 34 country)
GHI: Top 34 country (vulnerability*: not top 34 country)
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Vulnerability*: Top 34 country (GHI: no data)
Figure 4c: Vulnerability* and hunger overlaps
C
include all countries with “very high” risk in Eight of the 34 countries included in the
the 2015 WRI*. Thus, countries not analysis, meaning almost one quarter, show
highlighted in the map can still be at “high” a very high disaster risk and simultaneously
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disaster risk, but were not taken into belong to the 34 countries with the biggest
consideration for this analysis. hunger problem. They comprise Bangladesh,
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Guinea-Bissau, Haiti, Madagascar, Niger,

Many coastal countries in South America and Sierra Leone, and Timor-Leste, as well as
Southeast Asia show a high disaster risk Chad. Analyzing the overlaps of exposure
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mainly because of their high exposure, and vulnerability* with hunger yields a
without however belonging to the 34 most spatially much more differentiated picture:
highly listed countries in the GHI (Figure 4a). Just three of the 34 countries with the
Their placing in the GHI can primarily be highest exposure (9 per cent) overlap with
traced back to a significant improvement in the 34 countries with the biggest hunger
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the food situation in both regions over the problem: Bangladesh, Guinea-Bissau and
last decades that is based both on Timor-Leste. On a global level, hunger in a
socioeconomic progress and on special given country is therefore not primarily
programs to promote food security. For conditioned by exposure to natural hazards
example, looking at the GHI values of 1990, and vice versa. However, the maps also
one clearly recognizes that at the time, reveal that there is a very strong regional
several countries in both regions were faced overlap between the countries characterized
with a serious or even alarming hunger by hunger and countries with a high degree
situation. of vulnerability.*
The maps also show that there are common A total of 28 countries (approx. 82 percent of
hotspots with high disaster risk and hunger. the considered countries) simultaneously
39
show a “very high” level of vulnerability* and hotspots of hunger today (Wheeler/ von
are among the top 34 countries with severe Braun 2013). In addition to the potential
hunger problems (see Figure 4c). The great yield effects, it is particularly the dimensions
majority of these countries (around 89 per of access, stability, and utilization that are
cent) are located in sub-Saharan Africa. relevant to disaster risk and look set to
However, the percentages can only be taken increase owing to indirect effects of climate
as a very rough reference value, since for change (ibid.).
several countries with a very high disaster
risk no data on the food situation is available Yet, since statistical significant correlation
(for instance Papua New Guinea, Solomon does not necessarily imply causation, care
Islands, Tonga, and Vanuatu). Hence there is has to be taken when interpreting the above
no assessment of the current hunger results. The statistical analysis alone does
situation for these countries. not allow for drawing conclusions on the
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presence and details of causal effects,
These results demonstrate that first, there is especially since both phenomena – hunger
a global hotspot in which hunger and high and disaster vulnerability – might be caused
vulnerability* co-exist and appear to by similar external factors, such as poverty
mutually reinforce each other. Second, or weak institutions. Therefore,
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hunger is evidently linked more strongly to a complementary analyses, like the ones
country’s prevalent socioeconomic and provided in the first part of the chapter, are
institutional vulnerability* than to its necessary. Furthermore, it has to be taken
exposure to natural hazards. This link is also
C into consideration that the analysis was
relevant to an understanding of the potential conducted at country level and inferences
effects that climate change has on the regarding possible causal relations at other
D
hunger situation. Despite remaining measurement scales cannot be automatically
uncertainties in global climate and yield drawn. This becomes very clear in the lack of
models, the expected impacts of climate any linkages between exposure and hunger
E
change on food security are strongest in at the national level, while these are clearly
those world regions that already represent evident at the local level.
EP
D
40
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The Global Hunger Index
O
C
The Global Hunger Index (GHI) is a tool designed to comprehensively display hunger globally,
regionally, and by country. Each year, the International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI)
calculates GHI scores in order to assess progress, or the lack thereof, in decreasing hunger.
To reflect the multidimensional nature of hunger, the GHI combines the following four
D
component indicators into one index:
+ Undernourishment: the proportion of undernourished people as a percentage of the

E
population (reflecting the share of the population with insufficient caloric intake)
+ Child Wasting: the proportion of children under the age of five who suffer from wasting (that
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is, low weight for their height, reflecting acute undernutrition)
+ Child Stunting: the proportion of children under the age of five who suffer from stunting (that
is, low height for their age, reflecting chronic undernutrition)
+ Child Mortality: the mortality rate of children under the age of five (partially reflecting the fatal
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synergy of inadequate nutrition and unhealthy environments).
There are several advantages to measuring hunger using this multidimensional approach. It
notably reflects the nutrition situation not only of the population as a whole, but also of
children, a vulnerable subset of the population for whom a lack of dietary energy, protein,
or micronutrients (essential vitamins and minerals) leads to a high risk of illness, poor
physical and cognitive development, or death. Furthermore, it combines independently
measured indicators to reduce the effects of random measurement errors.
The 2015 GHI has been calculated for 117 countries for which data on all four component
indicators are available and where measuring hunger is considered most relevant. GHI scores
are not calculated for some higher-income countries where the prevalence of hunger is very
low (von Grebmer et al. 2015).
41
III. Earthquake Hazards
The Department of Science and Technology - Philippine Institute of Volcanology and
Seismology (PHIVOLCS) actively develops and provides materials for understanding and
preparing for earthquake and volcanic hazards relevant to the local experience. This
chapter on earthquake hazards and the next chapter (volcano hazards) feature materials
PHIVOLCS.
Earthquake hazard maps
1. Philippine Institute of Volcanology and Seismology. (2010, July 12). Philippine Fault
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Zone Maps. Retrieved from:
http://www.phivolcs.dost.gov.ph/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id
=379&Itemid=500023
2. US Geological Survey. (2014, January 16). How do I use the seismic hazard maps?
Available at: http://earthquake.usgs.gov/hazards/about/technical.php#use
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3. US Geological Survey. (2015, January 08). Earthquake Hazards 101 - the Basics.
Available at: http://earthquake.usgs.gov/hazards/about/basics.php
C
4. Philippine Institute of Volcanology and Seismology. (2010, July 12). Valley Fault
System Atlas. Available at:
http://www.phivolcs.dost.gov.ph/index.php?option=com_wrapper&view=wrapper
&Itemid=500043
D
5. Philippine Institute of Volcanology and Seismology. (2011, April 08). PHIVOLCS
Earthquake Intensity Scale (PEIS). Available at:
E
http://www.phivolcs.dost.gov.ph/index.php?option=com_phocadownload&view=ca
tegory&id=13:peis&Itemid=44
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6. Udono, T. & Sah, A.K. (2002, August 09). Hazard Mapping and Vulnerability
Assessment. Available at:
http://unpan1.un.org/intradoc/groups/public/documents/APCITY/UNPAN009857.p
df
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More on Tsunamis
1. Buck, P.S., (1948). The Big wave, pp1-11. Available at:
http://www.nplainfield.org/cms/lib5/NJ01000402/Centricity/Domain/873/bigwave
%20entire%20text.pdf
2. Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission. (2014). Surviving a Tsunami:
Lessons From Chile, Hawaii, and Japan, 2014 edition, Paris, UNESCO, 24 pp., illus.
IOC Brochure 2014-2 Rev. (English). Available at: http://itic.ioc-
unesco.org/images/stories/awareness_and_education/surviving_a_tsunami/Survivi
ng_v2014_sm_Eng_20150109.pdf
42
3. Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission. (2014). Where the First Wave
Arrives in Minutes Indonesian Lessons on Surviving Tsunamis Near Their Sources,
2014 edition, Paris, UNESCO, 36 pp., illus. IOC Brochure 2014-4 Rev. (English).
Available at: http://itic.ioc-
unesco.org/images/docs/where_the_first_wave_arrives_in_minutes_sml.pdf
4. International Tsunami Information Center. (2015). Tsunami Glossary. Available at:
http://itic.ioc-
unesco.org/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=1328&Itemid=1142&l
ang=en
5. Philippine Institute of Volcanology and Seismology. (2011, April 08). Tsunami Flyer,
English. Available at:
PY
tegory&id=17:tsunami-flyer&Itemid=44
6. Tsunami and Other Coastal Hazards Warning System Project. (2010). Tsunami Smart
Teacher Education Resource Kit. Available at:
http://www.uwiseismic.com/downloads/tchws_pae_teacherresourcekit_final.pdf
Comics
O
C
1. Suzuki, I. (2013, February). The Great East Japan Earthquake and Tsunami 11 March
2011, No. 1 Daang Mapanganib. Available at:
http://satreps.phivolcs.dost.gov.ph/images/jica_materials/comics_no1_imeldasuzu
ki_daangmapanganib.pdf
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2. Kikuta, L. (2013, February). The Great East Japan Earthquake and Tsunami 11 March
2011, No. 2 Ang Huling Sayonara. Available at:
E
http://satreps.phivolcs.dost.gov.ph/images/jica_materials/comics_no2_lornaKikuta
_anghulingsayonara.pdf
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3. Gunji, M. (2013, February). The Great East Japan Earthquake and Tsunami 11 March
2011, No. 3 Oras ng Peligro. Available at:
http://satreps.phivolcs.dost.gov.ph/images/jica_materials/comics_no3_oras_ng_pel
igro.pdf
D
4. Kaiyama, H. (2013, February). The Great East Japan Earthquake and Tsunami 11
March 2011, No. 4 Bagong Pag-asa. Available at:
http://satreps.phivolcs.dost.gov.ph/images/jica_materials/comics_no4_bagong_pag
_asa.pdf
Examples - Local
1. 1976 Moro Gulf Earthquake- http://202.90.128.66/1976MoroGulfEQ/index-
moro.html
43
2. Philippine Institute of Volcanology and Seismology. (1994, December). The 15
November 1994 Mindoro Earthquake. Available at:
http://earthweb.ess.washington.edu/tsunami/specialized/events/mindoro/report.h
tml
3. Philippine Institute of Volcanology and Seismology. (2008, May 9). PHIVOLCS
Earthquake Monitoring - Destructive Earthquakes in the Philippines. Available at:
=38&Itemid=75
4. Philippine Institute of Volcanology and Seismology. (2013, December 03). Bohol
Earthquake 2013. Available at:
tegory&id=37:earthquake&Itemid=44
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5. Philippine Institute of Volcanology and Seismology. (2014, April 21). Philippine
Tsunamis and Seiches (1589-2012). Available at:
=3547&Itemid=500038
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6. Villegas, M., et al. (2015). Filipinos in Japan: Narratives of Experience from the
March 11,2011 Great East Japan Earthquake and Tsunami. Journal of Disaster
Research, Vol 10, No 1, 135-144.
Example - International
C
Incorporated Research Institutions for Seismology (IRIS). (2004). Liquefaction during the
1906 San Francisco Earthquake. Available at:
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http://www.iris.edu/hq/inclass/animation/liquefaction_during_the_1906_san_franc
isco_earthquake
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Audio-Visual resources
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1. Kowalyk, A. (2009, November 24). Liquefaction. Available at:

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PwvvYxSZ7PI
2. ProVention Consortium. (2008, August 05). Tales of Disasters (3). Tsunami (English).
Available at: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=aiBR45Ntk_0
D
44
School Earthquake and Tsunami Awareness and
Preparedness
From Philippine Institute of Volcanology and Seismology. (2015). Teachers’ Module Earthquake,
Tsunami and Volcanic Hazards.
This module, divided into five (5) major sections, will introduce the participants on
earthquake and tsunami preparedness. Recognizing the teacher’s important role in shaping
the minds of students, this module is designed to provide participants with information and
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tools that teachers can use to help prepare school children for earthquakes and tsunami
occurrences. Module 2.1 gives technical background about earthquake and its related
hazards. Module 3.2 discusses how one can prepare before, during and after an earthquake.
Module 3.3 gives an overview of tsunami concepts. Modules 3.4 and 3.5 discuss proper
earthquake preparedness practices, and how to plain, design and conduct earthquake drills.
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OBJECTIVE C
At the end of this module, the participants will gain the necessary knowledge and
skills on how to prepare for earthquakes and tsunami, how to develop a school earthquake
evacuation plan, how to organize and earthquake drill and how to conduct an actual
earthquake drill.
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TOPIC OUTLINE
E
Module 3.1 Earthquake and Earthquake Hazards

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Module 3.2 What to do before, during and after an earthquake

Module 3.3 Tsunami Overview
Module 3.4 How to Organize and Conduct an Earthquake Drill in School
Module 3.5 Designing an Earthquake Evacuation Plan for a School
D
45
Tsunami and Volcanic Hazards, pp 25-31.
Module 3.1
Earthquake and Earthquake Hazards
OBJECTIVES
At the end of this module, the participants will be able to
1. Explain why earthquakes occur;
2. Explain how earthquakes are generated;
3. Differentiate magnitude against intensity;
4. Differentiate focus from epicentre;
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5. Identify on the map the various earthquake generators in the Philippines;
6. Explain the various earthquake-related hazards; and
7. Explain the PHIVOLCS Earthquake Intensity Scale.
TOPIC OUTLINE
 Goal of lecture
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 Definitions: Earthquake, Active Faults, etc
 Nature of Earthquakes/ How earthquakes are generated (brief overview of Plate
tectonics)
 Types of Earthquakes
C
 Locating an earthquake: Focus vs epicenter
 Describing the strength of an earthquake: Magnitude vs intensity (introduce PEIS)
D
 Some historical earthquakes in the Philippines
 Brief review: Earthquake distribution in the Philippines
 Brief review: Earthquake generators in the Philippines
E
 Earthquake monitoring system in the Philippines

 Earthquake Hazards
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i) Ground shaking
ii) Ground rupture
iii) Liquefaction
iv) Tsunami
v) Earthquake-induced landslides
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vi) Others
 Some earthquake disaster risk reduction measures
DISCUSSION:
What is an earthquake?
An EARTHQUAKE is a feeble shaking to violent trembling of the ground produced by the
sudden movement of rocks or rock materials below the earth’s surface. There are two types
of natural earthquakes: tectonic and volcanic earthquakes.
46
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O
C
E D
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D
Figure 3.1.1 Philippine Seismic Monitoring Network
47
Tectonic earthquakes are generated by the sudden displacement along faults and plate
boundaries. Earthquakes induced by rising lava or magma beneath active volcanoes is called
volcanic earthquakes.
Some terms to remember:

The following are some basic concepts that should always be remembered:
Magnitude vs Intensity
There are two ways by which we can measure the strength of an earthquake: magnitude
and intensity. Magnitude is the measure of energy release and is determined based on
instrumentally derived information. Magnitude correlates with the amount of total energy
release at the earthquake’s point of origin and is reported as Arabic numbers for example
magnitude 5.3 or 7.8. Intensity on the other hand is the description of how weak or strong
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the shaking is. The intensity is generally higher near the epicentre (reported as Roman
Numerals e.g. I-Scarcely perceptible to X-Completely Devastating) and this is measured by
(a) what people see and feel (b) severity and extent of damage to building or structures; (c)
condition of ground failure and presence of other earthquake hazards associated during the
event. In the Philippines, the intensity of an earthquake is determined using the PHIVOLCS
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Earthquake Intensity Scale (PEIS) (Table 3.1.1).
Focus vs Epicenter
C
Focus is the point within the earth which is the center of energy released during an
earthquake, while epicenter is the point on the surface of the earth directly above the focus.
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Destructive Historical Earthquake in the Philippines
The Philippines is no stranger to earthquakes that greatly impacted several areas. Below is a
list of some of the most destructive historical earthquakes in our country.
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Figure 3.1.2 Some Historical Destructive Earthquakes

Date Magnitude Description of impacts
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270 persons killed, 261 injured; extensive

landslides and large fissures observed in
the mountainous part of the epicentral
area; tsunami was also observed; a six-
Casiguaran
1968 August 2 Ms 7.3 storey building (Ruby Tower) in Binondo,
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Earthquake
Manila collapsed instantly during the
quake while several major buildings near
Binondo and Escolta sustained varying
levels of structural damages
Offshore earthquake event, one of the
largest tsunami generating earthquake to
have occurred in Mindanao; devastated
Moro Gulf
1976 August 17 Ms 7.9 more than 700 km of coastline bordering
Earthquake
Moro Gulf; resulted to massive
destruction of properties and great loss
of lives (-4000)
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Date Magnitude Description of impacts
Produced a 125-km long ground rupture;
structures directly on the ground rupture
totally damaged: produced 1 – 6 meter
displacement; triggered numerous
1990 July 16 Ms 7.8 Luzon Earthquake landslides in northern and central Luzon;
liquefaction effects observed in the
provinces of Tarlac; Pangasinan, and La
Union; major cities suffered major
damages such as Baguio City and
Dagupan City;
Produced ground rupture; also resulted
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to liquefaction and landslides; generated
1994 Ms 7.1 Mindoro tsunami waves which accounted for
November 15 Earthquake majority (49) of the 78 casualties in the
northern shoreline of Mindoro Island;
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Earthquake Monitoring System
At present, PHIVOLCS operates 82 seismic monitoring stations all over the Philippines
(Figure 3.1.1). These stations are equipped with seismometers that detect and record
C
earthquakes. Data is sent to PHIVOLCS Data Receiving Center to determine earthquake
parameters such as magnitude, depth of focus and epicentre. Together with reported felt
intensities in the area (if any), an earthquake bulletin is released once these information are
determined.
D
Earthquake Hazards
There are hazards associated with earthquakes:
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1. Ground rupture – displacement on the ground due to the movement of fault.

The movement may have vertical and horizontal component and may be as
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small as less than 0.5 meters (Masbate 2003 earthquake) to as big as 6 meters
(16 July 1990 Earthquake).
2. Ground shaking is the destructive up-down and sideways motion felt during an
earthquake. Strong ground shaking can cause object to fall, break windows
among others. Strong ground shaking can also result to minor damages to
buildings and worse, cause collapse of a structure. (e.g. collapse of Hyatt Hotel,
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Baguio City after the 16 July 1990 Luzon earthquake).

3. Liquefaction – is a process that transforms the behavior of a body of sediments
from that of a solid to that of a liquid when subjected to extremely intense
shaking. As a result, any heavy load on top of the sediment body will either sink
or tilts as the sediment could no longer hold load, such as what happened in
some buildings in Dagupan City during the 16 July 1990 earthquake.
4. Earthquake-induced landslide - loose thin soil covering on the slopes of steep
mountains are prone to mass movement, especially when shaken during an
earthquake. Many landslides occur as a result of strong ground shaking such as
those observed on the mountainsides along the National Highway in Nueva Ecija
and the road leading up to Baguio City during the 16 July 1990 earthquake.
49
5. Tsunami – is a series of sea waves generated by various geological processes
and commonly generated by under-the-sea earthquakes and whose heights
could be greater than 5 meters. Example of recent tsunami events in the
Philippines are the August 1976 Moro Gulf Earthquake and Tsunami and the
November 1994 Oriental Mindoro Earthquake and Tsunami.
Definition of Terms
Earthquake – a weak to violent shaking of the ground produced by the sudden movement of
rock materials below the earth’s surface
Fault - refers to a fracture, fissure or a zone of weakness where movement or displacement
has occurred or may occur again; a fault is said to be “active fault” if it has historical
and contemporary seismicity, has evidence of fault slip based on displaced rocks or
soil units of known age and displaced landforms; an active fault is defined as a fault
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which has moved within the last 10,000 years.
Volcanic Earthquakes – earthquakes produced by movement of magma beneath volcanoes.
Tectonic Earthquakes – earthquakes produced by sudden movement along faults and plate
boundaries.
Focus - point within the earth which is the center of energy release during an earthquake.
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Epicenter - point on the surface of the earth directly above the focus.
Magnitude – (energy) based on instrumentally derived information and correlates strength
with the amount of total energy release at the earthquakes’ point of origin
C
(reported as Arabic numbers, e.g. 5.3, 7.8, etc); derived from seismograph data.
Intensity – (shaking) perceived strength of an earthquake based on relative effect to people
and structures; generally higher near the epicentre (reported as Roman Numerals
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e.g. I – scarcely perceptible to X – completely Devastating); measured by (a) what
people see and feel (b) severity and extent of damage to buildings or structures; (c)
condition of ground failure and presence of other earthquake hazards associated
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during the event.

Seismograph - the instrument that records an earthquake
Seismometer – sensor that detects ground motion
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Seismogram – the record of earthquake retrieved from a seismograph

Earthquake hazards:
a) Ground shaking – disruptive up-down and sideways movement or motion
experienced during an earthquake
b) Ground rupture – displacement on the ground due to movement of fault
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c) Liquefaction - a process that transforms the behavior of a body of sediment from

that of a solid to that of a liquid
d) Tsunami - sea waves resulting from the disturbance of ocean floor by an
earthquake
e) Earthquake-induced landslide - failures in steep or hilly slopes triggered by an
earthquake
References
PHIVOLCS 2005. Ang Lindol at mga panganib na dulot nito, flyer
PHIVOLCS 2006. Earthquake and Earthquake Hazards, flyer
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PY
O
C
E D
EP
D
51
PY
O
C
E D
EP
D
52
PY
O
C
E D
EP
D
53
PY
O
C
E D
EP
D
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From Philippine Institute of Volcanology and Seismology. (2015). Teachers’ Module
Earthquake, Tsunami and Volcanic Hazards, pp 32-36.
Module 3.2
What to do before, during and after an Earthquake
OBJECTIVES
At the end of this module, the participants will be able to:
1. Identify the proper practices to prepare one’s home, school, and workplace from
earthquake hazards.
2. Identify what are the proper actions to do during an earthquake
3. Identify what to do after an earthquake.
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TOPIC OUTLINE
 Goal of lecture
O
 What to do before an earthquake
 What to do during an earthquake
 What to do after an earthquake
C
DISCUSSION
Now that we all know that very strong earthquakes could happen any time, it is important
D
to know what to do before, during and after an earthquake.
Earthquake alone don’t injure or kill people. It is our practices at home, in school, in the
E
workplace or outside that could hurt or injure us and others. Why is this so?
Strong ground shaking during an earthquake could break glasses and cause objects to fall on
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people. Imagine if you are sitting near glass windows then a strong shaking starts. You will
probably hear the rattling sound of the glass panes and if it is a severely strong earthquake,
the glass panes could break into pieces and glass shards could fly to your direction. Imagine
if you are sitting near a shelf that is not properly secured. Its content could fall on you or
worse, the whole shelf could topple.
D
Figure 3.2.1 Cabinets or shelves could topple if unsecured
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In building, houses or other structures such as roads and bridges are not properly
constructed, these could sustain minor to major damages. In some cases, extremely strong
shaking could even cause the collapse of these structures. The collapse of many buildings in
Baguio City and Cabanatuan City during the 16 July 1990 Luzon Earthquake has taught us
many hard lessons about what an earthquake can do.
Figure 3.2.2
A school building in
Cabanatuan City
collapsed after intense
ground shaking, trapping
hundreds of students,
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16 July 1990 Luzon
Earthquake
Reducing Risks from Earthquakes
O
We do not know the exact date or time an earthquake would occur. We don’t even how
exactly in which specific area in the Philippines a big earthquake will occur at a given time.
C
However, based on the many experiences we have on record of destructive historical
earthquakes, what we know are the possible effects and impacts it could bring. We cannot
prevent an earthquake from happening, but we certainly can do many things to lessen or
even prevent some of the negative impacts an earthquake event might bring.
D
How to prepare BEFORE an earthquake
The key to earthquake risk reduction is knowing, planning, and preparing.
E
Knowing. It is important to determine if your home, school or workplace is along or

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near an active fault. During an earthquake, a large area will definitely feel
the ground shaking, although different areas will experience its strength in
different degrees. But based on what you have learned in Module 3.1, is
your place prone to any of the other earthquake hazards such as
liquefaction, ground rupture, tsunami or landslide?
D
Planning. Adhere to proper structural design and engineering practices when

constructing houses or buildings
Preparing. Prepare your work place, home, or school for an earthquake by strapping
heavy furniture or cabinet to the wall, storing breakable items, harmful
chemicals and flammable items in the lowermost shelves and firmly
secured. Most causes of injuries during an earthquake are from falling
objects. So be conscious in placing materials on shelves and cabinets. Heavy
materials should be kept in lower shelves. Check the stability of hanging
objects which may fall during strong shaking.
56
Figure 3.2.3 Secure cabinets and shelves by strapping them. Prepare an earthquake survival kit.
 Identify which areas in your house or building can be used as refuge during an
earthquake.
 Prepare and maintain an earthquake survival kit consisting of a battery powered
radio, flashlight, first aid kit, potable water, candies, whistle and dust mask.
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 Most important, familiarize yourself with the building you are in, where the exit
points are as well as the shortest way out.
What to do DURING an earthquake
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When a strong shaking starts and you are inside a
building, protect yourself by staying away from
C
falling objects or windows with glass panes. Get
under a sturdy table and do the “DUCK, COVER and
HOLD”. Stay put until the shaking stops. Be alert, try
not to panic and keep your presence of mind. People
D
get unnecessarily injured once they feel the strong
shaking because they panic and start running while Figure 3.2.4 Do the DUCK, COVER, and HOLD
E
the shaking is ongoing. Remember, when you panic

and run, others will follow suit in a chain reaction and this
could lead to more injuries if stampede results.
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If outside, it is best to move to an open area, stay away

from power lines, posts, walls, and other structures that
may collapse. Stay away from buildings as glass windows
may break and cause injury. When driving, get out of the
D
vehicle and do not attempt to cross bridges and flyovers.
Figure3.2.5 If inside a car, get out of

the car
What to do AFTER an earthquake
As soon as the shaking stops, check yourself and others

for injuries. Then, immediately get out of the building.
Use the stairs and never use the elevators. Take the
shortest way out. After a major earthquake, this is not Figure3.2.6 Immediately get out of the
building as soon as the shaking stops
57
the time to go around. As much as possible keep the telephone lines open for emergency,
rescue and other disaster responders who need communication for their coordination. Help
reduce the number of casualties by staying out of damaged buildings. Obey authorities.
As a guide, the following are some suggested actions specific in a school setting should be
taught to students:
What to do during an earthquake

When a strong shaking starts...
 Protect yourself
 Stay away from falling objects
 Stay away from falling pieces of broken glasses
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 Get under a sturdy table or desk and do the “ DUCK, COVER and HOLD”
 Stay put until the shaking stop
O
C
D
As soon as the shaking stops…
 Leave the classroom immediately

E
 Get out of the building in an orderly manner

 Give the following instructions to students:
WALK
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DO NOT RUN
DO NOT PUSH
DO NOT TALK
 Proceed to the identified evacuation area
D
References
Earthquake… don’t panic… You must know what to do BEFORE, DURING and AFTER and
earthquake, PHIVOLCS flyer.
Earthquake Safety in schools: A Primer for Teachers. PHIVOLCS flyer, 2008.
58
Earthquake, Tsunami and Volcanic Hazards, pp 37-42.
Module 3.3
Understanding Tsunami and Tsunami Preparedness
OBJECTIVES

1. Define what tsunami is;
2. Distinguish a tsunami from tidal waves and storm surge;
3. Differentiate locally generated tsunamis from far field or distant tsunamis;
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4. Enumerate the stages of tsunami
5. Identify the three natural signs of an approaching local tsunami;
6. Enumerate some tsunami safety and preparedness measures; and
7. Describe the Philippine Tsunami Information.
O
TOPIC OUTLINE
 Goal of session


C
Definitions: Tsunami, Local tsunami, far field or distant tsunami
Tsunami generation, propagation and inundation
 Natural signs of an approaching local tsunami
 Tsunami safety and preparedness measures
D
 Philippine Tsunami Information
E
DISCUSSION
Tsunami: What is it?

EP
This module is an overview of tsunami – its characteristics and generation process.
Tsunami is a Japanese word meaning “harbor waves”. Tsunami is a series of waves

generated by various geological processes. It is commonly generated by disturbances
D
associated with shallow earthquakes occurring below or near the ocean floor. In addition,
underwater volcanic eruptions, landslides and meteorite impact can also generate a
tsunami. Sometimes, tsunamis are erroneously called “tidal waves”. Remember that
tsunamis are generated by earthquakes and tsunami waves are generated because of
movement of fault under the sea. Tsunamis have nothing to do with high tide and low tide
which is caused by gravitational pull between the earth and moon. The increase in wave
heights associated or during typhoons or tropical cyclones are called “storm surges”. Storm
surges are not tsunamis.
The three (3) stages of tsunami are generation, propagation, and inundation.
59
How are tsunamis generated?
Figure 3.3.1 Sequence of diagrams showing how tsunamis are generated when an earthquake occurs
under the sea
I. Tsunamis are commonly
generated in subduction zones
under the ocean where two plates
collide, with one plate (A) moving
down under the other (B).
II. When plates get stuck, the

overriding plate (B) gets distorted.
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O
III. Stuck area ruptures triggering an
earthquake pushing up the ocean
floor and seawater above. This
C starts the tsunami which moves in
opposite directions.
E D
Tsunami speed depends on the depth of the water, over 8800 kilometers per hour (kph) in
deep ocean over 6km deep and 30 to 50kph near shorelines. Offshore and coastal features
can determine the size and impact of tsunami waves. The area flooded by tsunami is called
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inundation.
Two types of Tsunami

There are two types of tsunami generation: (1) local tsunami (2) and far field or distant
tsunami. The coastal areas in the Philippine especially those facing the Pacific Ocean, West
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Philippine Sea, Sulu Sea and Celebes Sea can be affected by tsunamis that may be generated
by local earthquakes. Local tsunamis are confined to coasts within a hundred kilometers
from the source. It is usually generated by earthquakes and landslide or pyroclastic flow. It
can reach the shoreline within 2 to 5 minutes. Far field or distant tsunamis can travel from
1 to 24 hours before reaching the coast of the nearby countries. These tsunamis mainly
coming from the countries bordering Pacific Ocean like Chile, Alaska in USA and Japan.
Pacific Tsunami Warning Center (PTWC) and Northwest Pacific Tsunami Advisory Center
(NWPTAC) are the responsible agencies that closely monitor Pacific-wide tsunami event and
send tsunami warning to the countries around the Pacific Ocean.
The Philippines is frequently visited by tsunamis. On 17 August 1976, a magnitude 7.9

earthquake in Moro Gulf produced up to 9-meter high tsunamis which devastated the
60
southwest coast of Mindanao and left more than 4,000 people dead, with at least 2,000
people missing. The 15 November 1994 Mindoro Earthquake also generated tsunamis in the
Mindoro Island that left 49 casualties.
Natural Signs of an Approaching Local Tsunami

To mitigate the effect of the tsunami, the community should be aware of the natural signs
that they might observe. The three natural signs of an approaching local tsunami are: (1) A
strong felt earthquake, (2) Unusual sea level change: sudden seawater retreat (exposed
seabeds – coral flats, fishes, etc.) or rise, and (3) Unusual rumbling sound of approaching
waves (such as sound like that of a train, plane, etc…)
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O
A felt earthquake. SHAKE. Unusual sea level change: sudden
C seawater retreat or rise. DROP.
E D
Rumbling sound of approaching waves. ROAR!
Figure 3.3.2 Natural signs of an approaching local tsunami

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Tsunami Safety and Preparedness Measures

Each of us in the community should learn some important Tsunami Safety and Preparedness
Measure such as the following:
 Do not stay in low-lying coastal areas after a felt earthquake. Move to higher
D
grounds immediately.
 If unusual sea conditions like rapid lowering of sea level are observed, immediately
move towards high grounds.
 Never go down the beach to watch for a tsunami. When you see the wave, you are
too close to escape it.
 During the retreat of sea level, interesting sights are often revealed. Fish may be
stranded on dry land thereby attracting people to collect them. Also sandbars and
coral flats may be exposed. These scenes tempt people to flock to the shoreline
thereby increasing the number of people at risk.
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Community-based Early Warning Systems for Tsunami
Part of the preparedness of the people in the Philippines is the program on community-
based early warning system for tsunami. Its objective is to conduct community-level
awareness about earthquake and tsunami focused on the natural signs of an approaching
local tsunami, warning, and evacuation procedure. Another is to locate a pre-determined
high ground in the area and identify the routes to get there. Pieces of tsunami signage
consisting of warning sign, directional sign, and evacuation site sign can also be put to orient
and guide the community where unsafe and safe areas are located (Figure 3.3.3). These
signs can be translated to local languages.
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Figure 3.3.3 Three types of signage that are used for community-based tsunami preparedness
DEFINITION OF TERMS C
Tsunami – is a series of sea waves generated by various geological processes and commonly
generated by under-the-seas earthquakes.
Local Tsunamis – these tsunamis are from nearby source. It occurs within a very short time,
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with the first wave reaching the shoreline nearest the epicentre 2 to 5 minutes
after the main earthquake.
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Far field/ Distant Tsunamis – these are tsunamis generated from distant location
earthquakes such as coming from other countries bordering the
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Pacific Ocean like Chile, Alaska in the USA and Japan.
EVALUTION
1. What are the natural signs of an approaching local tsunami?
2. What is the Philippine Tsunami information?
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REFERENCES
Philippine Institute of Volcanology and Seismology, Tsunami Poster, Printed, 2006.
Tsunami Glossary, 2005
Tsunami The Great Waves, June 2005
Tsunami Primer, 2006, PHIVOLCS flyer
Developing a Tsunami-Prepared Community. PHIVOLC S flyer 2007
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O
C
E D
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Figure 3.3.5 Philippine Tsunami Information
63
Recommended Action for Affected
Tsunami Information Threat to the Philippines
Places
A large earthquake is generated but
Advisory (green) either
1. There is no tsunami
No evacuation needed.
NO TSUNAMI THREAT generated by this event
The advisory is issued for
OR
information purposes only.
2. A tsunami was generated
but will not reach the
Philippines.
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Advisory (yellow) PHIVOLCS will monitor sea level No evacuation order is in effect.
SEA LEVEL changes and provide updates. Public is advised to wait and listen
CHANGE for updates.
MONITORING
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Advisory (orange) Minor sea level disturbance is People are advised to stay away
expected in some coastal areas with
C from the beach and to not got to
MINOR SEA LEVEL wave heights of less than on (1) the coast.
DISTURBANCE meter above the expected ocean People whose houses are located
tides. very near the shoreline are advised
to move farther inland.
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Owners of boats in harbours,
estuaries, or shallow coastal water
of the affected provinces should
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secure their boats and move away

from the waterfront.
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Boats already a sea are advised to

stay offshore in deep waters until
further notified.
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Destructive tsunamis are generated Immediate evacuations of social

Advisory (red) with life threatening wave heights. communities that maybe affected
(A destructive tsunami is expected to are strongly advised.
TSUNAMI WARNING arrive to Philippine coastlines with Owners of boats in harbors,
wave heights of greater than one (1) estuaries, or shallow coastal waters
meter above the expected ocean of the affected provinces should
tides.) secure their boats and move away
from the waterfront.
Boats already at sea are advised to
stay offshore in deep waters until
further notified.
64
Earthquake, Tsunami and Volcanic Hazards
Module 3.4
How to Organize and Conduct an Earthquake Drill in School
OBJECTIVES

1. Explain the importance of earthquake preparedness in school
2. Explain how an earthquake drill is conducted in a school setting
3. Enumerate the composition of a School Disaster Management Committee
4. Generate a school campus map with building layout and floor plan
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5. Identify what needs to be prepared prior to the conduct of an earthquake drill
TOPIC OUTLINE
 Goal of session
 Planning and Organizing the Earthquake Drill
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 Developing the School Earthquake Evacuation Plan (Module 3.5)
 Orient prior to the Conduct of an Earthquake Drill
 Actual Conduct of Earthquake Drill
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DISCUSSION
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Earthquake Preparedness begins at school
Earthquake preparedness is important especially in schools as school children are one of the
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most vulnerable sectors in the community. School administrators and teachers must
educate the students on what to do before, during and after an earthquake to essentially
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protect themselves from anything that may cause injuries. The best way to inculcate the
proper procedure on earthquake preparedness to students is to demonstrate and practice
them regularly through the conduct of earthquake drills.
Remember that tsunamis are generated by earthquake and tsunami waves are generated
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because of movement of fault under the sea. Tsunamis have nothing to do with high tide
and low tide which is caused by the gravitational pull between the earth and moon. The
increase in wave heights associated or during typhoons or tropical cyclones are called
“storm surges”. Storm surges are not tsunamis.
Tsunamis can move faster than a person can run. The tsunami waves can travel at the speed
of a jet plane. It can travel up to rivers and streams from the ocean.
School Watch Exercise
As a preparation, familiarize yourself and your students with your school surroundings. First
you can start by having a class activity wherein you and your students go around the school
65
premises to get acquainted with safe spots in the school campus (open spaces, etc) and
identify unsafe practices, potential hazards, danger zones at school, in case of a strong
earthquake.
Some possible hazards include:
1. Tall, heavy pieces of furniture that could topple, such as bookcases and cabinets;
2. Hanging heavy flower pots, ceiling fans;
3. Glass window panes or walls that could break;
4. Heavy picture frames or mirrors;
5. Latches on cabinets that will not hold the door closed during shaking;
6. Glass or other breakable objects that are kept on high open shelves;
7. Obstructions such as plant boxes, chairs, benches, bulletin boards, trash cans that
may block exit points and corridors; and
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8. Elevated water tanks and electrical posts which could topple or get damaged during
strong shaking.
Orienting Students prior to the drill
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What to expect during a real earthquake. Most probable, considering that age of your
students, they may not have experienced a very strong earthquake (such as 1990 Luzon
earthquake) in their life. What is important is to teach them about what to expect during an
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earthquake. It will also help if there are video presentations that could be shown to them. In
general, it is important to teach the following:
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What to teach...
You will feel...WEAK OR STRONG

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SHAKING. During a very strong

earthquake, the shaking may
start out gently and then shaking
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becomes really strong and knock

one off his feet.
You may hear... Low or loud

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rumbling noise followed by

shaking sounds of cracking and
creaking wood, breaking glass
and/or falling objects
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You may see...
 Hanging objects like lamps, wall frames swing violently or
may even fall down;
 Book shelves, cabinets, tables and chairs may move or be
shifted or fall over;
 Window panes may rattle and may even break.
Orient the students with the what-to-do’s during and where to go

after an earthquake
What is expected during the earthquake drill. Orient the students

about the evacuation plan. Point out to the class which is the designated evacuation area
and the safe route to take. The evacuation plan should be posed in the classroom.
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For the actual drill, the following are the assumptions:
 1-minute strong shaking signified by 1 minute siren or bell
 Person cannot stand
 Buildings may have been damaged but no collapse
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 Possible falling objects including glass windows
 No immediate assistance will be available for at least several hours. Self-help and
C
sustenance is required
 Possible injuries, fear, panic among students and teachers
E D
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At the Dolores Elementary School, San Fernando, Pampanga, February 2007, students perform the
“Duck, Cover, and Hold” as soon as they heard the siren which signaled a strong ground shaking.
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After the 1-minute siren, students trooped Students assembled at the identified
out of their classrooms evacuation area for the headcount
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PHASES OF AN EARTHQUAKE DRILL
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C
E D
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DEFINITION OF TERMS
Earthquake drill exercise of the correct manner of proceeding during and after an
earthquake
Evacuation plan scheme or method of evacuating from indoor, which is developed in
advance
Evacuation area open space evaluated as safe from falling debris and other materials
that may collapse, where evacuees proceed to during evaluation.
SDMC acronym for School Disaster Management Committee, core group
composed of several teams with specific tasks in managing disaster in
school
DCH acronym for “Duck, Cover and Hold”, a procedure where one takes
cover and holds onto a sturdy table or strongly supported doorway, or
stands against an inside wall
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Alarm pre-arranged signal like siren/bell that indicates the earthquake/ground
shaking
Response reaction while the alarm is on-going, one performs the “Duck, Cover and
Hold” technique and remains in this position until the siren stops.
Evacuation abandonment of the room/building after the siren stops; evacuees
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follow the evacuation plan representing the routes, exit points and
evacuation area
Assembly gathering of evacuees at the assigned part of the evacuation area,
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where members of the same class group together
Head count tally or run down of the evacuees per class or group who are present in
the evacuation are to ensure that all evacuees are accounted for
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Evaluation assessment of the drill to identify problems encountered and how these
can be corrected or improved in future earthquake drills.
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EVALUATION
1. What are the available facilities / supplies in the school that can be utilized during
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emergency situations?
2. Who among the members of the school faculty and student body are capable of
responding and rendering first-aid treatment in times of crisis?
3. Are the teachers, students and other staff familiar with their place of work and
study (safe spots, danger zones, staircases, and exit points)?
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4. How can one protect himself/herself before, during and after an earthquake?
5. How can the conduct of earthquake drill in the school be made effective?
REFERENCES
PHIVOLCS pamphlet on How to Conduct an Earthquake Drill in School, May 2005
PHIVOLCS Training Course for SOEPD Field Personnel: Capacity Enhancement for Earthquake
and Tsunami Risk Mitigation Manual on Earthquake Preparedness (Module 2), October 2006
69
Earthquake, Tsunami and Volcanic Hazards
Module 3.5
Designing an Earthquake Evacuation Plan for a School
OBJECTIVES
1. Differentiate between an earthquake evacuation plan and a fire evacuation plan;
2. Design an evacuation procedure, indicating the exit points, flow or traffic, and
alternate routes; and
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3. Develop an earthquake evacuation plan
TOPIC OUTLINE
A. Identification and evaluation of available open spaces to be used as evacuation area
B. Measurements of open spaces to identify number of evacuees each can
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accommodate (assumption: 4 -5 students of average built occupy and area of 1
square meter)
C. Designation of open spaces for each class C
D. Measurement of width of doors, corridors/ alleys, staircases; computation of how
many persons each can accommodate one at a time, and noting how much time it
takes to evacuate the whole building.
E. Outlining of evacuation routes from the classroom, through accessible doors and
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other exit points, along corridors, down the staircases (if available), out of the
building and towards the designated evacuation area (Flow of traffic is one way,
with everyone going out of the building)
E
F. Preparation of the final earthquake evacuation plan, showing names of buildings,

up-to-scale building layout, evacuation routes and area (Figures 3.5.1 and 3.5.2)
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G. Orientation of earthquake evacuation plan to all teachers, students and other staff
a. Preparation of earthquake survival kits
b. Preparation of first-aid kits
DISCUSSION
An earthquake evacuation plan is different from the fire evacuation plan. In terms of
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effect, a fire is concentrated in one area of the building while an earthquake affects the
whole building and nearby areas. In terms of response, people need to immediately
evacuate and put out the fire while people perform the Duck, Cover and Hold during an
earthquake and evacuate the building after if necessary. During fire incidents, outside help
will arrive definitely at the soonest time, while immediate outside help is not a guarantee
especially after a strong earthquake. Affected building occupants can be evacuated
anywhere outside the building farthest from the fire, while the area for evacuation after an
earthquake is limited only to open spaced that are safe from falling debris. Lastly, during fire
incidents there is no aftershock to deal with unlike during earthquake events.
70
Earthquakes can strike quickly and without warning. The earthquake evacuation plan
prepared ahead can aid teachers, students and other building occupants during evacuation
procedure. Evacuation when done properly and systematically can minimize injuries and
panic.
Developing the plan

In module 3.4, you were given an overview on how to organize and conduct an earthquake
drill in school. Once you have gone around the school campus and identified the different
safe and unsafe spots, the next step is to develop the School Earthquake Evacuation Plan.
The following is the simplest procedure:
1. A School Earthquake Evacuation Plan should have provision to utilize all available
open spaces nearest the building that are evaluated as safe from falling debris and
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other materials that may cause injuries to students;
2. Is there sufficient area for all?
a. Measure the total area of open spaces identified as possible temporary
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evacuation sites;
b. Consider the number of students in each building (morning and afternoon
session); and
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c. Determine if there is sufficient open space for all. Areas to be occupied should
be computed assuming 4 to 5 students would occupy a 1 sq meter space;
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3. Identify temporary refuge per class. Designate a specific area for each class as their
area of temporary refuge.
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4. Exit points and routes. Once each class has been assigned a specific evacuation site,
come up with evacuation procedure using the available map.
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a. Initially, all exit points nearest the room of occupants should be suggested as
their exit routes; assuming that these are passable after the earthquake;
b. Determine the flow of traffic from each room along the corridors using the
information on actual number of occupants per room and their designated
evacuation area;
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c. Indicate by arrows the flow of student evacuation coming out of each room up
to their designated evacuation site. This will be the suggested earthquake
evacuation route for the students.
5. Finalize the map. Prepare the final evacuation route.
6. Disseminate Information. Orient all the teachers, school staff and students about
the map. Have copies of the evacuation map posted in every classroom (Figure
3.5.1)
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O
C
E D
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Figure 3.5.1 Sample school earthquake evacuation map (ground floor)
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O
C
E D
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Figure 3.5.2 Sample school earthquake evacuation map (second floor)
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DEFINITION OF TERMS
Area – 2 dimensional unit of measurement derived from multiplying the Length (L) and
Width (W)
Contingency Plan – scheme or method of evacuating from indoor, which is designed to

backup or substitute the earthquake evacuation plan during unexpected
circumstances
EVALUATION
1. Why is there a need to prepare an earthquake evacuation plan?
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2. Is the pre-determined evacuation area enough to contain the evacuees and safe
from falling objects?
3. Are the widths of doors, corridors and staircases enough to accommodate the
evacuees from the classroom towards the evacuation area?
4. Did the developed earthquake evacuation plan have provisions for person with
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disabilities, elderly, and pregnant?
5. Are the teachers, students and other staff properly oriented with the developed
earthquake evacuation plan for the school?
C
D
REFERENCES
PHIVOLCS pamphlet on How to Conduct an Earthquake Drill in School, May 2005
PHIVOLCS Training Course for SOEPD Field Personnel: Capacity Enhancement for Earthquake
E
and Tsunami Risk Mitigation Manual on Earthquake Preparedness (Module 2), October 2006
PHIVOLCS Trainer’s training on how to conduct a School Earthquake Drill for Public School
Teachers of Rizal presentation on How to Conduct an Earthquake Drill in School (Villanueva,
EP
C.V.), August 2007

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IV. VOLCANO HAZARDS
The materials featured in this chapter were retrieved from the Department of
Science and Technology - Philippine Institute of Volcanology and Seismology (PHIVOLCS).
The following updates (accessible from http://volcano.si.edu/ and
http://phivolcs.dost.gov.ph) should be noted in their use:
1. Mayon Volcano
Since July 2006, Mayon Volcano has had four eruptive phases (2008, 2009, 2013,
2014), bringing the total number of historical eruptions to 52.
2. Kanlaon Volcano
Kanlaon Volcano had renewed volcanic activity towards the end of 2015
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3. Bulusan Volcano
After 2011, an eruptive phase occurred in May-July 2015, with more activity in
February 2016.
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More on Volcano hazards
1. Doukas, M.P., et al. (1997, May). Impacts of Volcanic Gases on Climate, the
Environment, and People. Available at http://pubs.usgs.gov/of/1997/of97-262/of97-
262.html
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2. Fisher, R.V. (1997). Hazardous Volcanic Events. Available at
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http://volcanology.geol.ucsb.edu/hazards.htm
3. GNS Science. (2010, January 19). Volcanic Hazards. Available at

E
http://gns.cri.nz/Home/Learning/Science-Topics/Volcanoes/Volcanic-Hazards
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4. IAVCEI Understanding Volcanic Hazards. (n.d.). Available at

http://www.iavcei.org/IAVCEI_publications/videos_IAVCEI.htm
5. Martinez-Villegas, M.L. (2001). An Introduction to Volcanic Hazards in the

Philippines, In Learning to Expect the Unexpected, Proceedings PHIVOLCS.
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6. Philippine Institute of Volcanology and Seismology. (2008, May 09). PHIVOLCS

Volcano Monitoring. Available at
=50&Itemid=86
7. Tilling, R.I., (1989). Volcanic hazards and their mitigation: Progress and Problems:
Reviews of Geophysics. 27(2):237-269.
8. U.S. Geological Survey. (2008, March). What Are Volcano Hazards? Available at
http://pubs.usgs.gov/fs/fs002-97/
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Preparedness and Mitigation
1. U.S. Geological Survey. (2015, November 18).Be ready for the next volcanic event.
Available at http://volcanoes.usgs.gov/vhp/preparedness.html
2. Philippine Institute of Volcanology and Seismology. (2012). Signs of Impending

Volcanic Eruption (English and Cebuano). Available at
http://www.phivolcs.dost.gov.ph//images/attachments/article/757/EULogo_Poster
_KANLAON_TRANSLATED_Precursor_Cebuano.jpg
3. Philippine Institute of Volcanology and Seismology. (2012). Signs of Impending

Volcanic Eruption (English and Ilonggo). Available at
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http://www.phivolcs.dost.gov.ph//images/attachments/article/757/EULogo_Poster
_KANLAON_TRANSLATED_Precursor_ilonggo.jpg
4. U.S. Geological Survey. (n.d.). Monitoring and Studying Volcanoes. Available at

http://www.usgs.gov/faq/categories/9818/3783
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5. Earth Observatory. (n.d.). Signs of an Impending Eruption. Available at
http://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/Features/monvoc/monvoc2.php
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6. Oregon State University. (2016).What are the signs that a volcano is about to
erupt?. Available at http://volcano.oregonstate.edu/what-are-signs-volcano-about-
erupt
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7. The Major Warning Signs http://www.planetseed.com/relatedarticle/major-
E
warning-signs
8. Daskeo, F. (2015). Precautionary Measures Before, During, and After Volcanic

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Eruptions. Available at https://science1.knoji.com/precautionary-measures-before-

during-and-after-volcanic-eruptions/
9. International Institute of Rural Reconstruction.(1992, November 28). Volcanic

eruption preparedness. Available at
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http://collections.infocollections.org/ukedu/en/d/Jii25ie/5.9.html#Jii25ie.5.9
10. Center for Disease Control and Prevention. (2012, September 28). Key Facts About
Protecting Yourself During a Volcanic Eruption. Available at
http://emergency.cdc.gov/disasters/volcanoes/during.asp
11. GNS Science. (2010, January 19). Be Prepared: Volcanic Ash Fall. Available at
http://www.gns.cri.nz/Home/Learning/Science-Topics/Volcanoes/Eruption-What-
to-do/Be-Prepared-Volcanic-Ash-Fall
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12. Volcanic Ashfall Impacts Working Group. (2015, December 14). Volcanic Ash Impacts
& Mitigation. Available at http://volcanoes.usgs.gov/ash/todo.html
Examples - Local
1. Typhoon2000. (2008). Lahars At Mayon Volcano, Albay, Philippines. Available at
http://www.typhoon2000.ph/stormstats/lahars.htm
2. Philippine Institute of Volcanology and Seismology. (n.d.). Volcano List - Pinatubo

Volcano. Available at
http://www.phivolcs.dost.gov.ph/html/update_VMEPD/Volcano/VolcanoList/pinatu
bo.htm
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3. Philippine Institute of Volcanology and Seismology. (n.d.). Volcano List - Taal
http://www.phivolcs.dost.gov.ph/html/update_VMEPD/Volcano/VolcanoList/taal.ht
m
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4. Philippine Institute of Volcanology and Seismology. (n.d.). Volcano List - Bulusan
http://www.phivolcs.dost.gov.ph/html/update_VMEPD/Volcano/VolcanoList/bulusa
n.htm
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5. Philippine Institute of Volcanology and Seismology. (2015, December 29). Mayon
Volcano Alerts levels. Available at
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=816&Itemid=500045
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6. Philippine Institute of Volcanology and Seismology. (2011, April 09). Taal Volcano
Alert Signals. Available at
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=815&Itemid=500044
7. Philippine Institute of Volcanology and Seismology. (2014, August 4). Taal Volcano
Alert Signals. Available at
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=815&Itemid=500044
8. Philippine Institute of Volcanology and Seismology. (2014, August 15). Mayon

Volcano Alert Levels. Available at
=816&Itemid=500045
9. Philippine Institute of Volcanology and Seismology. (2014, September 25). Bulusan

Volcano Alert Levels. Available at
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=817&Itemid=500046
10. Philippine Institute of Volcanology and Seismology. (2011, August 10). Hibok-hibok
Volcano Alert Signals. Available at
=1237&Itemid=500047
11. Philippine Institute of Volcanology and Seismology. (2011, August 10). Pinatubo
Volcano Alert Signals. Available at
=1236&Itemid=500048
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12. Philippine Institute of Volcanology and Seismology. (2015, December 28). Kanlaon
Volcano Alert Level Scheme. Available at
=1238&Itemid=500049
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13. Philippine Institute of Volcanology and Seismology. (2001). Mayon Volcano Hazard
Maps. Retrieved from
http://www.phivolcs.dost.gov.ph/html/update_VMEPD/vmepd/vmepd/mayonhazm
aps.htm
C
14. Philippine Institute of Volcanology and Seismology. (1999). Taal Volcano Hazard
Maps. Retrieved from
D
http://www.phivolcs.dost.gov.ph/html/update_VMEPD/vmepd/vmepd/taalhazmap
s.htm
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Examples - International
1. U.S. Geological Survey. (2009, November 29). Lessons Learned from the Armero,
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Colombia Tragedy. Available at

http://hvo.wr.usgs.gov/volcanowatch/archive/2009/09_10_29.html
2. U.S. Geological Survey. (2015, June 30). Debris avalanche or volcanic landslide.
Available at http://volcanoes.usgs.gov/Imgs/Jpg/Photoglossary/30210600-
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078_large.jpg
3. U.S. Geological Survey. (2011, December 20). Hummocky terrain of the debris
avalanche north of Mount Shasta. Available at
http://volcanoes.usgs.gov/vsc/images/image_mngr/200-
299/img265_350w_235h.jpg
4. GNS Science. (n.d.). Hazard maps. Available at

http://gns.cri.nz/Home/Learning/Science-Topics/Volcanoes/Eruption-What-to-
do/Hazard-maps
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5. U.S. Geological Survey. (2014, March 31). Volcano Hazards in the Cascade Range.
Available at http://volcanoes.usgs.gov/observatories/cvo/hazards.html
Audio-Visual Resources
1. University of Canterbury-Geography. (2010, December 31). Dome collapse and
pyroclastic flow at Unzen Volcano. Available at
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Cvjwt9nnwXY
2. U.S. Geological Survey. (n.d.).Lava flow can burn forest and farm areas along its
path. Available at http://volcanoes.usgs.gov/Imgs/Jpg/Kilauea/30210600-
045_large.jpg
PY
3. Clark Air Base. (2007, June 9). Mt. Pinatubo Explosion At Clark Air Base, Philippines
Part 1. Available at
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SMe0VPQftsc&list=PLvK95S7LA5_LGKDQQDZJ
3EorompbMWhOO
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4. BBC News. (2014, September 29). Video: Japan volcano shoots rock & ash on Mount
Ontake. Available at https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=aQtkoLxqUNQ
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5. BBC News. (2014, September 28). Japan's Mount Ontake volcano erupted/eruption,
killing 34 people. Available at https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3ObsOj9Q2Do
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6. ProVention Consortium. (2008, August 07). Tales of Disasters 4. Volcano (English).
Available at https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6bPdmvLPo_0
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Tsunami and Volcanic Hazards, pp 10-19.
Volcanoes and Volcanic Hazards

OBJECTIVES
1. Define what a volcano is and how it is formed;
2. Identify the 3 categories by which PHIVOLCS classifies volcanoes in the Philippines;
3. Enumerate and explain the various volcano-related hazards;
4. Identify on the map the 6 most active volcanoes in the Philippines;
5. Recall what to do before, during and after a volcanic eruption;
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6. Explain the various volcano alert level schemes of PHIVOLCS; and
7. Enumerate the possible signs of an impending eruption.
TOPIC OUTLINE
 Goal of the lecture
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 Definition: Volcano
 Classifying volcanoes: Active, Inactive, Potentially Active Volcanoes
 Distribution of volcanoes in the Philippines
 Types of volcanic eruptions
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 Volcanic Hazards
 Pyroclastic flows
 Lava flows
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 Lahars/ Volcanic mudflows
 Ashfall or tephra fall
 Volcanic gases
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 Secondary explosions
 Tsunami/ Seiche
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 Debris avalanche
 Ground fissuring
 Signs of impending volcanic eruptions and monitoring techniques for risk mitigation
DISCUSSION
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What is a volcano?
The term volcano signifies a vent, hill, or mountain from which molten or hot rocks with
gaseous materials are or have been ejected. The term also applies to craters, hills or
mountains formed by removal of pre-existing materials of by accumulation of ejected
materials. A volcanic eruption is a process wherein molten rock materials are emitted or
ejected in the form of flowing masses of lava or fragmental particles called pyroclastic with
gas from a crater, vent or fissure.
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PHIVOLCS Classification of volcanoes
The Philippines, because of its tectonic setting, has around 300 named and unnamed
volcanoes all over the archipelago. At present, PHIVOLCS classifies volcanoes into 3
categories: active, inactive and potentially active.
A volcano is classified as active based on the following: (1) if it has had eruptions in historic
times supported by numerous historical accounts; (2) if it has oral folkloric history which
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Figure 2.2.1 Distribution of active, inactive, and potentially active volcanoes in the Philippines
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suggests an eruption that is remembered by our ancestors; (3) if it has shown indications of
seismic activity and (4) if it has volcanic deposits less than 10,000 years as determined by
radiometric dating. A volcano is said to be inactive if it has no record of eruptions and its
form has been changed by agents of weathering and erosion with the formation of deep
gullies. In 1997, PHIVOLCS introduced a third category-that of potentially active. A volcano is
said to be potentially active if it is geologically young-looking, which suggests it possibly
erupted in less than 10,000 years. A volcano is said to be geomorphologically young as
suggested by very little vegetation cover. Figure 2.2.1 shows the location of active, inactive
and potentially active volcanoes in the Philippines.
Types of Volcanoes
There are different types of volcanoes based on the form or shape of their edifice, which are
actually dependent upon the type of eruptions a volcano is capable of and ultimately the
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chemical composition of the magma it erupts. (Figure 2.2.2.) Some of the general types of
volcanoes are:
a. Monogenetic cones (tuff/cones, cinder cones, maars) – low symmetrical
accumulations of cinder (scoria) and or tuff (ash). These volcanoes are usually
associated with low silica or basaltic magma, usually for during just one eruption,
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and may be lateral vents associated with bigger volcanic complexes.
b. Volcanic domes/ Domes complexes – mound-shaped or convex volcanoes formed
by repeated slow extrusion of viscous magma. Domes are associated with low- to
high silica magma e.g. Hibok-hibok Volcano
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c. Strato-volcanoes – cone-shaped volcanoes typically having one or several summit
craters and formed by repeated alternate deposition of lava and pyroclastic.
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Stratovolcanoes are usually formed by intermediate silica or andesitic magma . e.g.
Mayon Volcano.
d. Calderas – large volcanic edifices typically composed of several volcanic centers
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around a central 2 km wide crater. Calderas are formed by highly explosive

eruptions in between long periods of dormancy and are typically associated with
high-silica or rhyolitic magma, e.g. Taal Caldera
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STRATO-VOLCANO (COMPOSITE VOLCANO)

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COMPOUND VOLCANO/ COMPLEX VOLCANO CALDERA
FIELD VOLCANO
LAVA DOME CINDER CONE TUFF CONE TUFF RING MAAR

SCORIA CONE
PUMICE CONE
Figure 2.2.2 Types of volcanoes based on form (Adapted from Simkin and Siebert, 1994)
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Types of Volcanic Eruptions
Volcanic eruptions are generally classified as wet or dry eruptions depending on the role of
water. More popularly however, volcanic eruptions are characterized according to the
behaviour or styles of activity. The most common types of eruptions are:
a. Phreatic or hydrothermal eruptions – steam-driven eruptions caused by the contact
of water with hot country rocks (not magma). Phreatic eruptions are short-lived,
producing only ephemeral ash columns, but may be precursory to larger eruptive
activity.
b. Phreatomagmatic eruptions – very violent eruptions generated by the explosive

contact of erupting magma with water. These eruptions produce voluminous
columns of very fine ash and, more importantly, laterally projected, high-speed and
hazardous pyroclastic currents called base surges.
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c. Strombolian eruptions – periodic weak to violent eruptions of gas-charges fluid lava
characterized by lava fountaining and flow.
d. Vulcanian eruptions – canon-like explosions produced by the detonation of a
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solidified plug of magma in the volcanic conduit by pressurized accumulated gas
beneath it. Vulcanian eruptions are characterized by tall eruption columns that can
reach up to 20 km high and the generation of pyroclastic flows and ashfall tephra.
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e. Plinian eruptions – sustained and excessively explosive eruption of voluminous gas
and pyroclastic that produce tall eruption columns in excess of 40 km and well-
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pronounced umbrella clouds. Plinian eruptions produce caldera but more
importantly, voluminous pyroclastic flows that often form widespread sheets of
deposits called an ignimbrite field. These eruption are known to cause global
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climactic changes due to the injection of large quantities of volcanic gas into the
stratosphere.
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Volcanic hazards
Volcanic hazards are phenomena arising from volcanic activity that pose potential threat to
persons or property in a given area within a given period of time. Below is a list of volcanic
hazards common in Philippine active volcanoes.
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1. PYROCLASTIC FLOW
Fast turbulent mass of fragmented
volcanic material (ash and rocks) mixed
with hot gases that flows downslope at
very high speed (>60kph).
 The high temperature of a pyroclastic flow
can burn everything along its path. Deposits
of pyroclastic flows can bury areas within
river valleys and plains.
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2. LAVA FLOW
Stream-like flow of incandescent, molten
rock material erupted from a volcano.
 Areas buried by lava flows will not be usable for a
long time, because lava solidifies into massive
rock.
3. ASHFALL OR TEPHRA FALL

Shower of fine-to-coarse-grained volcanic
material and other airborne products of a
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volcanic eruption. Ashfall distributed or
dispersal is dependent on prevailing wind
direction.
 The fine ash particles, when inhaled, can cause
respiratory problems. Thick heavy ash
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accumulations can cause roofs to collapse.
Ashfall is particularly hazardous to aircrafts
because it can cause jet engine failure. C
4. LAHAR
Rapidly flowing thick mixture of volcanic
materials and water, usually generated
along river channels by extreme rainfall
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 Lahar deposits can buy large areas under volcanic
debris several meters thick.
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5. VOLCANIC GASES 8. SECONDARY EXPOSIONS

Gases released to the atmosphere in the Non-eruption explosive events
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form of water vapour, hydrogen sulphide, generated when ground water

sulphur dioxide, carbon monoxide, hydrogen comes in contact with still hot
chloride, and hydrogen fluoride. pyroclastic –flow deposits the stage
 There are toxic gases emitted by volcanoes that of a volcano and converted to
can be harmful to health. steam.
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6. DEBRIS AVALANCHE OR VOLCANIC

LANDSLIDE
A massive collapse of a huge portion of a
volcano usually triggered by an earthquake
or volcanic eruption.
7. TSUNAMI OR SEICHE
Waves or wave trains that are generated by
the sudden displacement of water during 9. GROUND FISSURING
volcanic eruptions. These could also be Movement/ adjustment along faults,
generated during undersea eruptions or by accompanied by earthquake.
debris avalanches.
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Signs of impending volcanic eruptions and monitoring techniques for risk mitigation
Volcanologists rely on several indirect methodologies in order to detect and evaluate the
precursory signs that may warn of volcanic activity. The following are some of the telltale
signs of impending volcanic unrest, and the corresponding volcano monitoring techniques
that are employed to detect these signs.
a. Seismicity – volcanic earthquakes are generated when magma moves within or

intrudes the volcanic system, when the volcano edifice adjusts to magma movement
or pressurization of the groundwater system, and when magmatic gas seeps into
fissures in the enclosing magma or country rocks. Volcanic earthquakes are
monitored by a network of seismographs around the volcano, and the
characteristics of frequency, location, magnitude and type of earthquakes recorded
can show ongoing magmatic processes beneath the volcano especially those that
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can lead to an eruption.
b. Ground deformation – magma movement, magmatic pressurization and

groundwater pressurization also cause small to moderate ground deformation of
the volcano’s surface and its immediate vicinity. These adjustments may be due to
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ground tumescence or inflation which is attributed to magma intrusion, or ground
subsidence or deflation which is attributed to magma withdrawal. Ground
deformation is monitored by geodetic surveys such as EDM surveys or Precise
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leveling which measure the lengthening or shortening of established baseline on the
volcanic slopes. Ground tilt is also measured remotely and in real-time with an
instrument called a tiltmeter permanently installed on the volcanic slopes.
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c. Sulphur dioxide flux and other gas emissions – the output of sulphur dioxide, a
principal magmatic gas, as well as of other gas species, is measured as an indication
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of the volume and state of the magma near or approaching the surface of a volcano.
Sulphur dioxide emission is indirectly measured using a Correlation Spectrometer or
COSPEC, a fly spectrometer or FlySpec, or a Differential Optical Absorption
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Spectrometer or DOAS. Spectrometers measure gas flux as a function of how much

ultraviolet to visible light is absorbed or blocked in the atmosphere.
d. Geophysical anomalies – in some volcanoes geophysical parameters such

gravimetric potential, magneto-telluric and self-potential have been proven to show
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precursory changes before and during an eruption, due to changes in the density
and electromagnetic fields of the erupting magma. These parameters are measured
by geophysical instruments such as gravimeters and magnetometers.
e. Hydrology – the water in wells and springs are also monitored for pH, chemistry and
temperature for changes that may be caused by the influx of new magma. In some
volcanoes, water levels are also constantly measured for significant non-seasonal
fluctuation that may result from ground deformation.
f. Volcanic plumes – The plumes of active volcanoes are regularly monitored for
volume, intensity and color which may change due to varying amounts of steam, gas
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or ash. Space-borne satellite images also measure volcanic plume chemistry by
analysing the spectral properties of the plumes.
Figure 2.2.3 shows the different signs of volcanic unrest, with specific alert signs for Taal
volcano at Table 2.2.1. PHIVOLCS has also developed many information materials that can
be used by people to prepare for different hazards such as Figure 2.2.4.
As part of hazards mitigation and risk reduction for communities situated around volcanoes,
volcanologists conduct research on their eruptive histories and products and generated
volcanic hazards maps. These maps are intended to be used as guidelines for evacuation and
response procedures during a volcanic crisis such as an impending eruption, and as guides to
safe land use and management and risk mitigation measures.
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EVALUTION
1. Name the three categories by which we classify volcanoes in the Philippiens
2. What are the hazards associated with volcanic eruptions?
3. Name at least 3 signs of volcanic unrest
4. Name at least 3 volcano-monitoring techniques used in the Philippines.
REFERENCES
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Martinez – villegas, M.L. (2001). An introduction to Volcanic Hazards in the Philippines, in
Learning to Expect the Unexpected, Proceedings.
Tilling, R.I. (1989). Volcanic hazards and their mitigation: Progress and Problems: Reviews of
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Geophysics 27(2):237 – 269
PHIVOLCS Volcanoes and Volcanic Hazards Flyer, 2013
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Figure 2.2.3 Some Signs of Impending volcanic eruptions

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A volcanic eruption can be non-explosive or explosive. A non-explosive eruption is a
quiet effusion of lava. An explosive explosion can be compared to an atomic bomb
explosion, exploding thick and dark ash clouds reaching up to thousands of meters high.
Volcanic ash clouds are fine fragments ejected by a volcano during such an eruption.
Sometimes they can be seen growing like a giant mushroom enveloping the horizon over an
erupting crater causing the surrounding area to be shrouded with darkness. However, after
a few minutes, the ash falls back to the ground like rain. This is what we call ashfall. After
the ashfall, you’ll notice that the coarser fragments can be found near the volcano while as
you go farther, the ash becomes finer.
Heavy ashfall can cause harm to humans, animals, plants, equipment, engines and
structures. Fine volcanic ash is often respirable which can cause pulmo-respiratory diseases
if inhaled over prolonged period. Volcanic ash contains soluble salt which can harm plants.
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Thick ash that accumulates on roofs especially when rained on could cause the collapse of
houses and buildings. Also, acid-bearing ash could cause metal corrosion and destroy
household appliances like air-conditioner, freezer, refrigerator, radio, television set,
computer, etc. Ash could likewise affect vehicle engines and cause vehicular accidents. We
cannot stop an ashfall but we can minimize its adverse effects. The following are some tips
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on what to do before, during, and after an ashfall.
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Figure 2.2.4 What to do before (above), during, and after (next page) an ashfall
event. (Source: PHIVOLCS What to do BEFORE, DURING, AFTER an ashfall Poster, 2014)
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Table 2.2.1 Taal Volcano Alert Levels.
TAAL VOLCANO ALERT SIGNALS

Alert
Criteria Interpretation
Level
No eruption in foreseeable
0 Background, quiet
future.
Magmatic, tectonic or
Low level seismicity, fumarolic, ground
1 hydrothermal disturbance;
deformation and other parameters
no eruption imminent.
Low to moderate level of seismicity, A) Probable magmatic
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persistence of local earthquakes. Ground intrusion; could
deformation measurements above baseline eventually lead to an
2 levels. Increased water and/or ground probe eruption
hole temperatures, increased bubbling and B) If trend declines,
volcanic gas flux in the Main Crater lake. volcano may soon go
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to level 1
Eruption is imminent
A) If trend is one of
Relatively high unrest manifested by seismic
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swarms including the occurrence of low
increasing unrest,
eruption is possible
frequency earth shakes and/or volcanic
within days to a few
3 tremor (some even felt). Sudden or bubbling
weeks.
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activity or volcanic gas emission or crater
B) If trend is one of
lake acidity. Bulging of the edifice and
decreasing unrest,
fissuring may accompany seismicity.
volcano may soon go
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to level 2
Intense unrest, continuing seismic swarms,
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including harmonic tremor and other “low

Hazardous explosive
4 frequency earthquakes,” that are usually
eruption is possible within
felt, profuse steaming along existing and
days.
new vents and fissures. Extreme ground
deformation and fissuring, lava fountaining
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or lava flows, may occur.

Hazardous eruption in
Explosive eruption column, may be progress. Extreme hazards
accompanied by base surges or volcanic to communities on
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tsunami; activity accompanied by explosion Volcano Island and
earthquakes. Felt volcano-tectonic lakeshore towns and
earthquakes and intense volcanic tremor. ashfalls on downwind
sectors.
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MAYON VOLCANO
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Source: http://volcano.si.edu/volcano.cfm?vn=273030
Source:
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Philippine Institute of Volcanology and Seismology. (n.d.). Volcano List - Mayon Volcano. Retrieved
from http://www.phivolcs.dost.gov.ph/html/update_VMEPD/Volcano/VolcanoList/mayon.htm
NAME OF VOLCANO: MAYON

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LOCATION: Albay, 300 km southeast of Manila (13°15.4'N, 123°41.1’E)’
PHYSICAL FEATURES
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Elevation: 2.46 km
Base Diameter: 20 km
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Base Circumference: 62.8 km (reckoned from 10-km radius) encompassing the

towns of Camalig, Malilipot and Sto. Domingo
Area: 314.1 km2 (estimated from 62.8 km base circumference)
Type of Volcano: Strato-volcano
Adjacent Volcanic Edifice: Mt. Malinao, Lignon Hill and Balong Gloria Hill
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GEOLOGICAL FEATURES
Rock Type: Basalt to Olivine-bearing Pyroxene Andesite
Tectonic Setting: Bicol Volcanic Chain
VOLCANIC ACTIVITY
Number of Historical Eruptions: 48
Latest Eruption/Activity:
14 July 2006 (mild eruption – quiet effusion of lava) - on going
Eruption Type:
1. Strombolian (e.g.. 1978, 1st phase of 1984 eruption)
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2. Vulcanian (e.g. 1st phase of 1968 eruption, 2nd phase of 1984 eruption)
3. Plinian (e.g. 1814)
Precursors to Eruptions:
1. Increase in seismicity level (Background: 0-10 volcanic quakes per day)
2. Ground tilt due to magma intrusion.
3. Change in color of steam emission from white to gray due to entrained ash
4. Increase in the volume of steam emission
5. Crater glow due to presence of magma at or near the crater.
6. Rumbling sounds due to gas explosions, wall fracturing, landslides
VOLCANIC HAZARDS
Type of Hazards:
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1. Airfall tephra
2. Lava flows
3. Pyroclastic flows
4. Lahars
Permanent Danger Zone: six (6) km radius from the summit
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MONITORING ACTIVITY
Volcano Observatory: Lignon Hill Observatory (LHO) - 12 km SSE of the summit
(123°43.56’ E, 13°09.64’N)
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Monitoring Methods:
1. Seismic monitoring (number of volcanic quakes and tremors)
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2. Ground deformation (precise leveling, electronic tilt, GPS)
3. Visual observations
4. Sulfur dioxide emission rate (by COSPEC)
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5. Water well monitoring
Monitoring Stations
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A - Seismic Network
 DIGITAL PERMANENT: Lignon Hill Observatory, Upper Anoling, Upper Sta.
Misericordia and Mayon Rest House with repeater sites at Mt. Bariw, Upper Sto.
Domingo and Tabaco
 DIGITAL MOBILE: Upper Mayon Rest House, Upper Masarawag and Lignon Hill
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Observatory with repeater sites at Ligao and Camalig

 ANALOG: Upper Anoling
B - Ground Deformation
 PRECISE LEVELING LINES: Buang Junction to Mayon Rest House (20
benchmarks); Lidong (13 benchmarks) and Anoling
 GPS STATIONS: Legazpi (Lignon Hill), Sto. Domingo (San Andres), Malilipot
(Calbayog), Tabaco (MRH), Malinao, Ligao (Nabonton) and Camalig (Upper
Anoling, Tinago, and Palanog)
 PERMANENT ELECTRONIC TILT: Upper Anoling, Buang and Mayon Rest House
 MOBILE ELECTRONIC TILT: Upper Anoling, Lower Anoling and Upper MRHO
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KANLAON VOLCANO
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Source:
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Philippine Institute of Volcanology and Seismology. (n.d.). Volcano List - Kanlaon Volcano. Retrieved
from http://www.phivolcs.dost.gov.ph/html/update_VMEPD/Volcano/VolcanoList/kanlaon.htm
NAME OF VOLCANO: KANLAON

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LOCATION: Negros Oriental, approximately 36 km southeast of Bacolod City
(10°24.7'N, 123°7.9'E)
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PHYSICAL FEATURES
Elevation: 2.435 km
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Type of Volcano: Stratovolcano
Hot springs: Mambucal Hot Springs ( NW slope of KV), Bucalan Hot Spring, Bungol
Hot Spring
Adjacent Volcanic Edifice: Mt. Silay and Mt. Mt. Mandalagan (N of Kanlaon)
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GEOLOGICAL FEATURES
Rock Type: Pyroxene andesite with minor amounts of basalt and dacite
Tectonic Setting: Negros Volcanic Belt
VOLCANIC ACTIVITY
Latest Eruption/Activity: 03 June - 25 July 2006
Eruption Type:
1. Phreatic (e.g. 1985, 1992, 1993)
2. Phreatomagmatic (e.g. 1884)
3. Strombolian (e.g. 1902)
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Precursors to Eruption:
1. Increase in frequency of volcanic tremors/quakes
2. Inflationary trend for geodetic measurements
4. Increased steaming activity
5. Sulfur stench observed at Cabagnaan and Mambucal
6. Increased chloride concentration and lowering of pH at Mambucal hot
springs
VOLCANIC HAZARDS
Type of Hazards: tephra falls, pyroclastic flows and base surges, lava flows, lahar,
debris avalanche and structural collapse
Permanent Danger Zone: Four (4) km radius from the summit
Other Buffer Zones:
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ZONE A - area to be evacuated for Alert Level 3 covering 6 km SE-NW from the
crater
ZONE B - area to be evacuated for Alert Level 4, covering 8 km SE-NW from the
crater
ZONE C - area to be evacuated when eruption becomes very explosive and
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hazardous, covering 12 to 14 km SENW from the crater
MONITORING ACTIVITY
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Volcano Observatory: Kanlaon Volcano Observatory, La Carlota City College
Campus, Bgy. Cubay, La Carlota City, Negros Occidental
Monitoring Methods:
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1. Seismic monitoring
2. Ground Deformation – precise leveling, electronic distance measurement
(EDM), global positioning system (GPS), tilt
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3. Gas chemistry – sulfur dioxide measurement by Correlation Spectrometer

(COSPEC)
4. Visual observation
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Monitoring Stations:
A – Seismic Network
 Digital: Canlaon City, Manghumay, Sto. Bama, Calvary Hill,
Pinamintigan HIll
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 Analog – Guintubdan, Cabagnaan, Canlaon City

B – Ground Deformation Network
 EDM Lines:
1. Cabacungan (inst. Site) to Cabagnaan
2. Kanlaon Volcano Observatory (KVO), Canlaon City (inst. Site) to
Kanlaon Volcano (KV) upper slope
3. KVO (inst. Site) to KV middle slope
 Precise leveling line: Guintubdan
 GPS: Canlaon City, Guintubdan
 Dry tilt: Bgy. Pula, Canlaon City (ESE of KV), Bgy. Old Fabrica, La
Castellana (S of KV)
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HIBOK-HIBOK VOLCANO
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Source:
Philippine Institute of Volcanology and Seismology. (n.d.). Volcano List –Hibok-hibok Volcano.
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Retrieved from
http://www.phivolcs.dost.gov.ph/html/update_VMEPD/Volcano/VolcanoList/hibok.htm
NAME OF VOLCANO: HIBOK-HIBOK

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LOCATION: Camiguin Island, located at the northwestern end of the Island (9°12.2'N,
124°40.5’E)
PHYSICAL FEATURES
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Elevation: 1.332 km
Type of Volcano: Stratovolcano and dome complex
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Hot springs: Ardent Spring, Tangob, Bugong, Tagdo, Naasag, Kiyab

Crater Lakes/Maars:
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CRATERS: Kanangkaan Crater (site of 1948 eruption)

Itum Crater (site of 1949 eruption)
Ilihan Crater (site of 1950 eruption)
MAAR: Taguines Lagoon (located between Binone and Maac)
Adjacent Volcanic Edifice: Mt. Vulcan (671 m high asl, NW of Hibok-Hibok ), Mt.
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Mambajao (center of Camiguin),

Mt. Ginsiliban (581 m high asl, southernmost Camiguin), Mt. Uhay (N of Mount
Ginsiliban);
Domes and cones: Campana Hill, Minokol Hill, Tres Marias Hill, Mt. Carling, Mt.
Tibane, Piyakong Hill
GEOLOGICAL FEATURES
Rock Type: Hornblende andesite and dacite
Tectonic Setting: Central Mindanao Arc
VOLCANIC ACTIVITY
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Latest Eruption/Activity: 1948 Sept. 31 - 1953 July
Eruption Type:
1. Pelean (e.g. 1948-1952)
2. Dome building with nuee ardente (e.g. 1871, 1949-1953)
3. Solfataric activity with subterranean sounds ( e.g. 1897-1902)
Eruption Sites during the 1948-1952 eruptions: Kanangkaan Crater (1948), Itum
Crater (1949) and c) Ilihan Crater(1950).
Eruption Pattern observed during the 1948-1952 eruptions (a cycle of four phases):
1. A short period of emission of considerable amount of steam from the crater
and avalanches of volcanic materials;
2. Explosions or steam blast with emission of heavy clouds of steam, ash and
other fragmentary volcanic materials with a strong possibility of the
development of nuee ardente;
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3. Eruption of incandescent materials, emission of ash and steam in large
amounts, formation of flows and occasional minor crateral outburst, and
4. Decrease in amount of steam and other ejecta from the crater.
Precursors to Eruptions:
1. Increasing number of volcanic quakes/tremors
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2. Localized landslides, rockfalls and landslides from the summit area not
attributable to heavy rains
3. Appreciable increase in steam emission
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5. Progressive ground deformation (tilting, inflation, etc.)
6. Presence of crater glow
7. Appearance of solfataras
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VOLCANIC HAZARDS
Type of Hazards: Steam blasts, Glowing avalanches, Lava flows, Lahars
Permanent Danger Zone: Three (3) km radius from the summit
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Other Buffer Zones:

POTENTIALLY DANGEROUS AREA: Camiguin Island and north of line connecting
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Tangaro, Catarman and Tupsan (all in Mambajao)
MONITORING ACTIVITY
Volcano Observatory: Quiboro Volcano Observatory, Mambajao, 4.7 km NE of
Hibok-Hibok (, 9° 14.0'N, 124° 40.3'E)
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Monitoring Methods:
1. Seismic (number of recorded volcanic quakes and tremors)
2. Ground deformation – Electronic Distance Measurement (EDM)
3. Visual observations (steaming activity, and other phenomena)
Monitoring Stations
A - Seismic Network
· Hibok-Hibok Observatory · Vulcan Peak Repeater Station
· Upper Southeast Slope · Lawigan, Catarman
· Napo, Catarman · Mainit, Catarman Observation Point
· Vulcan Peak Observation Point · Baylao
B - Ground Deformation
· PRECISE LEVELING LINE - Quiboro to Hibok-Hibok slope
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TAAL VOLCANO HAZARD MAPS
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HIBOK-HIBOK VOLCANO ALERT SIGNALS (from PHIVOLCS website)
ALERT CRITERIA INTERPRETATION
LEVEL
NO ALERT Background, quiet No eruption in foreseeable
future.
1 Low level of seismic, fumarolic, other Magmatic, tectonic or
unrest hydrothermal disturbance; no
eruption imminent
2 Low to moderate level of seismic, other Probable magmatic intrusion;
unrest with positive evidence for could eventually lead to an
involvement of magma eruption
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3 Relatively high and increasing unrest, Increasing likelihood of an
including numerous b-types eruption, possible within days to
earthquakes, accelerating ground week
deformation, and rockfalls, increased
vigor or fumaroles, gas emission
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4 Intense unrest, including harmonic Magma close to or at earth’s
tremor, and/or may “long” period (low surface. Hazardous explosives,
frequency) earthquakes or quiet lava eruption likely, possible, within
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emissions and/or dome growth and/or hours to days
small explosions
5 Hazardous explosive eruption in Explosive eruption in progress.
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progress, with pyroclastic flows, surges, Hazards in valleys and
and/or eruption column rising at least 6 downwind.
km or 20,000 feet above sea level
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STAND-DOWN PROCEDURES:
In order to protect against “lull before the storm” phenomena, alert levels will be
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maintained for the following periods after activity decreases to the next lower level.
From level 5 to level 4: Wait 12 hours after level 5 activity stops
From level 4 to level 3: Wait 2 weeks after activity drops below level 4
From level 3 to level 2: Wait 2 weeks after activity drops below level 3
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Note: ashfall will occur from secondary explosions for several years after eruption,
whenever rainfall and lahars come in contact with still hot pyroclastic deposits.
These secondary explosions will occur regardless of alert level.
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V. OTHER RELATED GEOLOGICAL HAZARDS
Landslide Types and Processes
Highland, L. (2004, July). U.S. Geological Survey. Available at pubs.usgs.gov/fs/2004/3072/pdf/fs2004-
3072.pdf
Landslides in the United States occur TYPES OF LANDSLIDES

in all 50 States. The primary regions of The term “landslide” describes a wide variety
landslide occurrence and potential are the of processes that result in the downward
coastal and mountainous areas of California, and outward movement of slope-forming
Oregon, and Washington, the States materials including rock, soil, artificial fill, or
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comprising the intermountain west, and the a combination of these. The materials may
mountainous and hilly regions of the Eastern move by falling, toppling, sliding, spreading,
United States. Alaska and Hawaii also or flowing. Figure 1 shows a graphic
experience all types of landslides. illustration of a landslide, with the commonly
Landslides in the United States cause accepted terminology describing its features.
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approximately $3.5 billion (year 2001 dollars) The various types of landslides can
in damage, and kill between 25 and 50 be differentiated by the kinds of material
people annually. Casualties in the United involved and the mode of movement. A
States are primarily caused by rockfalls, rock
slides, and debris flows. Worldwide,
C classification system based on these
parameters is shown in figure 2. Other
landslides occur and cause thousands of classification systems incorporate additional
casualties and billions in monetary losses variables, such as the rate of movement and
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annually. the water, air, or ice content of the landslide
The information in this publication material.
provides an introductory primer on Although landslides are primarily
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understanding basic scientific facts about associated with mountainous regions, they
landslides—the different types of landslides, can also occur in areas of generally low
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how they are initiated, and some basic relief. In low-relief areas, landslides occur as
information about how they can begin to be cut-and fill failures (roadway and building
managed as a hazard. excavations), river bluff failures, lateral
spreading landslides, collapse of mine-waste
piles (especially coal), and a wide variety of
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slope failures associated with quarries and

open-pit mines. The most common types of
landslides are described as follows and are
illustrated in figure 3.
Figure 1. An idealized slump-earth flow

showing commonly used nomenclature for
labeling the parts of a landslide.
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SLIDES: Although many types of mass
movements are included in the general
term “landslide,” the more restrictive use of
the term refers only to mass movements,
where there is a distinct zone of weakness
that separates the slide material from more
stable underlying material. The two major
types of slides are rotational slides and
translational slides.
Rotational slide: This is a slide in which the
surface of rupture is curved concavely
upward and the slide movement is roughly
rotational about an axis that is parallel to
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the ground surface and transverse across
the slide (fig. 3A). Translational slide: In this
type of slide, the landslide mass moves
along a roughly planar surface with little
rotation or backward tilting (fig. 3B). A block
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slide is a translational slide in which the
moving mass consists of a single unit or a
few closely related units that move Figure 1.1. La Conchita, coastal area of southern
downslope as a relatively coherent mass
C California. This landslide and earth flow occurred in
the spring of 1995. People were evacuated and the
(fig. 3C). houses nearest the slide were completely
destroyed. This is a typical type of landslide.
Photo by R.L. Schuster
D
FALLS: Falls are abrupt movements of
masses of geologic materials, such as rocks a. Debris flow: A debris flow is a form of
and boulders, that become detached from rapid mass movement in which a
E
steep slopes or cliffs (fig. 3D). Separation combination of loose soil, rock, organic
occurs along discontinuities such as matter, air, and water mobilize as a slurry
fractures, joints, and bedding planes and that flows downslope (fig. 3F). Debris flows
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movement occurs by free-fall, bouncing, include <50% fines. Debris flows are
and rolling. Falls are strongly influenced by commonly caused by intense surface-water
gravity, mechanical weathering, and the flow, due to heavy precipitation or rapid
presence of interstitial water. snowmelt that erodes and mobilizes loose
soil or rock on steep slopes. Debris flows
D
TOPPLES: Toppling failures are also commonly mobilize from other types of
distinguished by the forward rotation of a landslides that occur on steep slopes, are
unit or units about some pivotal point, nearly saturated, and consist of a large
below or low in the unit, under the actions proportion of silt- and sand-sized material.
of gravity and forces exerted by adjacent Debris-flow source areas are often
units or by fluids in cracks (fig. 3E). associated with steep gullies, and debris-
flow deposits are usually indicated by the
FLOWS: There are five basic categories of presence of debris fans at the mouths of
flows that differ from one another in gullies. Fires that denude slopes of
fundamental ways. vegetation intensify the susceptibility of
slopes to debris flows.
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b. Debris avalanche: This is a variety of very are reaching the point of failure as other
rapid to extremely rapid debris flow (fig. types of mass movements. Creep is
3G). indicated by curved tree trunks, bent fences
c. Earthflow: Earthflows have a or retaining walls, tilted poles or fences,
characteristic “hourglass” shape (fig. 3H). and small soil ripples or ridges (fig. 3I).
The slope material liquefies and runs out,
forming a bowl or depression at the head. LATERAL SPREADS: Lateral spreads are
The flow itself is elongate and usually distinctive because they usually occur on
occurs in fine-grained materials or clay- very gentle slopes or flat terrain (fig. 3J).
bearing rocks on moderate slopes and The dominant mode of movement is lateral
under saturated conditions. However, dry extension accompanied by shear or tensile
flows of granular material are also possible. fractures. The failure is caused by
d. Mudflow: A mudflow is an earthflow liquefaction, the process whereby
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consisting of material that is wet enough to saturated, loose, cohesion less sediments
flow rapidly and that contains at least 50 (usually sands and silts) are transformed
percent sand-, silt-, and clay-sized particles. from a solid into a liquefied state. Failure is
In some instances, for example in many usually triggered by rapid ground motion,
newspaper reports, mudflows and debris such as that experienced during an
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flows are commonly referred to as earthquake, but can also be artificially
“mudslides.” induced. When coherent material, either
e. Creep: Creep is the imperceptibly slow, bedrock or soil, rests on materials that
steady, downward movement of slope-
C liquefy, the upper units may undergo
forming soil or rock. Movement is caused by fracturing and extension and may then
shear stress sufficient to produce subside, translate, rotate, disintegrate, or
D
permanent deformation, but too small to liquefy and flow. Lateral spreading in fine-
produce shear failure. There are generally grained materials on shallow slopes is
three types of creep: (1) seasonal, where usually progressive. The failure starts
E
movement is within the depth of soil suddenly in a small area and spreads
affected by seasonal changes in soil rapidly. Often the initial failure is a slump,
moisture and soil temperature; (2) but in some materials movement occurs for
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continuous, where shear stress no apparent reason. Combination of two or

continuously exceeds the strength of the more of the above types is known as a
material; and (3) progressive, where slopes complex landslide.
TYPE OF MATERIAL
TYPES OF MOVEMENT ENGINEERING SOILS
D
BEDROCK Predominantly coarse Predominantly fine

FALLS Rock fall Debris fall Earth fall
TOPLESS Rock topple Debris topple Earth topple
ROTATIONAL
SLIDES Rock slide Debris slide Earth slide
TRANSLATIONAL
LATERAL SPREADS Rock spread Debris spread Earth spread
Rock flow Debris flow Earth flow
FLOWS
(deep creep) (soil creep)
COMPLEX Combination of two or more principal types of movement
Figure 2. Types of landslides. Abbreviated version of Varnes’ classification of slope movements
(Varnes, 1978).
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C
E D
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Figure 3. These schematics illustrate the major types of landslide movement that are described in
the previous pages.
LANDSLIDE CAUSES e. Deposition loading slope or its crest

1. Geological causes f. Vegetation removal (by fire, drought)
D
a. Weak or sensitive materials g. Thawing

b. Weathered materials h. Freeze-and-thaw weathering
c. Sheared, jointed, or fissured materials i. Shrink-and-swell weathering
d. Adversely oriented discontinuity (bedding, 3. Human causes
schistosity, fault, unconformity, contact, etc.) a. Excavation of slope or its toe
e. Contrast in permeability and/or stiffness of b. Loading of slope or its crest
materials c. Drawdown (of reservoirs)
2. Morphological causes d. Deforestation
a. Tectonic or volcanic uplift e. Irrigation
b. Glacial rebound f. Mining
c. Fluvial, wave, or glacial erosion of slope toe g. Artificial vibration
or lateral margins h. Water leakage from utilities
d. Subterranean erosion (solution, piping)
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Although there are multiple types dilation of soil materials, which allows rapid
of causes of landslides, the three that cause infiltration of water. The 1964 Great Alaska
most of the damaging landslides around the Earthquake caused widespread landsliding
world are these: and other ground failure, which caused
most of the monetary loss due to the
Landslides and Water earthquake. Other areas of the United
States, such as California and the Puget
Slope saturation by water is a Sound region in Washington, have
primary cause of landslides. This effect can experienced slides, lateral spreading, and
occur in the form of intense rainfall, other types of ground failure due to
snowmelt, changes in ground-water levels, moderate to large earthquakes.
and water level changes along coastlines, Widespread rockfalls also are caused by
earth dams, and the banks of lakes, loosening of rocks as a result of ground
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reservoirs, canals, and rivers. shaking. Worldwide, landslides caused by
Landsliding and flooding are closely earthquakes kill people and damage
allied because both are related to structures at higher rates than in the United
precipitation, runoff, and the saturation of States.
ground by water. In addition, debris flows
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and mudflows usually occur in small, steep Landslides and Volcanic Activity
stream channels and often are mistaken for
floods; in fact, these two events often occur Landslides due to volcanic activity
simultaneously in the same area.
C are some of the most devastating types.
Landslides can cause flooding by Volcanic lava may melt snow at a rapid rate,
forming landslide dams that block valleys causing a deluge of rock, soil, ash, and
D
and stream channels, allowing large water that accelerates rapidly on the steep
amounts of water to back up. This causes slopes of volcanoes, devastating anything in
backwater flooding and, if the dam fails, its path. These volcanic debris flows (also
E
subsequent downstream flooding. Also, known as lahars) reach great distances,

solid landslide debris can “bulk” or add once they leave the flanks of the volcano,
volume and density to otherwise normal and can damage structures in flat areas
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stream flow or cause channel blockages and surrounding the volcanoes. The 1980
diversions creating flood conditions or eruption of Mount St. Helens, in
localized erosion. Landslides can also cause Washington triggered a massive landslide
overtopping of reservoirs and/or reduced on the north flank of the volcano, the
capacity of reservoirs to store water. largest landslide in recorded times.
D
Landslides and Seismic Activity Landslide Mitigation—How to Reduce the

Effects of Landslides
Many mountainous areas that are
vulnerable to landslides have also Vulnerability to landslide hazards is
experienced at least moderate rates of a function of location, type of human
earthquake occurrence in recorded times. activity, use, and frequency of landslide
The occurrence of earthquakes in steep events. The effects of landslides on people
landslide-prone areas greatly increases the and structures can be lessened by total
likelihood that landslides will occur, due to avoidance of landslide hazard areas or by
ground shaking alone or shaking-caused restricting, prohibiting, or imposing
108
conditions on hazard-zone activity. Local 3. For an assessment of the landslide risk
governments can reduce landslide effects to an individual property or homesite,
through land-use policies and regulations. obtain the services of a State-licensed
Individuals can reduce their exposure to geotechnical engineer or engineering
hazards by educating themselves on the geologist. These professionals can be
past hazard history of a site and by making found through the membership listings
inquiries to planning and engineering of two professional societies, the
departments of local governments. They American Society of Civil Engineers
can also obtain the professional services of (ASCE), http://www.asce.org and the
an engineering geologist, a geotechnical Association of Engineering Geologists
engineer, or a civil engineer, who can http://www.aegweb.org. Often,
properly evaluate the hazard potential of a personnel in State or county planning or
site, built or unbuilt.
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engineering departments can refer
competent geotechnical engineers or
The hazard from landslides can be reduced engineering geologists.
by avoiding construction on steep slopes
and existing landslides, or by stabilizing the 4. For more information about the design
slopes. Stability increases when ground and construction of debris-flow
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water is prevented from rising in the mitigation measures which may include
landslide mass by (1) covering the landslide debris basins, debris fences, deflection
with an impermeable membrane, (2) walls, or other protective works, consult
directing surface water away from the
C your city or county engineer, local
landslide, (3) draining ground water away flood-control agency, or the U.S.
from the landslide, and (4) minimizing Department of Agriculture, Natural
Resources Conservation Service:
D
surface irrigation. Slope stability is also
increased when a retaining structure and/or http://www.ncgc.nrcs.usda.gov/
the weight of a soil/rock berm are placed at 5. For photos of landslide types:
E
the toe of the landslide or when mass is http://landslides.usgs.gov/html_files/nli

removed from the top of the slope. c/nlicmisc.html
EP
Where to go for more information 6. For more detailed information: two

1. The U.S. Geological Survey Landslide excellent publications that very clearly
Program has information, publications, describe the processes of landslides
and educational information on its Web were consulted for this fact sheet:
site: http://landslides.usgs.gov or Varnes, D.J., 1978, Slope movement types
D
phone toll-free: 1-800-654-4966 and processes, in Schuster, R.L., and

Krizek, R.J., eds., Landslides — Analysis
2. For general information about slides, and control: National Research Council,
Washington, D.C., Transportation
debris flows, rock falls, or other types of
Research Board, Special Report 176, p.
landslides in your area, contact your 11–33.
city or county geology or planning Turner, Keith A., and Schuster, Robert L.,
office. In addition, all 50 States have 1996, Landslides—Investigation and
State Geological Surveys that can be mitigation: Transportation Research
accessed through a link at the USGS Board, National Research Council,
Web site, http://landslides.usgs.gov National Academy Press. Compiled by
Lynn Highland Graphics and layout
design by Margo Johnson
109
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C
E D
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D
DENR-MGB. Retrieved March 2016, from: http://mgb.gov.ph/attachments/article/172/Landslide.pdf
110
Sinkholes
Excerpts from “Sinkholes”, USGS Water Science School, water.usgs.gov/edu/sinkholes.html
And “Sinkholes”, USGS Fact Sheet 2007-3060, By James E. Kaufmann
Sinkholes are common where the Catastrophic Sinkhole Collapse in Missouri

rock below the land surface is limestone, Sinkholes are a common feature in
carbonate rock, salt beds, or rocks that can Missouri where limestone and dolomite
naturally be dissolved by groundwater outcrop. Though often considered a benign
circulating through them. As the rock nuisance, sudden, catastrophic collapses
dissolves, spaces and caverns develop can destroy property, delay construction
underground. Sinkholes are dramatic projects, and contaminate ground water
because the land usually stays intact for a resources.
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while until the underground spaces just
get too big. If there is not enough support What is a “Sinkhole”?
A sinkhole is an area of ground
that has no natural external surface
drainage—when it rains, all of the water
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stays inside the sinkhole and typically
drains into the subsurface. Sinkholes can
C vary from a few feet to hundreds of acres
and from less than 1 to more than 100 feet
deep. Some are shaped like shallow bowls
or saucers whereas others have vertical
walls; some hold water and form natural
D
ponds. Two historic sinkhole ponds in
southern Missouri are Tupelo Gum Pond
and Cupola Pond. Typically, sinkholes form
E
so slowly that little change is seen in one’s

lifetime, but they can form suddenly when
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a collapse occurs. Such a collapse can have

A sinkhole that opened up in Florida, eating up a
a dramatic effect if it occurs in an urban
swimming pool, some roadway, and buildings. setting.
for the land above the spaces then a
EXPLANATION
sudden collapse of the land surface can Collapses
D
occur. These collapses can be small, or, as Sinkholes (data from Missouri
Department of National
this picture shows, or they can be huge Resources, 2007)
and can occur where a house or road is on

top. The most damage from sinkholes
tends to occur in Florida, Texas, Alabama,
Missouri, Kentucky, Tennessee, and
Pennsylvania. The picture above shows a
sinkhole that quickly opened up in Florida,
apparently eating a swimming pool, some
roadway, and buildings.
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Where do sinkholes form? Eventually, these cracks and crevices,
Sinkholes form in what geologists which are the beginning of a conduit
call “karst terrain.” Karst terrain is a region system, become large enough to start
where the bedrock can be dissolved by transporting small soil particles. As these
ground water. Bedrock in a karst area small particles of soil are carried off, the
typically is limestone, dolomite (a rock surface of the soil above the conduit starts
similar to limestone but with magnesium slumping down gradually, and a small
along with the calcium normally present in depression forms on the surface of the
the minerals that form the rocks) or ground. This small depression acts like a
gypsum. Karst areas are characterized by funnel and gathers even more water,
special features not present elsewhere: which makes the conduit larger and
springs, caves, dry streams that lose water washes more soil into the conduit. Not all
underground, and sinkholes. of the soil particles get carried into the
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These features all form because conduit; if the soil contains a large amount
water that is slightly acidic from absorbing of clay, the conduit can become plugged
carbon dioxide from the air and soil and sink-hole may start to hold water and
dissolves the bedrock and forms pathways form a natural pond.
and channels in the rock. These pathways,
O
called conduits, are like underground
plumbing that carries water from the
surface to springs located in valleys.
Eventually, these conduits become
C
exposed by erosion and, if large enough,
become caves.
D
Sometimes conduits are called
underground rivers. Like a river system,
they have an area where the water collects
E
and supplies the flow. For a surface river,

this is called the basin; for a conduit, it is
called the “recharge area.” Conduits
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collect and transport surface water

(runoff) from the recharge area—which Bowl-shaped sinkhole
can range from a few hundred square feet
to hundreds of square miles—to springs What makes a sinkhole collapse
where it rises to the surface to join the suddenly?
D
more typical stream and river system. Catastrophic collapse sinkholes are
Sinkholes form in the recharge area where more rare than the bowl-shaped type, but
the surface water is flowing into the they are not uncommon. Between 1970
subsurface and entering a conduit. and 2007, the Missouri Department of
Natural Resources examined more than
How do sinkholes form? 160 collapses reported by the public. Most
When water from rainfall moves of these collapses were small – less than
down through the soil and encounters 10 feet in diameter and 10 feet deep;
bedrock in karst terrain, the bedrock some, however, were quite large and
begins to dissolve along horizontal and spectacular. Sinkhole collapses drained a
vertical cracks and crevices in the rock. lake in the St. Louis, Missouri area, drained
112
the West Plains, Missouri, sewage lagoon, forming a sinkhole depends on
and another in Nixa, Missouri, swallowed a water to carry away soil particles, anything
car along with the garage that it was that increases the amount of water flowing
parked in! into the subsurface can speed up this
Collapses form in essentially the process. Parking lots, streets, altered
same way as the more common bowl- drainage from construction, and roof
shaped sinkholes. When the soil particles guttering are some things that can
start washing into the conduit, the soil increase runoff; even weather can make a
closer to the ground surface does not difference.
slump down, but starts forming a bridge. A Collapses are more frequent after
void forms where the soil keeps washing intense rainstorms, and there is some
into the conduit and, eventually, this hole evidence that droughts play a role as well.
grows large enough that the soil above it Areas where the water table fluctuates or
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can no longer bridge it. The soil bridge has lowered suddenly are more prone to
then suddenly collapses into the void collapse formation. Collapses are not
below and a sinkhole forms. limited to karst areas as they can form
The process of forming a conduit above old mines and even from leaky
and a soil bridge typically takes many years pipes—though they are much more
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to decades to form and can be aggravated frequent in areas that have significant
by human activities. Since the process of C karst development.
E D
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D
Formation of collapse – soil bridges gap where sediment has been washing into a solution enlarged
fracture, A. Over time, the void migrates upward through the soil, B. after the bridge thins, a sudden
collapse, C, often plugs the drain and erosion will, after many years, transform the collapse into a
more bowl-shaped sinkhole, D.
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Areas prone to collapse sinkholes rock types are evaporites (salt, gypsum,
The map below shows areas of and anhydrite) and carbonates (limestone
the United States where certain rock and dolomite). Evaporite rocks underlie
types that are susceptible to dissolution in about 35 to 40 percent of the United
water occur. In these areas the formation States, though in many areas they are
of underground cavities can form and buried at great depths.
catastrophic sinkholes can happen. These
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C
Types of sinkholes dissolution, where surface rock that are
D
Since Florida is prone to soluble to weak acids, are dissolved, and
sinkholes, it is a good place to use to suffosion, where cavities form below the
discuss some different types of sinkholes land surface, are responsible for virtually
E
and the geologic and hydrologic processes all sinkholes in Florida.

that form them. The processes of
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D
Sinkhole near a house in Florida
114
Dissolution sinkholes
Dissolution of the limestone or dolomite is most intensive where the water first
contacts the rock surface. Aggressive dissolution also occurs where flow is focused in
preexisting openings in the rock, such as along joints, fractures, and bedding planes, and in
the zone of water-table fluctuation where groundwater is in contact with the atmosphere.
On exposed carbonate surfaces, a depression
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Rainfall and surface water percolate through may focus surface, drainage, accelerating the
joints in the limestone. Dissolved carbonate rock dissolution process. Debris carried into the
is carried away from the surface and a small developing sinkhole may plug the outflow,
depression gradually forms. ponding water and creating wetlands.
Cover-subsidence sinkholes
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Cover-subsidence sinkholes tend to develop gradually where the covering sediments are
permeable and contain sand. In areas where cover material is thicker or sediments contain
more clay, cover subsidence sinkholes are relatively uncommon, are smaller, and may go
undetected for long periods.
C
E D
Granular sediments A column of Dissolution and The slow downward

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spall into secondary overlying sediments infilling continue, erosion eventually

opening s in the settles into the forming a noticeable forms small surface
underlying carbonate vacated spaces (a depression in the depressions 1 inch
rocks. process termed land surface. to several feet in
“piping). depth and diameter
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Cover-collapse sinkholes
Cover-collapse sinkholes may develop abruptly (over a period of hours) and cause
catastrophic damages. They occur where the covering sediments contain a significant
amount of clay. Over time, surface drainage, erosion, and deposition of sinkhole into a
shallower bowl-shaped depression.
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Sediments spall into As spalling continues, The cavity migrates The cavity
a cavity the cohesive upward by eventually breaches
covering sediments progressive roof the ground surface,
form a structural collapse creating sudden
arch. and dramatic
sinkholes.
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Sinkholes can be human-induced
New sinkholes have been correlated to

land-use practices, especially from groundwater
pumping and from construction and development
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practices. Sinkholes can also form when natural
water-drainage patterns are changed and new
water diversion systems are developed. Some
C
sinkholes form when the land surface is changed,
such as when industrial and runoff-storage ponds
are created. The substantial weight of the new
material can trigger an underground collapse of
D
supporting material, thus causing a sinkhole.
E
The overburden sediments that cover

buried cavities in the aquifer systems are
delicately balanced by groundwater fluid
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pressure. The water below ground is actually

helping to keep the surface soil in place.
Groundwater pumping for urban water supply and for irrigation can produce new sinkholes
In sinkhole-prone areas. If pumping results in a lowering of groundwater levels, then
underground structural failure, and thus, sinkholes, can occur.
D
Additional Information: For more information about this and other integrated science
studies at the Mid-Continent Geographic Science Center please write or call:
Emitt Witt, Director U.S. Geological Survey Mid-Continent Geographic Science Center
1400 Independence Road Rolla, Missouri 65401
Fax: (573) 308-3652 Phone: (573) 308-3679 email: [email protected]
Source:
Sinkholes, USGS Fact Sheet 2007 – 3060
Land Subsidence in the United States, U.S. Geological Survey Circular 1182
Land Subsidence in the United States, USGS Fact Sheet – 165-00
Carbonate-rock aquifers, Aquifer Basics
116
Homeowner‟s Guide to Landslides
RECOGNITION, PREVENTION, CONTROL, and MITIGATION
Compiled by Dr. Scott F. Burns, Tessa M. Harden, Carin J. Andrew

Portland State University and Federal Emergency Management Agency, Region 10
From “Homeowners Guide to Landslides”. Retrieved March 2016 from:
http://www.oregongeology.org/sub/Landslide/Landslidehome.htm
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O
C
E D
If you are in immediate danger:

• EVACUATE IMMEDIATELY
• Inform your neighbors
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• Call the police or fire department

• Call a registered engineering geologist or a geotechnical engineer
Warning signs include:

• House is making noises
D
• Walls and floors are tilting

• Cracks in house are actively opening
• Cracks in ground are appearing
• Water in drainages becomes irregular or stops
I. DEFINITION
Landslides occur when masses of rock, soil, or debris move down a slope
under the force of gravity. The term landslide includes a wide range or ground
movement such as rockfalls, mud and debris flows, and surface failures called
117
slumps, earthflows, and translational slides. Landslides can occur in a matter of
seconds or over the course of weeks and longer.
II. TYPES OF LANDSLIDES
1. SLIDES (translational or planar)

Down-slope movement of soil and/or rock on a
plane of weak material can occur on relatively
moderate to steep slopes, especially in weak
geologic materials.
2. ROCKFALLS
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Rapid, near vertical, movement of rocks that
involves free-falling, bouncing, and rolling; often
occurs in areas with near vertical exposures of rock.
3. SLUMPS (rotational)
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Unconsolidated materials (such as soil and debris)
move down-slope in a distinctive rotational motion,
C
usually occurs on moderate to steep slopes.
4. EARTH FLOWS
Unchannelized flow of water, soil, rock, and
D
vegetation that moves down-slope, occurs on steep
slopes. No failure surface at bottom.
E
5. DEBRIS/ MUD FLOWS

Rapidly moving, channelized slurry flow of water,
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soil, rock, and vegetation; occurs mainly in drainage

channels.
III. CAUSES OF LANDSLIDES

D
Two forces affecting landslides are:

1. Driving Forces (DF) cause the slope to move
2. Resisting Forces (RF) stabilize the slope and
prevent movement
When the driving forces exceed the resisting forces,
landslides occur. To prevent or mitigate landslides,
increase resisting forces or decrease driving forces.
118
Factors increasing driving forces:
1. Over-steepened slopes
2. Adding water to slope from landscape irrigation, roof downspouts,
broken sewer and water lines, and poor storm water drainage
3. Heavy rainfall and/or rapid snowmelt
4. Loading extra material at the top of the slope
Earthquakes and heavy precipitation can also trigger landslides on
susceptible slopes.
Factors increasing resisting forces:

1. Removing excess water from slopes
2. Adding buttress material at base
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IV. LANDSLIDE RECOGNITION BEFORE YOU BUILD SIGNS OF LANDSLIDE
POTENTIAL OR ACTIVITY
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Steep slopes – problems often occur on slopes steeper than 10-15 degrees.
Suspect landforms may indicate past ground movement. Landforms such as
steep, curved scarps are common at the top of landslides. Hummocky (lumpy
C
and bumpy) ground often indicates a former landslide. Trees that lean in
different directions or have bent lower tree trunks (trees with knees) are also
indicators.
E D
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D
To learn where landslides have occurred in your area contact local officials,
state geologic surveys, departments of natural resources, or university
geosciences departments. Slopes where landslides have occurred in the past
have a higher likelihood of movement in the future.
WHEN YOU BUILD

Buildings should be located away from high risk areas such as steep slopes,
rivers and streams (perennial or ephemeral), and fans at the mouth of
mountain channels. Consult a certified or licensed engineering geologist (CEG
119
or LEG) or a registered/ licensed geologist (RG) or a professional geotechnical
engineer (PE) if you plan on building on a location that is a high risk area.
AREAS PRONE TO LANDSLIDES INCLUDE:

• Areas where previous landslides have occurred
• Steep natural slopes particularly in weak geologic materials
• Canyons and areas in or around drainages
• Developed hillsides where landscapes are irrigated
• Below cliffs or hills with outcrops of fractured rocks
• Steep slopes where surface runoff is directed onto the slope
• Areas where wildfires or human modification have removed
vegetation from the slopes
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V. MONITORING YOUR HOUSE AND SURROUNDING PROPERTY
Signs of Landslide Activity Structures:
• Newly cracked pavement, foundation, support walls, sidewalks
O
• Tilted or cracked chimney
• Doors or windows that stick or jam for the first time
• Outside walls, walkways, or stairs start pulling away from the house
• Soil moves away from the foundation
C
• Plumbing or gas lines develop leaks
Property:
• Bulging ground at base of slope
D
• Leaning fence posts or retaining walls
• Springs, seeps, or saturated soil in areas that have been typically dry
E
• Cracks in the ground

• Tilted trees or utility poles
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If you have some of the above signs, your land may be slowly creeping. It may be an
old landslide that has started to reactivate. Call a registered/licensed professional.
VI. REDUCE THE LIKELIHOOD OF A LANDSLIDE

D
• Minimize irrigation on slopes

• Make sure
water and
sewer lines do
not leak
• Avoid removing
material from
the base of
slopes
• Avoid adding material or excess water to the top of slopes
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• Drain water from surface runoff, down-spouts, and driveways well
away from slopes and into storm drains or natural drainages
• Plant ground cover with deep roots on slopes
• Build retaining walls at the base of the slope
• In debris/mud flow prone areas, in valley bottoms or on fans at
the mouths of canyons, contact qualified professionals to
determine how to best build channels and/or deflection walls to
direct the flow around buildings (keeping in mind your neighbors)
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Retaining Wall at bottom of slope (Photo credit: Scott Burns)
VII.
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QUICK GUIDE TO ASSESS LANDSLIDE POTENTIAL
 Have there been landslides in the area in the past?
 Is the house or site on or near a steep slope?
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 Is there a cliff nearby?
 Is the ground cracked?
 Are there any old scarps on the slope?
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 Is there a spring, seep or ponding water close by?

 Is there a drainage channel nearby?
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 Are there any tilted or leaning trees, fences, or utility poles nearby?
 Do the trees have bent tree trunks?
 Is there any sign of cracking, or patched cracks in the walls or
foundations
 Is the driveway or sidewalk cracked, patched, or down-dropped?
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 Are any retaining walls cracked, tilted or off-set?

 Have any structures such as concrete steps moved away from the
house?
If you have any of these signs your house could be susceptible to a landslide.
VIII. ADDITIONAL INFORMATION

Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) www.fema.gov 1-800-621-
FEMA (3362) United States Geological Survey (USGS) www.usgs.gov
National Landslide Info Center http://landslides.usgs.gov 1-800-654-4666
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MGB Embarks on Subsistence Susceptibility
Assessment
Website article, Department of Environment and Natural Resources-Mines and Geosciences Bureau.
Retrieved March 2016 from: http://mgb.gov.ph/2015-05-13-02-02-11/mgb-news/80-mgb-
embarks-on-subsistence-susceptibility-assessment
The Mines and Geosciences Bureau (MGB) of the Department of Environment and
Natural Resources has expanded its Geohazard Assessment and Mapping Program
to include subsidence susceptibility assessment due to sinkhole collapse in areas of
the country that are characterized by karst topography.
Karst topography is a landscape characterized by features indicating dissolution of
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underlying soluble rocks by surface or groundwater. These soluble rocks are mostly
carbonate rocks consisting of limestone and dolomite.
In the Philippines, carbonate rocks occupy a large portion of the natural landscape,
comprising about 1,171 municipalities. The subsidence hazard susceptibility
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assessment will cover all areas of the country underlain by limestone and other
soluble rocks. C
On the other hand, sinkholes are ground depressions or openings formed when the
underlying soluble rocks are dissolved, resulting in voids underground which can
weaken the support for the overlying surface. Subsidence due to sinkhole collapse is
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one of the most dangerous geohazard because of its extreme unpredictability. This
information can be used by local government planners and individual landowners to
make decisions on where to build dwellings and other structures.
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In its subsidence susceptibility assessment, the MGB utilizes the most recent remote
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sensing data consisting of IFSAR-Digital Elevation Model (DEM) and IFSAR-

Orthorectified Radar Image (ORI) for year 2013 acquired from the National Mapping
and Resource Information Authority. The Geographic Information System (GIS)
technology is also used to identify limestone terrain, describe and analyze karst
features, detect geological structures important to karst development, and obtain
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the morphometric attributes of sinkholes. This is augmented by field data gathered

through geological and geomorphological assessment and mapping at scale of
1:10,000.
The Program also employs a Ground Penetrating Radar (GPR) survey component.
GPR is an electromagnetic technique useful for ground subsidence and sinkhole
detection. Through GPR survey, layering in soils and rocks can be mapped, and
underground objects and voids can be detected. All the 15 regional offices of the
MGB have been equipped with GPR units.
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The MGB’s GPR surveys are focused on areas experiencing rapid growth and
development and/or envisioned for development. Specific areas where GPR survey
is conducted are evacuation centers, settlement sites, and economic zones in karst
areas that are prone to land subsidence due to sinkhole collapse. Eighteen
municipalities in Bohol, and one in Negros Occidental have already been assessed by
the MGB in 2014. For 2015, the MGB aims to finish the subsidence susceptibility
assessment of 15 municipalities in the country.
After each subsidence susceptibility assessment, the LGUs concerned are furnished
with the subsidence susceptibility maps. Threat advisories are also issued with the
corresponding recommendations to ensure awareness and preparedness on the part
of the communities.
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Information, education and communication campaigns on subsidence hazards are
also conducted among local chief executives and barangay chairpersons prior to the
issuance of threat advisories. The results of this assessment have been extensively
used by the provincial and municipal local government units (LGUs) for their
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rehabilitation efforts following the 7.2 Mw Bohol earthquake on October 15, 2013.
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E D
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Geologist Liza Manzano, MGB Sinkhole Assessment Team member, giving a lecture on
subsidence hazard among LGU officials, teachers, and barangay chairpersons in the
Municipality of Baclayon, Bohol in May 2015
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The MGB Team doing morphemetric measurements of sinkholes in Bohol
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The MGB Sinkhole Assessment Team with local government officials of Panglao,
Bohol during the turn-over of the subsidence hzard map and threat advisories in May
2015
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C
E D
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The MGB Sinkhole Assessment Team performing a ground penetrating

radar survey on a subsidizing road surface in Bohol
Source: Lands Geological Survey Division, Published 07 July 2015
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VI. HYDROMETEOROLOGICAL HAZARDS
For Philippine weather information
1. Philippine Atmospheric, Geophysical and Astronomical Services Administration. (2016). DOST
PAGASA website. Available at https://kidlat.pagasa.dost.gov.ph/
2. National Mapping and Resource Information Authority (2016). NAMRIA. Available at
http://www.namria.gov.ph/
3. Mines and Geosciences Bureau. (2016). MGB. Available at http://gdis.denr.gov.ph/mgbgoogle/
4. Project NOAH. (2016). DOST NOAH. Available at http://noah.dost.gov.ph/
5. Japan Meteorological Agency. (2016). Japan Meteorological Agency. Available at
http://www.jma.go.jp/en/typh/
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General hydrometeorology
1. The University Corporation for Atmospheric Research. (2016).Flash Flood Early Warning System
Reference Guide COMET MetEd. Available at https://www.meted.ucar.edu/
2. American Meteorological Society. (2015, July 28). Meteorology Glossary. Available at
http://glossary.ametsoc.org/wiki/Main_Page
3. Pennsylvania Environmental Council. (n.d.). Watershed Atlas of the Monongahela and Allegheny
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Rivers. Available at http://www.watershedatlas.org/
Audio-visual resources
C
1. Life In The Philippines. (2014, November 08). Super Typhoon Haiyan: Inside the Belly of the Beast.
Available at https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=H0ozabA7Mxs
2. National Grid Corporation of the Philippines. (2011, December 17). Typhoon Sendong - Cagayan
de Oro Aerial View. Available at https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xivpP7qVrEU
3. Philippine Atmospheric, Geophysical and Astronomical Services Administration TV. (2015, April
D
09). PAGASA Weather Forecast. Available at https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=B0alqHpiO-Y
4. GMA Kapuso TV Shows. (2013, November 07). UNANG HIRIT: SUPER TYPHOON YOLANDA
(HAIYAN) NEWS UPDATE as of 5:00 am with MangTani. Available at
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https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=IDTobZivwBQ
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Understanding Hydrometeorological and Other
Weather-Related Hazards
By Ma. Cecilia A. Monteverde, Assistant Weather Services Chief, Research and
Development and Training Division, DOST-PAGASA.
As in the “Disaster Risk Reduction and Management Manual for Science and Mathematics Teachers”,
Department of Science and Technology-Science Education Institute (DOST-SEI).
Brief Description:
Hydrometeorological hazards are hazards pertaining to natural processes brought about by
weather, water, and climate that bring havoc to life, property and livelihood. Understanding
these hazards and its processes will enable humankind to be always prepared in any
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eventualities and preparedness is one of the best ways to help mitigate disasters.
At the end of the module, the teachers are expected to:

1. Identify the basic facts about weather.
2. Determine and explain the various types of hydrometeorological hazards in the
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Philippines; and
3. Discuss the other rain-causing weather disturbances and its hazardous impacts.
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I. Some Basic Facts
A. What makes weather?
There are three ingredients to make weather: water, air, and heat. The sun’s
heat stirs the atmosphere, making the air move creating wind which carries heat
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and water around the earth. Without the sun, we would have no weather at all or
there is no change in the weather. All weather changes are brought about by
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temperature changes in the different parts of the atmosphere which makes the
weather happen.
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The most important

layer of the atmosphere is the
troposphere. Weather only
occurs in the troposphere which
contains the most water vapor.
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Most of the clouds and all the

precipitation as well as the
violent storms are born in the
troposphere. Water vapor is
needed to make clouds. Without
it, there would be no cloud, no
rain and therefore, no weather.
B. The Water Cycle

Water is always present in the air and exists in three (3) different states: solid,
liquid and gas. When the sun heats the ground, water continuously evaporates from
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the various reservoirs – lakes, rivers and oceans where it condenses to form the
clouds. When the clouds become too heavy to carry all the moisture in them, it
starts to fall back mostly in the form of rain and returned back to the sea. As long as
the sun exists to supply the heat energy, the process of evaporation, condensation
and precipitation is repeated in a never-ending cycle
C. How are clouds formed?

Basically, clouds are formed from the evaporation of water into the
atmosphere where the water vapor is cooled to saturation and condensed to form
the clouds. Clouds form only when there is enough moisture in the air and enough
movement to carry the moisture high in the atmosphere. When the sun heats up
the ground, the air rise and cooled and the water vapor it contains condensed into
water droplets and clouds form which sometimes may turn into a huge
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thundercloud which brought heavy downpour. If the air is both dry and calm, cloud
will not form and just die down and disappear. Very rarely you see clouds in the
desert because there is very little moisture to evaporate and form clouds.
There are three (3) common processes that cause the air to rise which trigger the
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vertical movement and formation of rain clouds:
Convection – is when the ground is heated by the sun, the

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mass of air becomes warmer and lighter than the air
surrounding environment. And just like a hot air balloon, the
air parcels rise, it cools producing rains and thunderstorms.
The greater the degree of heating, the more powerful the
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convection.
Orographic lifting – when moist air moved over hills

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and mountains, as it rises, it cools to saturation point

and will form the clouds. The faster the air is forced
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to rise, the shorter and heavier the showers will be;

and
Frontal - rain clouds form when two air masses come

together; it rises, and produces a cloud and rainfall.
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Mechanical or Frictional Turbulence – occurs

when the air flow is deformed into series of eddies
as it moves over the earth’s surface.
Water changes forms becoming gas (water vapor),

liquid (water droplets) and solid (ice, hailstone) depending
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on the temperature and the pressure in which it is exposed. White and fluffy clouds signify
a bright, sunny weather, but when it turns gray, it brings rain.
D. A Rainy day
Water or frozen liquid falling from clouds is called precipitation. Rain is the liquid
form of precipitation. Clouds droplets coalesce or merge together to form larger raindrops,
and when these drops get heavier, they fall to the ground as rain. Precipitation doesn’t
always happen. If the raindrops are quite small and the air is dry then it may evaporate
before reaching the ground.
E. What is Air pressure?

The weight of the air pressing down on earth is called air pressure. Meteorologists
closely monitored the changes in air pressure. When air is warmed by the Earth surface, it
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rises, reducing pressure at ground level. As the air is warmed, it expands and rises,
producing low pressure. In contrast, when it cooled, it becomes denser and sinks creating
high pressure. The Earth’s rotation causes the air to spiral out of high pressure areas to the
low pressure areas. High and low pressures are associated with distinct weather and
changes in air pressure can give useful indicator of weather to come.
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High pressure is normally associated with clear skies and sunny conditions
and has light winds. Drought is a characteristic feature of a persistent high
pressure.
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 Low pressure is generally associated with cloudy, wet and windy weather.
Areas with extreme low pressure may develop into tropical cyclones.
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F. What is the difference between Weather and Climate?
E
Weather is daily variations of the different conditions of the atmosphere due to

the uneven heating of the sun at a given time and place. It is recorded by meteorologists as
measurement of temperature, humidity, cloud cover, precipitation, cloudiness, brightness,
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visibility and wind.
Climate refers to the average weather in a particular place or region over a much
longer time frame. The climate of a specific area is represented by the climatological
collection of its weather conditions that helps describe a place or region during a specific
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interval of time. A minimum of a period of 30 years of records are required to construct the
climatic picture of an area.
II. Severe Weather and its associated Hazards
What are hydrometeorological hazards?

Based on the World Meteorological Organization (WMO) definition,
hydrometeorological hazards are natural processes or phenomena of atmospheric,
hydrologic or oceanographic nature, which may cause the loss of life or injury, property
damage, social and economic disruption or environmental degradation (Source: ISDR
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Terminology of disaster risk reduction). Examples of these hazards include tropical cyclones,
floods, severe winds, heavy rainfall, thunderstorm, landslide and many others.
Even during the absence of a tropical cyclone, the Philippines experiences abnormal
weather conditions and this usually occur in association with severe convective activity.
These severe convective storms include thunderstorms, tornadoes and water spouts which
cause excessive rainfall and subsequent flashfloods, strong winds, lightning and even hail.
However, certain disturbances are induced locally by certain factors so that they may be felt
only in a particular locality.
1. Thunderstorm and its associated hazards

Thunderstorm is a localized (small-scale) storm associated with towering dark
cumulonimbus clouds which often brings heavy rainfall, hail, severe gusty winds, and
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frequent lightning and thunder. Tropical areas like the Philippines have the greatest
thunderstorm occurrences which occur mostly daily. TSTMs are most frequent during
the period from May to September and are most common in the mid-afternoon when
the surface temperatures are the highest. Some do occur after sunset when the growth
of immature cells becomes restimulated by cloud top cooling. The typical thunderstorm
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is 5 kilometers in diameter and many of these are short-lived, lasting no longer than an
hour but the more severe ones can last much longer. When compared with a tropical
cyclone, thunderstorms affect relatively small areas, but despite their small sizes, all
thunderstorms are dangerous!
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Thunderstorm Development
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The basic ingredients for thunderstorm development are moisture, unstable air and
lift. Moisture is needed to form the cloud and rain; unstable air that is relatively warm
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and can rise rapidly; and finally, the lift that can form from fronts, sea breezes or
mountains.
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A cell of a thunderstorm undergoes three stages of development:
a) Initial or Cumulus Stage

When the Sun heats the earth’s surface, there is a rapid lifting of moist, warm, low-
level air up beyond the condensation level and the water vapor condense to a
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towering cumulus cloud which could reach as high as 8-10 kilometers.
b) Mature Stage
It is at this stage that the cloud can cause heavy precipitation, severe lightning,
strong winds, hail and at times, tornadoes. The thunderstorm is at its strongest
towards the end of the mature stage.
c) Dissipating Stage
In this stage, rainfall decreases its intensity and clouds begin to dissipate.
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What are the hazards associated with thunderstorms?
a) Tornado/Waterspout
It is a violent whirlwind and
associated with a cloud column or
funnel-shaped cloud extending
downwards from the base of
cumulonimbus but not necessarily
reaching the ground. The diameter
can vary from a few meters to some
hundreds of meters. A tornado acts
like a giant vacuum cleaner, sucking
things in air carrying everything
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along its path such as trees,
structures or debris, jumping across Tornado in Manila, June 14, 2009 Source: Jonflick99
the ground in a narrow erratic
movement.
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It can strike at any time of the day, but are much more frequent in the afternoon
and evening. It may also develop when there are tropical cyclones. Most of the
damage comes from its extreme winds. Wind speeds are estimated to exceed 450
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km/hr and may last for a few minutes. This short lifespan makes tornadoes hard to
predict.
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On the other hand, a tornado that forms from a body of water and moves from it is
called a waterspout. Waterspouts, on the average, are less intense and less violent
than tornadoes hitting land. But, large waterspouts could be able to destroy a small
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seacraft.
b) Heavy Rainfall
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Excessive rains can produce flash

floods/floods which can change small creeks
into raging floodwaters, sweeping over
structures along its path.
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c) Hail
Hailstones are large pieces of ice that
form within, and falling from a cumulonimbus
cloud. Since air temperature in the Philippines
is normally high, hailstones that reach the
ground are usually the size of a grain of corn,
seldom to cause damage to properties. But hail
can destroy crops.
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d) Lightning
Lightning is a massive electrical
discharge between a cloud and another or
between the cloud and the ground. Inside
the storm cloud are rapidly moving masses
of air filled with water and ice. The updrafts
and downdrafts sweep the ice particles up
and down, gathering more layers of ice to
form the hail. When cloud particles become
electrically charged when they collided into
each other, separation of charges occurs. Forked cloud to ground lightning. This is
The heating of the air by lightning causes the air the most destructive type of lightning.
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(Source: Lightning.com, Arizona, USA)
to expand producing what we hear us thunder.
Positively-charged particles collect at the top of the cloud, while negatively-charged
particles stay at the bottom. Due to the high voltage differences that build up within
the cloud or between the rain cloud and the ground below, this creates dramatic
forks of lightning.
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Lightning is dangerous and sometimes fatal. The temperature of a lightning bolt is
five times hotter than the surface of the sun! The sudden lightning makes sound
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waves in the air that we hear as thunder. Lightning can cause death and injuries and
can spark fires. If caught outdoor, keep away from open spaces and isolated trees.
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How do we prevent damages due to Lightning?
Preparedness and precaution are the best

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defense against lightning. Many deaths and

injuries from lightning happen before or after a
thunderstorm's peak.
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• Go inside the house, enclosed car or

large building, if you can.
• Avoid using electrical appliances such
as telephones, computers, or
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television sets.
• Stay away from bodies of water.
• If you can't find shelter, avoid the solitary tree or the tallest object in the area.
Lightning tends to strike tall objects. Make yourself the smallest target possible
(refer to figure).
• Remember, if you can hear thunder, you are close enough to be struck by
lightning!!!
• When you feel the electrical charge – if your hair stands on end or your skin
tingles – lightning may be about to strike you.
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2. Tropical Cyclones and its Associated Hazards
The typhoon season in the Philippines begins in the month of May and lasts
until January. Tropical cyclones may form as early as March and April but these are
relatively few in number. Throughout the year, tropical cyclone occurrence may be
experienced in the country but more frequent during the months of July, August
and September.
What is Tropical Cyclone?

A Tropical cyclone is an intense low pressure system with minimum sustained winds
of 35 kph blowing in a counterclockwise direction towards the center called the “eye”. It is
generally a large circular system in which the atmospheric pressure decreases from the
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outer periphery towards the center. TC tends to lose its strength when it moves over land or
cool water. Winds cause the most damage to buildings and settlements, but most casualties
result from flooding that is associated with tropical cyclone. A mature TC may have a
diameter of 1000 kms.
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Where do Tropical Cyclones form?
There are certain areas in the Philippines which favored the formation of tropical
cyclone. These areas are large and warm oceanic areas located at least 50 above the
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equator with sea surface temperature of at least 270 C.
Tracks of Tropical Cyclone

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TCs usually form in the
Pacific Ocean between the
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Philippines and the Marianas-

Caroline Island above 50N
Latitude and a few of them
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develop in the South China Sea,

west of the country. They move
generally in a west-northwest
direction, intensifying as they
approach the Philippine area. The
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Philippines is situated right within

the main Pacific typhoon pathway
Tracks of Tropical Cyclones in the Western North Pacific (WNP) and has an annual average of 19-
Basin during the period 1948-2006 (Source: CAD-PAGASA, DOST) 20 tropical cyclones, nine of
which crossed the islands or
directly hit land. It gathers its energy from the warm tropical ocean. The figure below shows
the tracks of tropical cyclones that formed in the Western North Pacific (WNP) during the
period 1948-2006. As a result of global warming, the increase in sea surface temperature
(SST) would likely produce more disastrous tropical cyclone with very intense rainfall.
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Structure of a Tropical Cyclone
The strong tropical cyclone consists of the following:
Eye – is the center of the tropical
cyclones eye and is normally circular in
shape with generally cloud-free skies.
The wind is light and calm or
relatively very light winds and there is
no rain. It ranges in size from 10-100
kilometers in diameter.
Eye wall- is the ring where very high
winds and rains are at the heaviest.
The highest winds are on the forward
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right side of the wall of the storm. If Structure of a tropical cyclone
the storm is heading west, the highest
winds will be on the northern side of the storm. The heaviest damage occurs when
the tropical cyclone’s eyewall passes over land.
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Rainbands – the spiral rainbands of showers and thunderstorms surround the eye.
High wind gusts and heavy downpour often occur in individual rainbands, with
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relatively calm weather between bands. It covers an area of several square
kilometers.
The strength of the winds increases towards the center. The lower the central
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pressure, the most intense is the tropical cyclone. Thus, the intensity of tropical
cyclone depends on the pressure at the center while the strength of tropical cyclone
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depends on the maximum wind velocity around the center or the “eye.”
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What are the effects of Tropical Cyclones?
Tropical cyclones have both disastrous and beneficial effects. TCs produce
extremely strong winds, torrential rains (can cause landslide/mudslide,
floods/flashflood), tornadoes and storm surge along the coastal areas. Although the
effects of tropical cyclones on human population can be catastrophic, TCs have also
its beneficial effects. Rainfall brought about by tropical cyclones increases the
groundwater and water level of dams that provide drinking water, irrigation water
and power generation capacities. About 50% of the rains are attributed to tropical
cyclone. It also cleansed out pollutants in the air.
• Heavy Rains/Floods/Flash and Riverine floods

Continuous heavy rainfall can produce severe flooding and may cause
damage to agriculture, infrastructures and community lifelines. Ground water may
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be contaminated by floodwaters and may lead to the outbreak and spread of
diseases.
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C
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• Strong Winds
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Maximum wind speeds in a tropical cyclone may even reach beyond 250kph
in extreme cases (more than 3x the average speed of vehicles). Structural damage is
one of its most disastrous effects. The areas most prone to stronger winds are
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located along the eastern seaboard of the Philippines.

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• Storm Surge
Storm surge is the abnormal rise in sea
level causing big waves at the coast as a tropical
cyclone makes landfall. The highest water level
rise or the peak of storm surge usually coincides
with the time of passage of a typhoon across a
coastline. The wall of water can engulf low-lying
coastal communities and can also bring
destruction to natural and man-made
structures, especially if they coincide with the
occurrence of high tide. Storm surge awareness, is therefore, imperative for coastal
residents.
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O
C
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• Landslides/Mudslide
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Continuous heavy rains over hilly or mountainous areas, especially denuded ones,
usually result to landslides or mudflows. Landslides can bury people alive and destroy their
properties. Mudflows/mudslides, like landslides are hazards to people’s lives and properties.
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III. Other rain-causing weather disturbances
• Monsoons
Monsoons are seasonal changes in winds, a wind regime which reverses its direction
twice a year which brings different kind of weather. The major portion of our rainfall may be
ascribed to monsoon weather.
There are two (2) types of monsoon winds in the Philippines: 1) the Northeast monsoon
and 2) the Southwest monsoon. These are caused by the thermal variations of Asiatic
mainland.
A. Northeast monsoon or “Amihan”
From November to February, the Asiatic Continent is snowbound and the high pressure
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cell over China creating northeasterly winds over the Philippines giving us cold temperature,
and causing much rainfall over the eastern coast of the Philippines. It is intensified when a
cold front moving southward as far as the Philippines, giving prolonged rains along the
eastern coastal areas of the Philippines.
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C
E D
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B. Southwest monsoon or “Habagat”
From June to September in the Northern Hemisphere, the Asiatic Continent becomes
warmer than the surrounding seas and a low pressure cell develop over China mainland. At
times when this southwest flow becomes thick in depth, it persist for a long period causing
continuous rain which may last for weeks during the months of June to September. Thus,
aside from typhoon, the Southwest monsoon is responsible for the great portion of the
rainfall during the wet season.
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Sometimes, a southwest flow of wind is also induced by the presence of typhoon over
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Taiwan-Okinawa area and may prolong rainfall in western part of the Philippines. When this
is observed, the weather characteristic of the southwest monsoon prevails in the
Philippines.
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What is the Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ)?
The ITCZ is the region where the
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northern hemisphere trades meet the
southern hemisphere trades that
produce a series of low pressure areas,as
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shown in the figure.
The region of convergence is

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characterized by the towering

cumulonimbus (rain-producing) clouds
accompanied with widespread
thunderstorms.
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Usually the axis of the convergence is

oriented in an East to West direction and
it does not remain stationary at the
equator. It migrates North or South of
the equator following the sun. During summer at the northern hemisphere, it is usually
found north of the Philippines and during winter, it is found south of the equator and
oscillates over the Philippines during the month of May until October.
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What is a Cold Front?
A cold front is a region which separates cold air from warm air. It moves such that
cold air replaces the warm air. Inasmuch as cold air is heavier than warm air, the warm air is
pushed aloft by the cold air giving rise to widespread cloudiness and rains.
Cold fronts cause a lot of rain in the

temperate regions. When they reach lower
latitudes, however, the temperature
contrast between the cold air and warm air
becomes less marked and the amount of
the precipitation becomes less. Hence, cold
fronts in the Philippines are characterized
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largely by an increase in cloudiness and
rains. This happens during the months of
November to February. After the passage of
the cold fronts, the sky clears up and the air
is usually cold with good visibility,
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characteristic of cold air masses.
What is a Low Pressure Area (LPA)?

C
A Low Pressure Area (LPA) is a region in which the atmospheric pressure is lower than that
of the neighboring regions. In the Northern Hemisphere the winds blow in a
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counterclockwise direction toward the center of the low pressure. The area is associated
with the formations cloud and precipitation.
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ACTIVITY:
Identification of the various Hydrometeorological hazards
and its Effects in the Community
Materials:
Sheets of Manila paper Markers
Masking tape Newspaper clippings
List down the most prevalent hydrometeorological hazards in your community and rank
accordingly. Enumerate the effects and what can you do to reduce its impacts.
Ranking the Hazards
Name of
(Highest number as the What to do to reduce
Hydrometeorological Effects
least in terms of its impacts
Hazards
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occurrence)
References:
ISDR Terminology of disaster risk reduction.
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O'Neill, Desmond, 1997. Report on Early Warning for Hydrometeorological Hazards
including Drought, United Nations International Decade for Natural Disaster Reduction, IDNDR Early
Warning Programme, World Weather Watch Department, World Meteorological Organization, Geneva,
Switzerland.
PAGASA Primers, 2006
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Valenzuela, Rolando G., 1989. Handbook on Natural Hazards. PAGASA-DOST
Teachers Manual on Natural Hazards for Grades V and VI. 1994. PAGASA
NOAA Education Resources website
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WMO Publications
Evaluation:
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1. What do you mean by water or hydrologic cycle?

Answer: When the sun heats the ground, water continuously evaporates from the
various bodies of water, like lakes, rivers, and oceans, where it condenses to form
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the clouds. When the clouds become too heavy to carry all the moisture in them, it
starts to fall back mostly in the form of rain and returned back to the sea. As long as
the sun exists to supply the heat energy, the process of evaporation, condensation
and precipitation is repeated in a never ending cycle.
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2. What clouds signify a bright, sunny weather?

Answer: White and fluffy clouds signify bright, sunny weather.
3. What happens when the above-mentioned clouds turn gray?

Answer: When white and fluffy clouds turn gray, it brings rain.
4. What are the beneficial effects of tropical cyclone?

Answer: Rainfall brought about by tropical cyclones increases the ground water and
water level of dams that provide drinking water, irrigation water and power
generation capacities. About 50% of the rains are attributed to tropical cyclones. It
also cleanses out pollutants in the air.
139
Weather Forecasting and Interpretation
By: Renito B. Paciente, Senior Weather Specialist, Weather Division
Joel C. Jesusa, Weather Specialist II Weather Division, PAGASA-DOST
Department of Science and Technology-Science Education Institute (DOST-SEI), pp.78-111.
Objectives:
At the end of this module, the teachers are expected to:
1. discuss and define the different technical terms used in Weather
Forecasting;
2. describe the classification of tropical cyclones in the Philippines;
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3. outline the forecasting process and the flow of information;
4. list down the different forecast products and their lead time (daily, 5-
day, monthly, etc.); and
5. determine/enumerate the different warning signals.
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Introduction:
This module covers the steps in the formulation, interpretation and
C
translation of the weather forecasts products of the Philippine Atmospheric,
Geophysical and Astronomical Services Administration (PAGASA); with
emphasis on the challenges of ensuring that forecasts are accessible,
understood and acted upon by the disaster authorities and people directly
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affected by the possible hazards and risks.
A. Weather Forecast Interpretation

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The Philippines is affected by the action of one or more weather systems

such as the tropical cyclone and thunderstorms and its associated hazards;
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Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ); monsoon trough; ridge of high

pressure area; easterly wave; northeast and southwest monsoons; and cold
front/frontal system.
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Satellite Image of Typhoons
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1. Steps in the Formulation of Forecast Products:
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O
C
E D
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D
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2. 24-Hr Public Weather Forecast and Elements at Risks
Sample A
Let us take a look at the 24-hour weather forecast output of Philippine Atmospheric,
Geophysical, and Astronomical Services Administration (PAGASA).
The time and date of issuance

of the forecast was indicated:
5:00pm of May 29, 2010.
The period of time at which
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the forecast can be
considered valid can also be
noted: 5:00pm TODAY (May
29) until 5:00pm TOMORROW
(May 30).
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C
E D
Synopsis is one of the most

important parts of the output.
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This will give the general view

of the weather system
affecting a particular space.
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PAG-ASA 24-hour weather forecast for May 29, 2010
PAGASA issues two weather forecast outputs within the day; the first is issued at
around 5:00am, and the other one will be at 5:00pm. Although the forecast outputs
are considered valid within 24 hours, PAGASA ensures that any significant change in
the weather will be accounted and the information will be properly disseminated by
updating the weather forecast.
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Example 1: The location of the weather system affecting the country is stated. It is
located near Taiwan as can be seen in Figure 3.
Figure 3: The Low Pressure Area plotted on auxiliary map
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In Example 1, it was
Figure 2. Satellite Image of Example 1 also mentioned that the
“At 2:00 pm today, the Low Pressure Area ITCZ is affecting the
Mindanao area. What
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(LPA) was estimated at 460 km North of
Northeast of Basco, Batanes (24.9°N, does this mean? It
124.3°E). Intertropical Convergence Zone means that the axis of
the ITCZ is not directly
(ITCZ) affecting Mindanao.”
C located over Mindanao
but the range of
cloudiness will still
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affect Mindanao as
shown in the figure on
the left.
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Let us have another example involving ITCZ.

Example 2:
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Intertropical Convergence
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Zone (ITCZ) is across or

extending or over Visayas and
Southern Luzon.
Figure 4: Satellite Image of Example 2
If the ITCZ is “across or extending or

over a certain location,” the main
axis of it is directly located on the
areas mentioned, as shown in the
figure on the right.
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From the 24-hour weather forecast output dated May 29, 2010 (5:00pm), the
forecast was:
“Northern Luzon, Visayas and Mindanao will experience cloudy skies with
scattered rainshowers and thunderstorms. The rest of the country will be partly
cloudy to cloudy with isolated rainshowers or thunderstorms mostly in the afternoon
or evening.
Moderate to strong winds blowing from south to southeast will prevail over
Northern Luzon and coming from the southeast to south over Central Luzon and the
coastal waters along the area will be moderate to rough. Light to moderate winds
blowing from southeast and south will prevail over the rest of the country with slight
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to moderate seas.”
3. What does it mean to be cloudy, mostly cloudy or partly cloudy?
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In meteorology, “okta” is used to describe cloud cover. Okta is a unit of measure
used to indicate the amount of cloud cover in the sky, where one okta means 1/8 of
the sky is covered with clouds, while eight oktas denotes complete cloud cover.
C
E D
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D
Figure 5: Cloud cover in oktas
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Figure 6: Mostly sunny sky
Mostly sunny
The state of the sky when it is

cloudless, it is totally clear or with a
few clouds visible. It has a total cloud
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cover of less than one okta.
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C Figure 7. Cloud cover of a partly cloudy sky
Partly cloudy would
mean that the state of
the sky is within 2.5
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oktas total cloud cover or has
between 30 to 70% cloud cover of
the celestial dome.
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D
Figure 8. Cloud cover of a mostly cloudy sky

While mostly cloudy, we
could expect that the sky
is mostly covered with
clouds but with possible brief periods
of sunshine. The total cloud cover is
between 6 to 8 oktas.
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Figure 9. Cloud cover of a cloudy sky
When it is cloudy, the
sky is covered with
clouds between six to
eight oktas with the probability of
having a rainfall greater than 90%. It
can be observed that within the day,
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the sky is predominantly covered by
clouds rather than clear; and the sun
is obscured by the clouds.
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C Figure 10. Rains with gusty winds
rains with gusty winds
It means that the
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weather condition in a
particular place is under public
storm warning signal number 1.
E
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Figure 11. Stormy weather

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stormy
It means that the
weather condition
in a particular place
is under public storm warning
signal number 2/3/4.
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4. What is the difference between rain and rainshowers?
The main difference lies on the types of cloud from which the precipitation came from. It is
considered to be rain if the liquid precipitation came from stratiform clouds and the drops
are larger than 0.02 inch in diameter.
It is considered rains if there’s: (1) overcast sky with continuous or steady precipitation that
may last several hours; (2) water droplets of 0.5mm or greater in size (but if widely
scattered, the droplets may be smaller); and (3) it is usually associated with mesoscale
(synoptic) system or macroscale (large scale) system like tropical cyclones, easterly waves,
monsoons, fronts and intertropical convergence zone.
Rains vary in intensity. It could be light, moderate, heavy or monsoonal.
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Light rains happen when the rate of fall is
from trace to 2.5mm per hour. The individual
drops are easily identified and small muddy
pools or puddles form slowly. It might result
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to small streams that flow in gutters.
C
Figure 12. Light rains
Rains are considered to be moderate if the

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rate of fall is between 2.5 to 7.5 mm per
hour. It can be observed that puddles form
rapidly and down pipes are flowing freely.
E
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Figure 13. Moderate rains
Heavy rains happen if the rate of fall is greater than 7.5mm per hour; the sky is overcast and
there’s a continuous precipitation. It might cause roaring noise on roofs.
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Monsoon rains are described as heavy and

continuous precipitation attributed to either
the Southwest or Northeast Monsoon.
(Image on the left)
Figure 14. The aftermath of monsoon rains
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Rains also vary in terms of frequency. It is said to be occasional rains, if it is not frequent but
recurrent. It is known be frequent rains when the precipitation is occurring often and
frequent throughout the time duration. Intermittent rains happen when precipitation
ceases at times and re-occur again. Rains could also be considered widespread if the
precipitation occurs extensively throughout an area.
Rainshowers on the other hand are precipitations of short duration but usually of greater
intensity from convective clouds, which primarily either cumulus or cumulonimbus.
Rainshowers can be:
1. Scattered if the rain bearing clouds are distributed spatially resulting to rainshowers
occurring on the bigger portion of the forecasted area.
2. Isolated if the rain bearing clouds are small and isolated and precipitation occurs
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only on a small part of the forecasted area.
3. Occasional if there is a large amount of convective clouds and precipitation occur in
most parts of the forecasted area occasionally, and varying in rainfall amount.
5. Wind Direction
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Wind Direction is the direction from which a wind originates. In PAGASA’s weather forecast,
it is reported in cardinal directions. For example, a wind coming from the south going to the
C
north is called a southerly wind while a wind coming from the northeast going to the
southwest is called a northeasterly wind.
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Here are the 16 points of the compass
and its equivalent in degrees:
N (North) = 0: / 360:
E
NNE (North Northeast) = 22.5:

NE (Northeast) = 45:
ENE (East Northeast) = 67.5:
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E (East) = 90:
ESE (East Southeast) = 112.5:
SE (Southeast) = 135:
SSE (South Southeast) = 157.5
S (South) = 180:
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SSW (South Southwest) = 202.5:

SW (Southwest) = 225:
WSW (West Southwest) = 247.5:
W (West) = 270:
WNW (West Northwest) = 292.5:
NW (Northwest) = 315:
NNW (North Northwest) = 337.5:
Figure 15. A compass rose showing the different directions
(from Wikipedia)
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B. Five-day Weather Outlook
A five-day weather outlook is a weather forecast or a prediction about how

something will develop within the five day period.
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O
C
Figure 16. PAG-ASA 5-day weather outlook
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Global Model with high resolution such as NOGAPS (Navy Operational Global
Assimilation Prediction System) and GFS (Global Forecast System) are used to
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forecast the three to seven days rainfall while the Global Spectral Model (GSM) can
forecast rainfall and wind conditions up to eight days. Other local numerical models
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can also be used, subject to its availability.

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Figure 17. NOGAPS outputs on which the 5-day weather forecast was based
on.
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C. Shipping/Gale Warning and Elements at Risks
A shipping forecast is a forecast for seas around the coasts or the condition of the
sea such as wind and wave direction and speed within twelve hours.
There are fourteen shipping zones in the Philippines, these are: East Taiwan, Ryukyu,
North Philippine, Bashi, Balintang, Scarborough, Mindoro, Central Philippine,
Palawan, Sulu, Moro, South Philippine, Mindanao and Inland.
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O
C
Figure 18. Shipping Zones of the Philippines
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Let us take a look at PAGASA Shipping forecast output, the synopsis states that:
E
“At 0600 UTC typhoon Lupit

(0920*footnote) was located
based on satellite and surface
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data at one nine point eight

north one two six point four
east x maximum sustained
winds four nine meters per
second x strong to gale force
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southwesterly and
southeasterly surface wind
flow prevailing over the
shipping zones of central
Philippines bounded by area
north of one six north x area
east of one three east x
becoming moderate to rough
northeasterly over the rest of
the forecast area pd”
Figure 19. PAGASA Shipping Forecast
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1. Differentiate light to moderate winds, moderate to occasionally strong
winds and moderate to strong winds.
When the wind is said to be light to

moderate, its speed would be between
19 to 29 kilometers per hour (kph). We
could feel the wind on our face. We can
observe that ordinary wind vanes are
moved by the wind. We can see that
small branches are moved and leaves
would rustle. Loose paper and dust may
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Figure 20. Light to moderate winds be raised by wind.
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Moderate to occasionally strong
winds would have a speed that is
greater than 29kph. Moderate
C winds mostly persist but there are
instances during the forecast
period that it reaches strong wind
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force.
E
Figure 21. Moderate to occasionally strong winds

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When the wind is

described to be
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moderate to strong, its

speed range from 29 to
50 kph, large branches
are in motion and you
could hear whistling
telephone wires and it
would be difficult to use
umbrellas.
Figure 22. Moderate to strong winds
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Strong to gale force winds, on the other
hand, has a speed between 50 to 75 kph.
Whole trees are in motion and there would
be inconvenience felt when you try to walk
against the wind.
Figure 23. Strong to gale force winds
2. What about the seas? What would you expect when the seas are
described as slight or moderate?
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The sea condition is usually affected by wind force.
PAGASA based its sea condition forecast from
Beaufort Wind Scale. Slight seas are produced by
winds having a speed of 4.0 to 8.0 meters per
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second (mps) resulting to seas having a wave
height of 0.5 to 1.25 meters.
FIgure 24. Slight seas
C
Moderate seas are produced by winds having
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8.0 to 11.0 mps resulting to seas having a
wave height of 1.25 to 2.5 meters.
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Figure 25. Moderate seas (Source:TetonAt.com)
Rough seas are created by winds having

a speed between 11.0 to 16.0 mps; its
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wave height is around 2.5 to 4.0 meters.

When the sea is rough, large waves
begin to form. The sea heaps up and
white foam from breaking waves begin
to be blown in streaks along the
direction of wind.
Figure 26: Rough Seas
152
Very rough seas are generated by winds
having a speed of 16.0 to 20.0 mps; its wave
height is around 4.0 to 6.0 meters. Very
rough seas are characterized by moderately
high waves of greater height. The edges of
the crest begin to break into spindrift and
the foam is blown in well-mark streaks along
the direction of the wind as shown in Figure
27. Figure 27: Very rough seas
High seas are described having wave height
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of around 6.0 to 9.0 meters, produced by
winds having a speed of 20.0 to 26.0 mps.
High to very high waves with long
overhanging crests are observed. The
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surface of the sea takes on white
appearance. The tumbling of the sea
becomes heavy with visibility affected.
C Figure 28: High seas
Very high seas, on the other hand

have a wave height of 9.0 to 14.0
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meters, and generated by winds
having a speed of 26.0 to 34.0
mps. Exceptionally high waves are
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observed. Small and medium size

ships occasionally lost from view
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behind waves. The sea is

completely covered with long
Figure 29: Very high seas white patches of foam. The edges
of wave crest are blown into froth.
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Phenomenal seas have wave

height greater than 14.0 meters
and are produced by winds with
speed greater than 34.0mps. It
can be observed that the air is
completely filled with foam and
spray. The sea is completely
white with driving spray. The
Figure 30: Phenomenal seas visibility is very seriously
affected.
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Figure 31: Philippine Seaboards
Here is a sample of a gale warning

C
issued by PAG-ASA two times a day
(5am and 5pm). What is a gale
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warning? It is an advisory or
warning about the existence of
winds of gale force (approx 35-
E
48kts) or above or the imminent

occurrence of gales at sea.
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The warning says that due to the

strong to gale force winds
associated with Northeasterly
surface winds, the seaboards of
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Northern and Central Luzon will

have mostly cloudy skies with
wind force of 55 – 73 kph with a
rough to very rough sea condition
producing a wave height of 3.7 to
6.0 meters. How does a wave like
this look like? (See Rough to Very
Rough sea condition)
FIgure 32: Gale Warning
154
Here is a sample of a special
forecast for Mayon and Bulusan
Volcanoes issued by PAGASA
once a day (5pm). It forecasts the
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24-hr weather condition of the
province of Legaspi and other
Bicol provinces.
Figure 33: Special Weather Forecast for Mayon and Bulusan Volcanoes
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C
D
Wind profile from the

E
surface of Mayon Volcano

up to 10 km
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D
Figure 34: Mayon Volcano Wind Profile
155
Figure 35: GSM Streamline analysis output
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Streamline analysis (wind analysis) of the Global Spectral Model (GSM) of Japan
Meteorological Society with horizontal resolution of 60 km and vertical layers of 40
up.
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THE PHILIPPINE AREA OF RESPONSIBILITY
C
E D
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D
Figure 36: Philippine Area of Responsibility (PAR)
156
The Weather Advisory for Tropical Cyclones contains the general information on the
presence of a cyclone even if it is still too far away from the country to pose a threat
in the next three days. This gives the people ample time to become aware of a
potential threat.
It is issued as soon as a severe weather system is detected and the forecasters

decide that this might affect the Philippines.
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O
C
E D
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D
The advisory is issued

once a day at 11:00 am
except for the initial
issuance which may
come out anytime when
Figure 37: Sample of a Weather Advisory the severe weather
system is detected.
157
A map showing Tropical Storm (MIRINAE) outside of the Philippine Area of
Responsibility (PAR) or at 1,520 km East of Northern Luzon. The map also shows
that there is an impending threat as it is about to enter the PAR.
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Tropical storm
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MIRINAE 1,520
km East of
Northern Luzon
C
E D
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D
Figure 38: A map showing the location of "MIRINAE" outside the PAR
158
SEVERE WEATHER BULLETIN – TROPICAL CYCLONE ALERT
The Severe Weather Bulletin – Tropical Cyclone Alert is the second stage of a cyclone
warning. The alert stage indicates that a tropical cyclone poses an impending threat
on a part of the country but still falls short of the bases for raising storm signals. The
alert stage gives advice to the public to undertake appropriate safety measures and
continue monitoring developments.
It provides more
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detailed information
about an existing
tropical cyclone. This
includes a description
of the tropical
cyclone’s current
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location, movement,
C and intensity as well
as a 24-hour forecast
or outlook of said
characteristics.
D
This is issued twice a
day, at 11:00 A.M. and
E
11:00 P.M. or at any

time as conditions
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warrant. If deemed
necessary, the initial
bulletin shall be issued at
5:00 A.M. or at 5:00
P.M.
D
Figure 39: Severe Weather Bulletin - TC Alert
159
An auxiliary map showing a tropical cyclone just entered the Philippine Area of
Responsibility (PAR), its position to the nearest reference point, which is 940 km East
of Surigao City, its track and its initial, and the three-day forecast positions. The
larger circle shows that no particular place in the Philppines will be covered after 36
hours of forecast.
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O
Possible path of
the tropical
cyclone found
C
940 km East of
Surigao City
E D
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D
Figure 40: A map showing a tropical cyclone just entered PAR
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SEVERE WEATHER BULLETIN – TROPICAL CYCLONE WARNING
The Severe Weather Bulletin – Tropical Cyclone Warning is the third stage of
the cyclone warning. It indicates that there is real and immediate threat from a
cyclone to a part or parts of the country. It provides detailed information including a
description of the cyclone’s current location, movement, and intensity as well as the
areas where the public storm signals are in effect and advises the public to take
appropriate action. The warning also includes a 24-hr forecast or outlook that gives
more details in terms of future cyclone’s location and movement with respect to a
particular area of reference. The warning is issued four times a day, at 5:00 A.M.,
11:00 A.M., 5:00 P.M. and 11:00 P.M. or at any time as conditions warrant.
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O
C Detailed information
about the tropical cyclone
such as location,
D
movement, and intensity
E
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Areas where
D
public storm
signals are in
effect
Details on cyclone’s
future locations and
movement with
respect to a particular
area of reference
Figure 41: Severe weather bulletin - TC warning
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An auxiliary map showing TYPHOON “PEPENG” (PARMA) 200 km North Northeast of
VIrac, Catanduanes, with three circles (rightmost circle for signal #3, middle circle for
signal #2, and leftmost circle for signal #1), its track, and its initial and three-day
forecast positions.
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O
C
E D
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D
Figure 42: An auxiliary map showing typhoon "PEPENG" - TC warning
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Public Storm Signals are given to warn the public on the presence of tropical
cyclones.
1. PUBLIC STORM WARNING SIGNAL NO. 1
Meteorological Conditions:
 A tropical cyclone will affect the locality.
 Winds of 30 – 60 KPH may be expected in at
least 36 hours.
Impacts of the Winds:

 Twigs and branches of small trees may be broken.
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 Some banana plants may tilt or land flat on the ground.
 Some houses of very light materials (nipa and cogon) may be partially
unroofed.
 Very light or no damage at all may be sustained by the exposed
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communities.
 Rice in flowering stage may suffer significant damage.
Precautionary Measures:
C
 People are advised to listen to the latest Severe Weather Bulletin issued
by PAGASA every six hours.
D
General Note:
Business may be carried out as usual. When the tropical cyclone is strong,
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intensifying or is moving closer, this signal may be gradually increased. Disaster

preparedness is activated to alert status.
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2. PUBLIC STORM WARNING SIGNAL No. 2
 A moderate tropical cyclone will affect
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the locality.
 Winds of greater than 60 KPH an up to
100 KPH may be expected in at least 24 hours.

 Some coconut trees may be tilted with few others broken.
 Few big trees may be uprooted.
 Many banana plants may be destroyed.
 Rice and corn may be adversely affected.
 Large number of nipa and cogon houses may be partially or totally
unroofed.
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 Some old galvanized iron roofings may roll off.
 Light to moderate damage to play in flowering stage.
 The sea and coastal waters are dangerous to smaller seacrafts. Fishermen
are advised not to go out to sea.
 Avoid unnecessary risks. Travelling by sea or air is risky.
 Stay indoors.
 Secure properties.
General Note:
Special attention should be given to latest position, direction and speed of
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movement and intensity of the tropical cyclone as it may intensify and move
towards the locality. Disaster preparedness agencies and other organizations are
alerted.
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3. PUBLIC STORM WARNING SIGNAL N0. 3
 A strong tropical cyclone will affect the
C
locality.
 Winds greater than 100 LPH up to 185
KPH may be expected in at least 18 hours.
D
Impacts of Winds:
E
 Almost all banana plants may be

destroyed and a large number of trees may be uprooted; rice and corn
crops may suffer heavy damage.
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 Majority of nipa and cogon houses may be unroofed or destroyed and

there may be considerable damage to structures of light to medium
construction.
 There may be widespread disruption of electrical power and
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communication services.
 In general, moderate to heavy damage may be expected in both the
agricultural and industrial sectors.
 Travel by sea and by air is very risky.
 Sea and coastal waters will be dangerous to all sea crafts.
 People are advised to evacuate and stay in strong buildings
 Evacuate low-lying areas.
 Stay away from coasts and river banks.
 Watch out for the passage of the “EYE” of the typhoon.
164
 During the passage of the “eye” do not venture away from the safety of
the shelter.
 Suspend classes in all levels and make sure children stay in the safety of
strong buildings.
General Note:
The disturbance is dangerous to threatened or affected communities. The
passage of the “eye” of the typhoon is indicated by a sudden change from bad to fair
weather. Fair weather may last for one or two hours after which the worst weather
will resume with very winds generally coming from the opposite direction. Disaster
preparedness and response agencies/organizations are activated to respond
appropriately.
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4. PUBLIC STORM WARNING SIGNAL NO.4
 A very intense typhoon will affect the
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locality.
 Very strong winds of more than 185 KPH
C
may be expected in at least 12 hours.

 Coconut plantation may suffer extensive
D
damage.
 Many large trees may be uprooted.
E
 Rice and corn plantation may suffer severe damage.

 Most residential and institutional buildings of mixed construction may be
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severely damage.
 Electric power distribution and communication services may be
disrupted.
 Damage to affected communities can be very heavy.
D
 Cancel all travel and other outdoor activities.
 Stay in the safety of houses or evacuation centers.
General Note:
The situation is potentially very destructive to the community. EVACUATION
TO SAFER SHELTERS SHOULD HAVE BEEN DONE DURING PUBLIC STORM WARNING
SIGNAL NO.3. NOT NOW. IT IS TOO LATE TO EVACUATE NOW.
Disaster coordinating councils concerned and other disaster response
organizations must respond to emergencies.
165
FORECAST TRACK UNCERTAINTY
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O
C
Figure showing the forecast track uncertainty of Typhoon “Pepeng” (PARMA)wherein the
D
24-hr, 48-hr and 72-hr forecast positions have 111.4 km, 176.4 km and 247.4 km diameters
respectively from its center position.
E
EXERCISES:
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1. PLOT THE FF COORDINATES IN AUXILIARY MAP

Time Latitude Longitude
25 8:00 AM 11.5 129.0
25 8:00 PM 11.6 128.8
26 8:00 AM 11.7 127.6
D
26 8:00 PM 12.2 127.0

27 8:00 AM 12.5 125.5
27 8:00 PM 13.2 123.6
28 8:00 AM 13.9 121.7
28 8:00 PM 15.0 119.5
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2. Matching Type: Match the items in column A and B, use pencil in matching.
A B
1. Synopsis a.
2. West b. 30 – 60 kph
3. Mostly cloudy c. 176.4 km
4. North Northwest d. Forecast of sea condition
5. 48-hr forecast uncertainty e.
6. North f. General condition of the
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atmosphere
7. 24-hr forecast uncertainty g. More than 185 kph
8. PSWS #1 h. 111.4 km diameter
9. Partly cloudy i. 0 / 360 degrees
10. Shipping forecast j. Okta
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11. PSWS #3 k. 61 – 100 kph
12. PSWS #2 C l. 320°
13. Mostly sunny m. 270°
14. Unit of measuring cloud n.
amount
15. PSWS #4 o. 101 – 185 kph
D
p.
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3. Answer the following briefly:

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A. What are the tropical cyclone categories in the Philippines? Describe each.
B. Enumerate and briefly describe the different PAGASA forecast products.
C. Draw and describe the steps in the formulation of forecasts.
D
REFERENCES:
Carter, T.M., (1983). “ The Probability of Hurricane Storm Condition: User’s Guide for Local
Decision Makers”. Excerpt from the report “Maximum Probability of the Forecast being
Correct and Associated “Miss to Hit” ratio.
PAGASA Manual on Surface Synoptic Observation – Volume 3
PAGASA Website – Learning Tools *include website.
WMO Technical Notes of 1982
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ANSWER KEY:
2. Matching Type
1. f 6. i 11. o
2. n 7. h 12. k
3. a 8. b 13. e
4. m 9. p 14. j
5. c 10. d 15. g
3. A. a) Tropical Depression – winds of not more than 63 kph
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b) Tropical Storm – winds of 64 -118 kph
c. Typhoon – winds of more than 118 kph
B. a) 24-hr weather forecast – condition of the atmosphere for 24 hours

b) Shipping forecast – outlook for the condition of the atmosphere
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c) 5 –day weather forecast – weather outlook in 5 days
d) Asian forecast – outlook for asian selected cities
e) Forecast for Mayon and Bulusan Volcanoes – outlook for Mayon
and suburbing areas
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f) Weather Advisories – status of LPA and other extreme weather
events
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g) Weather Bulletin for tropical cyclone – forecast for impending
tropical disturbance, intensity, track and associated rainfall
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C. Steps in the formulation of weather forecasts.

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1. Observations / Data Gathering

2. Processing / Analyses
3. Warning Preparation
4. Dissemination
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Flood Forecasting and Early Warning System
By: Roy A. Badilla, Assistant Weather Services Chief,
Rosalie C. Pagualayan, Weather Specialist II
Hydro-Meteorology Division, PAGASA-DOST
I. Objectives:
At the end of the module, teachers are expected to:
1. identify the flood forecasting and early warning services of PAGASA;
2. enumerate the types and causes of floods;
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II. Introduction:
In recent history, floods are becoming more frequent and severe that some
organizations even counted it as the most distractive and devastating natural phenomena
on earth. The damages brought about by flooding made it known all over the world that
flood is a great threat to human existence on this planet.
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There are two ways in mitigating flood damages; the structural and non-structural
measures. Structural mitigating measures involve the construction of dikes, dams and
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reservoirs, catchment modification and on-site storage, improvement of channel flow and
discharge by pumping. The non-structural mitigating measures involved land use and
management, flood adaptation, hazard mapping, public information and education, early
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warning system, etc. The Philippine Atmospheric, Geophysical and Astronomical Services
Administration (PAGASA) thru its Hydro-Meteorology Division, is the agency mandated to
provide flood forecasting and warning services to the major river basins of the Philippines.
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III. Definition of Terms:

Basin/River Basin drainage area of a stream, river or lake.
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Flood defined as a rise, usually brief, in the water level in a stream to a peak from
which the water level recedes at a slower rate (UNESCO-WMO, 1974)
Flood/Flooding/Inundation a great flow of water that rises and spreads over the
land; may result when a volume of water from lakes/streams/rivers exceeds
its carrying capacity and escapes from its usual boundaries.
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IV. Types and Causes of Floods

A. Types of Floods
Flooding can be classified based on the following criteria:
1. Based on location or place of occurrence
a. River flooding occurs when a large amount of rain falls in river systems with
tributaries that drain large areas containing many independent river basins.
They may last a few hours or many days depending on the intensity, amount
and the distribution of the rainfall.
b. Coastal flooding may occur due to storm surges, high tide and tsunamis
(waves produced by earthquakes at sea).
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c. Urban flooding occurs in an area where roads are usually paved. During
rainy episodes, water cannot infiltrate the ground and is normally retained
in the surface. This type of flooding is often associated with the limited
capacity of the sewerage system to drain the heavy rains that are falling.
2. Based on duration of occurrence

a. Flash Flooding is the result of heavy rainfall or cloudburst over a relatively
small drainage area. Flash floods carry highly destructive flood waves and
are most common in mountainous areas or in steep places that have
streams flowing though narrow canyons.
b. Sheet Flooding is caused by comparatively shallow water flowing over a
wide area and is very common in the flood plain area which is normally flat.
Sheet flooding may also result when water from a river channel with
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insufficient carrying capacity overtop its bank, inundating the adjacent
areas.
B. Causes of Flooding
1. Heavy, continuous rain which does not cease, or ceases only briefly.
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2. Meandering river system
3. Heavy siltation of the river system which could decrease the carrying capacity of
the River
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4. Dam spilling/over-topping of dikes and levees
C. Aggravating factors:
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1. Presence of informal settlers
2. Increase population
3. Rampant development/increasing level of urbanization
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4. Altering the ecological system in a river basin, which could have an impact on
the hydrology of the watershed – denudation of forest and watershed areas
V. Flood Forecasting and Warning Services
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A. Flood Forecast Products and Services

Brief description of Flood Forecasting and Warning System in the Philippines
Flood is considered to be among the most destructive hydrometeorological

hazards. Flood Forecasting is primarily concerned with predicting the time and the
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rise of water levels in rivers, lakes or swamps and the progression of this behavior in
time and space. People would want to have a glimpse of the expected inundation of
the flood plains and the low-lying areas due to the overflowing of rivers and other
waterways or the accumulation of rain water due to high intensity rainfall. If those
who are affected by flooding are given enough lead time to undertake
preparedness, preventive measures can be carried-out by the community so as to
mitigate or lessen the impacts of flooding in their area. The very essence of flood
forecasting is the reduction of damage by providing a timely, accurate and
understandable warning to the threatened communities. It is an advance notice to
the community that flooding is imminent or in progress at a particular point or
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location in a certain river basin. The early warning will complement the structural
measures for flood control structures such as the dikes, levees and dams.
The PAGASA, thru its Hydrometeorology Division, is the agency mandated to

provide flood forecasting and warning services to the major river basins and
reservoirs as stipulated in the Presidential Decree 78 (this was later amended as
Presidential Decree 1149). Flood Forecasting is one of the operational services of
PAGASA. The FFWS in the Philippines started in 1973 with the establishment of a
telemetered network of eight (8) combined rainfall and water level gauging stations,
two (4) rainfall stations, one (1) repeater station and one (1) combined repeater and
rainfall station, which are strategically located within the Pampanga River Basin
(encompassing the provinces of Nueva Ecija, Pampanga and Bulacan). All the rainfall
and water level gauging stations, which provides the depth of rainfall and water
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level of rivers, are unmanned and fully automatic. The hydrological data are being
transmitted by telemetry system at a specified time interval (usually on an hourly
basis or can be configured at smaller time interval, such as every 10, 20 or 30
minutes) via the repeater stations to the Terminal Telemetry Station at the PAGASA
Flood Forecasting Center in Quezon City, which serves as the hub for all data
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collection. All these data are being viewed on a specially designed display panel.
These data are also being viewed at the monitoring station of the Department of
Public Works and Highways (DPWH) and the Office of Civil Defense (OCD).
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The effectiveness of the system in the Pampanga River was proven during
the occurrence of major floods in the succeeding years after of its installation.
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Recognizing the importance of having a flood forecasting and warning system, the
Philippine Government has decided to establish a similar system covering other
major river basins in Luzon, namely the Agno River (Pangasinan), Bicol and Cagayan
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River Basins. (The monitored river basins is being termed here as PABC). Aside from
being equipped with monitoring facilities within the basin, the PABC FFWS also has
its own respective river centers which are located within the provinces of
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Pampanga, Pangasinan, Bicol and Cagayan and they are aptly called the Pampanga
River Basin FFWS Center, Ango River Basin FFWS Center, Bicol River Basin FFWS
Center and Cagayan River Basin FFWS Center, respectively. Each river center
undertakes the flood forecasting and warning activities, including the preparation of
Flood Bulletins and warnings, for their respective area of operation.
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(Note: The rehabilitation of the Pampanga and Agno River Basins FFWS was
completed in March 2009 and March 2010, respectively. Likewise, the office of the
Pampanga River Basin FFWS Center was transferred from Weather and Flood
Forecasting Center in Quezon City to Disodado Macapagal Government Center, San
Fernando, Pampanga after the completion of the rehabilitation.)
It was in 1978 when the NPC had made its decision to make an
unprecedented release of excess water from the Angat Dam which inundated the
Bulacan area. This prompted the Philippine Government to set-up the Flood
Forecasting and Warning System for Dam Operation (FFWSDO) to avert the
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occurrence of similar incident. PAGASA undertakes flood forecasting and warning
activities due to the opening of the spillways gates of the major dams in Luzon,
namely the Magat, Pantabangan, Binga/Ambuklao/San Roque and Angat. The
Flood Forecasting and Warning System for Dam Operation (FFWSDO) is an inter-
agency activity with PAGASA as the lead agency, the National Power Corporation
(NPC) and National Irrigation Administration (NIA) as the cooperatingagencies and
the Office of Civil Defense (OCD), Department of Public Works and Highways
(DPWH) and National Water Resources Board (NWRB) as monitoring agencies. All
the aforementioned agencies closely coordinate with each other to ensure that
appropriate warnings are provided to the people living in the target areas of the
damsites should there be a release of impounded water through the spillways.
The establishment of the FFWS facilities and equipment enables PAGASA to
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monitor the hydrological conditions within the PABC river basins and thus defines
the environment under which the flood forecasting and warning activities are being
carried-out. The operational activities can be categorized as Flood-Watch and Non-
flood Watch status and these operational conditions are implemented based on the
meteorological condition that will affect the river basin and the expected response
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of the river. Non-flood Watch mode is set during “normal” condition, wherein no
large-scale weather system will affect the basin. This will be easily switched to a
Flood-watch mode and this is dependent the moment that a heavy rain due to the
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presence of large scale weather system is forecasted within the next 24 hours and
there is an expected significant rise of water level with respect to a set of criteria
known as the flood assessment levels. It is during Flood-watch condition that Flood
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Bulletins are being issued by the river centers.
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Basin Flood Warning Water Levels

Alert Level The water level at the gauging station when the channel
(L4) reach/lake/swamp where the station is representing, is estimated to be
40% full on the average.
Alarm Level The water level at the gauging station when the channel
(L6) reach/lake/swamp where the station is representing, is estimated to be
60% full on the average.
Critical The water level at the gauging station when a certain section of channel
Level (L10) reach/lake/swamp where the station is representing, is estimated to be
100% full.
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The activities in flood forecasting and warning activities include the following:
a. Monitoring of the hydrological conditions (rainfall, water level) of the river
as a result of flood-causing phenomenon such as prevailing weather system,
presence of a tropical cyclone, etc.
b. Collection and transmission of rainfall and water level in the upstream areas
ofthe basin, and other hydrometeorological data/information. The data will
be analyzed with other available information such as satellite images,
synoptic and radar observations as well as the outputs from the different
numerical models.
c. Hydrological forecasting to provide an objective estimate of the rise in
water level and the probable time of occurrence. This information will form
the basis from which a Flood Bulletin is prepared or issued. Flood messages
as well as an advice to take appropriate actions or precautionary measures
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are incorporated in the Flood Bulletin.
d. Preparation of the Basin Flood Bulletin and Dissemination of Flood
Warning/Bulletin to the Office of Civil Defense (Main Office, Regional,
Provincial, City/Municipal and Barangay Disaster Risk Reduction and
Management Council concerned), the Local Government Units (LGUs)
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concerned and Media
The preparation, issuance and dissemination of an adequate, understandable

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and timely warning are the ultimate purpose of flood forecasting. Timeliness is an
essential requirement for a flood warning, giving sufficient lead time to ensure that
recipient of the flood information has ample time to undertake the necessary
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precautionary countermeasures.
Flood forecast and warning bulletins are prepared only when a potential
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flooding situation is definitely present. They are issued regularly at specified hours
of the day for the duration of the flooding period until the flood recedes or when all
hazards and dangers associated with the phenomenon are no longer present.
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B. Forecast Products:
1. Hydrological Forecast
The Hydrological Forecast is a general information/condition of the river basins
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which are being monitored by PAGASA. It is prepared daily during non-flood watch
period/ during low flow periods or when the expected stream flows are generally
normal. The Hydrological Forecast is prepared based from past observations, the
latest of which is the 8:00 am data and is valid for 24 hour period beginning 9:00 AM
and ending at 9:00 AM of the following day, unless it is superseded by Flood Watch
information. Contents of the Hydrological forecast includes the following:
a. rainfall characteristics
b. present and forecast average stages/discharges of rivers/lakes/swamps
c. relevant additional information/comments (optional)
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2. Basin Flood Bulletin
Basin Flood Bulletin is a flood forecast in the form of warning, which is prepared
twice daily and issued to river basins monitored by PAGASA. They are completed
and readied for issuance and dissemination at 4:00 a.m. and 4:00 p.m., respectively,
when it is deemed early enough to provide vital information for concerned users to
take necessary countermeasures before they leave for work in the morning or
before they retire at night. In the event that there is a significant rise in the water
level, an intermediate basin flood bulletin is issued at 10:00 AM and 10:00 PM. The
meaning of the flood messages are presented in the tables below.
FLOOD FORECASTERS CONCERNED PUBLIC

 Flooding is possible  Flooding is possible
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In effect when the expected rise of There is a prospect or possibility
station water level exceeds Level 4 of flooding within the next 24
within the next 24 hours; or when the hours.
station observed water level and the It suggests AWARENESS.
expected water level within the next 24
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hours are between Level 4 and Level 6.
 Flooding is threatening  Flooding is threatening
In effect when the expected rise of There is threat of flooding within
station water level exceeds Level 6
within the next 24 hours; or when the
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It suggests PREPAREDNESS.
station observed water level and the
expected water level within the next 24
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hours are between Level 6 and Level
10.
 Flooding is expected to occur  Flooding is expected to occur
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In effect when the expected rise of There is expectation of flooding

station water level exceeds Level 10 within the next 24 hours
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within the next 24 hours.  - It suggests RESPONSE.

 Flooding is expected to persist  Flooding is expected to persist
 In effect when the station observed There is expectation that
water level and the expected water flooding will remain within the
level within the next 24 hours are next 24 hours.
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above Level 10. It suggests RESPONSE.

 Flooding is no longer possible  Flooding is no longer possible
 In effect when the station observed There is no more prospect or
water level below Level 10 is generally possibility of flooding due to the
receding and no immediate significant latest rainfall event.
rise is expected.
 Flooding is no longer threatening  Flooding is no longer threatening
 In effect when the station observed There is no more threat of
water level below Level 10 is generally flooding due to the latest rainfall
receding and no immediate significant event.
rise is expected.
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FLOOD FORECASTERS CONCERNED PUBLIC
 Flooding is no longer expected to occur  Flooding is not expected to occur
 In effect when the station observed There is no more expectation of
water below Level 10 is generally flood occurrence due to the latest
receding and no immediate significant rainfall event.
rise is expected.
 Flooding is no longer expected to  Flooding is no longer expected to
persist persist
 In effect when the station observed There is no more expectation
water level above Level 10 is generally that the flooding will remain due
receding and no immediate significant to the latest rainfall event.
rise is expected.
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Rainfall Intensity
Descriptive Criteria for visual determination of
Quantitative equivalent
Intensity intensity
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LIGHT 1 hour rainfall : < 2.5 mm Individual droops are easily seen;
3 hour rainfall : < 7.5 mm slight spray is observed over
6 hour rainfall : < 15.0 mm pavements; puddles form slowly; over
12 hour rainfall : < 30.0 mm
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24 hour rainfall : < 60.0 mm
two minutes may be required to wet
pavements completely; sound on
roofs ranges from slow pattering to
gentle swishing; steady small streams
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may flow in gutters and downspouts.
MODERATE 1 hour rainfall : 2.5 - 7.5 mm Individual drops are not clearly
3 hour rainfall : 7.5 - 22. 5 mm identifiable; spray is observable jus
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6 hour rainfall : 15.0 - 45.0 mm above pavements and other hard

12 hour rainfall : 30.0 - 90.0 surfaces, puddles form rapidly;
mm
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downspouts on building seen 1⁄4 to

24 hour rainfall : 60.0 - 180.0
mm
1⁄2 full; sound on roofs rang from
swishing to gentle roar.
HEAVY 1 hour rainfall : > 7.5 mm Rain seemingly falls in sheets;
3 hour rainfall : > 22.5 mm individual drops are not identifiable;
6 hour rainfall : > 45.0 mm
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heavy spray to height of several inches

12 hour rainfall : > 90.0 mm is observed over hard surfaces;
24 hour rainfall : > 180.0 mm
downspouts run more than 1⁄2 full;
visibility is very much reduced; sounds
on roof resembles rolls of drums or
distant roar.
PERIOD CATEGORY
(Unit of Time) SLOW GRADUAL RAPID
1-hour < 0.30 m 0.30 – 1.00 m > 1.00 m
3-hour < 0.60 m 0.60 – 1.40 m > 1.40 m
6-hour < 0.90 m 0.90 – 1.90 m > 1.90 m
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PERIOD CATEGORY
(Unit of Time) SLOW GRADUAL RAPID
9-hour < 1.20 m 1.20 – 2.40 m > 2.40 m
12-hour < 1.60 m 1.60 – 2.90 m > 2.90 m
15-hour < 2.00 m 2.00 – 3.40 m > 3.40 m
18-hour < 2.30 m 2.30 – 4.00 m > 4.00 m
21-hour < 2.60 m 2.60 – 4.50 m > 4.50 m
24-hour < 3.00 m 3.00 – 5.00 m > 5.00 m
Note:
• In describing the expected general rising of water level using any of the categories
above, Period means the number of hours between the latest observed station
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water level and the highest expected station water level within the next 24-hours.
• The 24-hour period and its corresponding categories shall be used for the expected
general water level recession, i.e. the difference between the latest and the next 24
hour observations.
• When there is already overflowing/flooding, the word “further” is preferred to
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describe an expected continuous rise/recession of the no longer confined
floodwaters.
3. General Flood Advisory (GFA)

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General Flood Advisory is a flood bulletin in general or simple form. It is a
hydrological information for the concerned public to be aware or prepare for the
expected flood or high streamflow. It is issued to non-PABC river systems (with or
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without CBFEWS) where the proximity of the available real-time or near-real-time
rainfall (synoptic, etc.) and/or water level data can serve as inputs. It is being issued
if there is a forecast of significant rainfall based on the meteorological/ numerical
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models and others, even if the past/observed rainfall over the concerned area is
considered nil. The advisory which is prepared and issued by the Main Operation
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Center (MOC) of the Hydrometeorological Division and to a certain extent by the

river centers is externally disseminated thru the Operation Center of the OCD,
requesting media and others. It is also uploaded on the PAGASA’s website or sent
thru e-mail or fax.
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The advisory shall have the following characteristics:

a. The advisory is issued anytime deemed necessary.
b. Intervening advisory is issued when the rainfall (intensity and/or coverage)
expected within the validity period of the preceding advisory, shows that it
was underestimated and that it is expected to cause significant change.
c. The advisory validity period is until the time the forecast significant rainfall
or rise of floodwaters is expected to end, upon which a final advisory (which
doesn’t have validity period) is issued.
d. The forecast rain period in the initial/intervening advisory corresponds to
the advisory validity period.
e. The past / observed rainfall whether a point or an average, is cumulative.
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4. Flood Forecasting and Warning System for Dam Operation (FFWSDO)
Flood Forecasting and Warning System for Dam Operation has basically the
same component as that of the FFWS for basins: real-time telemetering system
consisting of rainfall and water level gauging stations (at the dam site), computer
system to forecast flood inflow, warning dissemination facilities and supervisory
control station at the dam office, an over-all supervisory system for the operation of
the system in the central offices of NPC and NIA as well monitoring facility for the
exchange of necessary information with other concerned agencies and a
telecommunication system to acquire the necessary information path for the
operation of the whole FFWSDO.
All the rainfall monitoring equipment, which are located in the upstream portion
of the reservoirs, are also unmanned and automatically transmits data to the dam
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offices. This will serve as inputs to forecast the flood inflow in the reservoir,
especially during inclement weather condition or in the event that a particular
storm is going to affect or cross the reservoirs.
The agencies involved in the FFWSDO are PAGASA (flood forecasting and
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warning at the downstream/target areas of the dam), NPC and NIA (dam operators),
DPWH (river management), NWRB (monitoring agency) and OCD (monitoring and
agency mandated to disseminate all information). In the event that the situation
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warrants the operation of the spillway gates, all the agencies are following an
agreed dam discharge and flood warning protocols to ensure that all the
information from the system will provide the safe and cost-effective operation of
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the dams and that appropriate warnings are disseminated to the communities
downstream.
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Prior to the opening of spillway gates, the dam operators shall provide PAGASA
with all information relative to the dam: hydrological information, operational
status of flood warning equipment and appropriate measures in case of equipment
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breakdown and the flooding situation in the target area on the reservoir. The dam
operators shall also disseminate the Dam Flood Bulletin and Flood Information to all
concerned LGUs and residents, thru telephone. In addition, fixed warning stations
will also broadcast the time of gate opening and the necessary warnings. Patrol cars
from the dam offices will also provide warnings to areas which are not reached by
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the fixed warning stations.
PAGASA, in turn, shall provide all the hydrometeorological data and information
to the dam operators, coordinates with the dam office on the
commencement/termination of the flood warning operation, monitors and assess
the flooding potential of the target areas and prepares/issues Flood Bulletin and
Flood Warning Information for the target areas of the dam. PAGASA also transmits
the Flood Bulletins/Flood Information to FFWS Dam Office, the OCD, DPWH and
NWRB for them to undertake necessary action, particularly for DPWH who often
conduct flood fighting activities, such as sandbagging activities, removal of debris,
etc.
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During normal condition (Non-Flood watch), PAGASA issues a Dam Hydrological
Situationer, an information about the current hydrological status of the major dams
being monitored. It shall be prepared and uploaded daily on the PAGASA’s website
by the MOC (FFWS) as implementor of PAGASA’s participation in the inter-agency
FFWSDO.
The Dam Hydro Situationer shall be prepared once a day based on the latest
available reservoir water level elevation which is usually at 6:00 A.M. and
past/forecast rainfall ending/beginning at 8:00 A.M. It shall be valid for the 24-hour
period beginning at 9:00 A.M. and ending at 9:00 A.M. of the following day.
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Criteria of FFWSDO Flood Warning Operation
Flood Rising Stage Flood Falling Stage
1. When a large amount COMMENCEMENT TERMINATION 9. When the water levels at all
of rainfall is OF PREPARATORY OF FLOOD basic points are below the
expected/exceeds 60 PHASE WARNING ALARM W.L. and are expected/
mm in the last 24 hours. OPERATION forecast to recede to or below
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the ALERT W.L.
2. When water level is COMMENCEMENT When the water levels at all
expected to reach ALERT OF FLOOD basic points are still above
W.L. and/or when dam WARNING PHASE
C ALARM W.L. but show
release is notified generally receding trend in the
past 12 hours with no
3. When water level at FLOOD OUTLOOK significant weather
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any basin point has development expected.
reached/ exceeded When the above situation is
ALERT W.L. and a further present and NPC, OCD and
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increase is expected. DPWH agreed with the

TERMINATION in case of the
issuance of CRITICAL FLOOD
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WARNING.
4. When water level at FLOOD ADVISORY FLOOD 8. When water levels at all
any basic point has (Rising stage) ADVISORY basic points have reached
reached ALERT W.L. and (Falling stage) below CRITICAL W.L. and are
is expected to reach the expected to recede further to
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ALARM W.L. ALARM W.L.

5. When the water level FLOOD WARNING FLOOD 7. When the water levels at all
at any basic point has (Rising stage) WARNING basic points recede below
reached ALERT W.L. and (Falling stage) CRITICAL W.L.
is expected to reach the
CRITICAL W.L.
6. When the water level CRITICAL FLOOD
at any basic point has WARNING
reached CRITICAL W.L.
and 1.0 meter or more
water above it is
expected.
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Form # Type of Info FROM TO Tape#
1 Commencement of Preparatory PAGASA Dam Office
Phase
2 Report on Commencement of Dam Office PAGASA
Preparatory Phase
3 Commencement of Flood PAGASA Dam Office
Warning Phase
4 Report on Commencement of Dam Office
Flood Warning Phase PAGASA
5 Flood Bulletin & Request for PAGASA Dam Office Tapes A-L
Dissemination
6 Report on Completion of Dam Office PAGASA
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Dissemination
7 Request for Dissemination of PAGASA Dam Office
Flood Disaster Info
8 Report on Completion of Dam Office PAGASA
Dissemination
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9 Termination of Flood Warning PAGASA Dam Office
Operation
10 Report on Completion of Dam Office PAGASA Tape M
Dissemination of Termination
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5. Community-based Flood Early Warning System (CBFEWS)
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a. Basic Elements of CBFEWS
CBFEWS or Community Based Flood Early Warning System is a non-

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structural measure of flood mitigating measures that is designed to the operative

capability of a municipality or barangay. It capitalizes on the “bayanihan”
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characteristic of majority of the Filipino people. The CBFEWS is in response to the

need for an early warning in areas that are not covered by the conventional or the
telemetered monitoring facilities. It is also expected that socio-economic losses
could be lessened with an operational and functional EWS in placed.
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Due to the recent escalation of water-related disasters, especially in areas

with denser population, CBFEWS is fast becoming a necessary tool for in the disaster
mitigation program of a community or municipality. The CBFEWS is expected to
strengthen the capability of a community to mitigate the disastrous effects of
flooding thru the use of a simple and yet easy to operate monitoring facilities.
Furthermore, it will also give importance to the indigenous practices of the
community since the CBFEWS will integrate all these practices to the system.
b. Stages/Phases of CBFEWS
In the establishment of a CBFEWS, there are six stages that are being
followed.
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1) Conduct of consultation meeting with the Local Government Units.
Prior to the establishment of a CBFEWS, it is important to present the

plan to the concerned Local Government Units for them to have a better
understanding of the system, the benefits that will be gained from the
equipment as well as their responsibility in its sustainability. The Consultation
meeting will likewise provide PAGASA in having a grasp of the community’s
socio-political belief, personal experiences, the hydrologic condition of the area
which are vital inputs in defining the most appropriate CBFEWS for the
community. Furthermore, involving the LGUs and the community in this
endeavor will further boost their sense of ownership of the system and thus can
be an assurance of their active participation once the system became
operational.
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The consultation meeting is first coordinated with the Office of the
Provincial Governor as well as with the Local Chief Executives, other concerned
agencies, non-government organizations, private institutions involved in
disaster mitigation and the telecommunication companies operating within the
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province. Discussions during the consultation meeting will focus on the
meteorological hazards present in the province, the disaster risk profile and the
possibility of implementing the CBFEWS in their community. A Memorandum of
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Agreement will also be discussed in this meeting, which will stipulate the roles
and responsibilities of the stakeholders, particularly in the activities relative to
the installation of a CBFEWS, like the conduct of survey, identifying the
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observers for the equipment, designating a Disaster Operation Center which will
collate all the hydrological data and the formulation of flood
warning/advisories, the sustainability of the system and some follow-up
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activities to further improve the system.
2) Network design
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a) Density of the monitoring stations

In designing the network of stations, the PAGASA will start with a
table top survey, wherein the rivers and tributaries present in the Province
will be delineated using a topographic map produced by the National
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Mapping Resource and Information Authority (NAMRIA) and the Flood

Hazard Map developed by the Mines and Geosciences Bureau (MGB). The
number of the proposed rainfall and water level gauge will be based on the
network density prescribe by the World Meteorological Organization
(WMO), a specialized agency of the United Nations that sets the standard
when it comes to exposure of instruments for weather observations.
Likewise, the design of the CBFEWS will also consider the technical
capability of the community to operate and manage the system to ensure
continuous operation and sustainability, the availability of volunteers who
will man the stations as well as the indigenous practices of the specific
community or locality.
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There is also a need to establish a Disaster Operation Center (DOC),
which will serve as the operation center during inclement weather
condition. The DOC is placed in a municipality and the Deputized Civil
Defense Coordinator is designated to be the person in charge of operating
the whole system. It is therefore important that such person will have a full
understanding of the system, particularly its operation since he will mobilize
the observers to conduct observation during inclement weather condition.
In cases where a river system or streams encompasses two or three
municipalities or barangays, the DOC is sometimes located in the
downstream portion of the river. It will collect all the data from the stations
and formulate the flood warnings and advisories. Also given emphasis
during the Consultation meeting is that data sharing among observers is
very important to ensure that all information are transmitted to the areas
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that will likely be affected by flooding. PAGASA will provide all the
meteorological information which will be utilized by the DOCs in their
disaster operation activities.
b) Acquisition and fabrication of the equipment
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The basic equipment for a CBFEWS are the rainfall and water level
gauges and flood markers which are economical, easy to maintain and can
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be fabricated by the community in the event that the equipment is
vandalized or destroyed. The use of a doable and simple technology will
allow the community to carry out observations/measurements of
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hydrological conditions in a practical way.
It should be noted though that these monitoring facilities should

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conform to the standards set by the World Meteorological Organization in

terms of equipment specifications.
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Figure 1: Standard 8" rain gauge (left) and digital or electronic rain gauge (right)
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The PAGASA recommends either the manual rain gauge or the 8”
standard rain gauge, which is utilized for all the synoptic stations all over the
country. It is composed of a collector tube and a collector funnel made of
Gauge #26 G.I., a measuring tube made of brass or PVC pipe and a
measuring stick made of wood or metal. PAGASA also recommends the use
of an automatic rain gauge which is more conventional to use, the rainfall
reading being displayed in the display panel.
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O
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Figure 2: Specifications for a standard 8" rain gauge
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The water level gauge is a simple staff stage that is painted on a
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semi-permanent structure such as the pier of concrete bridges and bank

protection. A template, whose graduations are in centimeters, is prepared
using a cardboard.
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Figure 3: Preparation of water level gauge template
The communication system is a very vital component in the

establishment of an EWS. The observed hydrological data from the network
of rainfall and water level stations shall be the basis for the issuance of
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timely flood warning information. It is important that a reliable
communication is present in the community. A back-up communication
system should also be made readily available in the event that power
failure, which is likely the case during inclement weather condition, occurs.
It should be emphasized that the CBFEWS will adapt to the existing

communication system in the community for the transmission of observed
hydrological data to its designated Disaster Operation Center. Most of the
barangays are equipped with hand held radios and hence are encouraged to
use them since they are functional even when the commercial power is
down. Cellular mobile phones can be used as a back-up communication in
cases of emergency or power failure. For warning purposes, existing church
bells in the community or “batingaw” can be used.
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c) Ocular survey of the proposed sites
Once the network of monitoring stations is established, the
proposed sites will be presented to the LGUs. These interim sites will be
verified thru actual survey with the LGUs. However, the finality of
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installation shall be governed by considerations such as the availability of
observer and viable communication system and accessibility to the site.
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d) Installation of the monitoring equipment
i. Rain gauge
The installation of the standard rain gauge is governed by WMO
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Guidelines. It should be installed in an open area with no considerable
obstruction like big trees and buildings. Should there be obstruction in
the site, the rain gauge should be installed with its mouth horizontal
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over level ground and in the area where the distance of the instrument
should be four times the height of the nearest obstruction as specified
in the (Figure 4). The rain gauge should also be installed in such manner
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as to minimize the effect of wind, evaporation and splashing. To make it

stable, the raingauge should be mounted in a stable platform. It should
also be enclosed in a perimeter fence to protect it from stray animals
and curious passersby.
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Figure 4: Guidelines for the installation of a manual rain gauge
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Figure 5: Installation of standard rain gauge
Digital rain gauge is a type of rain gauge that is battery operated and is
more convenient to use in so far as taking observation is concerned. It is
mounted or installed on the roof of the houses, buildings or other structures
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and the display consul can be placed inside the building or house where the
rain gauge is installed (Fig. 6). The observer could easily conduct observation
even in cases of heavy rainfall episodes and during nighttime.
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Figure 6: Installation of a digital rain gauge
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ii. Water level gauge
Utilizing the prepared template, the water level gauge is spray-painted on
the pier of existing concrete bridges using the template as shown in Figure 7.
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Figure 7: Installation of a water level gauge
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3) Conduct of hydrographic survey
Hydrographic survey involves the conduct of a discharge measurement
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and river cross-sectioning at the location of the water level gauge. The results to
this survey and the community’s past flooding experiences will be the basis of
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determining the assessment levels that will be adapted by the community for
flood warning purposes.
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Figure 8: Hydrographic Survey
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4) Conduct of Training of observers
The LGUs will identify the volunteer observers who will conduct
observation for the installed rainfall and water level gauges. PAGASA will
provide a formal in-house and practical exercises to the identified observers,
together with Deputized Civil Defense Coordinator (DCDC) in the municipality
and his staff. Included in the training modules are rainfall observation using
manual and digital rain gauges and water level gauge, data transmission,
protocols of data interpretation and issuance of flood warnings and advisories.
It is also important to have enough number of observers to be trained.

This will ensure that there will be ample number of personnel who will
undertake a 24-hour monitoring/observations especially during inclement
weather conditions. The LGUs are encouraged to designate at least 2 observers
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for each site, who will be doing observations on a pre-designated manner, say
six or three-hourly or even hourly.
It should also be emphasized in the training the important role of the

observers. The issuance of a timely flood warning and advisories is dependent
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on the prompt and immediate response of the observers in the event that they
are mobilized by the DOC. C
PAGASA also developed the following manuals which will serve as a
guide/reference of the observers and the DOC:
i. Rainfall Observation and Recording using a Standard Manual
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rain gauge
ii. Rainfall Observation and Recording using a Digital rain gauge
iii. Water level observation and recording
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iv. Operation of a community-based flood early warning system
5) Pilot testing and dry-run

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Once a CBFEWS was established, PAGASA will conduct a pilot testing

and dry-run to check how the system can be integrated in the existing flood
disaster mitigation or programs of the Province or the community. The CBFEWS
is expected to further strengthen the coping mechanism of the community,
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especially those who have experienced perennial flooding in their area.
In the dry-run, a pre-determined scenario will be followed, with the

observers putting into action all that they have learned during training:
observation, data transmission, etc. The people manning the Disaster Operation
Center will be receiving the data and will have a hand in data analysis and
formulation of flood warnings and advisories as well as in the dissemination of
these information to the threatened communities up to the decision of
conducting evacuation of the community. An assessment/evaluation will
conclude the dry-run acivity. This will provide an avenue for discussion among
all those concerned and for the community to identify the weakness of the
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system and for them to come up with their own action plan as to how these
weakness(es) can be strengthened or improved. The community is also
encouraged to carry-out similar activity using different scenarios so that they
can have a hand-on participation in the continuing improvement of the system
in their area.
A communication scheme for CBFEWS was developed by PAGASA which

will be followed by the community. However, the community will be given the
free-hand to make some revisions on the said scheme should they see the need.
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Figure 9: Communication scheme of a CBFEWS
6) Operationalization of the system

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After accomplishing all the first five (5) stages, the community is now
ready to apply the CBFEWS in their locality. Arbitrary values of rainfall and water
levels will be provided to them which will be TEMPORARILY used by the
community for their evacuation activity. Other qualitative basis can also be
adapted, such as the change in color of river from relatively light blue, clear or
greenish to a muddy-brownish color, the presence of debris and changes in river
flow from tranquil to torrent. The community can also associate Storm Warning
Signal due to an approaching tropical cyclone to the warning levels. The
observed rainfall or river height or the rate of rise in water level between two
succeeding water level gauges over a certain period of time during the passage
of a tropical cyclone can also be utilized to activate pre-disaster activity in a
community.
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The flood warning levels are classified into three (3) categories, namely
Level 1, 2 and 3. These flood warning levels will be the basis for the issuance of
flood warnings and advisories to the threatened communities.
Table 1: Meaning of Assessment Levels, their corresponding warning levels

Assessment Flood Advisory
River Height Meaning
Level / Warning
River at a particular The message suggests
reference point is about AWARENESS that flooding is
Level 1 Ready
40% full. possible within the next 24
hours.
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reference point is about PREPAREDNESS and that
Level 2 GET SET
60% full flood is threatening within
the next 12 hours.
reference point is about RESPONSE that flooding is
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Level 3 100% full. GO expected to occur or will
persist within the next 12
hours.
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Rainfall Values Meaning Flood warning
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Continuous rainfall with rainfall observation of
“060” - “080” within one (1) hour ~ (15 mm – Awareness Ready
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20 mm) / hour
Rainfall observation is “240” to “320” (direct
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reading from LCD) for the past 3 hours. (60 – Preparedness GET SET
80 mm)/ 3 hours
Continuous rainfall for the last three hours and
3-hourly observation is “320” or (80 mm) / 3 Response GO
hours.
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It should be noted that these arbitrary values will be changed once there is
enough data gathered from the monitoring stations. However, in the event that
these arbitrary values were exceeded by a particular rain episode or storm, they will
be revised taking into account the maximum height of floodwater experienced by
the community.
6. Flood Warning and Community Responses
The very essence of a CBFEWS is to encourage the LGUS and the local
community to have a pro-active way of co-managing and mitigating the impacts of
flooding in their area. The networks of rain gauges and water level gauges that were
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established, the training that the LGU personnel and community members on
observation methods, data reporting and analysis and in the formulation and
issuance of flood warnings are just some of the activities that would equipped them
to operate a flood early warning system for their community as part of their flood
disaster mitigation activities.
The community is encouraged to conduct post-flood surveys and evaluation

after every flooding event. The community can discuss problems that may had arise
during the implementation of the system, highlighting on the strong points and
identifying which areas of the CBFEWS that need to be develop or further improved
or strengthened. The post flood survey could also provide discussion on the revision
of the flood warning levels should there be changes in the peak height of the
floodwaters that was recorded. The community could also utilize the rainfall
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information to forecast rainfall-induced landslide for critical areas within the
community, especially those that are in proximity with mountainous areas. Once
enough data are available, government agency concerned could assist the
community in coming up with a study to determine the threshold values for rainfall
which could trigger landslide in the area.
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In order to provide information that can be easily accessed by the members of
the community, Information Boards which will highlight the status not only of the
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river height but the weather as well (Public Storm Warning Signal).
Activity:
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1. Define Flood.
2. What are the types of flood based on occurrence?
3. Define Urban Flooding.
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4. What are the forecast products of PAGASA?

5. What are the stages/phases of CBFEWS?
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Answers:
1. Flood is defined as a rise, usually brief, in the water level in a stream to a peak from which
the water level recedes at a slower rate
2. Flash Flooding, Sheet Flooding
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3. Urban Flooding is a situation wherein excess of water (or mud) is found on land that's
normally dry caused by high flow, or overflow of water in an established watercourse, such
as a river, stream, or drainage ditch; or ponding of water at or near the point where the rain
fell.
4. Hydrological forecast, Basin flood bulletin, General Flood Advisories (GFA), Flood
Forecasting and Warning System for Dam Operation (FFWSDO)
5. a. Conduct of consultation meeting with the Local Government Unit
b. Network design
c. Conduct of hydrographic survey
d. Conduct of training of observers
e. Pilot testing and dry-run
f. Operationalization of the system
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Climate Variability, Extreme Events, and Climate
Change
By: Daisy F. Ortega, Senior Weather Specialist and Officer-in-charge
Rusy G. Abastillas, Weather Specialist I
Climate Monitoring and Prediction Section
Climatology and Agrometeorology Division
PAGASA-DOST
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At the end of the module, the teachers are expected to:
1. determine the factors that influence climate variability in the Philippines;
2. describe the science behind El Niño Southern Oscillation (ENSO), extreme event and
climate change;
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3. identify the impacts of climate variability and change;
4. discuss the coping mechanisms to lessen the impacts of climate variability and change.
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I. Introduction
The Philippines being an archipelagic

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country (Figure 1) is vulnerable to various
weather/climate hazards. Countries in the
Pacific region and the Southeast Asia, like the
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Philippines, experience the highest rainfall

variability in the world (Nichols 1997, de los
Santos et al, 2007). Rainfall variability is an
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inherent characteristic of Philippine climate.

Seasonal rainfall in the country can be
described by three rainfall periods. These are:
1) the rain year, a 12 month rainfall from April
through the end of March the following year;
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2) the first semester rain (Figure 2a) from

April to September, synchronous with the
southwest monsoon (Northern Hemisphere
summer monsoon); and 3) the second
semester rain from October to March (Figure
2b), synchronous with the northeast monsoon
(Northern Hemisphere winter monsoon),
(Jose, 1989). Figure 1
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Figure 2a (left) and 2b (right). Average rainfall across the Philippines for 1951-2000 during
the first semester, April to September (Figure 2a) and the second semester, October to
March (Figure 2b). (Source: PAGASA)
Rainfall variability in the country is influenced by the different climatic factors, which include
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the following:
o Geography and topography

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This refers to the location and distribution of the physical features of the
surface of the Philippines and the shape and elevation of its land. Since the
Philippines is located in the tropical Pacific with 7,100 islands, bounded by oceans
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and seas and with different land forms, its climate is greatly affected by various
weather hazards and variability.
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o Semi-permanent cyclones and anti-cyclones

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Cyclone is associated with low pressure and in the Northern hemisphere, it

rotates in a counterclockwise direction and clockwise in the Southern Hemisphere
(Figure 3). It usually brings bad weather.
Anticyclone is a weather phenomenon associated with atmospheric high

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pressure. In the Northern hemisphere an anticyclone rotates in the clockwise

direction while it rotates counterclockwise in the southern hemisphere (Figure 3a).
An area of high pressure is usually associated with lighter winds and good weather.
They are termed semi permanent because they appear only in a particular
area at a particular season. An example of this is the location of the high and low
pressure areas during the months of January and July as represented by the letter
“H” (high pressure) and “L” (low pressure) in the weather map (Figure 3a and 3b).
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Figure 3a-3b. Mean sea level pressure distribution for January (a) and August (b).
During January, climate in the Philippines is usually influenced by the ridge of high
pressure area which brings generally good weather, and rainfall concentration is
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located in the eastern portion. However, during the month of July, the zone of low
pressure area generally dominates the Philippines which is the peak of the rainy
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season in the country.
o Air streams
The two principal wind systems that likewise influence the seasonal rainfall
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pattern in the Philippines are the Southwest (SW) and Northeast (NE) monsoon
termed as airstreams.
During the first semester, rainfall less than 1000 mm is found in the Cagayan
Valley, the interior portions of Visayas and southern part of Mindanao (Figure 3a),
and rainfall greater than 1800mm is found in the western sections of Luzon and
Visayas. During the second semester, the eastern section of the country is more
exposed to the prevailing northeasterlies while rainfall in the western region is less
than 500mm.
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o Ocean currents
Greater portion of the earth’s surface is covered by water, and oceans are
the biggest heat-storage reservoir. Ocean currents are good heat energy transport
that influence the climate of the continents.
o Linear systems
 Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ)
This is a low pressure zone where the Northeast trade winds and
Southeast trade winds converge, producing convectional storms that
produce some of the world's heaviest precipitation regions. The ITCZ moves
north and south of the equator depending on the season and solar energy
received.
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 Cold front
A cold front is defined as the transition zone where a cold air mass is
replacing a warmer air mass. Around this zone, instability results in high
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cumulonimbus cloud (rain cloud) with rain and thunder. It usually occurs in
the mid-latitude and what affects the Philippines is only the tail end.
 Easterly wave
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A wave-like disturbance in the tropical region that moves from east to
west, generally creating only a shift in winds and rain. It is often associated
with possible tropical cyclone development.
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o Tropical cyclone
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A type of low-pressure system which generally forms in the tropics. The

cyclone is accompanied by thunderstorms, and a circulation of strong winds and
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heavy rain near the Earth's surface. The circulation is clockwise in the Southern
hemisphere and counter-clockwise in the Northern hemisphere.
o ENSO phenomenon (El Niño & La Niña)

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Climate variability of the country is also influenced by extreme climate

event associated with the El Niño Southern Oscillation (ENSO). It is a global
phenomenon occurring in the central and eastern equatorial Pacific and affects the
large-scale atmospheric circulation above it. This in turn changes the usual global
climate pattern and gives different impacts on rainfall distribution. Overall, the
impact of El Niño in the country is drier than normal rainfall condition while La Niña
is associated with wetter than normal condition.
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Table 1. General influences of the typical El Niño Southern Oscillation on Philippine climate
El Niño La Niña
• Delayed onset of the rainy season • Short dry season
• Extended dry season • Early onset of rainy season
• Early end of rainy season • Strong monsoon activity
• Weak monsoon activity • More tropical cyclones
• Less tropical cyclones • Below normal sea level pressure
• Above normal sea level pressure
• Above normal air temperatures
2. Basics of ENSO
ENSO stands for El Niño-Southern Oscillation. 'El Niño' refers to the warming of the oceans
in the eastern equatorial and central Pacific; Southern Oscillation is the change in
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atmospheric pressure associated with this warming (‘Southern Oscillation Index’ is a
measure of these changes). Thus ‘ENSO’ is used to describe the interaction between the
ocean and the atmosphere during the warm event and the associated changes in rainfall,
atmospheric pressure, wind, etc.. It has two phases, the El Niño (warming) and the La Ni
(cold) phase.
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The typical evolution of the ENSO cycle may be described by an irregular cycle of alternating
periods of warm (El Niño) and cold (La Niña) conditions. El Niño tends to occur every 3-4
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years and generally lasts 12-18 months, while La Niña episodes may last 1-3 years. Table 2
shows the historical ENSO events:
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Table 2: Historical El Niño and La Niña Episodes Based on the ONI (Oceanic Niño Index)
computed using ERSST.v3b
El Niño Highest ONI Value La Niña Lowest ONI Value
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JAS 1951 – NDJ 1951/52 0.8 ASO 1949 – FMA 1951 -1.7
MAM 1957 – MJJ 1958 1.7 MAM 1954 – DJF 1956 / 57 -2.1
JJA 1963 – DJF 1963/ 64 1.0 ASO 1962 – DJF 1962/63 -0.8
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MJJ 1965 – MAM 1966 1.6 MAM 1964 – DJF 1964/65 -1.1
OND 1968 – MJJ 1969 1.0 NDJ 1967/68 – MAM 1968 -0.9
ASO 1976 – JFM 1977 0.8 JJA 1970 – DJF 1971/72 -1.3
AMJ 1972 – FMA 1973 2.1 AMJ 1973 – MAM 1976 -2.0
ASO 1976 – JFM 1977 0.8 SON 1984 – ASO 1985 -1.0
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ASO 1977 – DJF 1977/78 0.8 AMJ 1988 – AMJ 1989 -1.9
AMJ 1982 – MJJ 1983 2.3 ASO 1988 – FMA 1996 -0.7
JAS 1986 – JFM 1988 1.6 JJA 1998 – MJJ 2000 -1.6
AMJ 1991 – JJA 1992 1.8 SON 2000 – JFM 2001 -0.7
AMJ 1994 – FMA 1995 1.3 ASO 2007 – AMJ 2008 -1.4
AMJ 1997 – AMJ 1998 2.5 JJA 2010 – MAM 2011 -1.4
AMJ 2002 – FMA 2003 1.5
MJJ 2004 – JFM 2005 0.9
JAS 2006 – DJF 2006/07 1.1
MJJ 2069 – MAM 2010 1.8
(The letters in the acronyms below represent months of the year in chronological order; for example,
JAS represents July, August and September)
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Figure 4a
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Figure 4b
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Figure 4a-4b. Plot of the oceanic condition during 6 Feb- 27 Feb 2010 (4a) , showing warming in the most areas
of the Niño regions and the plot of southern oscillation index (4b), where negative (-) value reflect the El Niño
condition.
Southern Oscillation Index (SOI) is the average difference in sea level pressure in the eastern
and western equatorial Pacific, which reflects the atmospheric condition. It shows that
during El Niño condition, the SOI value is negative (-), which means that the high pressure
area is in the western Pacific where the Philippines is located and the low pressure area in
the eastern Pacific (Figure 4c). Since high pressure area is associated with warm and good
weather, this is the reason why the Philippines experience drier than normal rainfall
condition during El Niño. However, during La Niña, the SOI value is positive (+), which means
that the high pressure area is located in the eastern equatorial Pacific, while the low
pressure area in the western side (Figure 4d). Low pressure area is associated with bad and
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rainy weather, thus during La Niña event, wetter than normal condition is experienced in
the Philippines. Thus the “see saw” in sea level pressure across east and West Pacific Ocean
is called the “Southern Oscillation”. It is the measure of the atmospheric circulation systems
over the Pacific ocean in terms of the difference in standardized pressure anomalies over
Tahiti and Darwin. To illustrate how ocean temperatures affect rainfall, Figure 4e shows the
physical process.
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Figure 4c Figure 4d
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Figure 4e
Figure 4c-4d. Illustration of the behavior of the SOI during El Niño condition where the index value is <-5
(4c); Behavior of SOI during the La Niña condition (4d) and (4e) physical process of how the ocean
temperatures affect rainfall.
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2.1 El Niño Fundamentals
El Nino is the warming of the tropical equatorial Pacific ocean, the area bounded by
the four Niño regions (Niño 4, Niño3.4, Niño 3, and Niño 1+2), within 5 degrees North and
South of the equator (Fig5a). This warming affects the global atmosphere and weather
bringing about disastrous impacts. A significant relationship between the sea surface
temperature (SLP) in the equatorial Pacific Ocean and the Philippine rainfall was established
specifically in the Nino3.4 region. It means that warming in this area (Fig 5a), give responses
to the climate in the country. El Niño is a phenomenon in the equatorial Pacific Ocean
characterized by a positive sea surface temperature departure from normal in the Niño -3.4
region (i.e., 5°S–5°N, 170°–120°W) greater than or equal in magnitude to 0.5°C averaged
over three consecutive months (National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration).
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The driving force of El Nino is the weakening of the trade winds that push the warm
water towards the eastern side forming a warm water pool in the tropical east Pacific
Ocean. This condition translates into El Niño, giving the country warm and drier weather
condition specifically higher temperatures. Picture of the typical El Niño event is shown in
Fig 5b, while a plot of strong 1997-1998 El Niño phenomenon is shown in Fig 5c.
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Figure 5a
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Figure 5b
Figure 5c
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2.2 La Nina Fundamentals
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La Niña, the opposite of El Nino, is a climate pattern where the water in the Pacific
Ocean near the equator gets colder than usual and affects the atmosphere and weather
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around the world (Fig 5d). It is an opposite of El Niño. The reverse happened during La Niña,
as warm water is push stronger towards Indonesia and the nearby region like the
Philippines, in the west tropical Pacific. This time the location of the low pressure area is in
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the Western tropical Pacific and the high pressure area in the east Pacific (Fig 5e).
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Figure 5e. Subdivision of the Niño regions in the tropical Pacific Ocean (5a) ; typical El Niño condition
showing the weakening of the wind and location of the high and low pressure systems (5b) ;
graphical presentation of the Sea Surface Temperature (SST) Anomalies in degrees Celsius for the
middle of September 1997 during the 1997-1998 strong El Niño (5c); An example of La Niña
phenomenon during the 2007- 2008 event (5d); and illustration of the typical location of the high and
low pressure areas and the strength of the wind during La Niña condition, (5e).
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2.3 Basic Concepts of Climate Change
What is the Global Climate System?
The Global Climate System is an interactive system among these 5 major

components: (atmosphere, hydrosphere, cryosphere, biosphere and land surface) that is
forced or influenced by various external forcings (i.e.,sun and human activity) (Figure 6).
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Figure 6. Schematic view of the components of the global climate system (bold), their
processes and interactions (thin arrows) and some aspects that may change.
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The sun is the major source of all forms of energy on earth. This form of energy is
called solar radiation and it varies with latitude; greater at the equator and less at the poles.
This explains why we have different climate patterns: coldest in the Polar Regions, moderate
temperature in the temperate regions and warmer in the tropics. The revolution of the
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earth around the sun also gives rise to the changes of seasons in the sub-tropical regions
wherein they have four seasons in a year (winter, spring, summer and fall) depending on the
location of the earth around the sun.
2.3.1. What is Climate Change?
The official definition by the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate

Change (UNFCCC) is the change that can be attributed “directly or indirectly to human
activity that alters the composition of the global atmosphere and which is in addition to
natural climate variability observed over comparable time periods”.
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However, scientists often use the term for any change in the climate, whether
arising naturally or from human causes. In particular, the Intergovernmental Panel on
Climate Change (IPCC) defines “climate change” as “a change in the state of the climate that
can be identified ... by changes in the mean and / or the variability of its properties, and that
persists for an extended period, typically decades or longer”.
Each of these two definitions is relevant and important to keep in mind.
2.3.2. Global Warming and Climate Change
According to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) 4th Assessment

Report, the earth has warmed unequivocally during the last 100 years by 0.74 °C. This
warming is attributed to the increased amount of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere
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through human activities that have intensified the greenhouse effect. This phenomenon is
called “global warming" which refers to the increase in the earth’s mean temperature due
to the so-called enhanced greenhouse effect (Figure 7).
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Global and annual mean temperatures from 1860, as measured in

site at weather/climate stations. The temperatures are expressed as
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an anomaly from the average over 1961-1980.

Figure 7. A collective picture of a warming world showing an unprecedented
strong temperature increase since 1975.
2.3.3. What is Greenhouse Effect (natural and enhanced)?

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The major mechanism behind climate change is the increased “greenhouse effect”,
by which the Earth’s atmosphere traps energy from the sun just like a greenhouse.
The energy from the sun warms land, water, and air. In turn, the warmed-up land,
water, and air give off heat, which rises up towards the sky. Gases, such as water vapor,
present in the Earth’s atmosphere capture some of that heat and prevent it from escaping
into space. This heat trap keeps the Earth warm, and like a warm blanket makes our planet a
habitable world for all the various animal and plant species to survive in. Without this heat
trapping system, the Earth’s surface would be about 15 degrees Celsius colder than it is
now.
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The Greenhouse Effect
Some of the infrared
radiation passes through the
atmosphere but most is
absorbed and re-emitted in
all directions by greenhouse
gas molecules and clouds.
The effect of this is to warm
the Earth’s surface and the
lower atmosphere.
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O
C
Enhanced Greenhouse Effect
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Human activities – particularly burning fossil
fuels (coal, oil, and natural gas), agriculture and
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land clearing – are generating more

greenhouse gases. Greater concentrations of
greenhouse gases will trap more heat and raise
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the Earth’s surface temperature.

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Figure 8. The natural greenhouse effect vs the enhanced greenhouse effect

This process is known as the greenhouse effect. It is a natural phenomenon mainly
driven by water vapor, and other greenhouse gases (or GHGs) present in the atmosphere.
Adding more greenhouse gases increases the warming effect to the point that it is no longer
beneficial but has negative consequences for life on Earth.
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The six major greenhouse gases in the atmosphere and their description:
Water vapor Is one of the most abundant gases in the atmosphere and
builds up with the evaporation from water bodies on Earth.
Carbon dioxide (CO2) Is produced by the combustion of fossil fuels and from forest
fires.
Methane (CH4) Animal husbandry, irrigated agriculture and oil extraction
release important amounts of this potent greenhouse gas.
Nitrous oxide (N2O) Is a by-product of burning fossil fuels gives off when farmers
use Nitrogen based fertilizer and is also released when
ploughing farm soils.
Ozone (O3) Main element of the protective layer in the upper atmosphere,
which shields the Earth from the sun’s harmful ultraviolet
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radiation. Ozone is both a natural and a man-made gas.
Produced in excess as a result of smog and severe air pollution,
it becomes harmful to human health
Chlorofluorocarbons Chlorine-containing gas used for refrigerators, air conditioners,
aerosol sprays propellants and cleaning agents.
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(CFCs) Chlorofluorocarbons cause depletion of the atmospheric ozone
layer.
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2.3.4. What are the Anthropogenic / Man-made Sources of GHGs?
E D
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Transportation Deforestation
Petrol and diesel powered cars, public Cutting down trees means less carbon
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vehicles, including trains and aircrafts dioxide is stored in woods and the
account for a large proportion of soil. Burning of forests to clear land
carbon dioxide emissions. creates even more carbon dioxide.
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Industry Organic Waste
Most of the energy used to supply Decomposition of garbage and
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industry primarily comes from burning agricultural waste materials, leaks in
fossil fuels. This process generates vast coal mining and natural gas production
quantities of carbon dioxide and other are methane sources and account for
greenhouse gases. additional global warming effects.
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C
E D
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Population Natural Activity

As the number of people on the planet Volcanic eruptions and changes in the
increases, so the demand for housing, earth’s orbit around the sun can affect
transport, heat, light, and goods arise. our climate. In the past, these events
More energy consumption means more have lowered the temperature of the
emissions. Earth’s surface.
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Figure 9: Anthropogenic Sources of Greenhouse gases.
2.3.5. What are the manifestations of Climate Change?
Both measurable and visible sign of climate change are all around us.
Sets of observational evidence supporting that climate change is happening:
a) Increase in global mean temperature

b) Increase in sea level
c) Decrease in snow cover
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2.3.6. Main projections of climate change in the Global scale
The projections of future climate patterns are largely based on computer-based

models of the climate system that incorporate the important factors and processes of the
atmosphere and the oceans, including the expected growth in greenhouse gases from socio-
economic scenarios for the coming decades. The IPCC has examined the published results
from many different models and on the basis of the evidence has estimated that by 2100:
 The global average surface warming (surface air temperature change), will
increase by 1.1 - 6.4 °C.
 The sea level will rise between 18 and 59 cm.
 The oceans will become more acidic.

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It is very likely that hot extremes, heat waves and heavy precipitation events will
continue to become more frequent.
 It is very likely that there will be more precipitation at higher latitudes and it is
likely that there will be less precipitation in most subtropical land areas.
 It is likely that tropical cyclones (typhoons and hurricanes) will become more
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intense, with larger peak wind speeds and more heavy precipitation associated
with ongoing increases of tropical sea surface temperatures.
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2.3.7. Is the Philippines Vulnerable to Climate Change?
Due to the geographical and topographical features, the following are the
vulnerabilities of the country due to the impacts of climate change:
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• Due to our archipelagic structure, composed of more than 7,100 islands
with low lying areas - highly susceptible to flooding and inundations and are
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threatened by sea level rise.

• Among the longest coastlines in the world and mostly visited by tropical
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cyclones annually - highly susceptible to storm surges.

• Due to mountainous topography and steep slopes – highly susceptible to
ground movements such as landslides, mudslides, etc.
• Developing country – poor access to resources.
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2.3.8. What are the observed Climate Trends in the Philippines?
The following are the observed trends in climate for the different weather parameters in the
Philippines. These were analyzed using the datasets collected from PAGASA network of
observation stations all over the country.
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2.3.8.1. Temperature
The observed increase in the minimum (night time) temperature is almost three times the
increase in the maximum (day time) temperature.
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O
C
E D
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2.3.8.2. Rainfall
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Rainfall pattern shows

no trend although the annual
variability was observed to be
highly noticeable during the
years that had the El Niño
Southern Oscillation (ENSO)
events.
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• In most parts of the country, the
intensity of rainfall is increasing but
not all are statistically significant.
• Only in Baguio, Tacloban and Iloilo

showed statistically significant
increase in rainfall intensity.
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Figure 12. Trends in the Extreme
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Rainfall Intensity in the Philippines*
(1951 – 2008)
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• Most parts of the country are
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generally increasing in frequency
but not all are significant.
E
• Only in Calapan, Laoag, Iloilo and

Tacloban showed statistically
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significant increasing frequency.
• While a significantly decreasing

frequency is found in Palawan.
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Figure 13. Trends in the Extreme

Rainfall Frequency in the Philippines
(1951 – 2008)
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2.3.8.3. Tropical Cyclones
Using the data from 1948-2009, there is no observed trend in the number of tropical
cyclones entering the Philippine Area of Responsibility (PAR) annually but varies from year
to year; the most number was in 1993 with 32 TCs and the least in 1998 with only 11 TCs
(Figure 14). For the three major islands, there is no observed trend in Luzon, an increasing
trend in the Visayas and a slight decreasing trend in Mindanao over the last three decades
compared (Figure 15).
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O
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Figure 14. Annual Number and 5-Year running mean of Tropical Cyclones entering the PAR.
E D
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Figure 15. Trends in the number of Tropical Cyclones in Luzon, Visayas and Mindanao
2.3.9. What are the Potential Impacts of Climate Change on various sectors?
The changing climate has a direct effect on many aspects of life on Earth, in agriculture,
water resources, coastal areas and for the health of human population.
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In agriculture, the long-term fluctuations in weather patterns could lead to more
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unpredictable farming conditions. A need for a new cropping calendar and new crop
varieties to adapt to new climate pattern is necessary to minimize losses and
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increase production to attain food sustainability.
E D
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In water resources, there will be changes in the water supply, water quality and increase in
water competition. Salt water intrusion in fresh water supply is also highly expected.
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Due to sea level rise, coastal inundation and erosion of beaches would be likely in coastal
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areas. Greatly affected would be the low-lying islands and adjacent areas which bould be
more prone to flooding. Some areas are threatened to be lost in the future.
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E D
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Weather related impacts on health would be the emergence of a new strain of infections
diseases whether air or water-borne. Dengue, malaria, and leptospirosis will increase due to
flooding and more respiratory diseases will emerge due to poor air quality.
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2.3.10. How can we help mitigate the adverse impacts of climate change?
 Be aware of the climate change issues and encourage others to be aware about
it too.
 Practice the three R’s: Recycle/Reuse/Reduce. Through this, we can help
conserve our resources and less consumption of energy for processing.
 Conserve the use of electricity, water and other natural resources.
 Advocate the use of renewable energy sources such as solar, wind, geothermal
and hydropower to lessen the use of fossil fuels.
 Encourage reforestation and stop deforestation. Trees serve as carbon sinks
that absorbs carbon dioxide which is a major GHG.
 Use efficient lighting by using CFL’s (compact fluorescent bulbs) since it
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consumes less energy than incandescent bulbs.
 Population control should be encouraged. More people mean more energy
consumption and high GHG emissions.
 Organic farming should be practiced to minimize the use of chemicals for
fertilizer.
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 Choose appliances that have environment-friendly seal.
 Walking, biking or using mass transport could reduce GHG emissions and help
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minimize traffic problems.
“We can make small but significant contributions towards preventing and reducing the
effects of climate change simply by making a few changes in our daily lives.”
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2.3.11. How do we address the problem of climate change?
2.3.11.1. Mitigation
Mitigation is defined by the IPCC as “an anthropogenic intervention to reduce the

anthropogenic forcing of the climate system; it includes strategies to reduce greenhouse gas
sources and emissions and enhancing greenhouse gas sinks”.
In the context of disasters, the term “mitigation” is defined differently, as “any structural
measures (such as engineering techniques and hazard-resistant construction) or non-
structural measures (such as improved policies, legislation, public awareness, training and
education, public commitment and operating practices) undertaken to limit the adverse
impacts of natural hazards, environmental degradation and technological hazards”.
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2.3.11.2. Adaptation
Adaptation is defined by the IPCC as “the adjustment in natural or human systems in

response to actual or expected climatic stimuli or their effects, which moderates harm or
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exploits beneficial opportunities”.
Examples of adaptation include preparing risk assessments, protecting ecosystems,

C
improving agricultural methods, managing water resources, building settlements in safe
zones, developing early warning systems, instituting better building designs, improving
insurance coverage and developing social safety nets. These measures are intrinsically linked
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to sustainable development, as they reduce the risk to lives and livelihoods and increase the
resilience of communities to all hazards. Ideally, adaptation and mitigation should be
considered jointly, as some adaptation measures can contribute to reducing greenhouse gas
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emissions, while conversely mitigation measures can be planned to help reduce, and not
inadvertently exacerbate, disaster risks.
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Both adaptation and mitigation are needed (now) as effective response measures to climate
change. We need to “avoid the unmanageable and manage the unavoidable”.
Case Study and Lessons Learned

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Extreme event associated with the 2009- 2010 El

Niño
The extreme event associated with El Niño was the
heavy rainfall that brought down Metro Manila in
flood waters, tremendously devastating. This was
associated with the passage of T.S. “Ondoy,”
producing only moderate winds but hours of
extremely heavy rains. Metro manila experienced
the highest rainfall in history that brought
flooding. PAGASA documented a record-high
amount of rainfall in 24 hours at 455 mm (17.9 in)
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recorded during September 26. Likewise, the amount of rainfall recorded for six hours,
which was at 341.3 mm (13.44 in), was comparable to the 24 hour rainfall in 1967.
As the general characteristic of El Niño is drier than normal rainfall condition, this excessive
rain is the manifestation of seasonal reversal of rain during summer (Jul-Sep) before the
onset of anomalous dry conditions in October-December (Lyon et.al, 2006). This is
associated with the changes in the large scale monsoon system during the life cycle of ENSO
events (Lyon, et al, 2006).
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O
C
E D
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Lessons Learned
 With the aftermath of T.S. “Ondoy”, efforts on public awareness campaign by
the government on the natural hazards was intensified through tri-media with
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the cooperation of all government agencies.
 Government support on the rehabilitation of PAGASA’s weather stations and
instruments was given emphasis.
 Community-based disaster risk management efforts were given emphasis.
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 Increased public awareness on the weather/climate information and products
of PAGASA.
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Review Questions and Suggested Activities:

1. Ask older members of your family what the weather was like when they were of your
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age, and compare it today.

2. Explain the difference between weather and climate.
3. Why is the greenhouse effect so important? Differentiate natural and enhanced
greenhouse effect.
4. Explain what global warming is, its cause and impacts.
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5. What factors cause sea level to rise? What problems arise from it?
6. As an ordinary citizen, what can you do to help mitigate the problem on climate change?
7. In your own locality, what event or disaster could you remember that would relate to
changing climate? Make a list of those and if possible identify the cause.
8. In your community, what measures could you suggest to lessen the impact of climate
variability/change depending on the vulnerability of your area? Enumerate if more than
one hazard is identified, cite mitigation and adaptation mechanisms.
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References :
Cinco, T. A., et al., (2006). Updating Tropical Cyclone Climatology in the PAR, Philippine Met-
Hydro Congress 2006.
Jose, A.M. R.V. Francisco and N.A. Cruz. 1993. A Preliminary Study on the Impacts of Climate
Variability/ Change on Water Resources in the Philippines. PAGASA, Quezon City.
Nicholls, N. and K. Wong. 1990. Dependence of rainfall variation on mean rainfall, latitude
and the southern oscillation. Journal of Climate, 3: 163-70.
Lyon, B., Cristi,H.,Verceles,E., Hilario, F., Abastillas, R. (2006) “Seasonal reversal of the ENSO
rainfall signal in the Philippines”
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Tibig, L. V., et.al, 2004., Trends in Extreme Daily Temperatures and 24-hr rainfall in the
Philippines, Climatology and Agrometeorology Branch Technical Report, PAGASA
PAGASA Primers on Coping with Climate Change, Understanding the basics, November 2009
Jose, A.M. R.V. Francisco and N.A. Cruz. 1993. A Preliminary Study on the Impacts of Climate
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Variability/ Change on Water Resources in the Philippines. PAGASA, Quezon City.
Nicholls, N. and K. Wong. 1990. Dependence of rainfall variation on mean rainfall, latitude
and the southern oscillation. Journal of Climate, 3: 163-70.
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PAGASA Primers on Coping with Climate Change, Understanding the basics..., November
2009
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UNFCCC Article 1, Definitions:
http://unfccc.int/essential_background/convention/background/items/1349.php.
E
IPCC Fourth Assessment Report, Working Group I, Glossary of Terms: http://ipcc-

wg1.ucar.edu/wg1/Report/AR4WG1_Print_Annexes.pdf.
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IPCC Fourth Assessment Report, Working Group I, Frequently Asked Questions: http://ipcc-
wg1.ucar.edu/wg1/Report/AR4WG1_Print_FAQs.pdf.
IPCC Fourth Assessment Report, Working Group II, Glossary of Terms:

http://195.70.10.65/pdf/glossary/ar4-wg2.pdf
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Protecting Health from Climate Change; How is Climate Change Affecting Our Health? A
Manual for Teachers, World Health Organization Regional Office for South-east Asia
Tibig,L.V., Cinco T.A, 2004. Trends in Rainfall Intensity and Frequency, CAB Technical Report,
PAGASA
http://encyclopedia.kids.net.au/page/tr/Tropical_cyclone
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Natural Hazards
Source:
Department of Education. (2008). Chapter 2 Natural Hazards. DEPED Disaster Risk Reduction
Resource Manual pp 21-33. Retrieved from
http://www.deped.gov.ph/sites/default/files/Disaster%20Risk%20Reduction%20Resource%20
Manual.pdf
The Philippine Islands are prone to all kinds of natural hazards because of their
geographical location and physical environment. The country is strategically located in the
path of turbulent and destructive cyclones in the Pacific, and the “Ring of Fire”. This
situation has adverse effects, not only on the lives and properties of the Filipino people, but
also on the economy of the nation, as hazard impacts may result in widespread
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environmental and property damages. Natural hazards may cause danger to people,
structures or economic assets, and may lead to a disaster if they are not mitigated against
and prepared for.
Phenomena that are atmospheric, hydrometeorological or oceanographic and
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geographical in nature may cause the loss of life or injury, property damage, social and
economic disruption and/or environmental degradation. Hydrometeorological and
geographical hazards can be single, sequential or a combination in origin and effects. The
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common hazards associated with these are heavy rains, strong winds, storm surge, floods
and landslides/ mud slide /mud flow.
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Geological hazards are normal and their processes occur as irregular events with
direct interaction with the environment. They are capable of causing significant negative
impact on human well-being. Their non-rhythmic occurrence makes their predictability
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difficult. An important characteristic of many geological hazards is their prime land

preference – the characteristic of preferentially occupying areas targeted by man for his use.
Almost all types of geological hazards occur in the Philippines except hazards associated
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with glaciers and seasonal snowfall. Hazards arising from volcanic eruptions, earthquakes
and other related geotectonic phenomena such as landslide, tsunami and faulting are the
most mitigated ones due to the frequency of their occurrence.
Types of Natural Hazards

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Hydro-Meteorological Phenomena and Hazard
Cyclone
A cyclone is an intense low pressure system which is
characterized by strong spiral winds towards the center, called the
“Eye” in a counter-clockwise flow in the northern hemisphere.
Hazards due to tropical cyclones are strong winds with heavy
rainfall that can cause widespread flooding/flash floods, storm
surges, landslides and mudflows.
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Classification
• Tropical Depression – maximum winds from 35 kph to 63 kph
• Tropical Storm – maximum winds from 64 kph to 118 kph
• Typhoons – maximum winds exceeding 118 kph
Typhoon
A typhoon is a large, powerful and violent tropical
cyclone. It is a low pressure area rotating counterclockwise and
containing rising warm air that forms over warm water in the
Western Pacific Ocean. Less powerful tropical cyclones are called
Tropical Depressions and Tropical Storms. A typhoon is called a
hurricane in the Atlantic Ocean, a cyclone in the Indian Ocean and
wily-wily in Australia. Typhoons can inflict terrible damage due to thunderstorms, violent
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winds, torrential rain, floods, landslides, large and very big waves associated with storm
surges.
Hurricane-force winds can reach out

as little as 40 km from the center of a small
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hurricane and as far as 240 km in a large
hurricane. Tropical storm-force winds can
extend as far as 480 km from the center of a
large hurricane. These are very dangerous
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storms.
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Preparedness and Mitigation (What to do The Modified Public Storm Warning Signals
before): (PSWS) in the Philippines
• Establish and maintain PSWS 1 Winds of 30-60 kph may be expected
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coordination with Barangay in at least 36 hours or intermittent rains

Disaster Coordinating Councils may be expected within 36 hours. (When
(BDCC). the tropical cyclone develops very close to
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• Ensure that the school building the locality, a shorter lead of time of the
occurrence of the winds will be specified
can withstand heavy rain and
in the warning bulletin)
strong winds. Single level schools
PSWS 2 Winds of greater than 60 kph and up
built at ground level may be to 100 kph may be expected in at least 24
anchored by guy wires to
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hours.
strengthen the stability of the PSWS 3 Winds greater than 100 kph up to 185
structure. kph may be expected in at least 18 hours.
• Learn about typhoon and other PSWS 4 Very strong winds of more than
weather disturbances, their signs 185kph may be expected in at least 12
and warnings, effects and hours.
dangers and how to protect the
school children, records and school property.
• Educate school children on preparedness for tropical cyclones.
• Participate actively in the school’s disaster response – drill or simulation.
• Observe strictly Department policies on the suspension of classes or invoke
school-based decisions in coordination with Local Government Units.
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Response (What to do during):
• Monitor through radio or other reliable sources the latest official report of
PAGASA on the typhoon.
• Gather the pupils in the most stable, strong and safe school building when it is
no longer safe for them to go home.
• Advise pupils/students to stay indoors and away from windows.
• Coordinate with the proper school officials on possible immediate evacuation
measures especially if the school is located in a low-lying area.
• Ensure that pupils/students will remain calm by keeping them informed of the
latest developments.
Rehabilitation (What to do after):

• Attend to victims immediately. For minor cuts and wounds apply fi rst aid. Seek
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necessary medical assistance at disaster station or hospital.
• Check the classroom for damages and losses. Report these immediately to the
authorized officials.
• Coordinate with the Barangay officials, LGU’s for assistance.
• Prepare the necessary documents to effect replacement of damaged buildings
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and other school properties and/or repair of the same.
Tornado
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A tornado is described as a violently rotating column of
air extending from a thunderstorm to the ground. Tornadoes
come in many sizes but are typically in the form of a visible
condensation funnel whose narrow end touches the earth and is
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often encircled by a cloud of debris. It can have a wide range of
colors depending on the environment. Typically, tornadoes may
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appear nearly transparent and invisible until dust and debris are picked up.
Tornadoes develop from severe thunderstorms in warm, unstable air along and
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ahead of cold fronts. It starts from a change in direction, an increase in wind speed with
increasing height and a rise from within the thunderstorm which triggers the rotation of
wind from horizontal to vertical.
Tornadoes have been observed on every continent of the world but these
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destructive forces are found most frequently in the United States particularly to the east of
the Rocky Mountains during spring and summer months. Occurrence of tornadoes in Asian
countries is seldom. There were reported occurrences of “buhawi”, local term for tornado,
in the Philippines, one occurred in San Miguel, Bulacan and damaged at least 30 houses in
2008.
Preparedness and Mitigation (What to do before):

• Develop a preparedness plan for the whole school community
• Have frequent drills
• Inspect pre-designated areas to ensure the best protection
• Secure megaphone as alternative of school’s alarm system
• Listen to radio and television for information
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• Store flashlights and back-up batteries to receive warnings
Response (What to do during): Shapes and Sizes of Tornadoes

• Move to a pre-designated area or Violent Tornadoes
only 2% of all tornadoes
an interior room on the lowest
70% of all tornado deaths
floor and get under a sturdy piece lifetime can exceed 1 hour
of furniture winds greater than 205 mph
• Stay away from windows Weak Tornadoes
• Lie flat in a depression if caught 69% of all tornadoes
outside less than 5% of tornado deaths
lifetime 1 – 10+ minutes
Rehabilitation (What to do after): winds less than 110 mph
• Attend to survivors immediately Strong Tornadoes
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• Check the school community for 29% of all tornadoes
damages and losses nearly 30% of all tornado deaths
• Coordinate with proper authorities may last 20 minutes
winds 110-205 mph
for assistance
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Thunderstorms
A thunderstorm is a weather condition that produces
lightning and thunder, heavy rainfall from cumulonimbus clouds
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and possibly a tornado. It is a violent local atmospheric
disturbance accompanied by lightning, thunder, and heavy rain,
and often by strong gusts of wind, and sometimes by hail. The
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typical thunderstorm caused by convection occurs when the
sun’s warmth has heated a large body of moist air near the ground. This air rises and is
cooled by expansion. The cooling condenses the water vapor present in the air, forming a
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cumulus cloud. If the process continues, the summit often attains a height of 4 miles (6.5km)
above the base, and the top spreads out in the shape of an anvil becoming cumulu-nimbus
clouds. The turbulent air current within the cloud causes a continual breaking up and
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reuniting of the rain drops, which may form hail, and builds up strong electrical charges that
result in lightning. As the thunderstorm approaches an area, the gentle flow of warm air
feeding the cloud gives way to a strong, chilly gust of wind from the opposite direction,
blowing from the base of the cloud. Intense rain begins, then gradually diminishes as the
thunderstorm passes. Night thunderstorms are caused by the cooling of the upper layers of
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air by radiation; others are caused by approaching cold air masses that advance as a wedge
near the ground, forcing the warmer air in its path to rise. Thunderstorms occur most
frequently in the equatorial zone (some localities have as many as 200 a year) and seldom in
the Polar Regions.

• Develop a School Preparedness plan. Severe thunderstorm-specific planning
should include the following:
o Learn about your area’s severe thunderstorm risk
o Discuss how you would know if a thunderstorm may produce a tornado
o Discuss how to be warned of an approaching thunderstorm
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• Recommend trimming and removal of dead or rotting trees that could fall and may
cause damage or injury.
• Secure outdoor objects that could be blown
away and cause damage
• Secure classroom doors and windows both
from the inside and outside.
• Estimate the distance of the thunderclouds
by computing the difference in time (second)
between seeing the flash of lightning and
hearing the claps of thunder. (1 second =
1000 ft.)
• Advise students to stay indoors for 30
minutes after hearing the last clap of the
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Lightning Safety Position
thunder.
Lightning safety experts have
• Ensure proper drainage for rain water on the invented a “lightning safety position”
whole school site. that is very important to know if you
are caught in a thunderstorm and
Response (What to do during): you can’t find a shelter. This position
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• Instruct pupils to do the lightning safety looks hard but it could save your life.
position and stay away from structures, trees, There are several reasons for doing
towers, fences, telephone lines, or power it. It makes you a smaller target. With
lines if out in the open.
C your heels together, if lightning hits
• Advise pupils / students to stay calm the ground, it goes through the
throughout the occurrence of thunderstorms closest foot, up to your heel and then
• Postpone all outdoor activities. transfers to the other foot and goes
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back to the ground again.
• Advise pupils/students to get inside the
school building, classroom, or hard top automobile.
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• Advise pupils/students to avoid plumbing and bathroom fixtures that are good
conductors of electricity.
• Unplug or turn off all appliances and other electrical items such as computers.
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Electric power surges and storm lightning can cause serious damage to these
appliances.
• Turn off the air conditioner and television and stay off the phone until the storm is
over. Use a battery-operated radio for gaining information.
• Choose and move to a “safe place” in your school where students can gather during
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a thunderstorm preferably on the lowest floor of the building. This should be a place
where there are no windows, skylights, or glass doors, which could be broken by
strong winds or hail, causing damage or injury.

• Send pupils/students home if the weather condition allows.
• Remind pupils/students to continually observe safety measures on their way home.
• Continue listening to local radio or television stations for updated information and
instructions.
• Stay away from storm-damaged areas.
• Watch out for fallen power lines, stay away from them and report them
immediately.
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Flood
Flood is the inundation of land areas which are not normally
covered by water. A flood is usually caused by a temporary rise or the
overflowing of a river, stream, or other water course, inundating
adjacent lands or flood-plains. It could also be due to a temporary rise
of lakes, oceans, or reservoirs and/or other enclosed bodies of water, inundating border
lands due to heavy and prolonged rainfall associated with tropical cyclones, monsoons,
inter-tropical convergence zones, or active low pressure areas. Floods are basically
hydrological phenomena and they are also caused by storm surges, and tsunami along
coastal areas.
Ecologists also attribute flooding in some regions to the results of human activities
like unregulated cutting of trees and urbanization of large areas. These activities have
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changed the hydrological regime of some areas so that water flows into streams more
rapidly. As a result of this, high water levels in water courses occur sooner and more
suddenly.
Flooding occurs in known floodplains when prolonged rainfall over several days,
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intense rainfall over a short period of time, or a debris jam causes a river or stream to
overflow and flood the surrounding area. C
Several factors contributed to flooding. Two key elements are rainfall intensity and
duration. Intensity is the rate of rainfall, and duration is how the rain lasts. Topography, soil
conditions, and ground cover also play important roles. Most flash flooding is caused by
slow-moving thunderstorms repeatedly moving over the same area, or heavy rains from
D
hurricanes and tropical storms. Floods can be slow- or fast-rising, but generally develop over
a period of hours or days.
E

• Find out the frequency of occurrence of floods in the locality, especially those
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that affect the school area.

• Know the flood warning system in the school. If none exists, recommend to the
appropriate authority for the creation of one.
• Research from previous occurrences how fast the water floods occur in the
school and how high it rises.
• Watch out for rapidly rising water and prepare the students/pupils for
D
evacuation.
• Switch off the electricity and lock the rooms after the children have gone out.
• Have a handy survival kit. It should contain battery-operated transistor radio,
flashlight, emergency cooking equipment, candles, matches and first aid kit.
• Offer services and perform the assigned tasks in the event that the school is
designated as an evacuation area for families or livestock.
• If it has been raining hard for several hours, or steadily raining for several days,
be alert to the possibility of a flood. Floods happen as the ground becomes
saturated.
• Use a radio or a portable, battery powered radio (or television) for updated
information. Local stations provide the best advice for your particular situation.
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• Caution everyone to avoid using lanterns or torches in case there are flammable
materials present.
• Protect your school property against flood.

• Keep the pupils/students calm and update them with the status of the situation
and safety reminders on what to do
and where to go in case of
evacuation.
• Listen continuously to a radio, or a
portable, battery-powered radio (or
television) for updated emergency
information.
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• Remind pupils/students not to
attempt to cross flowing streams
unless they are assured that the
water is below knee high level.
How to protect your school property
• Advise pupils/students to avoid areas
O
against flood:
prone to flash flooding and be • Keep insurance policies, documents,
cautious of water-covered roads, and other valuables in a safe-deposit
bridges, creeks and stream banks box in a safe place.
and recently flooded areas.
C • Avoid building in a floodplain unless
• Warn pupils/students not to go you elevate and reinforce your
swimming or boating in swollen school.
rivers. • Store school properties in upper
D
• Watch out for snakes in flooded levels;
areas. • Construct barriers such as levees,
berms, and flood walls to stop flood
E
• Advise pupils/students to eat only

water from entering the school
well-cooked food and drink only premises.
clean or preferably boiled water and • Hold appropriate consultations with
EP
throw away all food that has come local authorities regarding flood risk
into contact with flood water. reduction measures.

• Report broken utility lines (electricity, water, gas, etc.) immediately to
D
appropriate agencies/authorities.
• Ensure that electrical appliances are checked by a competent electrician before
switching them on.
• Avoid affected areas.
• Continue to listen to a radio or local television stations and return home only
when authorities indicate it is safe to do so.
• Stay away from any building that is still flooded.
Storm Surge
Storm surge is a rise of seawater above normal sea
level on the coast, generated by the action of weather
elements such as cyclonic wind and atmospheric pressure. Sea
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level is raised and driven towards the coast. Where the depth is shallow and the slope of the
sea bed is gradual, the natural flow of the water is delayed by the effect of friction on the
sea bed. As more water moves from the sea to the coast, excess water piles up on the shore
line. This piling up of water makes a large volume of water which might eventually flow into
the hinterland some distance from the coast. Depending upon the shape of the coastline
and the slope of the sea bed, storm surge can sweep across large portions of coastal areas.

• Know the storm surge risk zones and recommend for the relocation of the
school children to safer grounds if necessary.
• Recommend the construction of seawalls and storm surge breakers to protect
the buildings from storm surge strikes.
• Warn pupils/students to stay off the beach when weather disturbance exists.
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• Ensure that everyone is familiar with the identified escape routes of the school
to higher grounds.
• Establish evacuation plans and procedures.
• Ensure full participation in the regular conduct of drills and exercises.
O
• Direct pupils/students to move to higher grounds upon detection of signs of a
probable storm surge or upon receiving a warning that a storm surge is
imminent.
C
• Advise pupils/students to be alert of and stay away from steep, high coastal
areas which are prone to landslides.
D
• Switch off power supply.
• Advise pupils/students to stay on the inland side away from the potential flow
of water.
E
• If caught in a storm surge, advise pupils/ students to take hold of large boulders
or tree trunks which can provide protection from the force of water or debris
carried by the flowing water.
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• Advise pupils/students not to eat fresh food that came in contact with flood
waters.
• Drinking water should be submitted to proper authorities for testing.
D
• Check structural damage of the classroom to ensure that there is no danger of

structure collapse.
• Check classrooms for electrical damage and open live wires. Electrical fixtures
should only be switched on after making sure that it is safe to do so.
• Clean all mud and debris immediately.
Landslides
A landslide is a massive outward and downward
movement of slope-forming materials. The term landslide is
restricted to movements of rocks and soil masses. These
masses may range in size up to entire mountainsides. Their
movements may vary in velocity.
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A landslide is initiated when a section of a hill slope or sloping section of a sea bed is
rendered too weak to support its own weight. This is generally triggered by other natural
hazards such as prolonged, heavy rainfall or by other sources of water which increase the
water content of the slope materials. Landslide as a geological hazard is caused by
earthquake or volcanic eruption. Susceptibility of hill slope to landslide is developed as a
result of denudation of mountainsides which removes the trees or ground cover that holds
the soil, or alteration of the surface of the ground like grading for roads or building
constructions.
Preparedness and Mitigation (What to do

before): Mudflow or Mudslide
• Secure clearance from the
Mines and Geosciences Bureau
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(MGB) on status of possible
landslides.
• Prepare the pupils/students for
evacuation upon the direction
of the proper school
O
authorities.
• Maintain a list of contact
numbers during emergencies.
• Plant grasses to cover slopes or
C A mudflow or mudslide is a flow of water
build riprap to prevent soil that contains large amounts of suspended
erosion. particles and silt. It has a higher density
and viscosity than a stream flow and can
D
• Reinforce the foundation and
walls of the school buildings deposit only the coarsest part of its load;
and other structures when this causes heavy sediment deposit. Its high
E
needed. viscosity will not allow it to flow as easily as

• Conduct regular drills on water. These flows generally occur during
evacuation procedures. periods of intense rainfall. The consistency
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• Recommend to proper of debris flow ranges from watery mud to

authorities to enforce land use thick, rocky mud that can carry large
regulations geared at materials such as trees, boulders, and even
mitigating landslide or vehicles and houses.
mudflow hazards.
D
• Promote public awareness and involvement on landslide mitigation.

• Recommend to proper authorities the construction of channels, catchments,
basins, dams, levees, and similar structures to protect the school.
• Develop a school preparedness and evacuation plan.
• Evacuate the school community immediately if warned of an impending
landslide or mudflow.
• Advise pupils/students to stay away from the path of landslide debris, or seek
refuge behind a sturdy tree or boulder.
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• Get out of the school buildings as soon as possible when rumbling sounds are
heard from upstream or the trembling of the ground is felt, indicating a possible
mudflow. Run across a slope, not downwards.

• Recommend to proper authorities to examine thoroughly the damaged
structures and utilities before re-occupying facilities.
• Stay away from the landslide area. There may be danger of additional
landslides.
• Check with caution injured and trapped persons within the landslide area. Direct
rescuers to their locations.
• Listen to local radio or television stations for the latest emergency information.
• Seek the advice of a geotechnical expert for evaluating landslide hazards or
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designing corrective techniques to reduce landslide risk.
Global Warming
Global Warming is the process of warming the earth
caused by the so-called enhanced green-house effect which
O
traps the solar radiation in the atmosphere due to the
presence of greenhouse gases.
C
Ultraviolet radiation passes through the Earth’s
atmosphere and warms the planet’s surface before being reflected back into space as
infrared radiation. Gases such as carbon dioxide and methane are called greenhouse gases,
D
which trap some of the heat from radiation in the atmosphere. The concentration of these
gases has increased dramatically as a result of human activity, therefore trapping more heat
and thus causing global temperatures to increase and climates to change.
E
What are the human activities that increase the concentrations of the greenhouse gases?
• Burning of fossil fuels like oil, coal, gas and others, in transportation, manufacturing
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processes in industry and land-use changes contribute to the increases of carbon

dioxide emissions.
• Livestock production and waste management systems like landfills, cause increases
in the concentration of methane.
• The use of chemical fertilizers and pesticides are examples of activities that cause
D
increases in the concentration of nitrous oxide.

• The use of Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), Hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs) and its
substitutes in refrigeration / air-conditioning units causes the increase of halocarbon
concentration in the atmosphere.
Global warming causes changes in rainfall patterns, a rise in sea level due to melting
of polar icecaps and ice fields, and a wide range of negative impacts on plants, wildlife, and
humans. The good news about global warming is we know exactly what to do. We can slow
it down and mitigate its worst effects by significantly reducing our consumption of fossil
fuels through energy conservation and by switching to clean, renewable energy sources
which are carbon-free— like wind, solar, biomass and geothermal energy.
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Preparedness and Mitigation (what to do before):
• Continue information dissemination on global warming issues. Give warning on
the dangerous effect of global warming.
• Advocate for the recycle/reuse of everyday materials to help conserve
resources, lead to less energy and less elements used in manufacturing them,
while recycling paper will lead to less trees being cut down.
• Save energy by saving electricity through the use of energy efficient lighting and
appliances, biking/walking.
• Advocate the use of renewable energy such as those from hydro-electric dams,
wind power, solar radiation and biofuels.
• Plant trees and encourage others to plant too
• Conserve water and other natural resources.
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• Be environment-friendly.
Extreme Climatic Variabilities

Climate Change is the direct impact of global warming.
Rising temperatures will cause changes to weather patterns.
O
As global warming occurs, most places will be warmer. This
will cause changes in the amount and pattern of rain and
snow, in the length of growing seasons, in the frequency and
C
severity of storms, and in sea level rises. Computer models
predict that global warming will shift rainfall patterns, resulting in extended drought
conditions in some areas, and excessive rainfall and severe storms in others. Climate change
D
will cause more severe extreme weather events and the world would experience more
killing heat waves, long-lasting droughts in some areas and more frequent and intense
downpours and floods in others, an increasing number of super hurricanes or tornadoes and
E
typhoons, massive species extinction, eco-system collapse, agricultural failure and rising sea
levels, which eventually will inundate coastal towns and cities around the world.
EP
Periodical Phenomenon of Climatic Variability

La Nina is characterized by unusually cold ocean temperatures in the equatorial
Pacific, as compared to El Nino, which is characterized by unusually warm ocean
temperatures in the equatorial Pacific. El Nino and La Nina result from interaction between
the surface of the ocean and the atmosphere in the tropical Pacific. Changes in the ocean
D
impact the atmosphere and climate patterns around the globe. In turn, changes in the
atmosphere impact the ocean temperatures and currents. The system oscillates between
warm (El Nino) to neutral, or cold (La Nina) conditions with an average of every 3-4 years.
Heat Waves
Heat can kill by pushing the human body temperature beyond its limits. Elderly
people, young children, and those who are sick or overweight are more likely to become
victims of extreme heat. Men sweat more than women so they are more susceptible to heat
illness and become more quickly dehydrated. Excessive heat that lasts for more than two
225
days significantly increases heat-related illnesses. People living in urban areas may be at
greater risk from the effects of a prolonged heat wave than people living in rural regions.

• Develop a School Preparedness Plan on extreme heat. Know what heat hazard
may occur where you are and learn how to plan for extreme heat.
• Plan changes in your daily activities to avoid strenuous work during the warmest
part of the day.
• Consult a physician when affected by extreme heat.
• Undergo training on first aid.
• Discuss the dangers of extreme heat wave with your students
• Provide a special section in the school newsletter with emergency information on
extreme heat.
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• Interview local physicians and paramedics about the dangers of sunburn, heat
exhaustion, heat stroke, and other possible conditions caused by excessive heat.

• Plan changes in your daily activities to avoid strenuous work during the warmest
O
part of the day. Instead, do it in the morning between 4:00 a.m. and 7:00 a.m.
Many heat emergencies are experienced by people exercising or working during
the hottest part of the day.
• During a drought, conserve water by
C
placing a brick, or another large solid
object, in your toilet tank to reduce the
D
amount of water used in flushing.
• Stay indoors as much as possible.
• Avoid extreme temperature changes like
E
a cool shower immediately after coming El Niño and La Niña

in from hot temperatures which can La Niña is associated with extreme
result to hypothermia. climatic variability such as
EP
• Keep cool. devastating rains, winds, drought,

anomalies in rainfall, temperature
• Vacuum air conditioner filters weekly
and tropical cyclone activities. The
during periods of high use. deeper, warmer water of El Niño
• Wear loose-fitting, lightweight, light- limits the amount of nutrient-rich
colored clothing that will cover as much deep water and since fish can no
D
skin as possible. longer access this rich food source,

• Protect face and head by wearing a many of them die. The different
wide-brimmed hat. water temperatures tend to change
• Drink plenty of water even if you do not the weather or promote climate
feel thirsty, to prevent dehydration. variability in the affected areas.
• Avoid drinks with alcohol or caffeine
which can also cause dehydration.
• Take frequent breaks if you must work outdoors.
• Use a buddy system when working in extreme heat.
• Eat frequent small meals for easy digestion.
• Use salt tablets or table salt because it retains fluids.
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• Never leave children or pets alone in closed vehicles.

• Bring victims to the school clinic.
Geological Phenomena and Hazards
Earthquake
An earthquake is a shaking of the ground caused
by sudden slippage of rock masses below or at the surface
of the earth. It is a wavelike movement of the earth’s
surface. An earthquake may be classified as either tectonic
or volcanic. In certain cases, earthquakes can result from
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man-made activities such as detonation of explosives,
deep mining activities, etc. However, these earthquakes
are mild and may be felt only as tremors. A very severe earthquake is usually associated
with shocks called foreshocks and aftershocks. Foreshocks are a series of tremors that occur
before the main earthquake.
O
Aftershocks are weaker earthquakes that follow the main shocks and can cause
further damage to weakened buildings. Be aware that some earthquakes are actually
C
foreshocks, and a stronger earthquake might occur.

D
• Recommend to appropriate authorities the evaluation of structural soundness
of school buildings and important infrastructures.
• Request appropriate authorities to determine whether the school site is along
E
an active fault and/or in liquefaction or landslide prone areas which may cause
school buildings to fall.
• Make sure that school building design complies with the National Building Code
EP
Standard.
• On existing school buildings with one door, request proper authorities to
provide two exit doors for every classroom, both with swing-out direction.
• Check for the presence of other potential sources of hazard due to secondary
effect of earthquakes like steep hill slopes, hanging heavy objects, dams,
D
storage tanks, falling debris, and fire.

• Strap heavy furniture/cabinets inside the classrooms to the wall to prevent
sliding or toppling;
• Store breakable items, harmful chemicals and flammable materials inside the
classrooms in the lowermost shelves and secure firmly.
• Install latches on drawers and cabinets.
• Check classrooms for hanging or unstable objects that may fall on the
pupils/students during the earthquake.
• Familiarize pupils/students as well as school personnel with the easiest exit or
evacuation route to take. Develop a School Earthquake Evacuation Plan and
hang/post this in the corridor of each building.
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• Teach the school children how to use fire extinguishers, first aid kits, alarms and
emergency exits. These should also be accessible, conveniently located, and
prominently marked in familiar places to the pupils/students for assembly and
possible evacuation.
• Advise pupils/students not to use the Drop, Cover, and Hold
elevator during and after an earthquake.
Structure or power failure may lead you
to get stranded in the elevator.
• Identify strong parts of the building like
door jambs, near elevator shafts, sturdy
tables where the pupils/students can take
refuge during an earthquake.
• Prepare and maintain an earthquake
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survival kit consisting of a battery-
powered radio, flashlight, first aid kit, The “Drop, Cover and Hold” protocol
potable water, candies, ready to eat food, (drop to the floor, cover your head,
whistle, and dust mask. and hold on to a solid object), when
• Conduct a contingency planning on performed correctly with an
O
earthquake. awareness of your surroundings,
• Conduct an orientation and earthquake remains the most effective way to
drill. protect yourself when an
• Evaluate the school. Have the following
C earthquake occurs.
data available yearly:
o Total number of students occupying each floor;
o Total number of students occupying each building; and
D
• Identify students or teachers with special needs (sick, old, disabled) and their
location.
E
• Study the most recent school grounds layout or planning to identify open spaces
and determine the total area of available space that can be utilized as “areas of
temporary refuge” that will be designated for the occupants of each school
EP
building. Determine how many persons can occupy this open space.
• Obtain a building layout/floor plan for each building that shows the rooms,
corridors, staircases and exit points.

D
• Direct pupils/students to stay inside a structurally sound building.

• Advise pupils/students to protect their body from falling debris by bracing
themselves in a doorway or by getting under a sturdy desk or table.
• When inside a vehicle, pull to the side of the road and stop. Do not attempt to
cross bridges or overpasses which may have been damaged.
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• Direct pupils/students to move to an open Suggested Contents of an
area when they are outside a building or any Earthquake Survival Kit
structure.  Water at least 1 liter per
• Stay away from power lines, posts, walls, and person (up to 1 gallon per
other structures that may fall or collapse. Stay person)
away from buildings with large glass panes.  First Aid Kit with critical basic
• Move away from steep escarpments which medication
may be affected by landslides particularly if  First Aid Manual / Survival
they are on a mountain or near steep hill Manual
slopes.  Canned food and can opener
 Nutritional foodbars
 Blankets
 AM/FM Radio and two-way
• Advise pupils/students to take the fastest and
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radios, battery operated
safest way out if caught in an old or weak  Spare batteries, rechargeable
classroom building. They should be advised batteries
to:  Flashlight with batteries /
o Get out calmly and in an orderly emergency shake flashlights
manner. Not to rush or push one  Emergency Lightsticks
O
another.  Watch or clock
o Not to use elevators, but instead use  Toilet paper and other
the stairs; hygiene items (soap,
C
o Check themselves for cuts and for shampoo)
injuries and approach the nearest  Newspapers
teacher for assistance.  Candles and matches
 Whistles or small bells,
D
• Check the surroundings of the schools
emergency alarm
• Call the authority to clean up chemical spills,
 Sharp utility knives
toxic and flammable materials since this is
 Rope or nylon cords
E
hazardous to untrained people.

 Plastic tape , duct tape
• Check for fire and if any, have it controlled.  Pen and paper
• Check the water and electrical lines for 
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Work gloves
defects. If any damage is suspected, turn the  Tools (pry bar, Swiss army
system off in the main valve or switch. knife, wrench, pliers, bolt
• Help reduce the number of casualties from cutters, hack saw, etc)
the earthquake:  Dust masks
• Do not enter partially damaged school  Cellphone and solar cellphone
D
buildings, as strong aftershocks may cause and battery charger

these to collapse.  Emergency contact numbers
• Gather information and disaster prevention
instructions from battery-operated radios.
• The School Head/Principal shall provide safety
precautions. He/She shall not allow any student
to go out of the school unless they are with their
parents/relatives. Identify/List pupils/students
fetched by parents/relatives and those left
behind.
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• Do not use the telephone to call relatives and friends. Disaster prevention
authorities may need the lines for emergency calls and communications.
• Do not drive into damaged areas. Rescue and relief operations need the roads
for mobility.
• If there is a need to evacuate, apply the buddy-buddy system and follow orders
from the Principal/School Head. Wait for your parents to fetch you from the
evacuation area and inform the Principal/School Head if you will leave the area.
• Take with you your Earthquake Survival Kit, which contains all the necessary
items for your protection and comfort.
Tsunami
Tsunamis are giant sea waves generated by earthquakes
and volcanic eruptions under the seabed. Not all submarine
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earthquakes, however, cause tsunamis. Tsunamis can only occur
when the earthquake is strong enough (M7.0+) to displace the
seabed, creating pressures in the water above it. Other sources
of tsunamis include submarine or coastal landslides, pyroclastic
flow and large volume debris avalanches from oceanic and partly submerged volcanoes, and
O
caldera collapse. Although tsunamis may be triggered in various ways, their effects on the
coastal areas are similar. The large waves of a tsunami are preceded by initial lowering of
the water level even beyond the lowest tidal levels. This phenomenon resembles the low
C
tides which may have led to tsunamis being falsely called “tidal waves”. Tsunamis generated
in distant locations will generally give people enough time to move to higher ground. For
locally-generated tsunamis, where you might feel the ground shake, you may only have a
D
few minutes to move to higher ground.

E
• Conduct school advocacy on tsunami awareness,

preparedness and mitigation. Regular tsunami drills
should be conducted.
EP
• Turn on your radio and other communication

devices to know if there is a tsunami warning if an
earthquake occurs and if you are in a coastal area.
• Assign a focal person to monitor and observe the
water recession after an earthquake.
D
• Be aware of the tsunami facts. This knowledge could

save your life! Share this knowledge with your friends. It could save their lives!
• If you are in school and you hear there is a tsunami warning, you should follow the
advice of teachers and other school personnel.

• CAUTION: Move away from the beach immediately if there is noticeable recession in
water away from the shoreline.
• Move inland to predetermined higher ground immediately and stay there.
• Stay away from the beach. Never go down to the beach to watch a tsunami coming.
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• High, multi-story, reinforced concrete school buildings are located in some low-lying
coastal areas. The upper floors of these school buildings can provide a safe place to
find refuge should there be a tsunami warning and you cannot move quickly inland
to higher ground. Local Civil Defense procedures may, however, not allow this type
of evacuation in your area.
• Small school buildings located in low-lying coastal areas are not designed to
withstand tsunami impacts. Do not stay in these structures should there be a
tsunami warning
• Offshore reefs and shallow areas may help break the force of tsunami waves, but
large and dangerous waves can still be a threat to coastal residents in these areas.
Staying away from all low-lying areas is the safest advice when there is a tsunami
warning.
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• Stay away from flooded and damaged areas until officials say it is safe to return.
• Stay away from debris in the water; it may pose a safety hazard to boats and people.
• Save yourself – not your possessions.
O
Volcanic Eruption
A Volcanic Eruption is a process wherein volcanic
materials such as molten or hot fragmented rocks or gaseous
C
materials are ejected from a volcano. Hazards from volcanoes
may be of different nature. These hazards include flowing of
fast-moving molten rocks and other ejecta. The ejected
D
fragments range in size from fine dust (volcanic ash) to large
boulders (volcanic bombs or blocks). Besides liquid and solid materials, volcanoes give off
poisonous gases, sometimes in superheated gas jets.
E
Other hazards associated with volcanic eruption are earthquakes, fissuring caused
by the force of upward-moving magma, tsunami and water displacement, subsidence due to
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retreat or withdrawal of magma, landslides due to too much bulging on one side of the
volcano or those triggered by earthquakes or rainfall.

• Close windows and doors to reduce entry of ash if heavy ashfall is expected to hit
D
the community.
• Bring animals and livestock into closed shelters.
• Develop evacuation plans and conduct evacuation drills.
• Avoid low places or areas vulnerable to avalanches, rock falls, lava flows and
mudflows.
• Prepare for evacuation if warning for imminent volcanic eruptions or mudflows is
raised.
• Know the ways of protecting the school from ash fall, landslides and debris flows by
consulting your local disaster coordinating council.
• Consult respective disaster coordinating council officials on the establishment of
their community counter-disaster response plans.
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• Know the delineated areas vulnerable to volcanic hazards and assess your risk for
dangers.
• Appreciate and take advantage of the importance of management of human
settlements based on land use planning which considers volcanic hazards.
• Learn about your community warning systems and emergency plans.
• Develop an evacuation plan. Everyone in the school should know where to go in
response to warnings.
• Schools in places prone to volcanic eruptions should have pairs of goggles, basic kits
and evacuation supply kits.
• If you live in a volcano risk area, publish a special section in your local newspaper
with emergency information on volcanoes. Localize the information by including the
phone numbers of local emergency services offices, the Philippine National Red
Cross chapter, and local hospitals.
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• Feature an interview with competent authorities on the likelihood of a volcanic
eruption as well as on how to recognize warning signals.
• Work with the office of Civil Defense and Philippine National Red Cross officials to
prepare special procedures for children and the elderly or disabled, on what to do if
an evacuation is ordered.
O
• Stay alert and awake.
C
• Follow the instructions that go with the warning. If there is a directive to evacuate,
do so immediately.
• Advise the pupil/students to protect their heads and get away from the area right
D
away if caught in a small rock fall.
• Give priority for evacuation outside the area of ash shower to pupils/students with
breathing problems. They should be advised to cover their nose, preferably with a
E
wet piece of cloth.

• Scrape off ashes to prevent heavy loading of the school building roofs. When doing
so, the following precautionary measures should be observed:
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• Wear long-sleeved shirts and long pants;

• Wear goggles and eyeglasses instead of contact lenses;
• Avoid running car or truck engines. Driving a vehicle can stir-up volcanic ash that can
clog engines, damage moving parts, and stall vehicles; and
• Avoid driving in heavy ash falls unless absolutely required. If unavoidable, the
D
vehicle should be driven at a speed of 60 kph or slower.

• Clear the canals and pathways of ash and other debris.
• Hose down the accumulated ash and plant leaves on roofs.
• Stay away from the slide area. There may be danger of additional slides.
• Check for injured and trapped persons near the slide, without entering the direct
slide area. Direct rescuers to their locations.
• Listen to local radio or television stations for the latest emergency information.
• Watch for flooding, which may occur after a landslide or debris flow.
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• Report broken utility lines and suspected damaged buildings to appropriate
authorities.
• If you have a respiratory ailment, avoid contact with ash. Stay indoors until local
health officials advise it is safe to go outside. Volcanic ash can cause great damage
to breathing passages and the respiratory system.
Provinces At-Risk to Volcanic Eruptions

The top ten provinces at risk to Volcanic Eruptions are:
1. Camiguin 6. Sorsogon
2. Sulu 7. South Cotabato
3. Biliran 8. Laguna
4. Albay 9. Camarines Sur
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5. Bataan 10. Batanes
Camiguin has the highest risk because the land area is so
small such that a volcanic eruption can affect the whole
province. Sulu ranked second because it has the most
number of active and potentially active volcanoes.
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Astronomical Hazards
The Philippine Atmospheric, Geophysical and Astronomical
C
Services Administration (PAGASA) is now starting to consider some
specific astronomical phenomena as one of the natural hazards that
could occur on earth and affect particularly the Philippine
archipelago and surrounding areas.
D
Causes and circumstances of deaths from astronomical phenomena are not well
studied, providing an interesting area for researching into deaths and potential deaths from
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Near-Earth Objects (NEOs) such as comets and asteroid impacts along with geomagnetic
storms and other forms of space weather. Numerous websites cite cases of meteorite
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impact casualties, but none could be verified.
At this point in time, PAGASA is in contact with the numerous government and
private astronomical institutions, nationally and internationally to be updated of the current
astronomical monitoring and observations. The agency is normally furnished with a copy of
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current astronomical and space science bulletins and other relevant newsletters regarding
events which might lead to accidents and untoward incidents at the earth surface,
specifically from National Oceanographic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) and
National Aeronautics and Space Administration of the United States (NASA) and other
institutions of developed nations and countries.
Mountain-sized space rocks could potentially impact the Earth causing global
effects, and perhaps even be mistaken for a nuclear blast of terrestrial origin. Such large
impacts are rare but have happened before. Modern telescopes have therefore begun to
scan the skies for signs of approaching celestial hazards.
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Natural disasters are natural phenomena. The best way to manage hazard impacts is
to be aware of how it occurs and its accompanying consequences, mitigate against, and plan
for actions to be taken before, during and after a phenomenon.
VII. FIRE HAZARD

Prevent Fire through Good Housekeeping
2013 edition, Bureau of Fire Protection. (2013), retrieved form
http://www.preventionweb.net/educational/view/43269
Fire Safety is Everyone’s Concern
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Did you know?
Majority of fire incidents LPG explosions due

occur in family dwellings to poorly maintained
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and mostly caused by tanks and hoses also
electrical short circuits caused 98 fire
and connections. In the accidents in the
first quarter of 2013,
C homes in 2012.
23% of fire incidents are
of this nature.
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Unattended cooking is Lighted cigarette
among the most butts caused 271 fire
E
frequent caused of fire. It incidents in the first

climbed up to 533 fires in quarter of 2013.
2012 destroying hard
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earned investments.
Lighted matches and
In 2012, open flames due lighters consumed
to unattended torch several homes
(gasera) and lighted resulting to 124 fire
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candles caused 455 fire incidents in the first

accidents destroying quarter of 2013
several homes all over
the country.
Understanding Fire!
Fire is a chemical reaction. It is the rapid oxidation of fuel producing heat and light. For fire
to occur, all other must be present: Heat, Fuel, Oxygen.
234
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Safety Measures: What you should have in your home
1. Smoke Alarm
Install smoke alarms in rooms, kitchens and other
living areas. It ALERTS you when the fire is still in a
controllable state.
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2. Fire Extinguisher
Have an ABC or ABCD type of fire extinguisher in the
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kitchen and workshop areas. Know how to use a fire
extinguisher.
3. Emergency Exit Plan

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An emergency exit plan is highly recommended for a family dwelling. Be sure
that your kids know and understand the exit route and the meeting place
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outside your house. An exit drill is also a fun way of getting your children
involved.
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INFO: Know the types of fire!

Not all kinds of fire can be extinguished with water, so things are classified into types.
A B C D K
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Light Flammable Energized Combustible Cooking

materials liquids Electrical Metals Fuels & Oils
Equipment
Paper, Plastic, Kerosene, Plugged Sodium, zinc, Frying oil,
Wood, Leaves paint, solvents, appliances and potassium LPG
adhesives tools
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INFO: How to use a Fire extinguisher
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Fire Hazards: What you should watch out for
A. Kitchen Area
 NEVER leave your kitchen while cooking!
 Matches and lighters should be in proper
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storage and away from children’s reach.
 Keep your stove clean and grease-free, and
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check your LPG for leaks with soapy water.
 When frying and your pan bursts into flame,
DO NOT douse it with WATER. Put the lid on or
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get a wet damp cloth to cover the pan.
 Idle electrical appliances must be unplugged.
 Avoid overloading of outlets and use of worn
E
cords.
 Do not store items above the stove top.
 Keep flammable liquids and other combustible
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items away from the stove when cooking.

 Ensure that your smoke alarms are working
well and replace batteries at least every six Courtesy: www.k12.hi.us
months.
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B. Living Rooms and Bathrooms

 Do not use extension cords as permanent
outlets. Make sure that extension cords are
not looped on sharp objects that could cause
it to fray.
 Make sure that curtains are away from electric
fan blades
 DO NOT leave an electric fan switched on when it is not rotating!
Clean and oil them regularly.
 Defective appliances must be fixed immediately.
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 Take extra care when using a clothes iron or rice cooker.
Unplug them promptly after use.
 NEVER SMOKE IN BED!
 Put out candle lights before going to bed.
 Place a lit candle in a holder. If you have none, place it in the
middle of a basin partly filled with water.
 Keep your place clean at all times. Remove dried leaves,
cobwebs, loose paper, and other easy-burning debris.
C. Storage and Garage Areas

 Keep areas clean and tidy with items properly placed for
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storage.
 Do not store large quantities of flammable liquids in
the house and basement areas.
 Gas/kerosene
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 Paints and solvents
 Motor lubricants
 Floor wax/ liquid polishes
 Adhesives (Rugby)
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 Alcohol products
 Oily rags, newspaper and other trash must be disposed
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in a sage waste bag or container.
 Clean up spilled oil and grease from vehicles promptly.
 Plug your power tools straight to the wall socket. Use only
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heavy-duty extensions when needed.

 Keep your garage well-ventilated to avoid build-up of fumes
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and heat from tools.
INFO: Why should you unplug idle appliances?

Can you guess how many appliances are plugged in your house at the
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moment?
Many of the electronic devices in your home are quietly drawing
electricity all the time, whether you are using them or not. As much as ten
(10%) more energy is drawn by an appliance on standby mode. Imagine how
much you can save when you unplug them after use.
Despite all the safety features of modern appliances, a risk of overheat is always
present, which could also lead to household fires.
There are new smart power strips/extension cords that you could purchase at
specialty hardware stores. They automatically monitor your power usage and shuts off
power supply so you could avoid the inconvenience of removing your plugs every time.
237
The House is Burning!
What to do when a fire breaks out
 It takes just two (2) minutes for your house to be filled with toxic fumes from a
fire. These fumes are deadly when inhaled, and may have long-term effects in
your body. Majority of deaths from fire are caused by suffocation rather than
the fire itself.
 A well-rehearsed emergency exit plan will greatly alleviate the panic you may
feel during the fire.
 Try to close the door of the burning room and close all doors behind you as you
leave. This will help delay the fire and smoke.
 Before you open a door, feel it with the back of your hand to determine if the
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room behind it is burning.
 Fumes and hot air usually settle at the ceiling. When the smoke is dense, the
best air that you can breathe is usually one to two feet from the floor. Crawl to
the exit with a wet piece of cloth to cover your mouth.
 Fire spreads at a very fast rate, doubling its volume every thirty seconds. Get
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everyone out first. Have a bug-out pack with all your essentials. Saving your
possessions may weigh you down and get you trapped.
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 Never go back to your house unless a fire fighter declares it is safe to do so. You
could run into a potential roof collapse, stumble on live wires, or could trigger a
dreaded backdraft*
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*backdraft is an explosion occurring when oxygen suddenly meets very hot temperatures
and fuel. It is deadly on close proximity.
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Worst-Case Scenario
What to do if you are trapped in the fire
 Try to position yourself in a room with windows leading outside. That way, your
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rescue becomes easier.

 Alert the people outside that you are still in the burning building. Shout for help
or get a light-colored cloth and wave it outside the window. It is more visible
through thick smoke.
 Seal your room. Close the door/s and patch any gaps with towels or sheets to
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prevent smoke from coming in.

 When you are trapped in the upper floors of your house, try to collect bed
sheets and foam. These could help you when escaping through the window.
 Do not run
when your
clothes catch
fire. Instead,
stop moving
drop to the
ground and
roll.
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 Clear flammable debris from the window. Rip off the curtains and anything else
that could burn. Don’t break the glass. You may need to close it against smoke
entering from outside. But, as long as the air outside is fresh, open the window
a bit and breathe it in.
Trivia time!!!
The average 1000-gallon fire truck can empty its
contents in less than 5 minutes
Fire fighters us a special kind of foam, called

AFFF (A-triple F) to combat oil fires.
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Rescue ropes are made of nylon filaments
braided into a super strong kern mantle, which
can handle about 800 kilos in weight.
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The fire fighter’s bunker coat can withstand temperatures
of 260 degrees Celsius (as hot as glowing charcoal) for five
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minutes.
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Arson investigations use a
special machine called a Gas
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Chromatograph to determine
what kind of chemical sparked
the fire.
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D
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O
C
E D
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D
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Preparing for disasters: Fire
A road to resilience in Southeast Asia
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O
C
E D
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www.redcross.org/prepare/disaster/home-fire
International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies

Southeast Asia Regional Delegation
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O
C
E D
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D
242
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O
C
E D
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D
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Below is a list of things to remember if there is a fire. Study it well. These tips could
make all the difference for you and your family!
• Make sure everyone in your household knows where and how to evacuate to
• Always take part in fire drills
• Plan more than one way to exit your location
• Never leave fire unattended
• Make sure all fire tools are easy to access
• If you are advised to evacuate, leave immediately
• If you are not trained and equipped to fight a fire, don’t risk your life
• When there is a fire, before opening a door
 Check to see if there is heat or smoke coming through cracks around the
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door. If yes, do not open!
 Touch the door and doorknob. If it is hot, do not open!
 If the door is cool, open carefully and follow your escape route
• Keep close to the ground – there is less smoke there
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• Even if you’re scared, never hide from fire fighters – they will not find you!
• Regularly check that your fire alarm is working
• If your clothes catch fire, stop, drop to the ground, cover your face with your
hands, and roll.
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To learn more about disasters, please visit:
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www.redcross.org/prepare/disaster/home-fire
International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies

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Southeast Asia Regional Delegation

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Community, Safety and Resilience Unit

Ocean Tower I, 170/11-12 Sukhumwit soi 16, Klong-toey
101 10 Bangkok, Thailand
T: +662 662 8201 F: +662 661 9322
E: [email protected]
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www.ifrc.org
Saving lives, changing minds
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VIII. EXPOSURE AND VULNERABILITY
Source
Asian Disaster Preparedness Center. (2003). Capacity Building in Asia using Information Technology
Applications: Modules 3 and 5. Retrieved from:
http://www.adpc.net/casita/introduction.html
General
1. van Westen, C., Kingma, N. & Montoya, L. (2004). Guide Book Session 4: Elements at Risk.
From the Geoportal of Natural Hazards and Risks in Georgia [Online]. Accessible at:
http://drm.cenn.org/index.php/en/background-information/training-materials
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2. National Fire Protection Association. (2016). Emergency Preparedness. Available at NFPA:
http://www.nfpa.org/safety-information/for-consumers/emergency-preparedness
3. Geotechnical Engineering Office Civil Engineering and Development Department. (2008,

December). Geological Map Reading, Geological Maps 2.
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4. Social Action Center Of Pampanga. (2004, January). Socio-Economic Profiles Pampanga:
Bacolor, Lubao and Mabalacat, Volume 1, Final Report.
C
Audio-Visual resource
1. Federal Alliance for Safe Homes Inc. (2016). Federal Alliance for Safe Homes, Inc. Available at
http://www.flash.org/video.php
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On specific vulnerable groups

E
1. CBM International. (2013). Disability Inclusive Disaster Risk Management. Available at

www.cbm.org
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2. CBDRM Training and Learning Circle-Philippines. (2010). Integrating Gender into Community
Based Disaster Risk Management Training Manual. Available at:
http://www.preventionweb.net/files/14452_genderincbdrm1.pdf
3. Office of Public Health Preparedness and Response. (2014). Emergency Preparedness and
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Response - People with Special Needs. Available at Centers for Disease Control and
Prevention: http://emergency.cdc.gov/disasters/earthquakes/disabilities.asp
4. Reach Out Refugee Protection Training Project. (2005). Module 8 Vulnerable Groups.
5. United Nations Office for Disaster Risk Reduction. (2014). Living with Disability and Disasters.
Available at:
http://www.unisdr.org/2014/iddr/documents/2013DisabilitySurveryReport_030714.pdf
245
Social Vulnerability
1. Waugh & Tierney. (2007). Identifying and Addressing Social Vulnerabilities, Elaine Enarson.
Emergency Management Principles and Practice for Local Government.
2. Phillipes, Thomas, Fothegrill and Blinn-Pike. (2009, August 10). Social Vulnerability to
Disaster. CRC Press.
Related to earthquakes
1. Acaciao, A. A. (1992). Retrofitting Lifeline Facilities on Liquefied Deposits.
2. Arnold, C. (n.d.). Seismic Issues In Architectural Design, Chapter 5. Federal Emergency

Management Agency, USA. Accessible at: http://www.fema.gov/media-library-
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data/20130726-1556-20490-6619/fema454_chapter5.pdf
3. EQE Engineering. (1990). The July 16, 1990 Philippines Earthquake.
4. Incorporated Research Institutions for Seismology. (2013). THE JULY 16, 1990 LUZON
EARTHQUAKE. Available at IRIS: https://ds.iris.edu/data/reports/1990/90-
O
014/LuzorPHI.July90.eq.pdf
5. Federal Emergency Management Agency. (2005, September). Earthquake Hazard Mitigation

C
for Nonstructural Elements Field Manual. Available at
http://mitigation.eeri.org/files/FEMA74_FieldManual.pdf
6. Federal Emergency Management Agency. (2006, December). Risk Management Series

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Designing for Earthquakes - A Manual for Architects. Available at
http://www.fema.gov/media-library-data/20130726-1556-20490-
5679/fema454_complete.pdf
E
7. Southern California Earthquake Center. (n.d.). Putting down roots in earthquake country.
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Available at Earthquake Country: http://www.earthquakecountry.org/roots/step1.html
8. Office of Public Health Preparedness and Response. (n.d.). Be Ready! Earthquakes. Available
at Centers for Disease Control and Prevention:
http://www.cdc.gov/phpr/documents/BeReady_Earthquakes.pdf
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Response - Inspecting for Home Hazards. Available at Centers for Disease Control and
Prevention: http://emergency.cdc.gov/disasters/earthquakes/inspecting.asp
10. Philippine Institute of Volcanology and Seismology. (2001). The July 16 Luzon Earthquake - A
Technical Monograph. Available at PHIVOLCS:
http://www.phivolcs.dost.gov.ph/html/update_SOEPD/1990LuzonEQ_Monograph/foreword
.html
11. Philippine Institute of Volcanology and Seismology. (2014, February). Self-check for
Earthquake Safety of Concrete Hollow Block (CHB) Houses in the Philippines.
246
Related to fire hazards
1. The American National Red Cross. (2016). Home Fire. Available at American Red Cross:
http://www.redcross.org/get-help/prepare-for-emergencies/types-of-
emergencies/fire#/Recover
2. National Fire Protection Association. (2011). Fire Power - Revisited! Available at YouTube:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9JU59Nsv2vg&feature=youtu.be
3. National Fire Protection Association. (2012). Fire Power (Original). Available at YouTube:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_OEdL6mDluo&feature=youtu.be
4. National Fire Protection Association. (2015). Christmas tree fires can turn devastating and
deadly within seconds. Available at YouTube:
PY
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xr6b9b8FYKk&feature=youtu.be
5. Red Deer Advocate. (2011). Demonstration underscores the danger of kitchen fires.
Retrieved from YouTube:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=AkbcPhtl9TE&feature=youtu.be
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Related to hydrometeorological hazards
1. Agarwal, A. (2007, March). Cyclone Resistant Building Architecture. Available at United
Nations Development Program:
C
http://www.unisdr.org/files/11711_CycloneArchitecture1.pdf
2. Hawkesbury-Nepean Floodplain Management Steering Committee, Parramatta. (2006,

D
June). Reducing Vulnerability Of Buildings To Flood Damage - Guidance On Building In Flood
Prone Areas. Available at:
E
http://www.ses.nsw.gov.au/content/documents/pdf/resources/Building_Guidelines.pdf
3. National Disaster Risk Reduction and Management Council. (2009). Final Report on Tropical
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Storm "ONDOY" and Typhoon "PEPENG". Available at NDRRMC:

http://www.ndrrmc.gov.ph/index.php/19-ndrrmc-disaster-archive/92-final-report-on-
tropical-storm-ondoy-and-typhoon-pepeng
4. National Disaster Risk Reduction and Management Council. (2014). Situational Report re
D
Effects of Typhoon YOLANDA (HAIYAN). Available at NDRRMC:

http://www.ndrrmc.gov.ph/index.php/21-disaster-events/1329-situational-report-re-
effects-of-typhoon-yolanda-haiyan
5. National Disaster Risk Reduction and Management Council. (2014). Final Report re Effects of
Typhoon YOLANDA (HAIYAN). Available at NDRRMC:
http://www.ndrrmc.gov.ph/attachments/article/1329/FINAL_REPORT_re_Effects_of_Typho
on_YOLANDA_(HAIYAN)_06-09NOV2013.pdf
Response - After a Flood. Available at Centers for Disease Control and Prevention:
http://emergency.cdc.gov/disasters/floods/after.asp
247
Response - Floods. Available at Centers for Disease Control and Prevention:
http://emergency.cdc.gov/disasters/floods/index.asp
Response - Hurricanes and Tropical Storms. Available at Centers for Disease Control and
Prevention: http://emergency.cdc.gov/disasters/hurricanes/index.asp
Response - Key Facts About Flood Readiness. Available at Centers for Disease Control and
Prevention: http://emergency.cdc.gov/disasters/floods/readiness.asp
10. Paciente, R. B. (2014). Response and Lessons Learned from. Available at Severe Weather
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Infromation Centre: http://severe.worldweather.wmo.int/TCFW/JMAworkshop/6-
3.THaiyan_RPaciente.pdf
11. Paciente, R.B. (2014, March 14). Response and Lessons Learned from Typhoon “HAIYAN”
(YOLANDA)
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12. U.S. Food and Drug Administration. (2016). Food and Water Safety During Power Outages
and Floods. Available at FDA:
http://www.fda.gov/Food/ResourcesForYou/Consumers/ucm076881.htm
C
Related to volcanic hazards
1. Diggles, M. (2005). The Cataclysmic 1991 Eruption of Mount Pinatubo, Philippines. Available
D
at U.S. Geological Survey: http://pubs.usgs.gov/fs/1997/fs113-97/
E
Response - Key Facts About Preparing for a Volcanic Eruption. Available at Centers for
Disease Control and Prevention: http://emergency.cdc.gov/disasters/volcanoes/before.asp
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3. Rodolfo, K. (2002, January). Bacolor Town and Pinatubo Volcano, Philippines: Coping with
Recurrent Lahar Disaster. Available at http://www.researchgate.net/publication/229085823
4. Volcano Discovery. (n.d.). Chronology of the 1991 eruption of Pinatubo volcano, Philippines.
D
Available at Volcano Discovery: http://www.volcanodiscovery.com/pinatubo/chronology-

1991-eruption.html
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Vulnerability and Risk
Goals
To instill an understanding of the concepts of vulnerability and risk
To develop the capability for risk assessment
Learning outcomes
After completing this session, you will be able to perform a risk assessment for a selected
community.
Learning objectives
• As you work through this session you will learn to distinguish between the concepts
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of vulnerability
• List and describe criteria that add to the vulnerability of a community
• List and describe criteria that reduce the vulnerability
• Name and explain the components in quantification
• Give a breakdown of elements at risk
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• Construct a risk matrix
• Explain risk as a function of hazard, loss and preparedness
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1. Vulnerability
1.1. Vulnerability definition
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The predisposition to suffer damage due to external events
A set of prevailing and consequential conditions – physical, social, and

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attitudinal – which adversely affect the community’s ability to prevent, mitigate,

prepare and respond to the impact of a hazard event. The predisposition to suffer
damage due to external events.
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-ADPC
This definition is more focused on communities.

Vulnerability is a condition or a predisposition. It applies to individuals, groups of
individuals or communities, but it can be also used when referring to physical
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structures or the environment in general.
Vulnerability is about Susceptibility and Resilience under threat of a hazard event.

• Susceptibility: Proximity and exposure to an event. It is the potential to incur
harm or avoid loss.
• Resilience: Access to resources and capacities which determine the ability
to recover from the impacts of to a hazard event.
∗ This course material is being made available by Asian Disaster Preparedness Center (ADPC), Bangkok
under Capacity Building in Asia using Information Technology Applications (CASITA) project, to the
participating universities and institutions for educational purpose only. Reproduction of materials for
educational purpose is encouraged as long as ADPC is acknowledged.
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1.1.1. Susceptibility
It is the fact of being exposed.
You can be susceptible but not vulnerable. E.g. a landslide is threatening a house but
the owners have built a wall to protect it and to divert the landslide. Susceptibility is
easy to assess. Can you think of other suitable examples?
Exposure
It is the state of being physically affected from a hazard.
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Researchers differentiate between voluntary and involuntary exposure to hazards.
Examples of involuntary exposure include air pollution (as we must breathe ambient
air), toxic contamination of food (as we must eat), and water pollution (as we have
to drink). We do, on the other hand, have a greater choice over where we live and
what activities we engage in (living in coastal or seismically active zones is to some
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extent voluntary; smoking and exposing yourself to the threat of cancer is definitely
voluntary).
1.1.2. Resilience
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It is the ability to adjust and recover.
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E.g. the owners of the house threatened by a landslide have a second house in
town. They reside there during the rainy season. One can be susceptible, but if
he/she is resilient, one is not vulnerable. Resilience has many components: It implies
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access to resources, individual skills, beliefs, etc. Compared to susceptibility, it is

more difficult to assess.
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Most Middle Eastern countries are in deserts. But their water supply system helps
them not to be exposed to drought conditions in normal life.
Capacity
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Those positive conditions or recourses which increase the ability of a community to

deal with hazards.
-ADPC
Capacity may have
Physical
Social/Organizational
Attitudinal/Motivational components.
If susceptibility is very low and resilience very high, one has minimum vulnerability.
E.g. take a displaced population in an emergency settlement. Susceptibility to
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measles is very high. If all children are immunized however, resilience is high, and
the vulnerability would be low.
When Susceptibility is high and resilience very low, one has maximum vulnerability.
If the children are not immunized, resilience is very low and the vulnerability is high.
(Source: the Australian Emergency Management Society).
Capacity is also reflected in the preparedness of the community to face a hazard

event.
Preparedness
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Measures taken in anticipation of a disaster to ensure that appropriate and effective
actions are taken in the aftermath of a hazard event.
-ADPC
To enhance preparedness, people plan how to respond in case a hazard event

occurs and work to increase the resources available to respond effectively.
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Preparedness activities are designed to help save lives and minimize damage by
preparing people to respond appropriately.
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Response
Refer to actions taken immediately following the impact of a hazard event when
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exceptional measures are required to meet the basic needs of the survivors.
-ADPC
E
It refers to the sum of all actions taken to adjust to hazards; more narrowly defined
to mean the appropriate actions taken during an emergency to protect people and
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the things they value from harm, rescue them, and facilitate the transition to post-
disaster recovery.
1.2. Socio-economic indicators

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Socio-economic indicators provide another dimension to view Vulnerability.
The Indicator of Human Development (IHD) is synthesized by combining other

indicators and gathers together
The adjusted GDP per capita

Life expectancy
Adult literacy.
The assumption is that the lower the IHD, the lower will be the mean wealth, the
literacy and the average health state of the population. This will increase the
vulnerability to physical hazards.
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Poverty is one of the major vulnerability criteria. Poverty also has an effect on
housing which constitute a usually high damage percentage in case of disaster
(Center for Research on the Epidemiology of Disasters, CRED).
1.3. Demographic indicators
When high to very high population densities (>200 hab/km2) are combined with
unfavorable socio-economic parameters (low IDH, high birth and mortality rates),
the vulnerability is expected to be high (CRED).
2. Risk
2.1. Risk definition
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Risk is the likelihood or probability of a hazard event of a certain magnitude
occurring. Risks are measures of the threat of hazards.
-ADPC
O
Risk is the actual exposure of something of human value to a hazard. Often regarded
as the product of probability and loss.
-ADPC
C
Risk is the exposure or the chance of loss due to a particular hazard for a given area
and reference period. It may be expressed mathematically as the probability that a
hazard impact will occur multiplied by the consequences of that impact.
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-ADPC
(Note: Definitions of risk in the hazards literature vary from those that equate risk
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with probability to those that see risk as the product of a probability and a particular
kind of impact occurring.)
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Risk and Hazard are two concepts that are different from each other.
The ocean is a hazard (deep water and large waves). If one attempts to cross the
ocean in a small rowboat, a great risk (probability of capsizing and drowning) is
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incurred. If the crossing is made aboard the Queen Elizabeth, (a large passenger
ship) the risk is reduced – all else being equal. The ocean going vessel is a device
used as a safeguard against the hazard.
In general, risk may be diminished by increasing safeguards but never eliminated

unless the hazard itself is removed.
Consequence
The monetary and non-monetary "costs" or “losses” of a hazard event. This includes
financial, economic, life safety, environmental, social, legal and other costs or
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losses. Its assessment may be made easier if the elements at risk are enumerated
first.
Elements at risk
Persons, buildings, property, crops, utilities, critical facilities, infrastructure,

environment or societal components with a potential of being exposed to a hazard
event and likely to be adversely affected by the hazard event.
Elements at risk may be listed as follows:

• Physical • Economic
Infrastructure Business and trade activities
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Roads
Railway Access to work
Bridges Impact on work force
Harbour Opportunity cost
Airport
Critical facilities • Societal
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Emergency shelters Vulnerable age categories Low
Schools income group people
Hospitals and Nursing Homes Gender
Fire Brigades
Police
C • Environmental
Utilities Loss of biodiversity
Power supply Damaged landscape
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Water supply Physical and chemical changes
Transport in the surroundings
Communication
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Government services
2.2. Quantification of risk

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There are three essential components to the quantification of risk after

identification of local hazards:
i. Hazard occurrence probability (p)- the probability of occurrence of a specified

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natural hazard at a specified severity level in a specified future time period.

ii. Elements at risk - an inventory of those people or things, which are exposed to
the hazard.
iii. Expected loss (L) - the degree of loss to each element, should a hazard of a
given severity occur. Its accuracy and acceptability will depend on the
methodology used to derive it.
Disaster losses include the direct impacts like the loss of life, housing and
infrastructure as well as indirect impacts on production in utility services, transport,
labor supplies, suppliers and markets. Secondary losses include impacts on
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macroeconomic variables such as economic growth, balance of payments, public
spending and inflation. The impacts are felt more by developing countries.
In 1977, a cyclone struck the Andrah Pradesh. The following loss figures were
estimated for the East Godavari District.
Houses destroyed 289,906

Houses damaged 89,677
TOTAL 379,583
Persons rendered homeless 1.442 million
If measures were taken to strengthen houses by retrofitting, the loss would
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have been reduced as follows.
Houses destroyed Nil

Houses damaged 136,489
Persons rendered homeless 0.519 million
O
The economic benefit is estimated to be Rs. 91 crores
C
Source: Gujarat, Vulnerability Atlas of India, 1997
It is advisable that, if a hazard event does occur, that a post-audit be carried out so
D
that one may match the ‘actual’ Vs the ‘expected’. This would give more
understanding on deficiencies of the Risk Assessment carried out and help to
improve the process next time around.
E
Note:
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The probability of occurrence of natural hazards events may be estimated by

statistical extrapolation from historical data. The accuracy of such estimates
depends on the completeness of data and the period of time over which it
has been collected.
D
Losses are measured differently for different hazards, by different agencies,

and by different users. Most loss data are dollar estimates, but some dollar
estimates are for specific agencies or only one level of government. The
estimates could show variability as well as considerable uncertainties and is
valid for only a short period of time.
2.2.1. Risk assessment

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It is the overall process of identifying and analyzing risks. The process of
characterizing hazards within risk areas, analyzing them for their potential mishap
consequences and probabilities of occurrence, and combining the two estimates to
reach a risk rating.
Risk Assessment provides a sound basis for mitigation planning and for allocation of
funds and other resources.
Some use the term Hazard Vulnerability Analysis (HVA) to express Risk.
It is the process of evaluating risk associated with a specific hazard and defined in
terms of probability and frequency of occurrence, magnitude and severity, exposure
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and consequences.
Here, severity means the event’s duration and impact area.
Frequency vs. Severity
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Where flooding occurs every year or every few years, the hazard becomes part
of the landscape, and projects are sited and designed with this constraint in
mind. Conversely, in an area where a tsunami may strike any time in the next
C
50 or 100 years, it is difficult to stimulate interest in vulnerability reduction
measures even though the damage may be catastrophic. With so long a time,
investment in capital-intensive measures may not be economically viable. Rare
D
or low-probability events of great severity are the most difficult to mitigate,
and vulnerability reduction may demand risk-aversion measures beyond those
justified by economic analysis.
E
There are many methodologies for Risk Assessment from High Tech computer-based
methods to pencil pushing and head scratching. Computer-based Geographic
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Information Systems (GIS) modeling use many different kinds of information to

assess risk. However it needs sophisticated hardware, software and expertise of
handling them.
Risk matrix
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A simpler method is the Risk Matrix Analysis.
The method gives a qualitative measure that permits the prioritization of

risk among multiple hazards. It enables hazard mitigation planners to classify various
types of hazards into different categories of priority by locating them on a two-
dimensional grid based on their probability and loss.
255
The ranking of ‘high’, ‘moderate’, and ‘low’ is subjective and would vary from one
group to another. The ranking depends on
Probability of a hazard event
Potential loss
A risk matrix
P
R High C B A A
O
B Medium C B B A
A
B Low D C B B
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I
L Very low D D C C
I
T Low Medium High Very High
Y
O
POTENTIAL LOSS
C
The following guidelines may be used to do a matrix analysis.
Probability Loss
D
High Events that occur more Based on the potential by taking into
frequently than once in 10 years account elements at risk
E
Moderate Events that occur from once in

10 years to once in 100 years Fatalities
Injuries
Low Events that occur from once in
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Impact on facilities, critical services

100 years to once in 1000 years and infrastructure
Very Low Events that occur less frequently Property damage Business
than once in 1000 years interruption
Environmental/ Economic impact
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The criteria used for class categorization is also subjective. What has been given
below merely illustrates the type of criteria that countries may adopt to facilitate
the process.
Class A
High-risk condition. Immediate action is necessary.
Possible deaths over 1000
People affected may be over 100,000
Complete shut down of facilities and critical services for more than 14 days
Over 50% of property located in the area may be damaged
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Class B
Moderate to high-risk condition where risk can be reduced by mitigation activities
and contingency planning. Prompt attention needed.
Possible deaths less than 1000
People affected may be between 50,000 to 100,000
Complete shutdown of facilities and critical services for 7 days
25% of the property located in the area may be damaged
Class C
Low risk condition. However investment in further mitigation and planning may be
necessary after cost-benefit analysis.
Possibility of death low.
People affected between 10,000 and 50,000
Complete shutdown of facilities not more than 1 day
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About 10% of the property located in the area may be damaged.
Class D
Very low risk condition. Only limited action necessary.
No possibility of death
People affected less than 10,000
Facilities and critical services may not be affected
O
About 1% of the property located in the area may be damaged.
Risk as a function of hazard, loss and preparedness

C
According to Fournier d’Albe (1979), risk may be conceptualized as follows:
D
Risk = Hazard (probability) x Loss (expected)
Preparedness (loss mitigation)
E
In literature especially in training material there is a tendency to replace

‘preparedness’ with “capacity” and “manageability”. All three terms have tangible
and intangible components of
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Physical/material
Social/organizational
Attitudinal/motivational aspects.
Thus their quantification cannot be discrete. It is advisable therefore, not to treat

D
this conceptualization as a mathematical entity because of the emotive aspects that

are inclusive in “preparedness”. It is wiser to consider that disaster risk is a function
of preparedness/capacity/manageability.
 The greater the hazard probability, the greater the risk.

 The greater the loss, the greater the risk.
 The greater the preparedness or capacity of a community, the lesser the risk.
(Capacity and Risk show an inversely proportional relationship)
Risk = function (hazard, loss, preparedness)
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Preparedness has an inverse relationship to risk.
An illustration of a Risk Analysis based on this follows.
2.2.2. The methodology for risk assessment
The methodology involves six steps as follows:

i. Define the geographic area to be studied.
ii. Identify the type and amount of data needed to complete the risk
assessment.
iii. Identify the potential hazard(s) within the risk area.
iv. Identify vulnerability.
v. Prepare an inventory of elements at risk.
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vi. Apply hazard specific damage functions to the inventory to determine direct
damage quantitatively or rank potential damage qualitatively.
vii. Apply loss functions to damage results to estimate level of financial, personal,
or property losses quantitatively or rank potential losses qualitatively.
O
i. Study area
The first step in the risk assessment process is to demarcate the extent of the area
C
that comes under the study. The boundaries used may be administrative, political,
geographic or user defined grid. This selection is based on the objective of the
study.
D
If the objective is to prepare a regional emergency response plan, the study area
must include the communities where emergency response teams are expected to
be active.
E
If the objective is to plan local community mitigation action, then the study area
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may be much smaller.
ii. Data collection

Data must be complete as much as possible, accurate and must be relevant to the
objective of the study. It is wise to identify the potential sources of data needed and
D
the methods to collect them prior to the collection proper. In order to assure
consistency, it may be necessary to oriente the data collectors prior to field action.
iii. Potential hazards

This is the process of hazard identification discussed earlier. The step may lead to
the preparation of hazard maps.
iv. Vulnerability analysis
v. Elements at risk
These were discussed earlier.
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vi. Determining potential damage
Research results have helped to define damage functions to estimate the amount of
damage likely to occur with specific hazard exposures. With adequate data,
acceptable quantitative assessments may be arrived at. Where data is insufficient, a
qualitative ranking of potential damage may be done.
vii. Application of loss functions

Based on the assessment of damage, loss functions may be applied so that financial
loss as well as human casualties may be estimated. This is a little complex as the
number of people in particular buildings at different times of the day varies. An
example is a school. If the disaster strikes during the night, there are no casualties
associated with the school building.
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2.2.3. Risk mapping
This is the presentation of the results of risk assessment on a map, showing the
levels of expected losses which can be anticipated in specific areas, during a
O
particular time period, as a result of particular disaster hazards
C - UNDRO
Usually qualitative terms such as ‘high’, ‘medium’ and ‘low’ are used to represent
the level of risk. Risk assessment results and hazard maps studied under Session 4
can be combined to yield a Risk Map.
D
2.2.4. Risk perception
E
Knowing how the general public perceives risk is helpful for hazard management
activities. Risk means different things to different people. The dominant influence is
past experience. Most lay perceivers and the media give greater weight to hazards
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that take many lives at any one time. Technical experts may give similar weight to
hazards that may give rise to cumulative effect. There is need therefore for better
communication between the two groups.(Smith 2001).
Risk perception may be studied in two different ways.

D
Revealed preferences
Expressed preferences
The revealed preference is through observing the behaviour of people. The

expressed preference is obtained through questionnaires distributed to the
perceivers. However, the study of opinion is a difficult task whatever the method is
used.
Many might express a fatalistic view – that nothing can be done about risk. Some
may deny the threat. With adequate awareness, others may consider that survival is
possible through preparedness. Risk perception is influenced by many interrelated
259
factors such as past experience, attitudes, values, as well as social and cultural
perspectives.
A politician who has a probabilistic perception that disasters will occur and that
many events are random would probably be strength in resource allocation and
mitigation work. Another with a dissonant perception would deny the threat and
would dismiss the possibility of a hazard event striking again. He would be a
hindrance to risk mitigation work.
Hazard management must therefore involve awareness creation amongst

stakeholders.
2.2.5. Acceptable risk
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This is a subjective evaluation from an individual or a group point of view.. For
example, living near a flood plain may bring the benefit of fertile soil for agriculture.
The farmers may tolerate annual floods up to a threshold value. Beyond this level
the losses may override the benefits. Risk becomes unacceptable.
O
Similarly local administrative bodies or national governments may ignore risk up to a
certain magnitude as hazard reduction measures might not appear desirable
C
through a cost-benefit analysis. The use of a Risk Matrix might help in determining
whether a risk is acceptable. This may be important in decision making to allocate
scarce resources for disaster management. Defining the acceptable level of risk is
D
the responsibility of the government.
2.3. Risk communication

E
An interactive process of exchange of information and opinion among stakeholders;

often involves multiple messages about the nature of risk or expressing concerns,
EP
opinions, or reactions to risk messages or to legal and institutional arrangements for

risk management.
References
D
1. Arambepola, N.M.S.I. (1999), Multiple Hazard Risks: M1-04, Natural Disaster

Management (NDM) Course, CHPB, Sri Lanka.
2. Fournier d’albe, E.M. (1979), Objectives of volcanic monitoring and prediction. Journal
of the Geological Society of London, 136, p. 321-6.
3. Karunaratne, Geethi (2001), Risk Assessment, Urban Disaster Mitigation Course for
Thailand and Lao PDR, ADPC, Bangkok.
4. Noson, Linda (1999), Risk Assessment: M1-04, Urban Disaster Mitigation Course, ADPC,
Bangkok.
5. Smith Keith (2001), Environmental Hazards: Assessing Risk and Reducing Disasters , 3rd
Edition, Routledge, London and New York, pp 69-72.
6. http://sites.state.pa.us/PA_Exec/PEMA/programs/mitigation
260
Understanding Vulnerabilities: Vulnerability of
Physical Structures
Goals
To develop an understanding of the vulnerability of the physical structures and their causes
Learning outcomes
After completing this session you will be able to understand the:
• Structural vulnerability of physical structures
• Non-structural vulnerability
• Functional vulnerability
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Learning objectives
As you work through this session you will learn to
 Describe engineered, non-engineered, owner built buildings, critical facilities and
life lines and criteria to be considered for their design
 Explain causative factors of structural vulnerability
O
 Understand building typology and list characteristics and vulnerability functions of
different building types
 Describe non-structural vulnerability and its assessment
C
 Describe functional vulnerability and its assessment
1. Concepts
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Engineered Constructions
These are the structures (e.g., buildings) that are designed and constructed as per
E
standard engineering practices. In case of buildings, engineered construction are those

that are supposed to have been designed by a competent engineer or architect and
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have undergone the formal process of regular building permit by the municipal or other
pertinent authority. The formal building permit process is supposed to require
involvement of an architect/engineer in the design and construction for ensuring
compliance to the existing building code and planning bylaws. In most developing
countries, formal building permit process is observed only in urban areas. In developing
D
countries, building codes (with earthquake safety consideration) either do not exist, or
not implemented strictly. Therefore, consideration of seismic input on building design
depends upon the individual initiative of the designers, the prevalent construction
practices in the region/country, the prevalent construction practices in the
region/country, and the availability of funds. In case clients require(d) design
against earthquakes in a country does not (did not) have regulation to govern the design
of strength of structures, it is (was) a common practice for the engineer to use the code
of the country in which he/she was trained.
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Under such conditions, there is no consistency in the design of structures. While they
may be significant proportions of well designed structures that can withstand the
earthquake forces, some percentage of engineered construction have been designed for
only vertical loads of gravity and not for the horizontal/vertical load that an earthquake
exerts on the building. The 85 high-rise buildings that collapsed during the Bhuj
Earthquake of January 2001 are evidence to this fact.
It is thought that there are no consistent anti-seismic measures applied to the design of
many bridges in several developing countries. Seismic code for bridges simply does not
exist in many countries.
Site-specific studies to assess seismic risk are usually carried out in donor- funded larger
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projects (e.g., hydroelectric dam and important bridge sites).
Non-engineered Constructions
These are physical structures (e.g., buildings) the construction of which usually has not
been through the formal building permit process. It implies that the construction of non-
O
engineered building has not been designed or supervised by an architect/engineer. Such
buildings are obviously prevalent in the rural or non-urban (including urbanizing areas in
the periphery of municipal areas. However, a large percentage of the building stock (in
C
some case a vast majority) even urban areas of many developing countries are non-
engineered constructions. In the urban areas of Kathmandu, it is estimated that more
than 90 percent of existing building stock are non-engineered (partly because there are
D
many old historic buildings), and every year about 5000 more such non-engineered
buildings are added.
E
Owner-built buildings
These are buildings constructed by the owner at the guidance and with the involvement
of a head-mason or a carpenter who lacks comprehensive knowledge on earthquake
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resistant construction. Traditional construction materials such as timber, stone rubble or

brick (fired or un -burnt) and mud as mortar are used. There is usually no input from any
engineer. These are usually rural constructions. However, such constructions are seen
also in the poorer part of a city, or in the city suburbs.
D
Needless to say that these buildings are usually highly vulnerable to earthquakes.
Critical Facility
A critical facility has a specific functionality requirements and life-safety protection
during or following an earthquake. Hospitals, water supply, electricity, telephony are
example. Usually one talks about a critical system. Components of a critical system
could be 1) the building structure, 2) ancillary structures such as pipes, ducts, etc.; 3)
equipment, and a human action that is required to provide function of the critical
system.
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Usually, it is regarded necessary to require stricter regulations for earthquake -
resistance of buildings belonging to critical facilities because of their occupancy
(schools), function after a major disaster (hospitals and communication centers), or
because they are nationally important (museums) or they house toxic materials.
Lifelines
These are the critical facilities on which a city depends for the continued existence of its
population such as water and wastewater systems, power systems, communication, etc.
Transportation Systems
Roads/bridges, ports, airports are referred to as the transportation systems. Sometimes
they are included as part of lifelines.
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2. Vulnerability
For a systematic understanding it is necessary to distinguish the following categories of
vulnerabilities: Structural vulnerability
Non-structural Vulnerability
O
Functional Vulnerability
2.1. Structural Vulnerability
2.1.1. Definition
C
This category of vulnerability pertains to the structural elements of the buildings,
e.g., load bearing walls, columns, beams, floor and roof.
D
2.1.2. Causative Factors
E
1. Location of the Structure (building): Location determines the type and extent of
the expected hazard (severity of ground shaking) liquefaction, earthquake-
induced landslide or tsunami run off. A building located in soft soil, or over
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liquefiable sand stratum, is likely to be more vulnerable than that located on

firmer foundation soil strata.
2. Number of Buildings (in the system) and Space in between:

If the buildings are abutting against each other, the behavior of one during the
D
earthquake will influence that of the other. A well-designed and well-

constructed earthquake-resistant building will be adversely affected by the
vibration of the weaker building that is abutting against it. Usually, a structural
seismic joint (a gap) is allowed between two adjacent buildings to avoid such
mutual influence during earthquake shaking.
In the case of tall buildings, the lack of proper space in between buildings gives
rise to pounding effect: part of the collapsed building may fall onto the next.
3. Number of Stories: In the condition of the lack of control over the design and
quality control during construction in developing countries, it can be said that
the vulnerability of a building increases with its height.
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4. Shape (Configuration): Complex shapes (e.g., L-shape, Y-shape, H-shape etc.)
increase the building’s vulnerability to damage and destruction during an
earthquake. The re-entrant angles attract excessive concentration of stresses
during the earthquake. Solid circular, square, and triangular plans are the best.
Rectangular building plan should have its length not more than 3-times its
width. Structural joints (separation) should be provided if such overall
configuration cannot be avoided due to any constraint. Structural regularity can
also be achieved by distributing lateral elements in the building in such a way
that they do not cause excessive torsion.
5. Symmetry: A building that is symmetrical in plan as well as in elevations (both

directions) performs much better than an asymmetrical building during an
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earthquake. Symmetry is measured with respect to the distribution of the
lateral resisting elements of the building in plane and in elevation.
6. Age of Buildings: In developing countries, buildings are often designed to last

for 50 years and more. Many buildings do stand more than 50 years, no doubt.
O
However, vulnerability increases with the age. It is a wise practice to conduct
vulnerability assessment of old buildings.
C
7. Construction Typology (type of Building): Timber, Adobe, brick-masonry, stone
masonry, cement-block masonry, and concrete frame are the principal types of
building construction in cities of Asia. As the building type and the construction
D
materials employed is the most important factor while considering seismic
vulnerability, it will be treated in a separate section below.
E
8. Alteration: Alterations are frequently done due to the changes in the

requirements with time. Unfortunately, not all of the alterations are done at the
advice of cognizant technical personnel. This practice leads to increased
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vulnerability of buildings.
One important form of alteration is “adding stories” to the existing building to

gain additional floor space. This practice appears to be rampant in developing
countries. Even hospital buildings have been modified by adding stories. This is a
D
dangerous practice as it may shapely increase seismic vulnerability.
Many times the structural joints between buildings are found to be rendered
ineffective by the provision of structural connections (e.g., by constructing a
corridor) linking the two building parts.
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Alterations and /or remodeling done within the hospital in an attempt to
create new spaces or fit new structures or equipment without considering
the effect these alterations would have on the general strength of the
structure may become a liability (on a long term) rather than an
improvement for the hospital. There had been cases in which the structural
walls that were part of the original design of a building were broken in order
to install air-conditioning units. These alterations might have been done
afterwards when the original design engineers were no longer associated
with the construction. Even small openings for window -type air conditioners
made through an important load-bearing wall may spell disaster. The results
of these openings are weaker structural walls that could result in a failure or
partial collapse during an earthquake, even if the initial design was seismic-
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resistant.
PAHO, Mitigation of Disasters, Volume 3, 49
9. Maintenance: A poorly maintained building becomes gradually vulnerable as

the unattended weak element accelerates deterioration causing the whole
O
structure to become weak. Closure of the structural joints by construction
debris during subsequent modifications is seen frequently. Corrosion of steel
and of reinforcing could reduce the strength of a building with time.
C
3. Building Typology and Vulnerability
The outstanding characteristic of the structural damage of 1988 earthquake is that it

D
was limited to clay, brick or stone buildings in mud mortar and the structures were
shattered to ground. Life loss was severe in these buildings than newly constructed
E
timber or RC framed buildings. Among the small number of wooden or reinforced

buildings that existed, no serious damage was observed which leads to the conclusion
that the intensity of the shock was not great enough. But, because the material of these
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constructions do not have good lateral strength, low tensile strength and shear strength,
inferior ductility so they cannot survive the excitation. Should a shock with an intensity
higher than 1988 earthquake be experienced, catastrophic damage leading to complete
collapse similar to observed in masonry buildings might take place in RC framed
buildings.
D
Fuziwara et al., 1989
3.1. Load bearing masonry buildings

Most of the load-bearing masonry structures are un-reinforced. This is a very
common building type which can be distinguished into two major categories,
notably, 1) traditional buildings (low strength masonry (LSM), and 2) modern
masonry.
265
3.1.1. Traditional buildings/low strength masonry buildings
Coincidentally, these buildings are in general symmetrical in plan and elevation, lack
heavy projections; openings are small and well positioned. These are good features
from earthquake point of view.
Stone in mud is the most common construction material for walling in mountains
and hills. Sun dried or fired brick in mud mortar is common in plains, hills, and
valleys where stone is not available.
Wall thickness varies from 350mm to 600mm in general. These buildings are in
general one to two story plus attic.
Floors are generally made of thick layer of soil on timber structure. Roofs are
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generally duo pitched with gable walls at ends. Slate, clay tiles and thatch, wood
shingle are used for roofing.
Floors and roofs are flexible in nature.
O
Vulnerability:
These buildings are generally found to be deficient in earthquake resistance because
of the poor quality of their construction and lack of aseismic features. The material
C
lacks ductility, tensile- or shear- strength. These building behave as if stacked
construction material. The deficient features include:
D
• Weak Wall Junctions: The bond between orthogonal walls is weak as these walls
are erected independently for large heights, weak mortar, no connecting
elements between them. It suppresses development of box effect and walls
E
behave as if these are free standing cantilever walls and during shaking, walls
normal to the earthquake force splits and topple down (out of plane failure).
Gable walls are even more susceptible to shaking as these stand at the top of
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the building almost without any connection with roof.

• Lack of Integrity between load-bearing Elements
• Lack of a diaphragm
• Long unsupported walls
• Delamination of walls
D
• Out-of-plane instability of walls due to low thickness-to-height ratio

• Large and unsymmetrical openings
Note: These buildings are not to be confused with the historic buildings of
archaeological importance, such as in Kathmandu, Bangkok or in cities of China and
Japan, which do incorporate seismic-resistant elements, and are made
predominantly of timber and/or have thick walls compared to their height and
relatively few and small openings. They are considerably earthquake-resistant. Their
vulnerability comes mainly from aging.
266
3.1.2. Modern masonry buildings
These are generally made of fired brick or stone in cement or lime mortar with one
brick thick walls (250 mm). Lime mortar is less and less used now. With some part or
some stories in mud mortar and other in cement mortar can be seen very often.
These buildings are generally limited up to three stories. Story height is usually 3-
3.6m. Floor and roofs are, in general, flat made of cast-in-situ reinforced concrete,
reinforced brick and concrete slab. Openings are large and more in number. These
are usually constructed for residential purposes so room sizes are small but many
time half brick thick walls are used for cross walls. Shifting of wall position in upper
stories is very common. In general these buildings are irregular in plan and
elevation.
Vulnerability:
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Vulnerability of these buildings to earthquake is caused by:
• Weak wall Junctions
• Long Unsupported walls
• Large and unsymmetrical opening
• Out-of-plane instability of walls due to low thickness-to-height ratio
O
• Soft-story effect
• Improperly anchored parapets C
In addition to this, buildings with flexible floors have the following deficiencies:
• Lack of Integrity between load-bearing Elements
• Lack of diaphragm actions
D
3.2. Framed buildings
Traditionally timber or bamboo was used for construction of framed buildings,
E
especially in the plain areas of the tropics and the sub-tropics. In recent years, as a
result of the depletion of timber, increased cost of a lot in the urban areas,
EP
increased economic activity, urbanization, accessibility to information and material,

construction of transportation facilities even in remote areas, there is an increased
desire for higher building and use of modern materials such as steel and concrete,
and hence RC framed buildings are gaining popularity.
D
3.2.1. Reinforced concrete (RC) framed buildings

The present trend of building construction in urban areas for residential, shop-cum-
residential and shop-cum-office-cum-residential buildings is to use reinforced
concrete (RC) beam column frames and RC slab with randomly placed unanchored
brick walls in two directions. It is usual to have shops in ground floor, with large
openings in one or more adjacent faces in market areas. Also cantilevered
projection up to 1.2 m is common in upper stories along all open faces especially
along the urban streets. Unanchored thin brick walls of full height are erected on
the edge to increase size of the room. Window size is generally big. Story height is
usually 3.0-3.6m.
267
These structures usually comprise a very light concrete frame generally with column
sizes 22.5x22.5 cm or slightly more, and four to six number of 12mm diameter
reinforcing longitudinal bars and 6mm diameter stirrups at the spacing of 20 to 25
cm. The detail of reinforcing does not follow the accepted practices in other highly
seismic countries. These types of buildings up to six stories are very common.
Vulnerability: RC frame construction type has become prevalent in the past two or
three decades, and it has introduced a myth that the buildings of this type are
infinitely strong and can be constructed as high as needed. Such false sense of
safety has led to severe deficiency in strength. The size of the columns and beams
usually constructed for as high as five stories, are in fact adequate only for two to
three stories if seismic load is to be considered. Additionally, the structural
components (columns and beams) badly lack “ductile” detailing. Ductility refers to
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the ability of a concrete building to shake and deform while preserving the integrity
of its load-bearing system. Ductility is achieved in concrete by respecting special
requirements for the amount and placement of steel reinforcing and the detailing of
the connections. In addition, concrete relies on the bond between the mixture of
gravel, sand, cement, steel and water. Quality control is thus important in concrete
O
construction to ensure that the material is build according to the engineering
specifications. The other deficiencies are: C
• Short Column effect: when any or all of the beam-column portions are filled up
with masonry brick wall only partially leaving wide opening e.g., for windows.
This situation leads to excessive concentration of stresses during earthquakes,
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at the corners of the openings.
• Soft-story effect: This is the situation when there is no infill masonry wall in the
column-beam frame. Such conditions prevail in the developing countries
E
allowed openings. Soft story conditions can cause premature collapse of

buildings.
• Out of plane failure of infill walls (because the are not joined with the beam
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(vertical) or the column (horizontal)

• Strong column-weak beam system not maintained. The beam rests on columns.
Hence, it is logical to have stronger columns in comparison to the strength of
the beam. Many times the opposite is prevalent due to some unknown reason.
• Lack of ductile detailing. This means:
D
i. Anchorage problem
ii. Lack of confining bars
iii. Steel congestion problem
iv. Lack and deficiency in shear stirrups
The above discussed deficiencies have made buildings severely vulnerable to seismic
shaking.
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3.3. Summary of deficiencies that cause vulnerability of built structures
3.3.1. Planning deficiencies
The deficiencies are (common to both load bearing and masonry buildings):
i. Pounding effect (along urban streets).
ii. Large length to breath ratio (difficult load transfer mechanisms!).
iii. Large height to breathe ratio (instability!).
iv. Large offsets in plan and elevation - unequal distribution of stiffness – (torsional
effects.)
v. Soft story effect (concentration of deformation!).
vi. Unequal/unbalanced distribution of lateral load resisting elements (torsional
effects!)
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3.3.2. Deficiencies of load bearing masonry buildings
i. Large and unsymmetrical opening (lack of lateral load resisting elements &
torsional effects!).
ii. Weak Wall Junctions (loss of box action!).
iii. Long unsupported walls (behave as cantilever wall!).
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iv. Thin walls compared to their height (out-of-plan instability)
v. Delamination of walls (reduction in load carrying capacity!).
vi. Improperly anchored parapets (toppling of wall).
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Buildings with flexible floor have following additional deficiency:
i. Lack of Integrity between load-bearing elements (scattering of members, loss of
box action!).
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ii. Lack of diaphragm actions (no proportionate distribution of lateral load!).
3.3.3. Deficiency in RC Framed Building

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i. Strength deficiency
ii. Out of plane failure of infill walls
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iii. Short Column effect (shear failure!)

iv. Strong column weak beam not maintained
v. Soft story/weak story condition (Splash effect)
vi. Lack of ductile detailing (no energy dissipation!)
a. Anchorage problem
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b. Lack of confining bars

c. Steel congestion problem
d. Lack and deficiency in shear stirrups (bursting of columns).
3.4. Vulnerability assessment (structural)

Vulnerability assessment involves first identifying all the elements of a building
which may be at risk from earthquake.
As the first step, a qualitative assessment is usually done. The results of a

qualitative assessment help identify the priority problems that should be addressed.
Survey formats have been developed for qualitative assessment (FEMA 310; ATC22).
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Loss functions in the form of vulnerability curves or damage probability matrices are
available for obtaining the damage ratio for different types of buildings at different
intensities of earthquake shaking. These are prepared based on actual observation
of damage due to an earthquake at various localities.
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(Note: Damage ratio is expressed in terms of economic loss to a single building unit with respect to its
reconstruction cost).
A
A-
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Buildings in field stone, rural buildings, adobe house, and mud house (1 to 1.5 stories).
A-type building but with 3 storey height (2 storied in between A and A-).
A+ A-type clay buildings but with horizontal and vertical timbers incorporated.
B Buildings with mud mortar, ordinary brick, large blocks, natural dressed stone or half-
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timbered buildings with height up to 1 to 1.5 stories, or with cement mortar in brick masonry
and height up to 3 stories.
B- B-type rural buildings with traditional materials and height up to three stories, or brick
masonry buildings in cement mortar with large openings with irregular plans and height up to
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five stories.
B+ B-type rural buildings with improved configurations in case of rural buildings, or brick
masonry buildings in cement mortar with compact plans, permissible openings and height up
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to three stories.
B++ Strengthened initially, or retrofitted as for earthquake-resistant brick buildings of B, B-, B+
C1 Strengthened good quality brick buildings in cement mortar (with seismic reinforcement, up
to 3 stories)
C2 Normally designed Reinforced Concrete (RC) buildings (designed for normal load only) or
mason-designed 3 storey RC buildings (Kathmandu Valley)
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C3 Specially designed RC buildings.

C(k5) Mason-designed 5 storey RC buildings (Kathmandu Valley).
(Source: HMGN/ MHPP, 1994d.)
Quantitative assessment of structural vulnerability of buildings involves detailed

analysis often using computer software. New standards for the evaluation of
existing buildings have recently been made available to engineering professionals.
One such set of standards is the so -called FEMA310 document, which is in used in
the USA and can be adapted to reflect the conditions in other countries. The ATC-40
document specifically addresses the evaluation of existing concrete buildings. A high
level of expertise is typically required for the evaluation of existing buildings.
Unfortunately, such level of expertise is sometimes lacking in developing countries.
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One of the issues is in the training of engineers and other professionals, which often
does not address the study of the vulnerability of existing buildings. Several
computer programs exist to model existing buildings in order to quantify the level of
stress and deformation in structural members. Damage and performance
acceptability is measured with respect to the ratio of demand versus capacity taking
into consideration the level of ductility in the building component. NSET-Nepal used
the software MASONRY (developed by the University of Roorkee, India) for the
analysis of masonry buildings, and the software SAP2000 for the analysis of other
two hospital buildings of Kathmandu Valley.
Many aspects of vulnerability cannot be described in monetary terms, such as

personal loss of family, home, income and related human suffering and psychosocial
problems, but these should not be overlooked.
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4. Non-Structural Vulnerabilities
4.1. Basic concepts

"Nonstructural" usually refers to things that are designed by someone other than
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the structural engineer; however, nonstructural walls are required to have some
strength. For example, interior non-bearing partitions are generally required to be
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designed to resist a minimum design lateral force. This is intended to provide some
resistance to seismic forces perpendicular to the wall and to ensure a minimum
stiffness to the walls.
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Non-structural elements of a building include ceilings, windows, doors, non-load-
bearing partition walls, and electrical, mechanical, plumbing equipment and
installations, and other contents. A building can remain standing after a disaster but
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still be unserviceable due to non-structural damage. Moreover, the non-structural

elements could also lead to structural damage to the building and cause physical
injury to the occupants.
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The cost of the damage to non-structural elements in residential buildings generally

averages about 30% of the total loss. In offices and critical facilities, such cost may
be considerable higher than that of the structural elements. This is especially true
for hospitals where 85% to 90% of the value of the installation is not in the support
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column, floors and beams, but in the architectural design, mechanical and electrical
systems and in the equipment contained in the building (Dr. Reinaldo Flores, in
introduction to the newly prepared draft “Protocol for assessment of the Health
Facilities in Responding to Emergencies: Making a Difference to Vulnerability, WHO,
1999, Geneva).
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4.2. Vulnerable non-structural elements
The following sections list the non-structural vulnerable elements
4.2.1. Partitions
Masonry and Tile. These partitions can have severe cracking or loss of units.
Compression failures can occur at the tops of the partitions, or at the joints. These
partitions may collapse and fail due to perpendicular wall-to-wall loads. This is a life-
safety concern!
Gypsum Board or Plaster. These partitions may overturn due to local ceiling
failures. Finishes may crack or detach from the studs.
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Demountable Partitions of Metal. Wood, and/or Glass. These partitions may
separate from the supporting channels, possibly resulting in overturning. Fixed glass
may crack or separate from remainder of partition.
4.2.2. Ceilings
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Suspended Lay-In Tile Systems. Hangers may unwind or break. Tiles may separate
from the suspension system and fall. Breakage may also occur at seismic joints and
at building perimeters. C
Suspended Plaster or Gypsum Board. Plaster may have finish cracks that could lead
to spalling. Hangers may break. Gypsum board or plaster may separate from the
suspension system and fall.
D
Surface Applied Tile. Plaster, or Gypsum Board. Plaster may crack and spall. Ceiling
tiles may fall due to adhesive failures.
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4.2.3. Light fixtures

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Lay In Fluorescent. Ceiling movement can cause fixtures to separate and fall from
suspension systems. Parts within the fixtures are prone to separate from the
housing.
Stem or Chain Hung Fluorescent. The stem connection to structural elements may
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fail. Fixtures may twist severely, causing breakage in stems or chains. Long rows of
fixtures placed end to end are often damaged due to the interaction. Long stem
fixtures tend to suffer more damage than short stem units. Parts within the fixture
may separate from the housing and fall.
Surface Mounted Fluorescent. Ceiling mounted fixtures perform in a fashion similar

to lay-in fixtures. Wall fixtures generally perform better than ceiling fixtures. Parts
within the fixture may separate from the housing and fall.
Stem Hung Incandescent. These fixtures are usually suspended from a single stem
or chain that allows them to sway. This swaying may cause the light and/or the
fixture to break after encountering other structural or nonstructural components.
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Surface Mounted Incandescent. Ceiling movement -can cause fixtures co separate
and fall from suspension systems. Wall mounted fixtures perform well.
4.2.4. Doors and frames

Frames can warp from warp from deformations, possibly causing the doors to bind.
4.2.5. Mechanical equipment

Rigidly Mounted Large Equipment (e.g., Boilers. Chillers, Tanks. Generators).
Shearing of anchor bolts can occur and lead to horizontal motion. Unanchored
equipment may move and damage connecting utilities. Tall tanks may overturn.
Performance is generally good when positive attachment to the structure is
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provided.
Vibration Isolated Equipment (e.g., Fans, Pumps). Isolation devices can fail and
cause equipment to fall. Unrestrained motion can lead to damage. Suspended
equipment is more susceptible to damage than mounted equipment. This is a life-
safety concern!
4.2.6. Piping
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C
Large diameter rigid piping can fail at elbows, tees, and connections to supported
equipment. Joints may separate and hangers may fail. Hanger failures can cause
progressive failure of other hangers or supports. Failures may occur in pipes that
cross seismic joints, due to differential movements and adjacent rigid supports. The
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increased flexibility of small diameter pipes often allows them to perform better
than larger diameter pipes, although they are subject to damage at the joints. Piping
in vertical runs typically performs better than in horizontal runs if regularly
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connected to a vertical shaft.

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4.2.7. Ducts
Breakage is most common at bends. Supporting yokes may also fail at connection to
the structural element. Failures may occur in long runs due to large amplitude
swaying. Failure usually consists of leakage only and not collapse.
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4.2.8. Electrical equipment

Tall panels may overturn when they are not bolted or braced. Equipment may move
horizontally if not positively anchored to the floor.
4.2.9. Elevators
Counterweights and Guide Rails. Counterweights may separate from rails.
Counterweights may also damage structural members, cables, and cabs. This is a
life-safety concern!
Motor/Generator. The motor (or generator) may shear off the vibration isolators.
Control Panels. Control panels can overturn when they are not anchored.
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Cars and Guiding Systems. Cars and guiding systems generally perform well, except
that cables may separate from drums and sheaver.
Hoistway Doors. Doors can jam or topple due to shaking or excessive drift.
Hydraulic Elevator Systems. These systems usually perform well except that the
cylinders may shift out-of-plumb.
4.2.10. Exterior cladding/glazing or veneers

Exterior wall panels or cladding can fall onto the adjacent property if their
connections to the building frames have insufficient strength and/or ductility. This is
a life-safety concern!
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If glazing is not sufficiently isolated from structural motion, or above 12 feet, it can
shatter and fall onto adjacent property.
4.2.11. Parapets, cornices, ornamentation and appendages

If any of these items are of insufficient strength and/or are not securely attached to
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the structural elements, they may break off and fall onto storefronts, streets,
sidewalks, or adjacent property. This is a life-safety concern!
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4.2.12. Means of egress
Hollow tile or unreinforced masonry walls often fail and litter stairs and corridors.
This is a life-safety concern!
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Stairs connected to each floor can be damaged due to inter-story drift, especially in
flexible structures such as moment frame buildings.
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Veneers, cornices, ornaments, and canopies over exits can fall and block egress. This
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is a life-safety concern!
Corridor and/or stair-doors may jam due to partition distortion.
Lay-in ceiling tiles and light fixtures can fall and block egress.
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4.2.13. Building content and furnishings

Desk-Top Equipment. Desk-top equipment, such as computers, printers, plotters,
may slide off and fall if it is not sufficiently anchored to the desk.
File Cabinets. Tall file cabinets may tip over and fall if they are not anchored to
resist overturning forces. Unlatched cabinet drawers may slide open and fall.
Storage Cabinets and Racks. Tall, narrow storage cabinets or racks can tip over and
fall if they are not anchored to resist overturning forces. This is a life-safety concern!
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Plants. Artwork and Other Objects. Plants, artwork and other objects that are
located on top of desks or cabinets can fall if they are not anchored to resist their
lateral movement.
Items Stored on Shelves. Items stored on shelving, such as in laboratories or retail

stores, can fall if they are not restrained from sliding off the shelves.
Computers and Communications Equipment. Tall, narrow equipment can overturn

and fall if it is not anchored to resist overturning forces.
4.2.14. Hazardous materials

Because of the secondary dangers that can result from damage to vessels that
contain hazardous materials, special precautions should be considered for the
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proper bracing and restraint of these elements.
Compressed Gas Cylinders. Unrestrained compressed gas cylinders can be damaged

such that the gas is released and/or ignited. This is a life-safety concern!
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Laboratory Chemicals. Unrestrained chemicals can mix and react if they are spilled.
This is a life-safety concern. C
Concentrated Chlorine Gas. Often used for water purification, concentrated
chlorine if released in the air can be very harmful to people.
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Piping. Piping that contains hazardous materials can leak if shut-off valves or other
devices are not provided. This is a life-safety concern!
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4.3. Other vulnerable conditions

The following provide some additional discussion of vulnerable conditions in a
building due to other factors.
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Improper Location: The presence of heavy equipment on a particular floor of a

building alters its response to shaking during earthquakes. On higher floors, in
addition to the stress concentration the heavy machinery may cause on the ceiling
or floors, the heavy objects attract greater force at the point and may contribute to
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greater possibility of damage or collapse. In particular, roof-mounted water tanks

when not accounted for in the design, can induce torsion in a building.
A wrongly placed cupboard may overturn and block exit during an earthquake.
Locating a working desk within the reach of a non-structural partition wall or under
a ceiling fan, or near un-curtained windows is also a vulnerable condition.
Inside-opening doors in a meeting rooms or class rooms create a vulnerable

situation.
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Loosely placed flower-pot on the parapet walls could be hazardous to the passers-
by or even to the residents while getting out of the building during an earthquake.
4.4. Vulnerability assessment (non-structural)

Investigation of nonstructural elements for critical facilities is time-consuming.
Usually, the non-structural elements are not shown in the plans (in our country even
basic architectural plans are difficult to dig!). Even if plans exist and the elements
are shown on it, many times the mechanical and electrical items are often
concealed. Nevertheless, it is essential to make the investigation because in the
past, little attention has been paid to seismic support of these elements and they
are potentially hazardous.
Of particular importance in the nonstructural element evaluation efforts are site
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visits to identify the present status of nonstructural items; this effort will take on
added importance because nonstructural elements of structures may be modified
many times during the life of the structure.
MCCER (1999) provides detailed guidelines on seismic reliability assessment of
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critical facilities. WHO (1999) provides a detailed format for the assessment of non-
structural vulnerabilities in hospitals. FEMA 310 (checklist 1) provides a systematic
approach for doing walk-through of buildings and for assessing safety of non-
structural components.
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5. Functional Vulnerability
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5.1. Basic Concept
Functional vulnerability needs to be considered and eliminated for institutions,
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especially the critical facilities such as hospitals, emergency operation centers,

communication centers etc., to ensure that the services provided by the facilities
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would keep on running to meet the demands of the community at the time when
these are most needed. The following section discusses functional vulnerability in
case of hospitals.
While assessing functional vulnerability, consideration is made of 1) location,

accessibility, and distribution of the services within the system, 2) individual
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services, both medical (equipment and supplies) and non-medical (utilities,

transportation and communication), that are vital to the continuous operation, and
3) public services and safety measures available inside the hospital.
5.2. Site and Accessibility

The following are the disadvantageous situation in terms of hospital’s location.
• Location in a congested area of a city with vulnerable buildings around

• Narrow secondary access road
• Presence of a bridge separating hospital from the city
• Only one road leading to the hospital
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• Poor condition of the access road
• Presence of an industrial firm in the catchment area of the hospital
5.3. Service Areas Within the Hospital

• Proper zoning of different areas (outpatient service, emergency department,
surgical ware, kitchen, morgue etc.) that make up the hospital would guarantee
adequate level of operation even during emergencies. These areas should have
best utilities to remain operational.
• Improper zoning creates the possibility of overcrowding.
• Presence and condition of specific areas that can be converted into spaces for
patients during emergencies.
5.4. Equipment and Supplies
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• Availability of minimum supplies of essential equipment. Such list should be
available.
• Regular inventory of the items.
• Proper labeling of the equipment and supplies.
• Period of time taken by the hospital to procure equipment and supplies.
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• Presence of a system for emergency procurement
• Presence of emergency kit containing essential drugs recommended by the
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WHO.
• Presence of a blood bank in the hospital.
5.5. Utilities
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Water
• Availability of adequate quantity of water (@ 15-20 liters/person/day for
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patients plus others for performance of medical and surgical procedures)

• Presence of water storage
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• Presence of alternate source of water other than the city supply

• Presence of treatment system for water from alternate source
• Length of time hospital can run on the water storage
Electricity
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• Proper location of electric control panel and its marking in the floor plan
• Alternate source of electrical supply
• Percentage of hospital energy requirements that can be supplied by the
alternate source
• Inventory of generators and related equipment, periodic choking of
functionality
• Presence of a system of emergency light
• Ventilation system
Medical Gas Supply and management

• Form of gas supply (individual tanks, piped gas) and system to manage and
prevent their leakage
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• Warning System and Safety Equipment
• Presence of sign system (indicators for escape route, fire-fighting equipment,
building lay-out diagram)
• Presence of fire detection system and its location in strategic places
• Presence of fire extinguishers and fire safety plan
Transportation and Communication

• Presence of communication systems (regular telephone, cellular phone, Pager,
Public address system, short wave radio, intercoms) including runners for
international and external communication
• Presence of alternate communication system for use during emergency
• Adequate means of transportation for patients and staff
• Capabilities of ambulances
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Public Information
• Presence of public information system in normal times
• Possibility of continued use of the PI system during emergencies
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5.6. Assessment of functional vulnerability of institutions
The discussions in the sections above provided a list of items upon which the
functionality of a hospital depends. The checklist can be used as a guide for
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developing similar lists for other institutions considering the specifics of that
particular facility.
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Methods of functional vulnerability of hospital are detailed in WHO (1999).
Similarly, MCEER, 1999 provides a methodology and format for detailed assessment
of functional reliability of critical facilities. These guidelines can very easily be
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modified to suit any particular critical facility.
Obviously, common sense should prevail in case of lack or inaccessibility of required

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data.
References:
1. Amir-Mazaheri, D., General Aspects Of Seismic Risk Reduction In Threatened Regions, Paper
Number 2695, Proc. 12 WCEE, Auckland
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2. NSET, (1999) Seismic Hazard and Risk Management in Kathmandu Valley, Nepal; proceedings of
Seminar on Urban Earthquake Damage Assessment, Building Research Institute, Tsukuba, Japan,
Vol. 33.
3. Bothara, J. K., Parajuli, Y. K., Sharpe, R. D. Arya, A. S., (2000) Seismic safety in owner built
buildings, 12th World Conference on Earthquake Engineering, Paper no. Auckland, New Zealand.
4. Coburn, A. & Spencer, R. J. S. (1992) Earthquake protection, J. Wiley & Sons, New York, USA
5. EERI, (2001) Encyclopedia of Housing Construction Types in Seismically Prone Areas of the World,
Earthquake Engineering Research Institute (EERI) and IAEE.
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6. Johnson, G. S., Sheppard, R. E., Quilici, M. R., Eder, S. J. and Scawthorn, C. R., (1999) Seismic
Reliability Assessment of Critical Facilities: A Handbook, Supporting Documentation, and Model
Code Provisions, MCEER, Buffalo, NY.
7. NZS 4219: (1983) Seismic Restraint of Building Contents, Standards New Zealand.
8. NZS 44104:1994, Specification for Seismic Resistance of Engineering Systems in Buildings,

Standards Association of New Zealand.
9. PAHO, (1992) Disaster Mitigation Guidelines for Hospitals and Other Health Care Facilities in the
Caribbean, Pan American Health Organization (PAHO).
10. PAHO, (1993) Mitigation of Disasters in Health Facilities Evaluation and Reduction of Physical and
Functional Vulnerability (four volumes), Pan American Health Organization (PAHO).
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11. WHO, (1999) Protocol for assessment of the health Facilities in Responding to Emergencies:
Making a difference to Vulnerability.
12. WHO, (1999) Protocol for assessment of the Health Facilities in Responding to Emergencies:
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Making a Difference to Vulnerability, World Health Organization (WHO), 1999, Geneva (Draft).
13. WHO, Earthquakes and People’s Health, Proc. WHO Symposium, Kobe, 27-30 January 1997,
WHO, Kobe.
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14. www.johnmartin.com/EERI
15. ABK, (1984) Methodology for Mitigation of Seismic Hazards in Existing Unreinforced Masonry
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Buildings: The Methodology Topical Report 08, National Science Foundation, Washington, DC.
16. ACI, (1983) Building Code Requirements for Reinforced Concrete (ACI 318-83), American
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Concrete Institute, Detroit, Michigan.
17. Army, (1986) Seismic Design. Guidelines for Essential Buildings, Departments of the Army (TM-
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809-10-1), Navy (NAVFAC P355.1), and the Air Force (AFM 88-3, Chap. 13, Sect. A), Washington,
DC.
18. Army, (1988) Seismic Design Guidelines for Upgrading Existing Buildings, Departments of the
Army (TM-809-10-2), Navy (NAVFAC P355.2), and the Air Force (AFM 88-3, Chap. 13, Sect. B),
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Washington, DC.
19. ATC, (1987) Evaluating the Seismic Resistance of Existing Buildings, Applied Technology Council
Report ATC-14, Redwood City, California.
20. ATC, (1988) Rapid Visual Screening of Buildings for Potential Seismic Hazards: A Handbook;
Applied Technology Council Report ATC-21, Redwood City, California. (FEMA 154)
21. ATC, (1989) Seismic Evaluation of Existing Buildings: Supporting Documentation, Applied
Technology Council, Redwood City, California.
22. BSSC, (1988) NEHRP Recommended Provisions for the Development of Seismic Regulations for
New Buildings. Building Seismic Safety Council, Washington, DC. (Parts I, II, and Maps)
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23. GSA, (1976) Earthquake Resistance of Buildings, Vol. I-III, General Services Administration,
Washington, DC.
24. SEAOC, (1988) Recommended Lateral Force Requirements and Tentative Commentary,
Seismology Committee, Structural Engineers Association of California, San Francisco, California.
25. SSC, (1985) Rehabilitating Hazardous Masonry Buildings: A Draft Model Ordinance, Report No.
SSC 85-06, State of California Seismic Safety Commission.
26. Stratta, James L., (1987) Manual of Seismic Design. Prentice-Hall, Inc., Englewood Cliffs, New
Jersey.
27. Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA), Standards for the Evaluation of Existing
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Buildings –FEMA 310, Washington, DC
28. Applied Technology Council (ATC), Standards for the Evaluation of Concrete Structures (ATC-40),
Applied Technology Council, Redwood City, California.
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280
Understanding Vulnerabilities: Social, Cultural and
Economic
Goal
To instill an understanding of social, cultural and economic vulnerabilities to earthquakes
Learning outcome
After completing this session, you will be able to describe and discuss social, cultural and
economic vulnerabilities in the context of societies in developing countries with special
focus on Asian country situations
Learning objectives
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As you work through this session, you should be able to:
• Explain what social vulnerability is and its determinant factors
• Identify vulnerable groups and provide their profile for training based on the need
assessment
• Explain the historical perspectives of marginalized sectors in society and their
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vulnerability status
• Relate the model of disaster cycle to developing country situations and discuss its
relevance to earthquake disasters and social vulnerability
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• Discuss poverty and its role in creating vulnerability
• Explain cultural vulnerability
• Explain economic vulnerability
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1. Some Basic Issues
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1.1. Earthquake affects not only the built environment, but everything
Earthquakes affect everyone and everything in a community. It is not only that
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the buildings are damaged or destroyed and infrastructure is rendered non-

operational. Like every other natural hazard, earthquake can destroy centers of
economic, cultural and social activities. In such case, a devastating earthquake
disturbs the economic, cultural or social, aspects of communities.
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But there is something more to this. By destroying the individual buildings,

critical facilities, or economic and cultural centers, earthquakes, or any natural
hazard disturbs or destroys the existing interrelationship and interaction
between or among the different groups and activities of the society or a nation.
Such relationships and interdependence are established in any society on the
long term. These relationships and interdependence are dynamic, and it is the
responsibility of social organizations to guide the dynamics of such relationships
in a progressive direction. This is especially important in developing countries.
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The susceptibility of any community or nation to be affected by an earthquake
in terms of the disruption to political, economic and cultural relationships or
interdependency among the different social constituencies, and the inability to
restore these interdependencies to the pre-earthquake levels can be termed the
social vulnerability to earthquakes.
History has shown that nations with such vulnerabilities have seen changes in
government or its governing system following a disaster. “The fall of governments
… (in the past decades) in Ethiopia, Niger, Mauritania, and Chad were associated
with allegations of mismanagement of famine, while that in Jamaica and
Nicaragua with the mismanagement of hurricane and earthquakes respectively.
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The Great Tangshan Earthquake of 26 July killed 250,000 people and another
250,000 went missing. This shows the vulnerability of the society. China had to
mobilize all possible resources for rescue, and relief operations. This earthquake
was the reason why the Cultural Revolution came to a halt in China (Shah, 2001).
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We usually hear that the development process of a country has slipped back
due to the impact of one or more disasters. This is due to the vulnerability of the
country to natural hazards.
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Years after the earthquake events, countries like Nicaragua, Turkey, and India
are grappling to undo the effects of earthquake on development.
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The Bhuj Earthquake of 26 th January in Gujarat badly affected Ahmedabad,

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located about 250 km away from the epicenter. There was total confusion
following the earthquake. Even the news of devastation reached the authorities
very late – after several hours, because the communication did not function
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effectively. Moreover, the whole administration of Ahmedabad was paralyzed for

several days following the earthquake– its people listened more to the
fortunetellers than to the administration or the scientists. The people slept outside
for weeks despite the government’s reassurance. This happened because of social
vulnerabilities: unnecessary fear of death, lack of confidence on the administration
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and the local scientists, feeling of helplessness, lack of preparedness, and low level
of earthquake awareness – all contribute to such unwanted situation. In contrast,
nothing would have happened if a similar earthquake had struck California (Shah,
2001). California has much less social vulnerability than Gujarat, although the level
of earthquake hazard is much higher.
1.2. Disasters create further vulnerabilities

Ongoing drought condition and the hurricane of the past years rendered the
people of Kuch In India more vulnerable to the earthquake that hit them in
January 2001. The state was geared towards reducing the impacts of drought
and cyclonic winds, as reflected in the preparedness embodied in the district
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level disaster management plan. The earthquake added to the social
vulnerabilities created by the past disasters. It deepened existing social conflicts
and the state was engulfed in a series of crises: Ethnic, political, economic and
cultural.
1.3. Normal concept of disaster cycle does not work fully in case of earthquake
disaster in a developing country
The normal disaster cycle, prescribed frequently, consists of Mitigation –
Preparedness – Event – Rescue/relief – reconstruction, as described in a
simplified form in the following figure.
Immediately after an earthquake
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`
Mitigation and Preparedness: Emergency Response and Relief:
Activities to reduce the impact of an Actions shortly after an earthquake,
earthquake before it strikes, e.g. which address the emergency needs of
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• Public awareness activities the community, e.g.
• Implementing seismic building code • Search and rescue of buried victims
• Strengthening existing structures • Emergency medical care
• Planning and training for
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emergency response activities
• Fire suppression
• Shelter for homeless victims
• Earthquake research • Distribution of food, water, and
supplies
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Before an Rehabilitation and

earthquake Reconstruction: Long-term
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The long-term process of rebuilding all after an

aspects of a community following an
earthquake
earthquake, e.g.
• Rebuilding houses and buildings
• Financing for rebuilding
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• Repair of roads, bridges, water

system, etc.
• Psychological counseling
There are two problems with this generic concept of disaster cycle in case of
earthquake disasters.
• Events never follow this cycle in developing countries. The response phase is
given the maximum importance. However, not very many countries have
emergency response plans. There are problems with relief distribution, and
rehabilitation. Political bias and corruption have been mentioned many a
time.
283
• A larger part of the society at this stage gets thrown out of the disaster cycle
due to these problems in implementing response action.
• Vulnerable sectors of the society get ejected in each phase of disaster cycle.
Some are ignored during reconstruction, and others during mitigation and
preparedness.
• Levels of participation of the people in the different phases of disaster cycle

would reflect the measure of social vulnerability. The larger the percentage
of people participating, the less vulnerable is a nation
• Earthquakes have low annual probability. A devastating earthquake occurs

in a country usually after a long interval. The earthquake disaster cycle is
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therefore very long-term. Society tends to forget experiences and lessons
learned in previous disasters.
• Unfavorable conditions such as poverty, rapid population growth,

unplanned urbanization, multiple disasters, and environmental degradation
O
have much faster cycles. They tend to involve increasing numbers of people.
Against this backdrop, earthquake vulnerability reduction faces immense

challenges.
C
The social vulnerability of a society in an economically poor country is never
D
reduced. Achieving this seems a fantasy. Usually, vulnerability increases with
each subsequent disaster.
E
On the other hand, vulnerability reduction in developed countries has already

become a reality.
EP
1.4. Vulnerability and poverty are integrally linked and mutually reinforcing, but
are not synonymous
Vulnerability is sometimes identified with poverty. No doubt there is a strong
correlation between income and access to resources. But the generalization
that “the poor” are “vulnerable” does not help in plan formulation (Wisner,
D
1993).
Not all members in any one-income group suffer equally from disaster, nor do
they encounter similar handicaps during recovery.
“Being poor” is not a synonym for “being vulnerable”, and “being rich” is not
“being non-vulnerable”. A well-informed and prepared “poor family” may be
less vulnerable to earthquake than a “richer family” that is not well informed
and well prepared.
Ben Wisner points to another danger of equating poverty with vulnerability:

poverty elimination is a long range goal requiring social justice and equity,
284
income and resource distribution, the possible creation of a social or family
wage, and economic democracy. Vulnerability reduction need not wait for the
achievement of these goals, and can/should start now, especially in the
communities stricken with poverty.
2. Social Vulnerability
2.1. Difference between physical vulnerability and social vulnerability

The process of physical vulnerability assessment looks at the weaknesses of the
buildings and whether the buildings have been designed and constructed as per
the prevailing code.
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Social vulnerability, on the other hand, is a set of conditions that inhibit the
building code implementation in a community. In social vulnerability
assessment, one looks at people, households and community and their ways of
life.
2.2. Spatial scale of social vulnerability
O
International Scene: An organized society with democracy prevailing, technical
affluence, and good governance is less vulnerable. It is usually presumed that
C
developed countries have all these attributes and are less vulnerable than
developing countries. However, there is always a range in the degree of
vulnerability both in countries of the developed and developing worlds (Mafeje,
1987, quoted by Ben Wisner, 1998).
D
Such discrimination could be useful for donor agencies for allocating resources
to nation. However, Ben Wisner warns that reducing vulnerability at the
E
national scale does not mean an automatic reduction of vulnerability at the

social or community or household level.
EP
National Scene: Even within a country, regions, provinces, or districts could be

discriminated in terms of the level of vulnerability. Such discrimination is usually
done erroneously based on the level of hazards within a country. More often,
the difference is used to in the context of political struggle for resources. An
example may be parliamentary lobbying for a larger share of the national
D
budget for a region or province.
2.3. Who is actually vulnerable?

An individual or a household without resources for developing defenses against
a potential earthquake hazard becomes vulnerable. Usually they are the poor
and the socially disadvantaged, living in a state of “permanent emergency”
(Maskrey, 1989). These are the marginal sections of the society, which is further
marginalized due to the impact of a disaster. These are the people who may
survive a disaster, but are unable to recover their livelihoods, become destitute
and forced to live in an even more vulnerable situation (Walker, 1989). They do
not have a strong enough voice and hence cannot pressure for change
285
Hence, in any society, the marginalized people are vulnerable.
Who are the marginalized? These are the weaker section or groups or part of a
society that have been pushed to the limits of subsistence in the course of
historical conflict of interest on the basis of:
 Economical class (poor),
 Ethnicity (minority vs. majority),
 Religion (predominant vs. minority),
 Gender (male vs. female and the importance of the roles played by
each- matriarchal vs. patriarchal outlook),
 Age (old and young vs. young in terms of economic importance).
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It is important to consider that a combination of these attributes is more
important than the individual category of gender, ethnicity, age or class. Most
vulnerable are the children and elderly female (or widowed) members
belonging to a minority ethnic group or religion of the poor class. These are the
people or the group of people who do not have access to assets, have little
O
political voice to engender any change. They are in constant state of
“emergency”. They are “the neglected and the insulted” in everyday of life.
C
The strangest reality of the modern world is that these groups of people survive
the worst conditions. Yet they are termed (and actually are) the “most
vulnerable”! They have tremendous resiliency built in. However, they become
vulnerable because they lack resources and because they have reduced
D
mobility. Ethnic groups are vulnerable not because they do not have strength
for survival or rebuilding, but because they have reduced access to services and
information ((Buckle, 1998).
E
Let us look at individual parameters that were listed above.

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Class: History and ongoing process is easily revealed in the distribution of access
to resources (Ben Wisner, 199?). The poorest cannot afford earthquake-
resistant housing. So their houses are destroyed during an earthquake. Further,
these are the group who usually do not have access to the resources distributed
during the reconstruction phases.
D
For example, about 140 earthquake-resistant buildings were constructed in Patanka

Village of Gujarat, India, with assistance from the state government (using the
resources provided by the donors). However, about 25 houses are still in need of
reconstruction for want of state support. They have been denied this, as they are
not enlisted in the formal roster of earthquake-stricken households. Existing socio-
economic conditions prevented them from being enlisted in the formal list of likely
recipient of state support for reconstruction. Thus they have not been given the
opportunity to rebuild their lives.
286
Gender: In some societies, women have less access to resources (Dandelman &
Davidson, 1988, quoted in Wisner, 1998) and generally have less representation
in decision making at all levels (Pietila & Vickers, 1990, quoted by Wisner, 1998).
In such situations, women suffer more during disaster impact. Economic

dependence on men makes them highly vulnerable in such societies. They
become the victims of disasters as well as the male-dominated social order.
What follows below are some causes that increased vulnerability of women
following a disaster in areas of Gujarat, described by Ela R. Bhatt, (1998).
Women are vulnerability-locked due to the existing social dynamics.
 Lack of ownership or inheritance of productive assets, education, access to
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support institutions
 Lack of opportunities which can enhance their resource base and empower
them to negotiate with market forces
 Vulnerability compels women to expand their efforts to earn wage.
 Perceived responsibility to take care of the household chores including the
O
injured children and the old simultaneously while earning wages
 In many emergency or disaster situations, physical and emotional losses are
C
so severe and traumatic that stress levels interfere with recovery.
Widespread subordination of women has meant that women typically must
bear more stress than men, including preoccupation with dependent
children. Sexual abuse of girls is common, and many of the young may not
D
easily identify adequate coping strategies of adults to fight such stresses.
Child-abuse preventive measures need to be adopted.
 Disruption of social relations through emergency displacement can mean
E
the loss of security and protection. Due to the prevalent absence of

employment opportunities and the high incidence of woman-headed
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households among the displaced, increasing numbers of women and girls

are forced into socially unacceptable forms of wage labor. In some
countries, many displaced women may end up as prostitutes, hoping to gain
income to sustain their families. The longer the situation of unemployment
remains unresolved, the greater the likely incidence of prostitution.

D
Social constraints on movement, low wages, lack of job

 Widows and deserted women are the most vulnerable. They cannot secure
kith-kin support, at the same time needed to look after the family members,
especially the children.
 Malnourishment
Age: Mortality in the Great Hanshin Earthquake that affected the city of Kobe
and its surroundings was very heavily concentrated in older age groups. 53% of
casualties were aged 60 years of age or older (Wisner, 1998).
Despite a tradition of social values that assigns high respect to elders in the
family in Asian countries, the economic realities are introducing changes
287
especially in urban societies, and the elderly population gets more and more
isolated.
Following the January 2001 Bhuj Earthquake of Gujarat, it was found that those
in the age group of 60 and above seemed hardest hit by the disaster because
they had lost everything and felt they did not have enough time left to rebuild
their lives (WSSI/EMI, 2001, Social Issues, in Interdisciplinary Observations on
the January 2001 Bhuj, Gujarat Earthquake, editors Ravi Mistry, Weimin Dong,
and Haresh Shah, 2001).
Sheila I. Insauriga of PHIVOLCS describes a special aspects of social vulnerability

– that of street children of Metro manila (Insauriga, 2001). Street Children are
young boys and girls who have adopted the streets as their habitual abode and/
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or source of livelihood.
They are visible in urban centers doing street activities like:

 Vending
 Scavenging
O
 Begging
 Watching and washing cars C
Or falling prey to vices in the streets like:
 Drug pushing
 Working for criminal syndicate
D
 Prostitution
This form of vulnerability is obviously increasing in almost all urban centers of

E
the developing countries and need special attention.

EP
Ethnicity and Religious Groups: Minority racial or cultural groups are often
marginalized in ways that increase their vulnerability. Usually, the minorities
have lower income and poorer access to natural or social resources (education,
legal representation, credit, insurance etc).
D
Following the Bhuj Earthquake of January 2001 in Gujarat, there were reports
of inequality of access to resources because of caste difference, especially the
lower-caste population was at times given low priority for relief supplies.
There were complaints that Nepalese workers living in Gujarat during the
earthquake did not receive any government support otherwise provided to the
victims because either they were not registered as residents, or simply they did
not have confidence of getting support and opted out of the support process.
However, the problem of ethnicity alone as a pre-condition of increased

vulnerability to earthquake may not be as conspicuous-this aspect needs to be
288
considered together with other components such as class, gender, age, and
other factors.
3. Determinants of social vulnerability to earthquakes

Earthquakes reveal existing vulnerabilities in a society. The vulnerabilities are pre-
existing, depending upon the level of organization a society, community or nation
has achieved.
Research into social vulnerability during earthquake is still in its infancy and many of
the postulations, including those described above need further review.
The following factors are believed to define the level of earthquake vulnerability of
a society.
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• Demographic factors,
• Social stratification,
• Literacy rates,
• Family type (nuclear family, extended family),
• Cohesion among neighbors
O
A community fragmented in terms of economic class, caste, religion, and
ethnicity, especially those without ongoing attempts at conflict resolution are
more vulnerable.
C
3.1. Social resilience
Resilience is the capacity that a society or a group of people may possess to
D
withstand or recovery from emergencies and which can stand as a
counterbalance to vulnerabilities (Buckle, 1998).
E
A community with cultural traits of commitments to its people is much more

resilient than a community dependant on external assistance for recovery
following a disaster. Confidence in local capacity, trust in self-help, and a long-
EP
term commitment by public authorities are essential for building disaster

resilient societies.
“Just clear the rubble and we can take care of reconstruction, on our own”- said a
D
man in Bhachau, the town located about 20 km of the epicenter of the Bhuj
Earthquake of 2001 in Gujarat.
Following the 1934 Great Bihar-Nepal Earthquake, then Nepalese Government

even refused external assistance for relief and recovery despite the fact that half of
the existing building stock was collapsed or damaged beyond repair. Kathmandu
was rebuilt within two years!
3.2. Awareness level

Knowledge and awareness greatly reduces vulnerability. Raised awareness helps
define the acceptable level of risk, creates demand for earthquake safety, and
289
fosters self-help, cooperation and local initiatives for preparedness,
cooperation.
3.3. Existence of community organizations, community networks: social,

religious, trusts
A well-knit society with community organization and socio-cultural networks
provide strength not only to endure the harsh impacts of earthquakes, but also
in recovery. Extended families, closeness among neighbors and workmates,
tradition of mutual assistance in construction or agriculture even in non-
disastrous times (in Nepal it is called PARMA) helps not only in reducing the
trauma and fear, but also in speedy recovery and reconstruction. There is less
controversy, less conflicts and relatively easy unison of opinion in the process of
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reconstruction. Usually, all accepts the decision made by the society’s leaders.
3.4. Existence of NGOs, CBOs

Non-governmental and community-based organizations, if they existed prior to
the earthquake event, especially those that have experiences in assisting the
O
community in previous disasters (not necessarily earthquake disasters) are
invaluable assets of any community. It is not only because of their knowledge
about the strengths and weaknesses of the affected community (traditional
C
wisdom, traditions, traits), but also because of the level of trust and confidence
that might have already built-in between the community, the organizations, the
governments and even the donor agencies interested in response,
rehabilitation, and reconstruction.
D
As I learned during my work in Gujarat, the Self-Employed Women's
Association (and other women's NGOs) was deeply involved with low-income
E
women workers before the quake and taking a lead role as advocates and
conduits for gender-fair reconstruction. SEWA, for example, has collaborated
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with Disaster Mitigation Institute on rainwater harvesting and other

mitigation projects. Now, they are working with DMI to train women in
quake -resistant masonry skills and with the state government, ILO, UNDP
and others to rebuild women artisans livelihoods, building on pre-existing
networks and expertise in the region. As people protest about inadequate
D
government response, SEWA representatives may very well begin to

articulate the gender politics implicit in the politics of reconstruction. As I
mention in a recent report describing action research in Surendranagar
undertaken by DMI with SEWA (to be on the Radix bookshelf soon, I hope),
some of the many plans for rebuilding Gujarat seem highly gender-sensitive
with respect to women's livelihoods and health issues--but will need to be
monitored and assessed as plans become action (or lack of action). I think of
Women Will Rebuild and of SEWA in these discussions about grassroots
protest and community-based mitigation and response work. They tell
different stories but we can learn a lot from these and other women's CBOs
when we think about how and why people take to the streets after disasters.
Ben Wisner, in the discussion forum RADIX
290
4. Cultural Vulnerabilities
Cultural monuments, temples, churches, are social properties of immense
importance. They represent social achievements in social values and norms. The
possible damage or destruction by earthquakes brings physical loss, but more
importantly a loss of cultural assets, which serve as a source of income through
tourism.
Loss of religious centers and schools inhibit psychological recovery following an

earthquake, and hence need to be rebuilt on a priority basis. A temple (or a Church
or a Mashed) provides solace and support within families and communities. They
are the centers for bringing back community’s cohesiveness and for engendering a
promise for a more positive future
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5. Economic Vulnerabilities
5.1. Economic cost of disasters

The economic cost of disasters can be classified into:
O
• Direct Cost
• Indirect Costs
• Secondary effects C
Direct costs relate to the capital costs of assets destroyed or damaged by the
disasters.
D
Indirect costs refer to the damage to the flow of goods and services. Lower
outputs from damaged factories, loss of sales or rise in the prices of raw
materials due to damaged infrastructure, loss of income, loss due to reduce tax
E
collection, and expenses for relief, recovery, and rehabilitation are the indirect
costs of disasters.
EP
Secondary effects pertain to short- and long-term impacts of a disaster on

overall economic performance of a country. Lost development efforts, the
necessity to restructure the development expenditure to cater to reconstruction
and the resulting imbalances in government budget and the perspective plans
D
are the indirect effects. Increased indebtedness is one of the serious

consequences of an earthquake disaster.
5.2. Vulnerability factors
Economic vulnerability of earthquake disaster depends upon the size of the

economy and its economic structure, and the sectors affected by the disaster.
The size of economy and its concentration in the seismic zone is particularly
relevant in case of small, island and landlocked countries. The consequences of
a large earthquake in such countries may be comparable to a significant portion
(5-15%) of the national GDP. According to the World Bank statistics, the losses
291
caused by disasters in developing countries, in terms of percentage of the Gross
National Product (GNP), are 20 times higher than those in developed countries.
Most developing countries rely heavily on agriculture. Although, earthquake

does not threaten agricultural land directly, except probably by the large-scale
liquefaction phenomena in river valleys and riverine plains, the damage to
agricultural infrastructure (irrigation canals, pumping stations and traditional
wells) may impact agricultural productivity.
Damage to hotels may impact the tourism industry. The consequences may be
devastating for earthquake-prone countries relying on tourism as a major
industry such as Nepal.
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While damage to the industrial facilities could be obvious in terms of its
economic impact, it is interesting to note that earthquake-related damage in
one sector can have implications for other sectors. Damage to the sector
producing raw materials may lead to severe implications for related industries.
O
Unavailability of working force following an earthquake may cause factories to
close down for a significant period. C
This happened in Gujarat following the Bhuj Earthquake of 2001. The factories
and industries were not affected by the earthquake seriously in terms of
damage to the buildings or other physical infrastructure, but the production
D
and economic activities were stopped for a significant period because of
disruption to the families of the work force.
E
Economic vulnerability to earthquake is also determined by some other factors

such as economic performance in the period preceding the earthquake event,
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the international economic climate, the frequency and magnitude of the

earthquakes, and the government’s economic policies.
References
1. Bauman, C., (1996) The Nehru Professional Fellowship Report, The Challenge Of Land
D
Use Planning After Urban Earthquakes: Observations From The Great Hanshin
Earthquake Of 1995, December 1998
2. Benn, D., Earthquakes In El Salvador And India- Asking The Right Questions, Finding The
Right Solutions, United Nations Secretariat For The International Strategy For Disaster
Reduction, ISDR,
3. Benson, C., Disaster Risk And Vulnerability, Poverty Reduction Sourcebook, Overseas
Development Institute (ODI), Series Editor: Elizabeth Cromwell
4. Benson, C., The Cost Of Disaster,

Http://Www.Bghrc.Com/Dmu/Devrisk1/Devrisk/Benson.Htm
292
5. Bhatt, E. R., (1998) Women Victim’s View Of Urban And Rural Vulnerability, In
Understanding Vulnerability: South Asian Perspectives, Editors John Twigg And Mihir
Bhatt, Intermediate Technology Publications (On Behalf Of Duryog Nivaran),
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Vulnerability And Disasters, London: Routledge,
7. Buckle, P., (1998) Redefining Community And Vulnerability In The Context Of Emergency
Management, A Paper Presented To The Conference Of Disaster Management: Crisis
And Opportunity – Hazard Management And Disaster Preparedness In Australasia And
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PY
8. Corell, R., Cramer, W., & Schellnhuber, H.-J., Potsdam Sustainability Days, Symposium
On "Methods And Models Of Vulnerability Research, Analysis And Assessment"
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O
Vulnerability.Pdf
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C
11. Http://Www.Anglia.Ac.Uk/Geography/Radix/Resources_Papers. Htm
D
12. Http://Www.Enda.Sn/Energie/Cc/Jesse.Htm
13. Http://Www.Ncoff.Gse.Upenn.Edu/Roundtable/Father-Poverty.Pdf
E
14. Http://Www.Pure.Ne.Jp/~Ngo/Code/Index.Html
EP
15. Http://Www.Pure.Ne.Jp/~Ngo/Code/Index.Html
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Manila Workshop On Earthquake And Tsunami Disaster Mitigation, Organized By
D
MMDA, PHIVOLCS And EDM, 4-5 July, Quezon City, Metro Manila.
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18. Jeggle, T., We All Know What Needs To Be Done,

Http://Www.Anglia.Ac.Uk/Geography/Radix/Resources_Papers. Htm
19. Mitchell, J., Integrating Disaster And Development, In Protecting Development,

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20. Ribot, J. C., Climate Variability, Climate Change And Social Vulnerability In The Semi-Arid
Tropics, Climate Variability, Climate Change And Vulnerability: Moving Forward By
Looking Back, Http://Www.Enda.Sn/Energie/Cc/Jesse.Htm
21. Shah, H., The Coming Killer Quake, The Times Of India, Wednesday, September 5, 2001
22. Twigg, J., Disaster, Development And Vulnerability,

Http://Www.Bghrc.Com/Dmu/Devrisk1/Devrisk/Twigg.Htm
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Paper No. 1, Http://Www.Bghrc.Com/Centre/Centrepub.Htm
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24. Twigg, J., Sustainable Livelihoods And Vulnerability To Disasters, Bghcr Working Paper
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O
Kobe, Japan.
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Emergencies, Prepared For The Disaster Management Training Programme Of The
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D
27. Wisner, B., Notes On Social Vulnerability: Categories, Situations, Capabilities, And
Circumstances, Environmental Studies Program, Oberlin College, 25 February 2001
E
28. Wisner, B., California State University Long Beach, The Geography Of Marginality And
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Vulnerability Why The Tokyo Homeless Don't "Count" In Disaster Preparations
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30. Wisner, B., Notes On Social Vulnerability: Categories, Situations, Capabilities, And
Circumstances, Environmental Studies Program, Oberlin College, 25 February 2001
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Don't "Count", In Disaster Preparations, California State University Long Beach
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Mitigation, And Recovery, A Paper Prepared For Panel On World Views And Belief
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Boulder, Colorado, 12-15 July, 1998.
294
IX. CONCEPT OF DISASTER RISK REDUCTION
(DRR) AND DISASTER RISK REDUCTION AND
MANAGEMENT (DRRM)
The following is a selection of additional essential terms for this chapter, along with
their definitions and contextual comments directly lifted from the "2009 UNISDR
Terminology on Disaster Risk Reduction". The whole publication of terminologies
(Appendix) can be consulted for related concepts.
Disaster risk reduction
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The concept and practice of reducing disaster risks through systematic efforts to analyse
and manage the causal factors of disasters, including through reduced exposure to
hazards, lessened vulnerability of people and property, wise management of land and
the environment, and improved preparedness for adverse events.
O
Comment: A comprehensive approach to reduce disaster risks is set out in the United
Nations-endorsed Hyogo Framework for Action, adopted in 2005, whose expected
outcome is “The substantial reduction of disaster losses, in lives and the social, economic
C
and environmental assets of communities and countries.” The International Strategy for
Disaster Reduction (ISDR) system provides a vehicle for cooperation among
Governments, organizations and civil society actors to assist in the implementation of
the Framework. Note that while the term “disaster reduction” is sometimes used, the
D
term “disaster risk reduction” provides a better recognition of the ongoing nature of
disaster risks and the ongoing potential to reduce these risks.
E
Disaster risk reduction plan

A document prepared by an authority, sector, organization or enterprise that sets out
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goals and specific objectives for reducing disaster risks together with related actions to
accomplish these objectives.
Comment: Disaster risk reduction plans should be guided by the Hyogo Framework and
considered and coordinated within relevant development plans, resource allocations and
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programme activities. National level plans needs to be specific to each level of

administrative responsibility and adapted to the different social and geographical
circumstances that are present. The time frame and responsibilities for implementation
and the sources of funding should be specified in the plan. Linkages to climate change
adaptation plans should be made where possible.
Disaster risk management

The systematic process of using administrative directives, organizations, and operational
skills and capacities to implement strategies, policies and improved coping capacities in
order to lessen the adverse impacts of hazards and the possibility of disaster.
Comment: This term is an extension of the more general term “risk management” to
295
address the specific issue of disaster risks. Disaster risk management aims to avoid,
lessen or transfer the adverse effects of hazards through activities and measures for
prevention, mitigation and preparedness.
Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction
Focus on Section 7 of “Introduction to Disaster Risk Reduction” (USAID, 2011) (pages 303-
305 of this reader). Preceding pages have been provided for additional context.
Other Sources
United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO). (2014). Stay safe and be
prepared: a parent’s guide to disaster risk reduction, p. 17-20. Retrieved March 2016 from:
http://www.preventionweb.net/educational/view/41764.
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prepared: a student’s guide to disaster risk reduction, p. 24-43. Retrieved March 2016 from:
http://www.preventionweb.net/educational/view/41763
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Institutional DRR
1. Disaster Risk Reduction. DEPED Disaster Risk Reduction Resource Manual pp 11-19. Available
at
C
http://www.deped.gov.ph/sites/default/files/Disaster%20Risk%20Reduction%20Resource%
20Manual.pdf
2. Hay, J.E. (2012). Disaster risk reduction and climate change adaptation in the Pacific: an
D
institutional and policy analysis (2012). Available at
http://www.unisdr.org/files/26725_26725drrandccainthepacificaninstitu.pdf
E
3. Twigg, J. (2001). Corporate social responsibility and disaster reduction: a global overview.
Available at http://www.dfid.gov.uk/r4d/PDF/Outputs/Mis_SPC/R7893CSROverview.pdf
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4. National Disaster Risk Reduction and Management Plan (NDRRMP) 2011‐2028
Emergency kit
1. Department of Homeland Security. (2006, June 6). Emergency Supply List. Available at
http://www.ready.gov/kit
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2. Philippine Red Cross. (2016). RED CROSS LIFELINE KIT: BE READY ALL THE TIME!. Available at
http://www.redcross.org.ph/get-involved/volunteer/item/837-red-cross-lifeline-kit-be-
ready-all-the-time
3. Center for Disease Control and Prevention. (n.d.). Emergency Supplies for Earthquake
Preparedness. Available at http://emergency.cdc.gov/disasters/earthquakes/supplies.asp
296
Introduction to Disaster Risk Reduction
From “Introduction to disaster risk reduction,” USAID Disaster Risk Reduction Training Course for
Southern Africa, 2011.
6. The Evolution of the Study of Disasters and Risk

The notion of disaster has undergone a dramatic transformation of meaning over time
(see the work of Quarantelli, 1998b; Quarantelli & Perry, 2005). In the early
development of humankind and civilisations, many, if not most, of the cultures
around the world viewed disasters as acts of God (Drabek, 1991:4), or attributed them
to some false casual attractions such as “Des Astro” or “evil star”, “bad luck” and “blind
faith” (Dombrowsky, 1998:19). Disasters were perceived as inevitable events which
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impact on humanity due to our inability to please gods, or by provoking their wrath.
Development in science gradually started to question these perceptions and “truths” of
disaster (see the early work of authors such as Westgate, O'Keefe, Wisner, Davis,
Ritchie, Cardona, Jeggle, Cannon, Kent, to name but a few). Investigation into the
intrinsic nature of disasters as well as the human reaction to and underlying causal
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factors creating disasters, progressively came under the spotlight.
6.1. Social science perspective

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The focus on disaster and risk came about through various initiatives and events
after the Second World War. The scientific study of disaster and risk is one such
event. A focus on the development of disaster risk reduction and management
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would therefore be incomplete without a discussion of the roots of disaster studies
and research both within the social as well as the natural sciences.
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Some of the earliest recorded ideas on disaster and risk within the social sciences
were expressed by the likes of Carr (1932) and Sorokin (1942) who questioned the
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influence of catastrophe on social patterns. Although these authors were known to

some in this field of study, they were seldom explicitly acknowledged for their
pioneering work (Quarantelli, 1998a:1), and they greatly influenced the subsequent
works by others in disaster studies. Some of the first systematic work in disaster
studies and research occurred in the 1950s (Eldenman, 1952; Powell, Rayner &
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Finesinger, 1952; Quarantelli, 1954; Quarantelli, 1957; Moore, 1956; Fritz &
Williams, 1957) and 1960s (Drabek & Quarantelli, 1967; Dynes & Quarantelli, 1968),
with a noticeable heightened interest in the 1970s (Doughty, 1971; Hewitt & Burton,
1971; Kreps, 1973; Dynes, 1974; Mileti, Drabek & Haas; 1975; Glantz, 1976;
Westgate & O’Keefe, 1976; O’Keefe, Westgate & Wisner, 1976; Jager, 1977; Torry,
1978; Turner, 1978). These earlier theorists approached the concept of disaster
from a social science as well as a natural/physical science perspective. It is also
evident in this period (1970s) that European scholars were much more interested in
this phenomenon than their American counterparts. The enormous contribution of
American social science scholars since the 1980s can, however, not be denied.
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Gilbert (1998:11) indicates that the social science perspective approached the study
of disaster from three different paradigms, that of content research, chronological
development and, lastly, cleavages. In the first instance disaster was viewed as a
duplication of war - an external agent can be identified which requires communities
to react globally against the “aggression”. The second (chronological development)
views disaster as an expression of social vulnerability – disaster is therefore the
result of underlying community logic or social processes. Thirdly, disaster is an
entrance to a state of uncertainty – disaster is the impossibility of identifying and
defining (real or perceived) dangers. It is therefore an attack on our perception and
known reality. Cardona (2003:14) and Kreps (1998:33) are of the opinion that the
above early paradigms within social science emphasised the reaction and
perceptions of communities during and after emergencies and did not explicitly
focus on issues of risk, or mitigating the risk of physical harm and social disruption
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before an event occurred.
6.2. Natural science perspective
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The natural and physical science approach to disaster emphasised the hazard
component in terms of hydrometeorological, geodynamic and technological/
anthropogenic phenomena such as earthquakes, floods, mudslides, cyclones,
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industrial accidents and nuclear fallout, to name but a few. The natural sciences
therefore aimed to understand the dynamics of hazards (Smith, 2002; Cutter, 1994)
and from this standpoint tried to quantitatively determine (and simulate) their
possible occurrence and impact on humans and the environment. Dombrowsky
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(1998:28) cautioned that although this approach has proven to be scientifically
sound, it is impossible to recreate reality based on algorithms that simulate changes
over time exactly.
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Gilbert (1995:232-233) proclaims that the scientific approach to disaster and risk is
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in many instances a reflection of the “market” in which disaster research became an

institutional demand. The historical disaster (and risk) studies literature tended to
focus on “how the rich nations feel” (Sachs, 1990:26) and did not necessarily
address the social, economic, and political realities in poorer countries most
affected by disasters (and from recent events in the developing world it is clear that
not much has changed). The natural sciences were, however, the first to address
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issues of probability and risk based on quantifiable hazard variables. Moreover the
focus on risk (as apposed to disaster) as a social phenomenon became evident
during the latter part of the 1970s. In the 1980s a global realisation developed that
disaster is not so much the size of the physical event but the inability of the stricken
community to absorb the impact within its proper set of constraints and capacities
(Lechat, 1990:2; Lavell, 1999) – refer back to the definition of a disaster
above. This realisation highlighted the need for a risk rather than disaster focus in
disaster studies and research.
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6.3. Contemporary study of disaster risk
The modern-day study of disaster risk relates closely to the first understanding and
investigation of disaster, both within a social and natural/physical science
perspective, as explained above. Increasingly, theorising about disaster risk has
given attention to difference, including how gender, race, class, age and other social
power relationships bear on disaster risk. Cardona (2003:2), Kelman (2003:6-8) as
well as Smith (2002:49-52) identified two schools of thought that have developed in
terms of disaster risk since the 1980s. Cardona refers to these as the constructivist
and objectivist or realist schools of thought. Smith's interpretation is that of
behavioural and structural paradigms. Kelman simply refers to the social scientist
and physical scientist's focus on risk. After assessing the work of the three authors it
became clear that for all means and purposes the constructivist school of Cardona,
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the behavioural paradigm of Smith and the social scientist focus by Kelman refer to
the same approach in the investigation of disaster, so too the objectivist, structural
and physical scientist paradigms. The work of Cardona will be used to differentiate
between these two aspects. (Note: These two schools of thought below should not
be confused with the central argument of this section of disaster risk management
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and disaster management. The schools of thought discussed below refer to the
focus on and study of disaster risk only.)
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6.3.1. Constructivism
Constructivist thinking relates to social sciences where risk is viewed as a social

construct (similar to the earlier disaster focus). This approach requires an
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understanding of social representations and perceptions, and the interaction
between different social actors and phenomena. A consciousness developed that it
is conditions of risk, and the attitudes to risk, rooted in societies that inevitably lead
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to disasters. These conditions and attitudes to risk in Less Developed Countries

(LDCs) are greatly dependent on the economic conditions present in a country. Such
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conditions necessarily force vulnerable societies (e.g. the poor) to accept the risks
which they face, whereas rich societies can choose to avoid such risks.
6.3.2. Objectivism
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The objectivist or realist school finds itself more within the natural and physical
sciences. Within this school of thought it is believed that risk can be quantified and
objectively judged. As with the earlier emphasis on the quantification of disaster, so
the accent within the natural and physical sciences remained on the quantification
of risk. This estimation of risk also translated into the economic and actuarial
sciences that believe that risk can be determined through mathematical formulae.
Hewitt (1998:76), a geographer, acknowledges that the social understanding of
disaster is much more crucial to the contemporary disaster risk scene.
It would be unjust to assume that both of the mentioned schools of thought or

paradigms enjoyed equal status within the international arena. Hewitt (1998:77-78)
says that the pure focus on the social construct of disaster risk by the constructivists
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ignores the hazard or “agent-specific” approach. This approach remained the most
common visualisation of disasters, even in the work of social scientists within the
1980s. The truth of this statement is evident in the objectives of the International
Decade for Natural Disaster Reduction (1990-1999). Both of these schools of
thought have made the paradigm shift from a pure disaster oriented focus to that of
disaster risk. The contemporary understanding of risk has greatly increased to the
extent that various scholars from a variety of different disciplines (e.g. sociology,
anthropology, geography, architecture, agriculture, meteorology, engineering, law,
and public administration and development studies) are jointly researching issues of
disaster risk (Comfort et al., 1999; Vogel, 1999). The question still remains: what is
the difference between disaster risk management and disaster management?
6.4. Disaster risk management vs. disaster management
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To gain a better understanding of disaster management and disaster risk
management, the interrelatedness between them should be examined. The subject
of disaster and risk reduction draws its relevance from earlier contributions and
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previous practices in the disaster management fields, where traditionally the focus
has been on preparedness for response. Disaster risk management comprises all
forms of activities, including structural and non-structural measures to avoid
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(prevention) or to limit (mitigation and preparedness) adverse effects of hazards. In
comparing disaster risk management and disaster risk reduction, it is therefore clear
that disaster risk management is the application of disaster risk reduction.
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Traditionally disaster management as defined by the UNDP (1992:21) is “the body of
policy and administrative decisions and operational activities which pertain to the
various stages of a disaster at all levels”. Figure 3 depicts these various stages.
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Figure 3: The traditional disaster management cycle
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Disaster Management is defined by the South African Disaster Management Act 57
of 2002 as a continuous and integrated multi-sectoral, multidisciplinary process of
planning, and implementation of measures, aimed at:
• preventing or reducing the risk of disasters;
• mitigating the severity or consequences of disasters;
• emergency preparedness;
• a rapid and effective response to disasters; and
• post-disaster recovery and rehabilitation.
Disaster management in its international form entails the integration of pre- and
post- disaster activities in order to safeguard lives and property against possible
disasters. At first glance, it seems as if disaster risk reduction forms an underlying
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tenant to disaster management in the definition supplied by the South African
Disaster Management Act. Should this, however, have been the case in practice,
then 15 years of disaster management in Africa should have yielded more results,
less loss of life and livelihoods, and fewer disasters.
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One significant problem with the disaster management cycle was that it still has a
disaster-oriented focus. This means that all activities and resources are geared
towards a disastrous event. A focus on the underlying causes of these disasters (e.g.
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risk, hazards and vulnerability) is in most cases not considered, or it is the product of
bureaucratic ignorance. Many disaster managers still choose to refer to the “causal
factors of disasters” as espoused by the UNDP Disaster Management Training
Programme over two decades ago. When one critically judges these “causal factors”
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it becomes evident that most of them can be ascribed to some form of vulnerability
created by human activity. Another weakness in the application of the disaster
management cycle is that a number of practitioners viewed the implementation of
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the cycle as a phased approach where the activities follow a sequential path.
The recognition that each of the cycle’s processes is simultaneous did not
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materialise in most cases.
Through multiple efforts, the importance and uniqueness of hazard and risk
reduction for the future have become evident. In contrast to the earlier concepts of
disaster management, hazard and risk reduction practices relate to significantly
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larger professional constituencies, and depend on much more diverse information

requirements. While there is no doubt that emergency assistance and response will
remain necessary, the potential consequences of increasingly severe hazards tell us
that much greater investments need to be made to reduce the risk of social and
economic hazards impacting on vulnerable conditions. The challenge for disaster
risk management (though a multi-pronged approach) in the coming years is to find
effective means by which a much more comprehensive, and multi-sectoral,
participation of professional disciplines and public interests can contribute to the
reduction of disaster risk. Accomplishment of this goal requires both a political
commitment, as much as public understanding to motivate local community
involvement. It is in no one’s interest to continue to accept the rationale that the
resources on which all societies depend must first be lost to hazards before their
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value is deemed worthy of protection, replacement, or repair. Disaster reduction
policies and measures need to be implemented with a twofold aim: to enable
societies to be resilient to hazards while ensuring that development efforts do not
increase vulnerability to these hazards.
7. A Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction
In an effort to graphically display all of the various components of disaster risk

reduction, the United Nations’s International Strategy for Disaster Reduction developed
a framework. Figure 4 is an initial effort to put disaster risk reduction into perspective
given the transdisciplinary nature of the field. The framework must be studied with the
preceding discussion on disaster risk management and disaster management in mind.
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One should take cognisance of the complex nature of disaster risk and all of the
interrelated processes linked to disaster risk reduction. It would be foolish to think that
one picture will encapsulate this very diverse field. However, this is an attempt to
provide perspective on the phenomenon we call disaster risk reduction.
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The most important aspect of the framework is the context in which disaster risk
reduction occurs. If you reflect back to the definition of disaster risk reduction, the role
of sustainable development is emphasised. It is thus not surprising that the foundation
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and context of the disaster risk reduction framework is sustainable development. The
development/disaster reduction linkage will enjoy more attention later on in this text.
Sustainable development means that we are using our current resources and doing our
development planning in such a way that we do not compromise the abilities of future
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generations to also develop, utilising the same set of resources. Thus, if we deplete a
major resource (e.g. fossil fuels), future generations inhabiting Earth must seek and
development alternatives. This will thus be due to the present generation’s inability to
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foresee the hardship which our development might bring. The same scenario applies to
the disaster risk reduction field. Successful disaster risk reduction depends on its
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integration with much bigger issues such as the development agenda.
One should note that the activities we as humans undertake for development and those
linked to disaster risk reduction are very similar. Each aims at improving our current
development state. The logic in this disaster risk reduction framework suggests that
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once we are successful in sustainable development efforts, we will greatly reduce the
risks of disasters.
The sustainable development context consists of socio-cultural, political, economic, and

ecosystems or environmental domains (compare these aspects with the factors of
vulnerability to identify the similarities). Each of these domains can either contribute to
overcoming or exacerbating disaster risk.
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Figure 4: UNISDR Disaster Risk Reduction Framework (UNISDR, 2004)
The preceding sections aimed to put the elements, which constitute disaster risk into
perspective. It would therefore only make logical sense to start our explanation of the
framework by focusing on the risk factors. The risk factors (both vulnerability
domains and hazards) provide us with the context in which we need to understand and
investigate the various levels of disaster risks. Vulnerability and capacity analysis, as
well as hazard analysis and monitoring provide us with the required disaster risk
information (refer back to the disaster risk notation). The above analysis allows for risk
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identification and also then the assessment of the possible impact of the hazardous
event on vulnerable conditions. Once a disaster risk has been identified it can be
managed. This is done in terms of creating awareness for behavior change, but also
through the creation of new knowledge. A change in behavior could be or result in the
needed political commitment for disaster risk reduction. In turn (as has been seen
previously in this text) political commitment leads to changes in policy and
governance aimed at enhancing disaster risk reduction capabilities and institutional
capacities. We have many examples where political will has a direct impact on
community actions and the ability of communities to take ownership of their own
disaster risk reduction effort. However, a favorable environment is needed. Through
political commitment, certain disaster risk reduction measures can be implemented.
This is where the transdisciplinary nature of disaster risk reduction comes into play.
Such actions could include sound environmental management and socio-economic
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development practices such as: poverty alleviation; securing and enhancing
livelihoods; gender equality; increased health; emphasis on sustainable agricultural
practices; and even certain financial mechanisms such as social safety nets or even
market-based insurance schemes. Certain physical and technical measures, for example
land-use planning, urban and town planning, and the protection of critical infrastructure
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such as water and sanitation, electricity and communications are necessary for disaster
reduction. Forming partnerships and networks (whether public-public, public-private or
private- private) all lead to enhanced disaster risk reduction. The identification of the
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disaster risks should also be seen as a direct input into the risk reduction measures, e.g.
solving a flooding issue by building a dam or channels.
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However, in an ideal world, we will not have disasters if the aspects discussed above are
all adhered to and functioning. We must make peace with the fact that we will never
have complete knowledge on disaster risks, nor the full capacity to reduce their
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consequences. Some planning for disaster preparedness is necessary. Information linked

to the hazard analysis and monitoring put us in a position which helps us to understand
the various hazard characteristics. This in turn feeds into possible early warning systems.
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Identifying of hazard characteristics will provide us with triggers to monitor. These

triggers are the tipping point in the hazardous impact which will guide either our
preparedness or activation of appropriate emergency management contingencies.
From the framework it is thus clear that the actual disaster impact is neither the starting
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nor the ending point, but the main element which must be removed from the
framework through all of the disaster risk reduction aspects discussed above. It should
now be clear that disaster risk reduction functions in a much broader domain than a
narrow focus on a disaster event. The UNISDR Framework is not complete, neither is it
fully tested. It does, however, provide us with a very good indication and starting point
for disaster risk reduction. The section to follow will provide information about the
development/disaster reduction interaction and this in turn will be relayed to other
crosscutting issues influencing our ability to reduce disaster risks.
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Help Is Here: Top Ten Things You Can Do In Your
Neighbourhood
United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO). (2014). Stay safe and be prepared: a
parent’s guide to disaster risk reduction, p. 17.
1. Make a neighbourhood preparedness plan. You and your neighbours can simply
compare each other’s family/household preparedness plans. Discuss how they fit
together on a neighbourhood level. Identify where you can help each other out in case
of a disaster.
2. Make disaster warning signs and mark evacuation routes. Clear warnings help
everyone from inside and outside your neighbourhood to avoid hazardous places. Mark
evacuation routes, safe areas and emergency shelters so that everyone, even a stranger,
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knows where to go.
3. Organize a neighbourhood evacuation drill or disaster simulation. Involve everybody,
including elders, people with disabilities, children and pregnant women in the drill.
4. Organize a community clean-up. Clean your waterways, drains and gutters to minimize
flood risks from heavy downpours.
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5. Green your neighbourhood. Plant some trees, bushes, or mangroves to make your
neighbourhood greener and to reduce your disaster risk at the same time. If you plant
fruit trees or a community garden, you even get a treat or products that you can sell!
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6. Set up a food bank. The idea is to have a community food storage that might be useful
during a disaster.
7. Prepare for health and sanitation hazards from disasters. Sit together and discuss on
how you can prepare and share clean water and medical supplies as well as keep
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hygiene and sanitation standards high even after a disaster.
8. Get first aid training. Invite someone (from the Red Cross/Crescent, a nurse, or a
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teacher, for instance, to train you in how to give First aid. This will be helpful not only in
a disaster but also accidents.
9. Protect the environment in your neighbourhood. Discuss how you can protect the
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environment in your community (for example by not burning plastic garbage, using
more renewable energies, using cleaner stoves.
10. Check the safety of your houses. Ask local officials to invite building inspectors to
determine the safety of buildings in your community.
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THEY DID IT, SO CAN YOU!

Communities in Nepal, who participated in a disaster risk reduction and livelihood program
supported by the Red Cross, IFRC and the Department for International Development, faced
significantly less harm than others when floods hit the area in 2007. When small villages in
the Bardiya and Banke districts of Nepal were struck by floods, community members
systematically evacuated from their villages, saved ten people from the water using a rope
and inflatable tube, and gave first aid to 35 villagers. In one village, they used money from a
revolving fund to pay for maternity care in a makeshift camp for displaced people.
Taken from: IFRC. 2013. Public Awareness and Public Education for Disaster Risk Reduction:
Key Messages. p.27. http://www.ifrc.org/PageFiles/103320/Key-messages-for-Public-
awareness-guide-EN.pdf
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How Do We Bounce Back From Disasters?
parent’s guide to disaster risk reduction, p. 18-19.
Once the storm has passed, the volcano erupted, the floodwaters receded and the
earthquake stopped, it’s time to start picking up the pieces and get back to ‘normal’ life. If
you and your community were well prepared, there is a good chance that you made it
through without too much damage.
Nevertheless, even the best preparedness may not be enough to withstand a massive
hazard, and there are many things that may not be as they were. Destruction might still be
widespread and the death toll may still be high. Your house might be destroyed or need
major repairs before you can return to it and your job or your community’s sources of
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livelihood could be gone. Your child’s school might be damaged or used as an emergency
shelter for displaced persons. You yourselves might be displaced.
This section discusses how you can help yourself and your family cope with the physical and
psychological effects of disasters. First, we will provide some information for keeping your
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family safe in the immediate aftermath of a disaster, including some tips on how you as a
parent can deal with the emotional after-effects. Then, we look more specifically at how you
can help your child deal with the strong emotions caused by a disaster.
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HOW TO STAY SAFE AND WELL AFTER A DISASTER
Here are a couple of ideas on how to improve your and your family’s safety and well-being
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after a disaster. They are by no means comprehensive and your circumstances might require
you to do something different entirely, so remember to supplement these tips with your
own research.
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KEEP YOURSELF INFORMED


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Information is one of the most important goods during and after a disaster. As
electricity and phone lines might be out, having a battery powered radio is one of
the safest options to receive information after a disaster.
 Know how the authorities communicate in a disaster situation and how you can
reach them if needed.
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 Stay close to, or together with, your social network (relatives, neighbours,
community). Use cellphones to send text messages instead of phoning, both to
preserve battery power and to not overload the cellphone networks.
 Make sure you know where you can get help or required items like water, food,
medical help, supplies, etc.
 Be wary of rumours and don’t spread them: misinformation can cause confusion,
potentially leading to further danger.
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BE CAREFUL
 Attend to injuries (ideally, you would
have already acquired first aid skills and
have basic medical supplies ready. Get
professional help if needed.
 If you’re sheltering at home, make sure
that the hazard has passed before you
leave. Every time you need to exit the
house, make sure your surroundings are
safe beforehand.
 Be particularly attentive to safety issues
brought about by the disaster, such as
damaged roads, contaminated buildings,
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contaminated water, gas leaks, broken
glass, damaged electrical wiring, slippery
floors, etc.
 Watch out for animals, particularly if
they’re wild animals or wounded. Don’t
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touch or make them feel threatened.
 When you return home from your A father carries his daughter after tropical storm
Noel in Cite Soleil, Haiti © UN Photo/Logan Abassi
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temporary shelter, make sure that your
house is safe (check for loose power
lines, gas leaks, structural damage and human or non-human intruders.
 If available, use gloves and wear sturdy shoes when removing debris. Wash your
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hands often, particularly if you work
with debris. Be mindful of the safety of
adolescent girls and women, particularly
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if you’re in a communal shelter or

displacement camp.
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BE PATIENT, BUT PERSISTENT

 Recovery is a gradual process. After a
major disaster, it may take years until
things are built back completely. Aid
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might take a while to get to your area,

so having enough supplies for a couple
of days is basic preparedness.
 Remember that being affected by
A child in a camp for internally displaced people
disasters doesn’t mean losing your peeks through her mother's legs in Port au Prince,
rights. Know what your rights are, Haiti. © UN Photo / Logan Abassi
especially if you’re displaced from your
home. For example, access to food and water are basic human rights – it’s your right
to receive them in post- disaster settings, not an act of charity. If you feel that your
rights have been violated, discuss it with your government ombudsman or human
rights commission. You can also contact lawyers and legal aid organizations.
National and international NGOs also might be able to help.
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Here to Help: Dealing With Post-Disaster Stress
parent’s guide to disaster risk reduction, p. 20.
1. Accept that this will be a difficult time and that sometimes good is better than
perfect.
2. Give yourself time to grieve and heal. You may have lost people, belongings,
plans and hopes that were dear to you. Grieving and healing are processes that
take time.
3. Try to get back to a routine as soon as possible after a disaster. Getting back to a
structured daily routine is very important both for you and your family, even if
the circumstances force you to embark on a completely new routine. Try to have
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regular meal and sleep times. Work at certain hours and play with your children
at certain hours.
4. Take care of your health. Getting enough sleep, eating and drinking well, as well
as exercising will keep your body healthy and your spirits up. Don’t try to do too
much at once. Set priorities and pace yourself.
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5. Don’t hold yourself responsible. Natural hazards are not your fault, don’t feel
guilty, and don’t blame yourself.
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6. Don’t feel helpless. Try not to feel helpless if things don’t go back to normal right
away. Recovery from disasters is a process and it may take some time.
7. Take some time out to relax. Even when things are hectic after a disaster, take a
couple of minutes each day for yourself to make sense of the situation and to
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relax. Take a walk, pray, meditate or listen to music — whatever works for you.
Learn some relaxation exercises and use them in stressful situations.
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8. Talk to others. Discuss what is affecting you and how you feel with your family,
friends, colleagues or other people in your support system. You could also reach
out to religious or community leaders. Remember, most likely everybody is
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stressed and busy, so be patient and try to be a good listener yourself, as others
might need your support.
9. Seek professional help. Don’t hesitate to seek help if you need it. Talk to a
psychologist, religious authority, doctor or healer about your stress and worries.
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10. Your mental health is important. Keep in mind that ignoring your stress might
impact your health, which may in turn impact your ability to take care of your life
and your family.
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Ready, Set, Go!
prepared: a student’s guide to disaster risk reduction, p. 24-43.
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Become Risk-Smart
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#1: Creating a Risk Map
WHAT YOU NEED:
A large piece of paper or an empty Pens – you might want Some tape or glue to hang
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blackboard, white board, or wall to use different colors your risk map if it’s on paper
WHAT TO DO:
1. Draw a map of your neighborhood, village or town. Include the places where you spend
the most time: your home and your school.
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2. Include natural landmarks, such as rivers and canals, mountains and steep hills, or
coastlines, as well as major infrastructure (roads, bridges, tunnels), and important public
buildings (fire stations, train stations, hospitals, police stations, electrical plants.) You
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should also include potentially hazardous buildings like chemical plants.
3. Once you have drawn your map, it’s time to become a disaster risk detective! Find out
which hazards your community is facing. Split up into teams and interview people in
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your community — everyone from local journalists and disaster management officials to
your family and friends. The Internet and your library are great sources of information,
too. Find out the answers to the following questions:
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• Which hazards is your neighborhood/village/town exposed to? Which areas will

be most affected if a certain hazard occurs?
• Which disasters have happened in the past in your area? Which sections were
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most affected and why?

• Does your community already have risk maps for various hazards? If so, were
people in your community consulted? Does the map include changes in risk due
to climate change?
4. Next, mark areas and buildings that are at risk from a certain hazard. Different groups of
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students can work on different hazard scenarios (like a small flood versus a large flood).
• Are you frequently in those areas that are at risk?
• Is your school in an area that is at risk?
5. Next, discuss vulnerabilities.
• What makes certain people in your neighborhood more vulnerable than others?
• What makes certain areas, buildings, or infrastructure in your area more
vulnerable than others?
• What activities happen in your neighborhood that increase vulnerabilities?
6. Mark buildings and areas where a large number of people might need help when a
disaster strikes, such as schools, community centres, homes for the elderly, and
hospitals.
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7. Next, think of capacities. Mark buildings and infrastructures that are important for
disaster response, such as evacuation routes, safe zones, hospitals, fire houses, and
others. Discuss how much at risk those facilities are from disasters and how accessible
they would be when a disaster strikes.
8. Your risk map is ready! There are so many things you can do with it: present it to your
teachers, your family, emergency workers like fire fighters. Find out if you can display it
in the community somewhere. From here, you’ll want to start talking about how your
community can start to reduce its disaster risk, and how you can be more prepared.
Think of ways to identify people who would be vulnerable in a disaster and how they
can be helped to safety. What can children/youths do to help?
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Some tips
If your community is too big to fit into one risk map, you can form groups, each responsible
for mapping a specific area within the community. You could even work with other schools
in your community.
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Hazards might be different in different seasons. If so, different groups can make risk maps
for different reasons. You can also do a separate risk map for each hazard, instead of
combining all hazards in one map.
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Risk maps are always based on probability and sometimes very improbable things can
happen (these are called black swan events – try to figure out why!). This means that even if
your house and school are located in areas that are relatively safe, it makes sense to be
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prepared from disasters.
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Students from Baan Talae Nok and Kuan Sai Ngam schools in Thailand took part in a
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Disaster Risk Reduction Learning Camp. They performed several fun risk-smart activities,
including:
• A community survey, where children asked villagers about their knowledge and
experiences with disasters and risk reduction.
• Drawing risk and resources maps to show areas considered hazardous and safe for
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children during a tsunami.

• Presenting their maps to younger children as well as telling these children where to
run/evacuate if a tsunami comes.
Source: Baan Talae Nok Schoolchidren and Rabatbai Group (2008). The Alert Rabbit. Save the
Children Sweden – Southeast Asia and The Pacific Regional Office.
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#2: Making Murals and Exhibitions
It's cool. While preparing the mural or exhibition, you learn about a disaster-related topic in
a fun way. You get to be all creative, while offering something
useful to other students, your families and the whole
community.
WHAT YOU NEED:

It all depends on what you want to present and what is
available to you, because exhibition pieces can be any shape
and size you want. You could use:
• Medium- or large-size papers to make collages
• Different coloured pens, crayons, water or oil
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colours, paints (for murals)
• Scissors, rulers, glue
• Newspapers and magazines (to cut out articles of
interest, characters or photos)
• Printouts from the internet
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• Old pieces of fabric and cloth, threads or wool
• An exhibition space or a wall to draw your mural onto
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WHAT TO DO:
1. Brainstorm with your teacher and classmates what topic mural or exhibition will address
and who you want to present it to. For example, you could paint a mural by the
riverside to remind people to reduce the risk of flooding by not throwing garbage into
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the river, or you could put together an exhibition on the hazards faced by your
community.
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2. Do some research on your topic so that you can illustrate it in a way that will help
people understand what you are trying to show.
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3. Once you have enough information, think about how your mural or piece will look and
what materials you’ll need to make it and what information you are going to focus on.
4. Discuss where to put on the mural or exhibition with your teacher. It should be
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somewhere clearly visible and accessible to your intended audiences. Make sure you get
permission to paint your mural or hold your exhibition there.
5. Get creative in painting your mural or making your exhibition piece and don’t forget to
ask for help!
6. Get people involved! Send out invitations and put up posters to get people to go see
your mural or exhibition. Organize an opening ceremony for your mural or exhibition
and get as many people as possible to attend this event — everyone from your family to
community leaders. Try to get local radio stations to spread the word about your work.
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7. Prepare the exhibition space so you can present your pieces. Display or hang them so
they are clearly visible. Having some text explaining your piece (what it is about, by
whom it is made) will make it easier for people to appreciate your work. You and your
friends could also become exhibition guides, so there is always someone to answer
visitors’ questions. Think about a good day/time to open your exhibition. A special
occasion such as the International Day of Disaster Risk Reduction (October 13) might be
it.

Young people in Petapa, El Salvador, formed an emergency committee in the
aftermath of the 2001 earthquake. They organized an environmental education
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program to raise awareness on issues such as tree felling and the extraction of sand
and rocks from the river. They painted a mural on tree felling on school buildings and
put up signs to forbid the extraction of rocks and sand from the river.
Source: Mitchell, T., Tanner, T. and Haynes, K. (2009). Children as Agents of Change for Disaster
Risk Reduction: Lessons from El Salvador and the Philippines. Children in a Changing Climate
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Research.
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#3: Initiating and Supporting Risk Reduction Activities
You can initiate and support risk reduction activities in your community. You
can easily organize a community clean-up, plant trees or
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mangroves, collect rain water, and more.
WHAT YOU NEED:

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• Well, this depends very much on the activity.

• For a clean-up, you need bags or baskets to move
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the garbage to the designated waste disposal sites.

Working or household gloves might come handy.
Having a small cart, wheelbarrow or truck will
allow you to remove larger items more easily.
• To plant trees or mangroves, you need seedlings,
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shovels to dig holes and buckets to water the new

plants.
WHAT TO DO:
1. Start by looking at your risk map. Discuss with your teacher, classmates or family
what human activities make certain areas more risky. These may include clogging
of rivers and canals with garbage, cutting down of vegetation around landslide-
prone hills as well as harvesting of stones and gravel from rivers.
2. Make a list of what could and should be done to mitigate (minimize) risks in your
community. Here's an example:
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HAZARD WHAT MAKES IT MORE LIKELY WHAT COULD BE DONE
River flooding • Cutting down trees near the • Plant trees near the
river. river
• Throwing garbage in and near • Organize a garbage
the river clean-up
Tsunami • Cutting down barrier forests • Revitalize mangrove
and mangroves forest on coastline
Landslide • Soil erosion because of cutting • Plant bushes and trees
down of vegetation
3. Again, visit the people you consulted with when you made your risk map, like
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neighborhood associations, women’s groups, local government and NGOs. Ask
whether there are activities in your neighborhood/village/town that aim to
mitigate disaster risk. If such activities exist, go and help! With everything you’ve
learned, you will make the activities even more effective.
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4. If there are no such activities, organize some!
Some tips
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• You can use these activities to raise
awareness about behaviors that harm your
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environment and increase disaster risk in your
community.
• These activities can go well together with
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creating posters, murals, and signs to inform

community members of dangerous and
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hazardous practices and on how they could do

things more risk-smart.
• Some of these activities might need you to raise some money or ask for
donations. You can talk to local business owners and ask if they are willing to
support such projects.
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Children in Sumbawa Island, Indonesia, an area that is at high risk of volcanic eruptions
and floods, founded Sanggar Sinar Pajo (which means ‘children’s workshop’). Next to
raising the community’s awareness about flooding risk due to littering, the children
play an important role in ‘Sunday Cleaning’ activities. With their peers and adults, they
cleared the drainage ditch along the main road, the drainage inside the village as well
as places of worship in the community.
Source: UNISDR and Plan International (2012). Children’s Action for Disaster Risk Reduction:
Views from Children in Asia. UNISDR and Plan International
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Become Prepared
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#1: Where? When? How?
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This activity will help you prepare a disaster preparedness agenda so that you are
prepared wherever and whenever a hazard strikes. C
WHAT YOU NEED:
• Your risk map, if you have already made one
• A large piece of paper or several smaller pieces of paper, if you haven’t made a risk map
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• Pens or pencils, ideally of different colors
WHAT TO DO:
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1. List all the places you go to throughout the week. Indicate what time of day you are in
each place.
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2. Locate and mark those places in your risk map. If you don’t have a risk map yet, draw a
map of your community, which includes all the places in your list.
3. Discuss the hazards in your community and where you would be most at risk from those
hazards. You might have done this when you made your risk map. If not, go back to the
section on risk maps to see the kinds of information you will want to look into.
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4. Write down the hazards you’ve identified and associate them with the locations you
mapped out in step 1.
5. Add a column where you can write down the kinds of warning you would get for each
hazard at each place. Discuss your list with your teachers and parents.
6. Write down what you would do and where you would go if you get a warning for a
certain hazard at a certain location (see example below).
7. Put in your evacuation/safety routes for each location and each hazard into your risk
map.
Here’s an example of how your plan could look like
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MONDAY
Place Time Hazard Warning Action
School 8am – 2pm Earthquake Most likely no • Duck, cover, and hold
warning • When shaking is over, calmly
and cautiously leave the
school building
• Meet up with my classmates
at designated evacuation
point
Home 2pm – 4pm Tsunami Tsunami • Evacuate to hill closest to my
warning sirens, house
radio, TV, text
message
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Sports 4pm – 6pm Floods Sirens, word of • Evacuate to higher ground on
ground mouth, text the northwest side of sports
message ground
Grandma’s 6pm – 8pm Landslide Neighbors, fire • Evacuate through back door
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house fighters; of grandma’s house as soon
monitor hill as I spot warning signs for
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grandma’s • Warn neighbors and call fire
house in case department
of very heavy • Grab my and grandma’s
rain preparedness bag
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• Help grandma to evacuate
Some Tips
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• Discuss your list with your members – they might want to make such a list too. Discuss
where you would meet and how you would communicate with each other if any of
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these disasters happened.

• Discuss in class and with authorities on how warnings could be improved at different
places in your neighborhood/village/town.
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#2: Making A Family Disaster Preparedness Plan
You’ve learned a lot about hazards and how to be prepared for them, which means that you
can help your parents and siblings to make a preparedness plan.
WHAT YOU NEED:

Pens and paper
Your risk map
WHAT TO DO:
1. Take your time and make sure that all family members join in the discussion.
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2. Discuss which natural and man-made hazards are present around your home,
workplace, school, and play sites. Make a ‘Where? When? How?’ plan for each family
member.
3. Discuss how safe your house is and if it can withstand different disaster scenarios. Talk
about whether it is safer to stay inside the house or to evacuate in case a certain
disaster happens.
4. Check all rooms in the house for things that could be hazardous in case a disaster occurs
(for example, things that could cause a fire or could fall down and block exits). Make
sure that any dangerous materials are stored safely.
5. Draw a map of your house. Include detailed information, such as where the main
electrical box is and where the gas and water lines can be turned on and shut off.
6. Discuss and agree on the safest evacuation routes from each room in the house. Ideally,
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you should have two separate routes planned from each spot in the house. Discuss who
is responsible for helping family members who need assistance and how to help them
evacuate.
7. Discuss ways to make your house more resistant against hazards and what you can do to
prepare your house before a hazard strikes.
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8. Prepare emergency supplies, an emergency (or preparedness) bag or, at least, a list of
important things you need to bring in case a disaster strikes and you need to evacuate.
9. Map your surroundings. Think from where a hazard may come from the secondary
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hazards that might harm you when evacuating or prevent you from evacuating (large
trees and/or electrical lines that could fall, drenches and rivers that could flood, bridges
that be impassable, buildings that could collapse and more).
10. Decide on the best evacuation routes and where to evacuate for each hazard. Have
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more than one option for evacuations.
11. Decide where to meet or how to contact each other in case you get separated.
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12. Discuss what to do with your pets and/or livestock in case of disaster.
13. Make a list of people and institutions that can help in the event of a disaster. Write
down important phone numbers (fire fighters, police, ambulance, relatives, neighbors,
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doctors, utilities, etc.) and make a copy for each family

member. Save the numbers in your cellphones but have
them on paper as well.
14. Write down your plan. Make sure each family member is
oriented on their responsibilities, and that there is
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always someone to back up in case the person is away.

15. Review, and if needed, revise your plan after some time.
Some Tips:
• Agree on two meeting points:
• One right outside your house in case of a sudden
emergency, such as fire.
• One outside your neighborhood, in case you cannot
return home or are asked to evacuate.
• Practice evacuating from your home and neighborhood
twice a year (both on foot and in a vehicle).
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• Include your neighbors in your emergency planning. Maybe you can help each other in
case of an emergency.
• Agree on a relative or friend in a different village or town that you all can contact in case
you lose each other.
#3: Packing an Emergency Bag
You’ll need an emergency bag if you have to evacuate. Which of the following items would
you put into such a bag, and are there other items you would include?
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O
C
E D
Whatever else you decide, there are certain things that should be included in your
emergency bag:
• Important medicines and first aid items;
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• A source of light: flashlight, candles, and matches

• Some water and food;
• Important documents or copies of those documents;
• A bit of money;
• A change of clothes and a towel;
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• Some soap, a toothbrush and other hygiene items;

• If not too big and heavy, you can always pack one of your favorite toys,
books or trinkets; and
• A small battery-powered or wind-up radio to access information in case
electricity blacks out after the disaster.
Remember: If your house is in the hazard zone and you are already in a safe place, you
should not head home for the emergency bag! Also, a disaster might happen while you are
at school. Talk with your teacher about preparing emergency bag for school.
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#4: Making Disaster Warning Signs
By making signs, you can help inform people about hazards, hazardous spots and evacuation
routes in your area.
WHAT TO DO:
1. Think about which warnings you want to convey. This is best done by discussing which
hazards your community is facing and by identifying high-risk areas in your community.
Again, a risk map comes handy.
2. Think about the purpose of the warning signs:
• Historical markers: Do some research and learn about past disasters in your
community. Was there ever a tsunami or a flood in your
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neighbourhood/village/town? If yes, how high did the water go? Did a volcano ever
erupt in your town? If so, how far did the lava and ashes go? By marking those, you
can remind your community of which areas were affected in the past.
• Warning signs: Look around for hazardous spots and behaviors. You can mark hills
and slopes that are prone to landslides when the rainy season comes or make a sign
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for people to not cross the bridge once the river has risen above a certain mark.
• Marking evacuation routes: If the authorities have not done so, you can mark the
main evacuation routes from your neighborhood/village/town. This can be
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combined with marking safe zones or meeting points where people can gather after
an evacuation.
3. Warning signs can take different forms and shapes. You can paint them on walls or trees
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(you need permission to do so as well as the right kinds of paints and brushes or multi-
colored spray cans). You can make signs out of cardboards, using colored pencils or
markers and cover them with plastics to make them more weather resistant. You can
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even discuss with your teacher about making signs out of metal.
Remember that in a disaster situation, people are under stress. Make sure that the signs are
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very clearly visible, so that people would not miss them, even in a hectic situation. They
should also be able to withstand the forces of nature.
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Become Resilient
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#1: Purifying Water
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It is extremely important to make sure that the water you drink is not contaminated by
certain bacteria and contaminants, especially in a disaster when access to care may not
be easy. You should therefore learn how to purify water.
C
1. Remember that you should always have some clean water stored in your emergency
bag and at home for use in a disaster.
2. If you don’t have any clean water or have very little left, you can purify some. Carefully
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select your water source. Don’t use water that has floating material in it, water that has
any odor or water that has a dark color. These are all indications that the water is
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significantly contaminated and may be dangerous no matter what you do to filter it or

to kill the bacteria. On the other hand, a little dirt in the water can be easily cleaned out
and won’t hurt anyone.
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3. Clear the water from dirt. You can do this by giving it time (12–24 hours) to settle until
the dirt sets at the bottom of the container. Then, move the water above the dirt into
another clean container. If letting it settle takes too long, you can filter the water
through a clean cloth, tissue or a coffee filter.
4. The safest way to purify your water is by boiling it. Bring the water to boil until you see
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large bubbles forming. Boil it for another 5–10 minutes. If you’re afraid to lose too much
water to evaporation, use a lid. Remember that boiled water might not taste as good,
because it has lost oxygen. Move the water from one container to another to add
oxygen and make it taste better.
5. Another way to disinfect filtered and settled water is to use chlorine tablets, which can
be purchased in many places. This is something you might want to try with your teacher
at school first, before doing it at home with your parents.
6. You can also purify water with household bleach that is based on a chlorine compound.
It does not kill bacteria as effectively as boiling does, but it will get rid of most of them.
Ask your science or chemistry teacher on how to purify water with bleach.
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7. If none of the above methods are available to you, one method that only requires a few
clear plastic bottles and sunlight. This method utilizes the ultraviolet rays of the sun. Be
aware that it will not kill all bacteria, although it will give you water that is safer to drink
than the one you had before. Here is how it works:
• After you have filtered the water, you just need one clear plastic bottle with cap.
• Fill the bottle up until it is 75 per cent full, close it and then shake it for 30 seconds
to move oxygen into the water.
• Next, place the bottle horizontally on a flat surface like a rock or a rooftop, in a spot
where it can get direct sunlight. Ideally, the surface should be dark or reflective.
• Leave it there for a minimum of six hours. If the sunlight is indirect or it is cloudy,
leave the bottle for up to 24 hours.
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Some Tips:
• Try these methods at school with your science or chemistry teacher, so you
already know how to do them and know what’s safe, particularly when it comes
to using bleach or chlorine.
• Discuss the issue of clean water with your family when you make your family
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preparedness plan. Discuss how much water you want to have in your storage and
who is responsible for checking on the stock. Think about how large an issue clean
water might be in your community and which of the methods offers a solution that
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works for your family, both practically and economically.
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#2a: Putting on a puppet or theatre show
This is a great way to teach other children, parents or other community
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members about disaster resilience and preparedness!

Making your own finger or paper bag puppets
What you need:
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• Papers or a paper bag

• Scraps of fabric, wool thread
• Scissors and glue
• Colored pens
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• tape
WHAT TO DO:
1. Decide on how your puppet should look like. Will it be a person, an animal, a
superhero?
2. Draw its shape and outline on a piece of paper. If you are making a finger
puppet, make the body as long as about half your finger and draw the head on
top of it.
3. Cut out the shape of the puppet
4. Color and decorate your puppet. You can use scraps of fabric to make clothes for
your puppet and use wool threads for its hair.
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5. Glue parts of your puppet together.
6. For finger puppets, it’s fun to have more than one character on hand, so go
ahead and be creative in making different characters.
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#2b: Planning a Theatre Show
WHAT YOU NEED:
O
• Puppets, or costumes, which you can design using different things you find at
home or in school.
C
WHAT TO DO:
D
1. Discuss what topics you want to present at the show and think of who your audience
will be.
• If you want to talk about preparedness for example, your play could show how
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people should or should not behave when a disaster happens.

• After a disaster, if you have to live in an evacuation shelter for a while, you can
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make shows that teach people how to stay clean and healthy.
• You can also make shows to talk about your feelings after a disaster happens.
2. Like in movies, puppet and theatre shows need a script. Come up with an interesting
story to capture people’s attention. Since preparedness and resilience are serious
topics, put in some jokes that will lighten your audience’s heart and make them
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remember your messages better. Involving your audience in the play is often a good
way to make hem enjoy your performance.
3. Distribute roles: who will be the director, who will be responsible for costumes or
making puppets, who will be the actors and puppet players?
4. Rehearse, rehearse, rehearse!
5. Find a stage where you will perform your theatre play or puppet show. Invite people to
attend.
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#3: Sharing Experiences
When you experience a disaster, you feel a lot of things. Sometimes it is difficult to
talk about them with grown-ups. In such situations, you can try to put down your
feelings and thoughts on a postcard, a letter or in a picture, exchange them with
other children who have been affected by disasters, either in your region or in a
different region. Your teachers or parents will be happy to help find other children
you can share your experiences with. You might even end up having a penpal for the
rest of your life.
They Did It, So Can You!
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The code neighborhood in Yogyakarta, Indonesia, is located alongside a river. In the
aftermath of the 2010 eruption of Mount Merapi, lava floods affected the
neighborhood to the extent that the eastern and the western sides of the river were
cut off from each other. With the bridge impassable, children from the one side
could not communicate with their friends on the other side. With the help of a
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volunteer group, Cemara, children on both sides of the river wrote down their
experiences during and after the flood on postcards. They put the cards into
envelopes and then decorated the envelopes. The volunteers then delivered the
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cards to the children on the opposite side of the river.
Source: Interview with Ayu Diasti Rahmawati, October 2013

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Another way to share your experiences is by writing down stories or composing
songs. You can either come up with entirely new stories and songs, adapt existing
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stories, or create new song lyrics for an existing song. They can help you to share
how you feel and what you’ve gone through during a disaster or tell the story of how
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you managed to, or tried to, get back to normal. They can also convey messages on
what you learned from the disaster and how to be better prepared if another one
should occur.
They Did It, So Can You!

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In Sri Lanka, after the 2004 tsunami, children adapted a folk song/tale to become a
song/tale about the different disasters the country has faced.
In Ecuador, in 1993, children composed new lyrics to a song to make it about earthquake
warnings. The song was a success and was even played on the radio.
Sources:
Benson, L. and Bugge, J. Child-led Disaster Risk Reduction: A Practical Guide. Save the Children.
UNISDR and UNICEF (2007). Let's Learn How to Prevent Disasters.
UNISDR and UNICEF.
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#4: Improving Your School Safety
As a student, you should get involved in improving the safety of your school. After a
disaster happens, you can help in rebuilding and redecorating your school and to
make sure that it is built on a safe place and is constructed resiliently. You spend a
lot of time at school and therefore know what kind of school you want. It is just fair
that you get included in the planning process when your school gets retrofitted,
relocated or reconstructed. It is always great to learn from a real life project (not
textbooks).
They Did IT, So Can You!
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In the Philippines, students of the Santa Paz National High School in the town of
Guinsaugon managed to advocate for the relocation of their school, which was
situated in a location prone to landslides. The Department of Education
recommended the relocation, but there was resistance from the community, which
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felt that the ‘vague warning’ were not enough reason for a costly move. The students
engaged school authorities and organized an education campaign, their head teacher
organized a community-wide referendum for the relocation plan. Because of the
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persuasion of the students, the students’ proposal won and the school was
successfully relocated, to a new school that was built with a disaster-resilient design.
Source: Plan UK (2010). Child-Centered Disaster Risk Reduction: Building Resilience through
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Participation, Lessons from Plan International. Plan UK.
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X. WHAT TO EXPECT BETWEEN THE STATE AND
THE CITIZENS
Supplementary
NDRRMC (n.d.) National Disaster Risk Reduction and Management Plan (NDRRMP) 2011-2028.
Available at http://www.ndrrmc.gov.ph/attachments/article/41/NDRRM_Plan_2011-
2028.pdf
Department of Social Welfare and Development. (2014, May). Psychosocial Support In Emergency
Settings.
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Department of Social Welfare and Development. (2014). Disaster Risk Reduction & Management for
DSWD.
Department of Social Welfare and Development. (n.d.). Family and Community Disaster
Preparedness (FCDP) Modules.
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Department of Social Welfare and Development. (n.d.). Retooling On Logistics Management for
Disaster Operations.
C
E D
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D
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Philippine Disaster Risk Reduction and Management
System (PDRRMS)
NDRRMC
Office of Civil Defense
As in Disaster Risk Reduction and Management Manual for Science and Mathematics Teachers, Department of
Science and Technology-Science Education Institute (DOST-SEI), pp.1-28.
Objectives:
At the end of this module, the teachers are expected to:
1. Understand the Republic Act 10121: The Philippine Disaster Risk Reduction Management (DRRM) Act of
2010;
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2. Enumerate the Disaster Impacts in the Philippines and the Global Trends of a Disaster; and
3. Explain the RA 10121 legal framework, Its Institutional and Operational Arrangements, NDRRMC
Program Thrusts, DRRM Framework and the role of LGUs under the new Act.
Introduction:
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This module will provide the teachers with sufficient working knowledge on the Philippine Disaster Risk
Reduction Management System, its legal basis, institutional as well as operational frameworks and program
thrusts. C
It will also bring to the fore the intrinsic relationship between disasters and sustainable development, poverty
reduction and environmental protection and the imperatives of a more proactive approach through disaster risk
reduction and management as called for under RA 10121.
D
A review of significant milestones and worldwide trends in disaster occurrence, regional distribution, and links
to global trends such as persistent poverty, environmental degradation and growing urban density will also be
done in this module as these will have significantly influenced the evolution of the country‟s disaster
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management system, including approaches/strategies.
A. Our Challenge
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• Disasters remain a major challenge to achieve a disaster-resilient and safer community in the
Philippines by 2015
• Natural hazards abound: typhoon, flood, landslide, earthquake, tsunami, volcanic eruption, drought,
etc.
• Climate change remains a potential risk to the country and poverty, a vulnerability condition, prevails.
• Further, we can attribute increase in disaster risk to fast growing population, increasing population
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densities, urbanization, environmental degradation and pollution.
B. Impacts of Disasters in the Philippines
From 1970 – 2009, the annual average direct damage to disasters ranged from PhP5 Billion to PhP15 Billion
(US $100 Million to US $300 Million), indirect and secondary impacts further increase this cost. This cost of
direct damage is equivalent to more than 0.5% of the national GDP.
Annual average casualties due to natural disasters is 1,002.

Flooding is the topmost disaster during the last five years.
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B.1 Impacts of the LastQuarter Tropical Cyclones of 2009: TS „Ondoy‟, TY „Pepeng‟ and TY
„Santi‟
 Twelve regions of Central, Northern and Southern Luzon were affected by these weather disturbances.
Casualties accounted for are: 956 persons dead; 84 were missing and 736 were injured.
• Out of the 43.2 million population in the affected regions, 9.3 million were severely affected by these
storms.
• Total estimated damage and losses is PhP 206 Billion or USD 4.38 Million. This is about 2.7% of the
country‟s GDP.
• More than 90% of the damage and losses were suffered by the private sector. Biggest damage is to
housing at PhP 25.5 Billion and largest loss is businesses at PhP 88.9 Billion.
B.2 Disasters and Development

• On January 2005, a World Conference on Natural Disaster Reduction Declaration was held in Kobe,
Japan.
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There it was noted: “… that disaster seriously undermine the results of development investments in very
short time, and therefore, remain a major impediment to sustainable development and poverty reduction…”
“… that coping with and reducing disasters so as to enable and strengthen nations‟ sustainable
development is, therefore, one of the most critical challenges facing the international community
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Further, during the WCNDR Declaration it was also mentioned that:
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“… Disaster risks, hazards, and their impacts pose a threat, but appropriate response to these can and
should lead to actions to reduce risks and vulnerabilities in the future…”
“… States have the primary responsibility to protect the people and property on their territory from
hazards, and thus, it is vital to give high priority to disaster risk reduction in national policy, consistent with
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their capacities and the resources available to them…
The following was also highlighted in the WCNDR Declaration:

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“… There exists an intrinsic relationship between disaster reduction, sustainable development and
poverty reduction…”
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“… Recognized the importance of involving all stakeholders including governments, regional and
international organizations and financial institutions, civil society, including non- government organizations and
volunteers, the private sector and the scientific community…
• World Bank also offers a clear link between disasters and development:
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“… Disasters are more of a development issue rather than humanitarian issue…”
“… Disasters can reverse hard-won development gains, clearly illustrating the relationships
between poverty reduction, environmental degradation and vulnerability to disasters, and therefore the
capacity or lack of it lies at the heart of reducing the risk of disaster…”
C. Function of Hazard, Vulnerability and Capacity
Risk is the combination of probability of an event and its negative consequences, the probability of harmful
consequences, or expected losses (deaths, injuries, properties, livelihood, economic activity disruption or
environmental damage) resulting from interactions between natural, human- induced hazards and vulnerable
conditions ( RA 10121 & IRR)
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C.1 Factors determining Disaster Risk:
The different factors determining Disaster Risk in which under the HAZARD (probability and severity),
VULNERABILITY/EXPOSURE (Physical, Social, Economic and Environmental) and CAPACITY
MEASURES (Physical Planning, Social Capacity, Economic Capacity and Management/Governance).
C.2 Gaps and Issues
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REFERENCE: 2008 National Assessment of the State of Disaster Risk Management in the Republic of the
Philippines.
• Absence of strong legal and institutional framework for DRM;

• The Medium –Term Philippine Development Plan (MTPDP), which is the country‟s main instrument
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of economic development, addresses DRR issues in investment projects in various sectors but
there‟s no express policy statement on DRR and its role in sustainable development and attainment of
the UNMDGs; C
• Comprehensive land use plans (CLUPs), comprehensive development plans (CDPs) and zoning of
most local government units have not substantially integrated DRR;
• National and local calamity funds are mostly allocated for emergency operations and repair of
damaged critical facilities; only a small amount is for DRR programs;
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• Local Disaster Management Office is not one of the mandatory nor optional offices of a
Local Government Unit, and
• Institutional capacity of some national government agencies and most LGUs is still weak, and
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• Need to synchronize disjointed DRR policies and programs of national government agencies and non-
government organizations.
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D. Republic Act No. 10121
An Act Strengthening the Philippines Disaster Risk Reduction and Management System, providing for the
National Disaster Risk Reduction and Management Framework and Institutionalizing the National Disaster Risk
Reduction and Management Plan, appropriate funds therefore and for other purposes.
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Road Map of RA No. 10121 with 21 years in the making, 7 Congress, 4 Administration and official Signed into
a Law on May 27, 2010.
D.1 The National Disaster Risk Reduction Management Framework (NDRRMF)
• It‟s our conceptual guide to all national and sub-national efforts in DRRM
• It develops common understanding of DRRM
• Shifts the country‟s paradigm and approach from reactive, humanitarian response oriented
management of disasters to a proactive, vulnerability reduction and development approach to disasters.
Disaster Management From a reactive, humanitarian response oriented

management of disasters
Disaster Risk Reduction To a proactive, vulnerability reduction and
development approach to disasters
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• This DRRM framework indicates the paradigm shift towards a proactive and preventive approach to
disaster management.
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• It emphasizes that resources invested in disaster prevention, mitigation, preparedness and climate
change adaptation will be more effective towards attaining the goal of adaptive, disaster resilient
communities and sustainable development.
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• The Framework shows that mitigating the potential impacts of existing disaster and climate risks,
preventing hazards and small emergencies from becoming disasters, and being prepared for disasters,
will substantially reduce loss of life and damage to social, economic and environmental assets.
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• It also highlights the need for effective and coordinated humanitarian assistance and disaster response
to save lives and protect the more vulnerable groups during and immediately after a disaster.
• Further, it illustrates the importance of identifying the risk factors and understanding how the interplay
of these risk factors can translate into disasters if left unabated or unmanaged.
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VISION:
Safer, adaptive and disaster-resilient Filipino communities
towards sustainable development
D.2 The Salient Features of RA 10121
1. Policy Statements and Terminologies on DRRM (Secs. 2 & 3)

2. Institutional Mechanisms (Secs. 5 – 12)
- DRRMCs (National, Regional, Provincial, City and Municipal Levels and Barangay Development
Council at the the barangay level);
- Office of Civil Defense
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- Permanent Office on DRRM at the LGU Level; Barangay DRRM Committee
- Disaster Volunteers
3. Operational Mechanisms (Secs. 15 – 18)
- Coordination during Emergencies
- Declaration of a State of Calamity
- Remedial Measures
- Mechanism for the IHAN
4. Participation, Accreditation, Mobilization, Protection and Development of Disaster Volunteers
5. Training and Education in DRR
- Establishment of DRRM Training Institutes
- Mandatory Training in DRR for Public Sector Employees
- Integration of DRR in school curricula, training for out-of-school youth, Sangguniang Kabataan,
and informal training
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6. Funding
7. Prohibited Acts
8. Penal Provisions
D.3 The Policies under RA 10121
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Policies (Sec. 2)
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1. Upholding people‟s rights to life and property and adherence to internationally accepted principles,
norms and standards for capacity building in DRRM and humanitarian assistance (Sub-Sections a – c);
2. Adoption of a holistic, comprehensive, integrated , proactive and multi-sector approach in addressing
the impacts of disasters, including climate change (Sub-Section d);
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3. Development, promotion and implementation of a comprehensive National Disaster Risk
Reduction and Management Plan (NDRRMP) (Sub-Section e);
4. Mainstreaming DRR and Climate Change in national and local development plans and development
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processes (e.g. policy formulation, socio-economic development planning, budgeting and governance)
(Sub-Sections f, g and h);
5. Mainstreaming DRR into the peace process and conflict resolution (Sub-Section i);
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6. Ensuring DRR and CC-Gender responsive measures, sensitive to indigenous knowledge and respect to
human rights (Sub-Section j);
7. Strengthening capacity building of –
 LGUs on DRR (e.g. decentralized powers, responsibilities, resources) (Sub-Sections k and l),
and
 Vulnerable and marginalized groups (Sub-Section n);
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8. Engaging the participation of CSOs, private sector and volunteers in DRR (Sub-Section m);
9. Promotion of breastfeeding before and during a disaster or emergency (Sub-Section o) and
10. Ensuring maximum care, assistance and services to affected individuals and families (Sub- Section p)
D.4 Powers and Functions of the NDRRMC
Section 6.
NDRRMC empowered with policy-making, coordination, integration, supervision, monitoring and evaluation
functions to be carried out through seventeen (17) tasks/ responsibilities.
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The 17 Responsibilities of NDRRMC
1. Development of NDRRM 8. Manage and mobilize 14. In coordination with the CCC,
Framework resources formulate and implement a
2. Development of NDRRM Plan 9. Monitor and provide framework for CCA and DRRM
guidelines on LDRRMF
3. Advise the President on the 10. Develop assessment tools in 15. Constitute a TMG that shall
status of DRRM in the country coordination with the coordinate and meet as often
4. Ensure a multi-stakeholder Climate Change Commission as necessary
participation (CCC) 16. Task the OCD to conduct
5. Establish a national early 11. Develop vertical and periodic assessment and
warning and alert system horizontal coordination performance monitoring of
mechanisms the member-agencies
6. Develop appropriate risk 12. Formulate national 17. Coordinate or oversee the
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transfer mechanisms institutional capability implementation of the
building program country’s obligations with
7. Monitor the development and 13. Formulate a national agenda disaster management treaties
enforcement of the Act for Research and Tech
Development on DRRM
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Disaster Risk Reduction and Management Council Organizational Network
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17 Regional Disaster Risk Reduction and Management Councils
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79 Provincial Disaster Risk Reduction and Management Councils
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122 City Disaster Risk Reduction and Management Councils

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1,512 Municipal Disaster Risk Reduction and Management Councils
42,026 Barangay Disaster Risk Reduction and Management Committees

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RA No. 10121
I. The National Disaster Risk Reduction and Management Council (NDRRMC)

Organizational Chart in which the Secretary of National Defense act as the Chairman of
NDRRMC with Four (4) Vice-Chairpersons namely: DILG-Disaster Preparedness, DSWD-Disaster
Response, DOST-Disaster Prevention and Mitigation and NEDA- Disaster Rehabilitation and
Recovery.
With Thirty-Nine (39) member agencies:

 Fourteen (14) line departments (DOH, DENR, DA, DepEd, DOE, DOF, DTI, DOTC, DBM,
DPWH, DFA, DOJ, DOLE and DOT)
 Twelve (12) other government agencies / offices ( Office of the Executive Secretary, OPAPP,
CHED, AFP, PNP, Office of the Press Secretary, NAPC- VDC, NCRFW, HUDCC, Climate
Change Commission, PHILHEALTH and OCD)
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 Two (2) GFIs ( GSIS and SSS)
 One quasi-government agency (Philippine Red Cross)
 Five (5) LGU Leagues (ULAP, LPP, LCP, LMP and LnB)
 Four (4) Civil Society Organizations
 One (1) Private Sector Organization
 Executive Director: OCD Administrator with the rank of Undersecretary
II. The Regional Disaster Risk Reduction and Management Council (RDRRMC)
Organizational Chart in which the Regional Director, OCD act as the Chairperson of RDRRMC with
Four (4) Vice-Chairpersons namely: RD-DILG-Disaster Preparedness, RD-DSWD-Disaster
Response, RD-DOST-Disaster Prevention and Mitigation and RD-NEDA- Disaster Rehabilitation and
Recovery.
With Thirty-Six (36) member agencies:

 Fourteen (14) line departments: DOH, DENR, DA, DepEd, DOE, DOF,DTI, DOTC, DBM,
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DPWH, DFA, DOJ, DOLE and DOT
 Ten (10) other government agencies: OPAPP, CHED, AFP, PNP, PRC, NAPC-VDC, NCRFW,
HUDCC, Climate Change Commission, and Phil. Health Corp.
 Two (2) GFIs: GSIS, SSS
 Five (5) LGU Leagues: ULAP, LPP, LCP, LMP, LnB
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 Four (4) Reps from the Civil Society Organizations
 One (1) Rep from the Private Sector
Secretariat: OCD Regional Office

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RDRRMCs, MMDRRMC and ARMM RDRRMC may invite other concerned institutions,
organizations, agencies and instrumentalities in the private and public sector when deemed necessary to
perform their mandate (IRR)
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In the case of the Autonomous Region for Muslim Mindanao (ARMM)
 Chairperson: Regional Governor, ARMM
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 Vice-Chairpersons: Regional Secretaries of the DSWD-ARMM for Disaster Response, the

DILG-ARMM for Disaster Preparedness, and the DOST-ARMM for Disaster Mitigation and
Prevention, and the Executive Director of the Regional Planning and Development Office
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(RPDO) for Disaster Rehabilitation and Recovery (IRR as of Sept. 15, 20101)
In the case of Metro Manila (IRR)
 Chairperson: Chairman, Metro Manila Development Authority (in keeping with RA 7924)
 Vice-Chairpersons:
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Disaster Preparedness: OCD Civil Defense Officer designated as Regional Director of the National
Capital Region (NCR) or as may be determined by the MMDRRMC Chair
Other Vice-Chairpersons on Response, Prevention and Mitigation, and Rehabilitation and

Recovery: as may be determined by the MMDRRMC Chair
 Members: Executives of MMDA departments/offices and/or regional offices or field stations

operating in the National Capital Region
Functions of RDRRMC
1. Coordinate, integrate, supervise, and evaluate the activities of the LDRRMCs;
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2. Except for the policy making function of the NDRRMC, the RDRRMCs shall likewise carry out
coordination, integration, supervision, monitoring and evaluation functions covering Regional Council
Member Agencies (IRR);
3. Be responsible in ensuring disaster sensitive regional development plans, and in case of emergencies,
shall convene the different regional line agencies and concerned institutions and authorities;
4. Establish an operating facility to be known as the Regional Disaster Risk Reduction and Management
Operations Center (RDRRMOC), and
5. Through the RDRRMC Chairperson, may tap the facilities and resources of other government
agencies and private sectors, for the protection of life and properties in pursuit of disaster risk
reduction and management (IRR)
III. The Provincial/City/Municipal and Barangay Disaster Risk Reduction and Management
Council (LDRRMC)
Composition:
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• Chairperson: Governor / Mayor
• Members: Eighteen (18)
- Local Planning and Development Officer;
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- Head of the LDRRMO;
- Head of the Local Social Welfare and Development Office;
- Head of the Local Health Office;
- Head of the Local Agriculture Office;
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- Head of the Gender and Development Office;
- Head of the Local Engineering Office, Head of the Local Veterinary Office;
- Head of the Local Budget Office;
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- Division Head / Superintendent of Schools of the DepEd;
- Highest-ranking Officer of the Armed Forces of the Philippines assigned in the area;
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- Provincial Director/City/Municipal Chief of the Philippine National Police (PNP);

- Provincial Director/City/ Municipal Fire Marshall of the Bureau of Fire Protection (BFP);
- President of the Association of Barangay Captains (ABC);
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- Philippine Red Cross (PRC);

- Four (4) accredited Civil Society Organizations (CSOs), and
- One (1) private sector representative
- The Local Council can include other agencies as necessary (IRR)
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- Barangay Level
- Present BDCCs shall cease to exist; its powers and functions to be assumed by the
Barangay Development Council (BDC) which shall serve as the Barangay DRRMC
- BDRRMC shall be a regular committee of the existing BDC and shall be subject thereto.
- Punong Barangay shall facilitate and ensure the participation of at least two (2) CSO
representatives from existing and active community-based people‟s organizations
representing the most vulnerable and marginalized groups in the barangay.
Functions of LDRRMCs and BDCs

1. Approve, monitor and evaluate the implementation of the LDRRMPs and regularly review and test the plan
consistent with other national and local planning programs;
2. Ensure the integration of disaster risk reduction and climate change adaptation into local development
plans, programs and budgets as a strategy in sustainable development and poverty reduction;
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3. Recommend the implementation of forced or preemptive evacuation of local residents, if necessary; and
4. Convene the local council once every three (3) months or as necessary.
Local Disaster Risk Reduction and Management Office (LDRRMO)
 LDRRMO to be established in every Province, City and Municipality, and Barangay Disaster
Risk Reduction and Management Committee in every barangay.
 LDRRMO / BDRRM Committee Responsibilty - setting the direction, development,
implementation and coordination of disaster risk management programs within their territorial
jurisdiction.
 LDRRMO shall be under the office of the governor, city or municipal mayor, and the punong barangay
in case of the BDRRMC. The LDRRMOs shall be initially organized and composed of a DRRMO to
be assisted by three (3) staff responsible for: (1) administrative and training; (2) research and planning;
and (3) operations and warning. The LDRRMOs and the BDRRMCs shall organize, train and directly
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supervise the local emergency response teams and the Accredited Community Disaster Volunteers
(ACDV).
RA 10121 Disaster Volunteers (Section 13)

 Mobilization of DVs by government agencies, CSOs, private sector and LGUs to augment their
respective personnel complement and resource requirement
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 Enhancement, welfare and protection of DVs shall be the full responsibility of said agencies
 Maintenance of National Roster of ACDVs, NSRC, CSOs and Private Sector by OCD, list of which
shall be submitted through the LDRRMOs
 Accreditation to be done at the municipal / city level / agency
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 DV mobilization to be based on guidelines to be issued by the NDRRMC
 Entitlement to compensatory benefits / accident personnel insurance
OFFICE OF CIVIL DEFENSE- LEGAL BASIS

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Institutional Arrangements
Office of Civil Defense
LEGAL BASIS
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PD No. 1566, S – 1978 PD No. 1 / LOI NO. 19, S-1972


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One of the five (5) bureaus of DND (PD No. 1

as implemented by LOI No. 19, s-1972, and
DND Order Nos. 737 and 737-A, s-1973)
 Official established on July 1, 1973
 Has the primary task of coordinating the
activities and functions of various
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government agencies and instrumentalities,

private institutions and civic organizations
The operating arm and secretariat of the for the protection and preservation of life
National Disaster Coordinating Council and property during emergencies
The legal mandate of OCD:

 Supervision, integration, coordination, monitoring and evaluation of functions of various government
agencies and instrumentalities, private institutions and civic organizations nationwide for the
protection and preservation of life and property during emergencies;
 Operating arm and secretariat of the NDRRMC with the Secretary of National Defense as the
Chairman, the Administrator of the OCD as Executive Director, NDRRMC, and the Regional
Directors of the OCD as chairpersons of the RDRRMCs
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Vision:
 A service-oriented organization
 A prepared population
 A safe nation
Mission:
To administer a comprehensive national civil defense and civil assistance program by providing leadership in
the continuous development of measures to reduce risk to communities and manage the consequences of
disasters.
PRIMARY FUNCTION OF OCD UNDER RA 10121

 Overseeing the development of tools and mechanisms by NDRRMC members for use of the National
Council‟s policy making, decision-making processes
 Coordination, Integration of DRRM P / P / A
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 Training and Education in DRRM
 Disaster Volunteer Management
 Monitoring and Evaluation
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OPERATIONAL MECHANISM AND SUPPORT SYSTEM
The National Disaster Risk Reduction and Management Center

(NDRRMC OpCen)
• Operates on a 24/7 basis
 Center for coordination of all pre- and post-disaster
operational activities
 Provides and disseminates disaster response and
population preparedness guidelines
 Facilitates effective management of the consequences of
disasters or emergency situations requiring interventions of
national agencies in order to minimize adverse effects of disasters
• Central command and control facility
 It does not normally control field assets and leaves tactical decisions to local disaster coordinating
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councils (DRRMCs)
The NDRRMC
OpCen
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During emergencies, the NDRRMC
Operations Center (NDRRMC OpCen) is
activated into an NDRRMC Emergency C
Operations Center (EOC) and becomes the
nerve center for:
• alert and monitoring
• multi-agency operational
 coordination
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• response resource mobilization
• information management
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The NDRMMC OpCen
Alert and Monitoring

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 Provides warning (NDRRMC Advisories)

 Monitors the probable consequences of potential and post disaster events and ongoing emergency
situation
 Alerts available response units
 Monitors the transition from emergency response and relief to recovery phase.
Operational Coordination
 Allocates working stations for pre-identified NDRRMC-member agency representatives
 Facilitates the conduct of a multi-agency debriefing of post disaster situations
 Promotes a synergistic multi-agency approach
 Facilitates the provision of support to operational units
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C
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The NDRRMC OpCen

• Response Coordination & Resource Mobilization
E
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 Maintains an updated database of all available response resources in the country

 Formulates mobilizations SOPs for the response resources and operational support arrangements
 Facilitates the conduct of a post mobilization debriefing for all units deployed and utilized
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Information Management
 Maintains an updated database of relevant baseline information
 Collects, collates, validates, analyzes information and undertakes appropriate steps to be taken based
on pre-delegated tasks and responsibilities
 Documents all past disasters situations to include a review of the pre and post disaster activities
undertaken by all key actors
 Maintains a database of these documents
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TOOLS THAT WE USE:

 NDRRMC coordination structure adopting the cluster approach (coordination mechanism)
• National Warning and Alert System (NWAS)
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• Geographic Information System, satellite images/space-based technologies (Sentinel Asia,

International Charter, UN-SPIDER)
Humanitarian Response
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UN Cluster Approach has been adopted by the NDRRMC as a coordination tool to ensure a more
coherent and effective delivery of humanitarian assistance by mobilizing groups of agencies, organizations,
and NGOs to respond in a strategic manner across all key sectors or areas of activity.
Cluster GoP Lead UN-IASC Lead

Food and Non-Food Items DSWD WFP
Camp Management DSWD IOM
Shelter and Livelihood DSWD IFRC
WASH, Health, Nutrition, & Psychosocial DOH UNICEF, WHO
Logistics and Emergency Telecommunications OCD WFP
Education DepEd UNICEF
Agriculture DA FRO
Early Recovery OCD UNDP
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INSTITUTIONAL AND OPERATIONAL ARRANGEMENTS
Disaster Response Mechanism- Support Systems
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 Declaration of a State of Calamity by the President of the Philippines or the LGU through its Local
Sanggunian (NDCC Memo Order No. 8, S-1989; Sec. 324(d), LGC of 1991)
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• National and Local Calamity Funds (Annual GAA; Sec. 324 (d), LGC of 1991)
• Imposition of price control for prime commodities and prevention of hoarding of said commodities by
DTI (NDCC Memo Order No. 8, S-1989)
• Grant of calamity loans to GSIS, SSS and PAG-IBIG Members
• Release of calamity funds to relief and rehabilitation agencies as necessary
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 Waiver of charges/taxes/customs duties on importation/donations intended for affected areas,

subject to certain requirements provided for under an MOU on the International Humanitarian
Assistance (IHAN) among the Secretaries of DND, DOH, DOTC, DOJ, DOF and DFA dated 15
February 2007 and NDCC Circular No. 02, S-2008 on the Revised Implementing Guidelines of the
said MOU.
Bilateral and Multilateral Agreements

 ASEAN Agreement on Disaster Management and Emergency
Response (AADMER)
 UN Oslo Guidelines on “The Use of Foreign Military and Civil
Defense Assets in Disaster Relief”
 APC MADRO which refers to the draft Guidelines for the “Facilitation of Foreign Military Assistance
to Disaster Relief Operations in the Asia-Pacific Region”
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Partnership Agreements
 Private Sector Disaster Management Network (PSDMN)
 Philippine Institute of Civil Engineers (PICE)
 Association of Structural Engineers of the Philippines (ASEP)
 Tiger Civic Action Group (TCAG)
 Association of Contractors and Equipment Lessors (ACEL)
 Private Hospitals Association of the Philippines (PHAP)
 Others
OTHER NEW FEATURES OF THE PDRRMS UNDER RA 10121
Training and Education in DRR

 Integration of DRR Education in School Curricula at the Secondary and Tertiary Levels, NSTP,
Sanggunian Kabataan; Mandatory Training in DRR for Public Sector Employees, including formal
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and non-formal, vocational, indigenous learning and out-of-school youth courses and programs (Sec.
13)
 Approaches /Strategies (IRR)
- CSC to issue a directive to all national and local government agencies for the mandatory training
of public sector employees
- Train-the Trainers Approach
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- Standard Training Designs and Training Materials
Operational Mechanism C
Mechanism for International Humanitarian Assistance (Sec. 18)
 Authorizing the importation and donation of food, clothing, medicine, equipment for relief and
recovery and other DM and recovery-related supplies in accordance with the Tariff and Customs Code
and GAA
 Importation and donation to be considered as importation / donation to the NDRRMC, subject to the
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approval of the Office of the President
Funding
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 National Level
- National DRM and Recovery Fund (formerly known as the National Calamity Fund) can be used
for DRR or mitigation, prevention and preparedness activities (e.g. but not limited to training of
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personnel, procurement of equipment and capital expenditures; can be used for relief, recovery
and reconstruction activities)
- Quick Response Fund (QRF) - 30% of the NDRMRF as standby fund for relief and recovery
programs
- PHP One Billion Pesos budget of OCD to implement RA 10121
 Local Government Level
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- Local DRRM Fund – not less than 5% of the estimated revenue from the regular sources can now
be used to support DRM activities such as, but not limited to:
 Pre-disaster preparedness programs, e.g. training purchase of lifesaving rescue
equipment, supplies, medicines;
 Post-disaster activities, and
 Payment of Premiums on calamity insurance
o 30% of the local DRRM Fund shall be allocated as Quick Response Fund or stand-by
fund for relief and recovery programs
o Special Trust Fund – Unexpended LDRRMF to support DRRM activities within the next
five (5) years; after 5 years if not fully utilized, it shall revert back to the General Fund
and made available for other social services to be identified by the Local Sanggunian
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NDRRMC TRUST
The Strategic National Action Plan (SNAP) on Disaster Risk Reduction
 A „road map‟ for the next 10 years pursuing the strategic goals of the Hyogo Framework for Action
(HFA) 2005-2015: Building the Resilience of Communities and Nations to Disasters, AADMER.
 Enabling stakeholders to see the larger whole, through the lens of national safety or resilience.
 Ensuring mechanisms are in place to mainstream activities into development planning adhering to the
HFA‟s expected outcome, strategic goals, and priorities.
 Institutionalizing DRR into policies and day-to-day business.
 The SNAP document identifies the priorities, strategies, activities, timelines, resource requirements,
and implementing entities.
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SNAP STRATEGIC OBJECTIVES:

1. Enabling Environment: Adopt a responsive policy and legal framework which creates an enabling
environment for all Filipino citizens and the government and guides them towards reducing losses
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from disaster risk.

2. Financial and Economic Soundness: Pursue cost-effective ways and means to off-set socio-economic
losses from disasters and prepare the nation for disaster recovery.
3. Supportive Decision-Making for an Enlightened Citizenry: Use the best available and practicable
tools and technologies from social and natural sciences to support decisions by stakeholders in
avoiding, preventing, and reducing disaster impacts.
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4. Safety and Well-Being Enhancement: Increase capacity, reduce vulnerability and achieve improved
public safety and well-being.
5. Implementation and Evaluation of DRR: Monitor and assess progress on DRR and prepare better for
disasters in terms of identified risks and early warning.
SNAP PRIORITY PROGRAMS AND PROJECTS

1. Governance: Disaster Risk Management Act
2. Multi-stakeholder Dialogues on Disaster Risk Reduction
3. Institutionalization of Disaster Management Office
4. Enhancing Capacity Development for Local Disaster Coordinating Councils
5. Mainstreaming DRR into the Peace Process
6. Mainstreaming DRR in Various Government Plans and Programs
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7. Public-Private Partnership
8. Resource Mobilization
9. Information and Database Generation
10. Knowledge Management
11. Supporting DRR Mainstreaming through Sectoral Approach
12. Preparedness for Effective Disaster Response
13. Information, Education and Communication (IEC) Campaign
14. Institutional and Technical Capacity Building
15. Education and Research
16. Forecasting and Early Warning
17. Risk Evaluation
18. Development of Tools for Assessment and Monitoring of DRR Measures
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NDCC Four-Point Plan of Action for Disaster Preparedness
Upgrade capability of PAGASA and PHIVOLCS
• Improve equipment and staff development
• Establish linkages and networking with foreign forecasting institutions covering the Pacific Rim and
South China Sea
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• Install rainfall and water level gauges
Intensify Public Information Campaign on Preparedness
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• Conduct of Nationwide Synchronized Building Emergency Evacuation Plan (BEEP) drills; Tsunami
and Earthquake Drills
• Airing of “Safe Ka Ba?”; Disaster Management School on-air
• Production and distribution of flyers on related hazards
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Enhance Capabilities for LCEs and their DCCs in identified vulnerable areas
• Orient LCEs on Disaster Risk Management and the Use of LCF
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• Conduct of Contingency Planning Workshops

• Train local responders on MFR, CSSR, and WASAR
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Strengthen Mechanisms for Government and Private Sector Partnership

• Forging of MOAs with PSDMN, ACEL, CDAG, DMAPS
SIGNIFICANT MILESTONES IN DRRM

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Hyogo Framework for Action 2005 – 2015

Building the Resilience of Nations and Communities to Disasters
 Result of the World Conference on Disaster Reduction

 (WCDR) 18-22 January 20015, Kobe, Hyogo Japan
 Provides the conceptual basis, strategic goals, and a set of
priorities for action in the area of disaster risk reduction
 Represents the collective commitment of governments,
regional and UN organizations, local authorities, NGOs, and
experts
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ASEAN Agreement on Disaster Management and Emergency Response (AADMER)
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 Initiated in mid „04, mandate given 3 weeks before the
December 26, 2004 Indian Ocean Tsunami
 Draft negotiated in „05 within 4 months

C Signed by Foreign Ministers of ASEAN on 26
July 2005 in Vientiane, Lao PDR
 Ratified by all AMS as of September 17, 2009
 Entry into force on December 24, 2009

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The first ever HFA-related binding instrument in the world
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Objective: To provide effective mechanisms to achieve substantial reduction of disaster losses in lives and in
the social, economic and environmental assets of the Parties, and to jointly respond to disaster emergencies
through concerted national efforts and intensified regional and international cooperation
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REFERENCES:
• REPUBLIC ACT 10121-THE PHILIPPINE DISASTER RISK REDUCTION AND

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MANAGEMENT(DRRM) ACT OF 2010

• Strategic National Action Plan ( SNAP)
• Hyogo Framework for Action ( 2005-2015)- Building the Resilience of Nations and
Communities to Disasters
• AADMER- ASEAN Agreement on Disaster Management and Emergency Response
Website: www.ndrrmc.gov.ph
Email: [email protected]
SMS: +63 (917) 891-6322
Telephone: +63 (2) 912-2665; 9125668, 9111406 and 9115061 to 64
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Republic Act 10121: The DRRM Act of 2010
Republic of the Philippines
CONGRESS OF THE PHILIPPINES
Metro Manila
Fourteenth Congress
Third Regular Session
Begun and held in Metro Manila, on Monday, the twenty-seventh day of July, two thousand nine.
REPUBLIC ACT No. 10121
AN ACT STRENGTHENING THE PHILIPPINE DISASTER RISK REDUCTION AND
MANAGEMENT SYSTEM, PROVIDING FOR THE NATIONAL DISASTER RISK REDUCTION
AND MANAGEMENT FRAMEWORK AND INSTITUTIONALIZING THE NATIONAL DISASTER
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RISK REDUCTION AND MANAGEMENT PLAN, APPROPRIATING FUNDS THEREFOR AND
FOR OTHER PURPOSES.
Be it enacted by the Senate and House of Representatives of the Philippines in Congress assembled:
Section 1. Title. - This Act shall be known as the "Philippine Disaster Risk Reduction and Management Act
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of 2010".
Section 2. Declaration of Policy. - It shall be the policy of the State to:

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(a) Uphold the people's constitutional rights to life and property by addressing the root causes of
vulnerabilities to disasters, strengthening the country's institutional capacity for disaster risk reduction
and management and building the resilience of local communities to disasters including climate change
impacts;
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(b) Adhere to and adopt the universal norms, principles and standards of humanitarian assistance and the
global effort on risk reduction as concrete expression of the country's commitment to overcome human
sufferings due to recurring disasters;
(c) Incorporate internationally accepted principles of disaster risk management in the creation and
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implementation of national, regional and local sustainable development and poverty reduction
strategies, policies, plans and budgets;
(d) Adopt a disaster risk reduction and management approach that is holistic, comprehensive, integrated,
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and proactive in lessening the socioeconomic and environmental impacts of disasters including climate
change, and promote the involvement and participation of all sectors and all stakeholders concerned, at
all levels, especially the local community;
(e) Develop, promote, and implement a comprehensive National Disaster Risk Reduction and
Management Plan (NDRRMP) that aims to strengthen the capacity of the national government and the
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local government units (LGUs), together with partner stakeholders, to build the disaster resilience of
communities, and' to institutionalize arrangements and measures for reducing disaster risks, including
projected climate risks, and enhancing disaster preparedness and response capabilities at all levels;
(f) Adopt and implement a coherent, comprehensive, integrated, efficient and responsive disaster risk
reduction program incorporated in the development plan at various levels of government adhering to
the principles of good governance such as transparency and accountability within the context of
poverty alleviation and environmental protection;
(g) Mainstream disaster risk reduction and climate change in development processes such as policy
formulation, socioeconomic development planning, budgeting, and governance, particularly in the
areas of environment, agriculture, water, energy, health, education, poverty reduction, land-use and
urban planning, and public infrastructure and housing, among others;
(h) Institutionalize the policies, structures, coordination mechanisms and programs with continuing budget
appropriation on disaster risk reduction from national down to local levels towards building a disaster-
resilient nation and communities;
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(i) Mainstream disaster risk reduction into the peace process and conflict resolution approaches in order to
minimize loss of lives and damage to property, and ensure that communities in conflict zones can
immediately go back to their normal lives during periods of intermittent conflicts;
(j) Ensure that disaster risk reduction and climate change measures are gender responsive, sensitive to
indigenous know ledge systems, and respectful of human rights;
(k) Recognize the local risk patterns across the country and strengthen the capacity of LGUs for disaster
risk reduction and management through decentralized powers, responsibilities, and resources at the
regional and local levels;
(l) Recognize and strengthen the capacities of LGUs and communities in mitigating and preparing for,
responding to, and recovering from the impact of disasters;
(m) Engage the participation of civil society organizations (CSOs), the private sector and volunteers in the
government's disaster risk reduction programs towards complementation of resources and effective
delivery of services to the Citizenry;
(n) Develop and strengthen the capacities of vulnerable and marginalized groups to mitigate, prepare for,
respond to, and recover from the effects of disasters;
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(o) Enhance and implement a program where humanitarian aid workers, communities, health
professionals, government aid agencies, donors, and the media are educated and trained on how they
can actively support breastfeeding before and during a disaster and/or an emergency; and
(p) Provide maximum care, assistance and services to individuals and families affected by disaster,
implement emergency rehabilitation projects to lessen the impact of disaster, and facilitate resumption
of normal social and economic activities.
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Section 3. Definition of Terms. - For purposes of this Act, the following shall refer to:
(a) "Adaptation" - the adjustment in natural or human systems in response to actual or expected climatic
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stimuli or their effects, which moderates harm or exploits beneficial opportunities.
(b) "Capacity" - a combination of all strengths and resources available within a community, society or
organization that can reduce the level of risk, or effects of a disaster. Capacity may include
infrastructure and physical means, institutions, societal coping abilities, as well as human knowledge,
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skills and collective attributes such as social relationships, leadership and management. Capacity may
also be described as capability.
(c) "Civil Society Organizations" Or "CSOs" - non-state actors whose aims are neither to generate profits
nor to seek governing power. CSOs unite people to advance shared goals and interests. They have a
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presence in public life, expressing the interests and values of their members or others, and are based on
ethical, cultural, scientific, religious or philanthropic considerations. CSOs include nongovernment
organizations (NGOs), professional associations, foundations, independent research institutes,
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community-based organizations (CBOs), faith-based organizations, people's organizations, social

movements, and labor unions.
(d) “Climate Change" - a change in climate that can' be identified by changes in the mean and/or
variability of its properties and that persists for an extended period typically decades or longer, whether
due to natural variability or as a result of human activity.
(e) Community-Based Disaster Risk Reduction and Management" or "CBDRRM" - a process of disaster
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risk reduction and management in which at risk communities are actively engaged in the identification,
analysis, treatment, monitoring and evaluation of disaster risks in order to reduce their vulnerabilities
and enhance their capacities, and where the people are at the heart of decision-making and
implementation of disaster risk reduction and management activities.
(f) "Complex Emergency" - a form of human-induced emergency in which the cause of the emergency as
well as the assistance to the afflicted IS complicated by intense level of political considerations.
(g) "Contingency Planning" - a management process that analyzes specific potential events or emerging
situations that might threaten society or the environment and establishes arrangements in advance to
enable timely, effective and appropriate responses to such events and situations.
(h) "Disaster" - a serious disruption of the functioning of a community or a society involving widespread
human, material, economic or environmental losses and impacts, which exceeds the ability of the
affected community or society to cope using its own resources. Disasters are often described as a result
of the combination of: the exposure to a hazard; the conditions of vulnerability that are present; and
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insufficient capacity or measures to reduce or cope with the potential negative consequences, Disaster
impacts may include loss of life, injury, disease and other negative effects on human, physical, mental
and social well-being, together with damage to property, destruction of assets, loss of services, Social
and economic disruption and environmental degradation.1avvphi1
(i) "Disaster Mitigation" - the lessening or limitation of the adverse impacts of hazards and related
disasters. Mitigation measures encompass engineering techniques and hazard-resistant construction as
well as improved environmental policies and public awareness.
(j) "Disaster Preparedness" - the knowledge and capacities developed by governments, professional
response and recovery organizations, communities and individuals to effectively anticipate, respond to,
and recover from, the Impacts of likely, imminent or current hazard events or conditions. Preparedness
action is carried out within the context of disaster risk reduction and management and aims to build the
capacities needed to efficiently manage all types of emergencies and achieve orderly transitions from
response to sustained recovery. Preparedness is based on a sound analysis of disaster risk and good
linkages with early warning systems, and includes such activities as contingency planning, stockpiling
of equipment and supplies, the development of arrangements for coordination, evacuation and public
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information, and associated training and field exercises. These must be supported by formal
institutional, legal and budgetary capacities.
(k) “Disaster Prevention" - the outright avoidance of adverse impacts of hazards and related disasters. It
expresses the concept and intention to completely avoid potential adverse impacts through action taken
in advance such as construction of dams or embankments that eliminate flood risks, land-use
regulations that do not permit any settlement in high-risk zones, and seismic engineering designs that
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ensure the survival and function of a critical building in any likely earthquake.
(l) "Disaster Response" - the provision of emergency services and public assistance during or immediately
after a disaster in order to save lives, reduce health impacts, ensure public safety and meet the basic
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subsistence needs of the people affected. Disaster response is predominantly focused on immediate and
short-term needs and is sometimes called "disaster relief".
(m) "Disaster Risk" - the potential disaster losses in lives, health status, livelihood, assets and services,
which could occur to a particular community or a Society over some specified future time period.
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(n) "Disaster Risk Reduction" - the concept and practice of reducing disaster risks through systematic
efforts to analyze and manage the causal factors of disasters, including through reduced exposures to
hazards, lessened vulnerability of people and property, wise management of land and the environment,
and improved preparedness for adverse events.
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(o) "Disaster Risk Reduction and Management" - the systematic process of using administrative directives,
organizations, and operational skills and capacities to implement strategies, policies and improved
coping capacities in order to lessen the adverse impacts of hazards and the possibility of disaster.
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Prospective disaster risk reduction and management refers to risk reduction and management activities
that address and seek to avoid the development of new or increased disaster risks, especially if risk
reduction policies are not put m place.
(p) "Disaster Risk Reduction and Management Information System" - a specialized database which
contains, among others, information on disasters and their human material, economic and
environmental impact, risk assessment and mapping and vulnerable groups.
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(q) "Early Warning System" - the set of capacities needed to generate and disseminate timely and
meaningful warning information to enable individuals, communities and organizations threatened by a
hazard to prepare and to act appropriately and in sufficient time to reduce the possibility of harm or
loss. A people-centered early warning system necessarily comprises four (4) key elements: knowledge
of the risks; monitoring, analysis and forecasting of the hazards; communication or dissemination of
alerts and warnings; and local capabilities to respond to the warnings received. The expression "end-to-
end warning system" is also used to emphasize that warning systems need to span all steps from hazard
detection to community response
(r) "Emergency" - unforeseen or sudden occurrence, especially danger, demanding immediate action.
(s) "Emergency Management" - the organization and management of resources and responsibilities for
addressing all aspects of emergencies, in particular preparedness, response and initial recovery steps.
(t) "Exposure" - the degree to which the elements at risk are likely to experience hazard events of different
magnitudes.
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(u) "Geographic Information System" - a database which contains, among others, geohazard assessments,
information on climate change, and climate risk reduction and management.
(v) "Hazard" - a dangerous phenomenon, substance, human activity or condition that may cause loss of
life, injury or other health impacts, property damage, loss of livelihood and services, social and
economic disruption, or environmental damage.
(w) "Land-Use Planning" - the process undertaken by public authorities to identify, evaluate and decide on
different options for the use of land, including consideration of long-term economic, social and
environmental objectives and the implications for different communities and interest groups, and the
subsequent formulation and promulgation of plans that describe the permitted or acceptable uses.
(x) "Mitigation" - structural and non-structural measures undertaken to limit the adverse impact of natural
hazards, environmental degradation, and technological hazards and to ensure the ability of at-risk
communities to address vulnerabilities aimed at minimizing the impact of disasters. Such measures
include, but are not limited to, hazard-resistant construction and engineering works, the formulation
and implementation of plans, programs, projects and activities, awareness raising, knowledge
management, policies on land-use and resource management, as well as the enforcement of
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comprehensive land-use planning, building and safety standards, and legislation.
(y) "National Disaster Risk Reduction and Management Framework" or "NDRRMF" - provides for
comprehensive, all hazards, multi-sectoral, inter-agency and community-based approach to disaster
risk reduction and management.
(z) "National Disaster Risk Reduction and Management Plan" or "NDRRMP" - the document to be
formulated and implemented by the Office of Civil Defense (OCD) that sets out goals and specific
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objectives for reducing disaster risks together with related actions to accomplish these objectives.
The NDRRMP shall provide for the identification of hazards, vulnerabilities and risks to 'be managed
at the national level; disaster risk reduction and management approaches and strategies to be applied m
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managing said hazards and risks; agency roles, responsibilities and lines of authority at all government
levels; and vertical and horizontal coordination of disaster risk reduction and management in the pre-
disaster and post-disaster phases. It shall be in conformity with the NDRRMF.
(aa) "Post-Disaster Recovery" - the restoration and improvement where appropriate, of facilities, livelihood
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and living conditions. of disaster-affected communities, including efforts to reduce disaster risk
factors, in accordance with the principles of "build back better".
(bb) "Preparedness" - pre-disaster actions and measures being undertaken within the context of disaster risk
reduction and management and are based on sound risk analysis as well as pre-disaster activities to
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avert or minimize loss of life and property such as, but not limited to, community organizing, training,
planning, equipping, stockpiling, hazard mapping, insuring of assets, and public information and
education initiatives. This also includes the development/enhancement of an overall preparedness
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strategy, policy, institutional structure, warning and forecasting capabilities, and plans that define
measures geared to help at-risk communities safeguard their lives and assets by being alert to hazards
and taking appropriate action in the face of an Imminent threat or an actual disaster.
(cc) "Private Sector" - the key actor in the realm of the economy where the central social concern and
process are the mutually beneficial production and distribution of goods and services to meet the
physical needs of human beings. The private sector comprises private corporations, households and
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nonprofit institutions serving households.

(dd) "Public Sector Employees" - all persons in the civil service.
(ee) "Rehabilitation" - measures that ensure the ability of affected communities/areas to restore their normal
level of functioning by rebuilding livelihood and damaged infrastructures and increasing the
communities' organizational capacity
(ff) "Resilience" - the ability of a system, community or society exposed to hazards to resist, absorb,
accommodate and recover from the effects of a hazard in a timely and efficient manner, including
through the preservation and restoration of its essential basic structures and functions.
(gg) "Response" - any concerted effort by two (2) or more agencies, public or private, to provide assistance
or intervention during or immediately after a disaster to meet the life preservation and basic
subsistence needs of those people affected and in the restoration of essential public activities and
facilities.
(hh) "Risk" - the combination of the probability of an event and its negative consequences.
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(ii) "Risk Assessment" - a methodology to determine the nature and extent of risk by analyzing potential
hazards and evaluating existing conditions of vulnerability that together could potentially harm
exposed people, property, services, livelihood and the environment on which they depend. Risk
assessments with associated risk mapping include: a review of the technical characteristics of hazards
such as their location, intensity, frequency and probability; the analysis of exposure and vulnerability
including the physical, social, health, economic and environmental dimensions; and the evaluation of
the effectiveness of prevailing and alternative coping capacities in respect to likely risk scenarios.
(jj) "Risk Management" - the systematic approach and practice of managing uncertainty to minimize
potential harm and loss. It comprises risk assessment and analysis, and the implementation of strategies
and specific actions to control, reduce and transfer risks. It is widely practiced by organizations to
minimize risk in investment decisions and to address operational risks such as those of business
disruption, production failure, environmental damage, social impacts and damage from fire and natural
hazards.
(kk) "Risk Transfer" - the process of formally or informally shifting the financial consequences of particular
risks from one party to another whereby a household, community, enterprise or state authority will
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obtain resources from the other party after a disaster occurs, in exchange for ongoing or compensatory
social or financial benefits provided to that other party.
(ll) "State of Calamity" - a condition involving mass casualty and/or major damages to property, disruption
of means of livelihoods, roads and normal way of life of people in the affected areas as a result of the
occurrence of natural or human-induced hazard.
(mm) "Sustainable Development" - development that meets the needs of the present without
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compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs. It contains within it two (2)
key concepts: (1) the concept of "needs", in particular, the essential needs of the world's poor, to which
overriding priority should be given; and (2) the idea of limitations imposed by the state of technology
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and social organizations on the environment's ability to meet present and future needs. It is the
harmonious integration of a sound and viable economy, responsible governance, social cohesion and
harmony, and ecological integrity to ensure that human development now and through future
generations is a life-enhancing process.
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(nn) "Vulnerability" - the characteristics and circumstances of a community, system or asset that make it
susceptible to the damaging effects of a hazard. Vulnerability may arise from various physical, social,
economic, and environmental factors such as poor design and construction of buildings, inadequate
protection of assets, lack of public information and awareness, limited official recognition of risks and
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preparedness measures, and disregard for wise environmental management.

(oo) "Vulnerable and Marginalized Groups" - those that face higher exposure to disaster risk and poverty
including, but not limited to, women, children, elderly, differently-abled people, and ethnic minorities.
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Section 4. Scope. - This Act provides for the development of policies and plans and the implementation of
actions and measures pertaining to all aspects of disaster risk reduction and management, including good
governance, risk assessment and early warning, knowledge building and awareness raising, reducing
underlying risk factors, and preparedness for effective response and early recovery.
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Section 5. National Disaster Risk Reduction and Management Council. - The present National Disaster
Coordinating Council or NDCC shall henceforth be known as the National Disaster Risk Reduction and
Management Council, hereinafter referred to as the NDRRMC or the National Council. The National
Council shall be headed by the Secretary of the Department of National Defense (DND) as Chairperson
with the Secretary of the Department of the Interior and Local Government (DILG) as Vice Chairperson for
Disaster Preparedness, the Secretary of the Department of Social Welfare and Development (DSWD) as
Vice Chairperson for Disaster Response, the Secretary of the Department of Science and Technology
(DOST) as Vice Chairperson for Disaster Prevention and Mitigation, and the Director-General of the
National Economic and Development Authority (NEDA) as Vice Chairperson for Disaster Rehabilitation
and Recovery.
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The National Council's members shall be the following:
(a) Secretary of the Department of Health (DOH);
(b) Secretary of the Department of Environment and Natural Resources (DENR);
(c) Secretary of the Department of Agriculture (DA);
(d) Secretary of the Department of Education (DepED);
(e) Secretary of the Department of Energy (DOE);
(f) Secretary of the Department of Finance (DOF)
(g) Secretary of the Department of Trade and Industry (DT!);
(h) Secretary of the Department of Transportation and Communications (DOTC);
(i) Secretary of the Department of Budget and Management (DBM);
(j) Secretary of the Department of Public Works and Highways (DPWH);
(k) Secretary of the Department of Foreign Affairs (DFA);
(l) Secretary of the Department of Justice (DOJ);
(m) Secretary of the Department of Labor and Employment (DOLE);
(n) Secretary of the Department of Tourism (DOT);
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(o) The Executive Secretary;
(p) Secretary of the Office of the Presidential Adviser on the Peace Process (OPAPP);
(q) Chairman, Commission on Higher Education (CHED);
(r) Chief of Staff, Armed Forces of the Philippines (AFP);
(s) Chief, Philippine National Police (PNP);
(t) The Press Secretary;
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(u) Secretary General of the Philippine National Red Cross (PNRC);
(v) Commissioner of the National Anti-Poverty Commission-Victims of Disasters and Calamities Sector
(NAPCVDC);
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(w) Chairperson, National Commission on the Role of Filipino Women;
(x) Chairperson, Housing and Urban Development Coordinating Council (HUDCC);
(y) Executive Director of the Climate Change Office of the Climate Change Commission;
(z) President, Government Service Insurance System (GSIS);
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(aa) President, Social Security System (SSS);
(bb) President, Philippine Health Insurance Corporation (PhilHealth);
(cc) President of the Union of Local Authorities of the Philippines (ULAP);
(dd) President of the League of Provinces of the Philippines (LPP);
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(ee) President of the League of Cities of the Philippines (LCP);

(ff) President of the League of Municipalities of the Philippines (LMP);
(gg) President of the Liga ng Mga Barangay (LMB);
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(hh) Four (4) representatives from the CSOs;

(ii) One (1) representative from the private sector; and
(jj) Administrator of the OCD.
The representatives from the CSOs and the private sector shall be selected from among their respective ranks
based on the criteria and mechanisms to be set for this purpose by the National Council.
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Section 6. Powers and Functions of the NDRRMC. - The National Council, being empowered with policy-
making, coordination, integration, supervision, monitoring and evaluation functions, shall have the
following responsibilities:
(a) Develop a NDRRMF which shall provide for a comprehensive, all-hazards, multisectoral, inter-agency
and community-based approach to disaster risk reduction and management. The Framework shall serve
as the principal guide to disaster risk reduction and management efforts in the country and shall be
reviewed on a five (5)- year interval, or as may be deemed necessary, in order to ensure its relevance to
the times;
(b) Ensure that the NDRRMP is consistent with the NDRRMF;
(c) Advise the President on the status of disaster preparedness, prevention, mitigation, response and
rehabilitation operations being undertaken by the government, CSOs, private sector, and volunteers;
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recommend to the President the declaration of a state of calamity in areas extensively damaged; and
submit proposals to restore normalcy in the affected areas, to include calamity fund allocation;
(d) Ensure a multi-stakeholder participation in the development, updating, and sharing of a Disaster Risk
Reduction and Management Information System and Geographic Information System-based national
risk map as policy, planning and decision-making tools;
(e) Establish a national early warning and emergency alert system to provide accurate and timely advice to
national or local emergency response organizations and to the general public through diverse mass
media to include digital and analog broadcast, cable, satellite television and radio, wireless
communications, and landline communications;
(f) Develop appropriate risk transfer mechanisms that shall guarantee social and economic protection and
increase resiliency in the face of disaster;
(g) Monitor the development and enforcement by agencies and organizations of the various laws,
guidelines, codes or technical standards required by this Act;
(h) Manage and mobilize resources for disaster risk reduction and management including the National
Disaster Risk Reduction and Management Fund;
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(i) Monitor and provide the necessary guidelines and procedures. on the Local Disaster Risk Reduction
and Management Fund (LDRRMF) releases as well as utilization, accounting and auditing thereof;
(j) Develop assessment tools on the existing and potential hazards and risks brought about by climate
change to vulnerable areas and ecosystems in coordination with the Climate Change Commission;
(k) Develop vertical and horizontal coordination mechanisms for a more coherent implementation of
disaster risk reduction and management policies and programs by sectoral agencies and LGUs;
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(l) Formulate a national institutional capability building program for disaster risk reduction and
management to address the specific' weaknesses of various government agencies an LGUs, based on
the results of a biennial baseline assessment and studies;
(m)
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Formulate, harmonize, and translate into policies a national agenda for research and technology
development on disaster risk reduction and management;
(n) In coordination with the Climate Change Commission, formulate and implement a framework for
climate change adaptation and disaster risk reduction and management from which all policies,
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programs, and projects shall be based;
(o) Constitute a technical management group composed of representatives of the abovementioned
departments, offices, and organizations, that shall coordinate and meet as often as necessary to
effectively manage and sustain national efforts on disaster risk reduction and management;
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(p) Task the OCD to conduct periodic assessment and performance monitoring of the member-agencies of
the NDRRMC, and the Regional Disaster Risk Reduction and Management Councils (RDRRMCs), as
defined in the NDRRMP; and (q) Coordinate or oversee the Implementation of the country's
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obligations with disaster management treaties to which it IS a party and see to It that the country's
disaster management treaty obligations be incorporated in its disaster risk reduction and management
frameworks, policies, plans, programs and projects.
Section 7. Authority of the NDRRMC Chairperson. - The Chairperson of the NDRRMC may call upon other
instrumentalities or entities of the government and nongovernment and civic organizations for assistance In
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terms of the use of their facilities and resources for the protection and preservation of life and properties in
the whole range of disaster risk reduction and management. This authority includes the power to call on the
reserve force as defined in Republic Act No. 7077 to assist in relief and rescue during disasters or
calamities.
Section 8. The Office of Civil Defense. - The Office of Civil Defense (OCD) shall have the primary mission of
administering a comprehensive national civil defense and disaster risk reduction and management program
by providing leadership in the continuous development of strategic and systematic approaches as well as
measures to reduce the vulnerabilities and risks to hazards and manage the consequences of disasters.
The Administrator of the OCD shall also serve as Executive Director of the National Council and, as such,
shall have the same duties and privileges of a department undersecretary. All appointees shall be
universally acknowledged experts in the field of disaster preparedness and management and of proven
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honesty and integrity. The National Council shall utilize the services and facilities of the OCD as the
secretariat of the National Council.
Section 9. Powers and Functions of the OCD. - The OCD shall have the following powers and functions:
(a) Advise the National Council on matters relating to disaster risk reduction and management consistent
with the policies and scope as defined in this Act;
(b) Formulate and implement the NDRRMP and ensure that the physical framework, social, economic and
environmental plans of communities, cities, municipalities and provinces are consistent with such plan.
The National Council shall approve the NDRRMP;
(c) Identify, assess and prioritize hazards and risks in consultation with key stakeholders;
(d) Develop and ensure the implementation of national standards in carrying out disaster risk reduction
programs including preparedness, mitigation, prevention, response and rehabilitation works, from data
collection and analysis, planning, implementation, monitoring and evaluation;
(e) Review and evaluate the Local Disaster risk Reduction and Management Plans (LDRRMPs) to
facilitate the integration of disaster risk reduction measures into the local Comprehensive Development
Plan (CDP) and Comprehensive Land-Use Plan (CL UP);
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(f) Ensure that the LG U s, through the Local Disaster Risk Reduction and Management Offices
(LDRRMOs) are properly informed and adhere to the national standards and programs;
(g) Formulate standard operating procedures for the deployment of rapid assessment/ teams, information
sharing among different government agencies, and coordination before and after disasters at all levels;
(h) Establish standard operating procedures on the communication system among provincial, city,
municipal, and barangay disaster risk reduction and management councils, for purposes of warning and
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alerting them and for gathering information on disaster areas before, during and after disasters;
(i) Establish Disaster Risk Reduction and Management Training Institutes in such suitable location as
may be deemed appropriate to train public and private individuals, both local and national, in such
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subject as disaster risk reduction and management among others. The Institute shall consolidate and
prepare training materials and publications of disaster risk reduction and management books and
manuals to assist disaster risk reduction and management workers in the planning and implementation
of this program and projects. The Institute shall conduct research programs to upgrade know ledge and
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skills and document best practices on disaster risk reduction and management. The Institute is also
mandated to conduct periodic awareness and education programs to accommodate new elective
officials and members of the LDRRMCs;
(j) Ensure that all disaster risk reduction programs, projects and activities requiring regional and
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international support shall be in accordance with duly established national policies and aligned with
international agreements;
(k) Ensure that government agencies and LGUs give top priority and take adequate and appropriate
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measures in disaster risk reduction and management;

(l) Create an enabling environment for substantial and sustainable participation of CSOs, private groups,
volunteers and communities, and recognize their contributions in the government's disaster risk
reduction efforts;
(m) Conduct early recovery and post-disaster needs assessment institutionalizing gender analysis as part of it;
(n) Establish an operating facility to be known as the National Disaster Risk Reduction and Management
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Operations Center (NDRRMOC) that shall be operated and staffed on a twenty-four (24) hour basis;
Prepare the criteria and procedure for the enlistment of accredited community disaster volunteers
(ACDVs). It shall include a manual of operations for the volunteers which shall be developed by the
OCD in consultation with various stakeholders;
(o) Provide advice and technical assistance and assist in mobilizing necessary resources to increase the
overall capacity of LGUs, specifically the low income and in high-risk areas;
(p) Create the necessary offices to perform its mandate as provided under this Act;
Perform such other functions as may be necessary for effective operations and implementation of this Act.
Section 10. Disaster Risk Reduction and Management Organization at the Regional Level. - The current
Regional Disaster Coordinating Councils shall henceforth be known as the Regional Disaster Risk
Reduction and Management Councils (RDRRMCs) which shall coordinate, integrate, supervise, and
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evaluate the activities of the LDRRMCs. The RDRRMC shall be responsible in ensuring disaster sensitive
regional development plans, and in case of emergencies shall convene the different regional line agencies
and concerned institutions and authorities.
The RDRRMCs shall establish an operating facility to be known as the Regional Disaster Risk Reduction
and Management Operations Center (RDRRMOC) whenever necessary.
The civil defense officers of the OCD who are or may be designated as Regional Directors of the OCD
shall serve as chairpersons of the RDRRMCs. Its Vice Chairpersons shall be the Regional Directors of the
DSWD, the DILG, the DOST, and the NEDA. In the case of the Autonomous Region in Muslim Mindanao
(ARMM), the Regional Governor shall be the RDRRMC Chairperson. The existing regional offices of the
OCD shall serve as secretariat of the RDRRMCs. The RDRRMCs shall be composed of the executives of
regional offices and field stations at the regional level of the government agencies.
Section 11. Organization at the Local Government Level. - The existing Provincial, City, and Municipal
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Disaster Coordinating Councils shall henceforth be known as the Provincial, City, and Municipal Disaster
Risk Reduction and Management Councils. The Barangay Disaster Coordinating Councils shall cease to
exist and its powers and functions shall henceforth be assumed by the existing Barangay Development
Councils (BDCs) which shall serve as the LDRRMCs in every barangay.
(a) Composition: The LDRRMC shall be composed of, but not limited to, the following:
(1) The Local Chief Executives, Chairperson;
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(2) The Local Planning and Development Officer, member;
(3) The Head of the LDRRMO, member;
(4) The Head of the Local Social Welfare and Development Office, member;
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(5) The Head of the Local Health Office, member;
(6) The Head of the Local Agriculture Office, member;
(7) The Head of the Gender and Development Office, member;
(8) The Head of the Local Engineering Office, member;
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(9) The Head of the Local Veterinary Office, member;
(10) The Head of the Local Budget Office, member;
(11) The Division Head/Superintendent of Schools of the DepED, member;
(12) The highest-ranking officer of the Armed Forces of the Philippines (AFP) assigned in the area,
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member;
(13) The Provincial Director/City/Municipal Chief of the Philippine National Police (PNP), member;
(14) The Provincial Director/City/ Municipal Fire Marshall of the Bureau of Fire Protection (BFP),
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member;
(15) The President of the Association of Barangay Captains (ABC), member;
(16) The Philippine National Red Cross (PNRC), member;
(17) Four (4) accredited CSOs, members; and
(18) One (1) private sector representative, member.
(b) The LDRRMCs shall have the following functions:
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(1) Approve, monitor and evaluate the implementation of the LDRRMPs and regularly review and test
the plan consistent with other national and local planning programs;
(2) Ensure the integration of disaster risk reduction and climate change adaptation into local
development plans, programs and budgets as a strategy in sustainable development and poverty
reduction;
(3) Recommend the implementation of forced or preemptive evacuation of local residents, if necessary;
and
(4) Convene the local council once every three (3) months or as necessary.
Section 12. Local Disaster Risk Reduction and Management Office (LDRRMO). –
(a) There shall be established an LDRRMO in every province, city and municipality, and a Barangay
Disaster Risk Reduction and Management Committee (BDRRMC) in every · barangay which shall be
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responsible for setting the direction, development, implementation and coordination of disaster risk
management programs within their territorial jurisdiction.
(b) The LDRRMO shall be under the office of the governor, city or municipal mayor, and the punong
barangay in case of the BDRRMC. The LDRRMOs shall be initially organized and composed of a
DRRMO to be assisted by three (3) staff responsible for: (1) administration and training; (2) research
and planning; and (3) operations and warning. The LDRRMOs and the BDRRMCs shall organize,
train and directly supervise the local emergency response teams and the ACDVs.
(c) The provincial, city and municipal DRRMOs or BDRRMCs shall perform the following functions with
impartiality given the emerging challenges brought by disasters of our times:
(1) Design, program, and coordinate disaster risk reduction and management activities consistent with
the National Council's standards and guidelines;
(2) Facilitate and support risk assessments and contingency planning activities at the local level;
(3) Consolidate local disaster risk information which includes natural hazards, vulnerabilities, and
climate change risks, and maintain a local risk map;
(4) Organize and conduct training, orientation, and knowledge management activities on disaster risk
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reduction and management at the local level;
(5) Operate a multi-hazard early warning system, linked to disaster risk reduction to provide accurate
and timely advice to national or local emergency response organizations and to the general public,
through diverse mass media, particularly radio, landline communications, and technologies for
communication within rural communities;
(6) Formulate and implement a comprehensive and - integrated LDRRMP in accordance with the
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national, regional and provincial framework, and policies on disaster risk reduction in close
coordination with the local development councils (LDCs);
(7) Prepare and submit to the local sanggunian through the LDRRMC and the LDC the annual
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LDRRMO Plan and budget, the proposed programming of the LDRRMF, other dedicated disaster
risk reduction and management resources, and other regular funding source/s and budgetary
support of the LDRRMO/BDRRMC;
(8) Conduct continuous disaster monitoring and mobilize instrumentalities and entities of the LGUs,
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CSOs, private groups and organized volunteers, to utilize their facilities and resources for the
protection and preservation of life and properties during emergencies in accordance with existing
policies and procedures;
(9) Identify, assess and manage the hazards vulnerabilities and risks that may occur in their locality;
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(10) Disseminate information and raise public awareness about those hazards. vulnerabilities and risks,
their nature, effects, early warning signs and countermeasures;
(11) Identify and implement cost-effective risk reduction measures/strategies;
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(12) Maintain a database of human resource, equipment, directories, and location of critical
infrastructures and their capacities such as hospitals and evacuation centers;
(13) Develop, strengthen and operationalize mechanisms for partnership or networking with the private
sector, CSOs, and volunteer groups;
(14) Take all necessary steps on a continuing basis to maintain, provide, or arrange the provision of, or
to otherwise make available, suitably-trained and competent personnel for effective civil defense
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and disaster risk reduction and management in its area;

(15) Organize, train, equip and supervise the local emergency response teams and the ACDV s,
ensuring that humanitarian aid workers are equipped with basic skills to assist mothers to
breastfeed;
(16) Respond to and manage the adverse effects of emergencies and carry out recovery activities in the
affected area, ensuring that there is an efficient mechanism for immediate delivery of food, shelter
and medical supplies for women and children, endeavor to create a special place where internally-
displaced mothers can find help with breastfeeding, feed and care for their babies and give support
to each other;
(17) Within its area, promote and raise public awareness of and compliance with this Act and
legislative provisions relevant to the purpose of this Act;
(18) Serve as the secretariat and executive arm of the LDRRMC;
(19) Coordinate other disaster risk reduction and management activities;
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(20) Establish linkage/network with other LGUs for disaster risk reduction and emergency response
purposes;
(21) Recommend through the LDRRMC the enactment of local ordinances consistent with the
requirements of this Act;
(22) Implement policies, approved plans and programs of the LDRRMC consistent with the policies
and guidelines laid down in this Act;
(23) Establish a Provincial/City/Municipal/Barangay Disaster Risk Reduction and Management
Operations Center;
(24) Prepare and submit, through the LDRRMC and the LDC, the report on the utilization of the
LDRRMF and other dedicated disaster risk reduction and management resources to the local
Commission on Audit (COA), copy furnished the regional director of the OCD and the Local
Government Operations Officer of the DILG; and
(25) Act on other matters that may be authorized by the LDRRMC.
(d) The BDRRMC shall be a regular committee of the existing BDC and shall be subject thereto. The
punong barangay shall facilitate and ensure the participation of at least two (2) CSO representatives
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from existing and active community-based people's organizations representing the most vulnerable and
marginalized groups in the barangay.
Section 13. Accreditation, Mobilization, and Protection of Disaster Volunteers and National Service Reserve
Corps, CSOs and the Private Sector. - The government agencies, CSOs, private sector and LGUs may
mobilize individuals or organized volunteers to augment their respective personnel complement and
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logistical requirements in the delivery of disaster risk reduction programs and activities. The agencies,
CSOs, private sector, and LGUs concerned shall take full responsibility for the enhancement, welfare and
protection of volunteers, and shall submit the list of volunteers to the OCD, through the LDRRMOs, for
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accreditation and inclusion in the database of community disaster volunteers.
A national roster of ACDVs, National Service Reserve Corps, CSOs and the private sector shall be maintained
by the OCD through the LDRRMOs. Accreditation shall be done at the municipal or city level.
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Mobilization of volunteers shall be in accordance with the guidelines to be formulated by the NDRRMC
consistent with the provisions of this Act. Any volunteer who incurs death or injury while engaged in any
of the activities defined under this Act shall be entitled to compensatory benefits and individual personnel
accident insurance as may be defined under the guidelines.
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Section 14. Integration of Disaster Risk Reduction Education into the School Curricula and Sangguniang
Kabataan (SK) Program and Mandatory Training for the Public Sector Employees. - The DepEd, the
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CHED, the Technical Education and Skills Development Authority (TESDA), in coordination with the
OCD, the National Youth Commission (NYC), the DOST, the DENR, the DILG-BFP, the DOH, the
DSWD and other relevant agencies, shall integrate disaster risk reduction and management education in the
school curricula of secondary and tertiary level of education, including the National Service Training
Program (NSTP), whether private or public, including formal and nonformal, technical-vocational,
indigenous learning, and out-of-school youth courses and programs. The NDRRMC, the RDRRMCs, the
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LDRRMCs, the LDRRMOs, the BDRRMCs and the SK councils shall encourage community, specifically
the youth, participation in disaster risk reduction and management activities, such as organizing quick
response groups, particularly in identified disaster-prone areas, as well as the inclusion of disaster risk
reduction and management programs as part of the SK programs and projects. The public sector employees
shall be trained in emergency response and preparedness. The training is mandatory for such employees to
comply with the provisions of this Act.
Section 15. Coordination During Emergencies. - The LDRRMCs shall take the lead in preparing for,
responding to, and recovering from the effects of any disaster based on the following criteria:
(a) The BDC, if a barangay is affected;
(b) The city/municipal DRRMCs, If two (2) or more barangays are affected;
(c) The provincial DRRMC, if two (2) or more cities/municipalities are affected;
(d) The regional DRRMC, if two (2) or more provinces are affected; and
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(e) The NDRRMC, if two (2) or more regions are affected.
The NDRRMC and intermediary LDRRMCs shall always act as support to LGUs which have the primary
responsibility as first disaster responders. Private sector and civil society groups shall work in accordance
with the coordination mechanism and policies set by the NDRRMC and concerned LDRRMCs.
Section 16. Declaration of State of Calamity. - The National Council shall recommend to the President of the
Philippines the declaration of a cluster of barangays, municipalities, cities, provinces, and regions under a
state of calamity, and the lifting thereof, based on the criteria set by the National Council. The President's
declaration may warrant international humanitarian assistance as deemed necessary. The declaration and
lifting of the state of calamity may also be issued by the local sanggunian, upon the recommendation of the
LDRRMC, based on the results of the damage assessment and needs analysis.
Section 17. Remedial Measures. - The declaration of a state of calamity shall make mandatory the Immediate
undertaking of the following remedial measures by the member agencies concerned as defined in this Act:
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(a) Imposition of price ceiling on basic necessities and prime commodities by the President upon the
recommendation of the implementing agency as provided for under Republic Act No. 7581, otherwise
known as the "Price Act", or the National Price Coordinating Council;
(b) Monitoring, prevention and control by the Local Price Coordination Council of
overpricing/profiteering and hoarding of prime commodities, medicines and petroleum products;
(c) Programming/reprogramming of funds for the repair and safety upgrading of public infrastructures and
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facilities; and
(d) Granting of no-interest loans by government financing or lending institutions to the most affected
section of the population through their cooperatives or people's organizations.
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Section 18. Mechanism for International Humanitarian Assistance. - (a) The importation and donation of food,
clothing, medicine and equipment for relief and recovery and other disaster management and recovery-
related supplies is hereby authorized in accordance with Section 105 of the Tariff and Customs Code of the
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Philippines, as amended, and the prevailing provisions of the General Appropriations Act covering national
internal revenue taxes and import duties of national and local government agencies; and (b) Importations
and donations under this section shall be considered as importation by and/or donation to the NDRRMC,
subject to the approval of the Office of the President.
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Section 19. Prohibited Acts. - Any person, group or corporation who commits any of the following prohibited
acts shall be held liable and be subjected to the penalties as prescribed in Section 20 of this Act:
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(a) Dereliction of duties which leads to destruction, loss of lives, critical damage of facilities and misuse
of funds;
(b) Preventing the entry and distribution of relief goods in disaster-stricken areas, including appropriate
technology, tools, equipment, accessories, disaster teams/experts;
(c) Buying, for consumption or resale, from disaster relief agencies any relief goods, equipment or other
and commodities which are intended for distribution to disaster affected communities;
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(d) Buying, for consumption or resale, from the recipient disaster affected persons any relief goods,
equipment or other aid commodities received by them;
(e) Selling of relief goods, equipment or other aid commodities which are intended for distribution to
disaster victims;
(f) Forcibly seizing relief goods, equipment or other aid commodities intended for or consigned to a
specific group of victims or relief agency;
(g) Diverting or misdelivery of relief goods, equipment or other aid commodities to persons other than the
rightful recipient or consignee;
(h) Accepting, possessing, using or disposing relief goods, equipment or other aid commodities not
intended for nor consigned to him/her;
(i) Misrepresenting the source of relief goods, equipment or other aid commodities by:
(1) Either covering, replacing or defacing the labels of the containers to make it appear that the goods,
equipment or other aid commodities came from another agency or persons;
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(2) Repacking the goods, equipment or other aid commodities into containers with different markings
to make it appear that the goods came from another agency or persons or was released upon the
instance of a particular agency or persons;
(3) Making false verbal claim that the goods, equipment or other aid commodity in its untampered
original containers actually came from another agency or persons or was released upon the
instance of a particular agency or persons;
(j) Substituting or replacing relief goods, equipment or other aid commodities with the same items or
inferior/cheaper quality;
(k) Illegal solicitations by persons or organizations representing others as defined in the standards and
guidelines set by the NDRRMC;
(l) Deliberate use of false at inflated data in support of the request for funding, relief goods, equipment or
other aid commodities for emergency assistance or livelihood projects; and
(m) Tampering with or stealing hazard monitoring and disaster preparedness equipment and paraphernalia.
Section 20. Penal Clause. - Any individual, corporation, partnership, association, or other juridical entity that
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commits any of the prohibited acts provided for in Section 19 of this Act shall be prosecuted and upon
conviction shall suffer a fine of not less than Fifty thousand pesos (Php50,000.00) or any amount not to
exceed Five hundred thousand pesos (php500,000.00) or imprisonment of not less than six (6) years and
one (1) day or more than twelve (12) years, or both, at the discretion of the court, including perpetual
disqualification from public office if the offender is a public officer, and confiscation or forfeiture in favor
of the government of the objects and the instrumentalities used in committing any of herein prohibited acts.
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If the offender is a corporation, partnership or association, or other juridical entity, the penalty shall be
imposed upon the officer or officers of the corporation, partnership, association or entity responsible for the
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violation without prejudice to the cancellation or revocation of these entities license or accreditation issued
to them by any licensing or accredited body of the government. If such offender is an alien, he or she shall,
in addition to the penalties prescribed in this Act, be deported without further proceedings after service of
the sentence.
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However, the prosecution for offenses set forth in Section 19 of this Act shall be without prejudice to any
liability for violation of Republic Act No. 3185, as amended, otherwise known as the Revised Penal Code,
and other civil liabilities.
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Section 21. “Local Disaster Risk" Reduction and Management Fund (LDRRMF). – The present Local Calamity
Fund shall henceforth be known as the Local Disaster Risk Reduction and Management Fund (LDRRMF).
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Not less than five percent (5%) of the estimated revenue from regular sources shall be set aside as the
LDRRMF to support disaster risk management activities such as, but not limited to, pre-disaster
preparedness programs including training, purchasing life-saving rescue equipment, supplies and
medicines, for post-disaster activities, and for the payment of premiums on calamity insurance. The
LDRRMC shall monitor and evaluate the use and disbursement of the LDRRMF based on the. LDRRMP
as incorporated in the local development plans and annual work and financial plan. Upon the
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recommendation of the LDRRMO and approval of the sanggunian concerned, the LDRRMC may transfer
the said fund to support disaster risk reduction work of other LDRRMCs which are declared under state of
calamity.
Of the amount appropriated for LDRRMF, thirty percent (30%) shall be allocated as Quick Response Fund
(QRF) or stand-by fund for relief and recovery programs in order that situation and living conditions of
people In communities or areas stricken by disasters, calamities, epidemics, or complex emergencies, may
be normalized as quickly as possible. Unexpended LDRRMF shall accrue to a special trust fund solely for
the purpose of supporting disaster risk reduction and management activities of the LDRRMCs within the
next five (5) years. Any such amount still not fully utilized after five (5) years shall revert back to the
general fund and will be available for other social services to be identified by the local sanggunian.
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Section 22. National Disaster Risk" Reduction and Management Fund. –
(a) The present Calamity Fund appropriated under the annual General Appropriations Act shall henceforth
be known as the National Disaster Risk Reduction and Management Fund (NDRRM Fund) and it shall
be used for disaster risk reduction or mitigation, prevention and preparedness activities such as but not
limited to training of personnel, procurement of equipment, and capital expenditures. It can also be
utilized for relief, recovery, reconstruction and other work or services in connection with natural or
human induced calamities which may occur during the budget year or those that occurred in the past
two (2) years from the budget year.
(b) The specific amount of the NDRRM Fund and the appropriate recipient agencies and/or LGUs shall be
determined upon approval of the President of the Philippines in accordance with the favorable
recommendation of the NDRRMC.
(c) Of the amount appropriated for the NDRRM Fund, thirty percent (30%) shall be allocated as Quick
Response Fund (QRF) or stand-by fund for relief and recovery programs in order that situation and
living conditions of people in communities or areas stricken by disasters, calamities, epidemics, or
complex emergencies, may be normalized as quickly as possible.
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(d) All departments/agencies and LGUs that are allocated with DRRM fund shall submit to the NDRRMC
their monthly statements on the utilization of DRRM funds and make an accounting thereof in
accordance with existing accounting and auditing rules.
(e) All departments, bureaus, offices and agencies of the government are hereby authorized to use a
portion of their appropriations to implement projects designed to address DRRM activities in
accordance with the guidelines to be issued by the NDRRMC in coordination with the DBM.
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Section 23. Funding of the OCD. - As lead agency to carry out the provisions of this Act, the OCD shall be
allocated a budget of One billion pesos (Php1,000,000,000.00) revolving fund starting from the effectivity
of this Act.
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Section 24. Annual Report. - The National Council, through the OCD, shall submit to the Office of the
President, the Senate and the House of Representatives, within the first quarter of the succeeding year, an
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annual report relating to the progress of the implementation of the NDRRMP.
Section 25. Implementing Rules and Regulations. - The NDRRMC, through its Chairperson, shall issue the
necessary rules and regulations for the effective implementation of this Act within ninety (90) days after
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approval of this Act. The OCD, in consultation with key stakeholders, shall take the lead in the preparation
of the implementing rules and regulations with the active involvement of the technical management group
of the NDRRMC.
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Section 26. Congressional Oversight Committee. - There is hereby created a Congressional Oversight
Committee to monitor and oversee the implementation of the provisions of this Act. The Committee shall
be composed of six (6) members from the Senate and six (6) members from the House of Representatives
with the Chairpersons of the Committees on National Defense and Security of both the Senate and the
House of Representatives as joint Chairpersons of this Committee. The five (5) other members from each
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Chamber are to be designated by the Senate President and the Speaker of the House of Representatives
respectively. The minority shall be entitled to pro rata represent3tion but shall have at least two (2)
representatives from each Chamber.
Section 27. Sunset Review. - Within five (5) years after the effectivity of this Act, or as the need arises, the
Congressional Oversight Committee shall conduct a sunset review. For purposes of this Act, the term
"sunset review" shall mean a systematic evaluation by the Congressional Oversight Committee of the
accomplishments and impact of this Act, as well as the performance and organizational structure of its
implementing agencies, for purposes of determining remedial legislation.
Section 28. Repealing Clause. - Presidential Decree No. 1566 and all other laws, decrees, executive orders,
proclamations and other executive issuances which are inconsistent with or contrary to the provisions of
this Act are hereby amended or repealed accordingly.
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Section 29. Separability Clause. - If any provision of this Act shall be held unconstitutional or invalid, the other
provisions not otherwise affected shall remain m full force and effect.
Section 30. Effectivity Clause. - This Act shall take effect fifteen (15) days following its complete publication in
the Official Gazette or in two (2) national newspapers of general circulation.
Approved,
(Sgd.) PROSPERO C. NOGRALES (Sgd.) JUAN PONCE ENRILE

Speaker of the House of Representatives President of the Senate
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This Act which is a consolidation of Senate Bill No. 3086 and House Bill No, 6985 was finally passed
by the Senate and the House of Representatives on February 1, 2010
(Sgd.) MARILYN B. BARUA-YAP
O (Sgd.) EMMA LIRIO-REYES

Secretary General
House of Representatives
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Approved: May 27, 2010
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(Sgd.) GLORIA MACAPAGAL-ARROYO

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President of the Philippines

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Implementing Rules and Regulations of RA 10121
Source: National Disaster Coordinating Council, now NDRRMC, (2010). Implementing Rules and
Regulations of Republic Act No. 10121. Retrieved March 2016 from http://ndrrmc.gov.ph
REPUBLIC OF THE PHILIPPINES

NATIONAL DISASTER COORDINATING COUNCIL
National Disaster Management Center, Camp General Emilio Aguinaldo, Quezon City, Philippines
IMPLEMENTING RULES AND REGULATIONS OF REPUBLIC ACT NO. 10121, ALSO

KNOWN AS “AN ACT STRENGTHENING THE PHILIPPINE DISASTER RISK
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REDUCTION AND MANAGEMENT SYSTEM, PROVIDING FRAMEWORK AND
INSTITUTIONALIZING THE NATIONAL DISASTER RISK REDUCTION AND
MANAGEMENT PLAN, APPROPRIATING FUNDS THEREFOR AND FOR OTHER
PURPOSES”
RULE 1 – GENERAL PROVISIONS
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Section 1. Title – Theses rules shall be known and cited as the Implementing Rules and
Regulatory of Republic Act No.10121 also known as the Philippine Disaster Risk Reduction
and Management Act of 2010(PDRRM Act of 2010)
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Section 2. Purpose – These Rules are hereby promulgated to prescribe the manner, procedures
and guidelines for the implementation of the PDRRM Act of 2010, to facilitate compliance
therewith, and achieve the objectives thereof.
Section 3. Declaration of Policy - it is the policy of the State to:
(a) Uphold the people‟s constitutional rights to life and property by addressing the root causes
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of vulnerabilities to disasters, strengthening the country‟s institutional capacity for disaster
risk reduction and management, and building the resilience of local communities to
disasters including climate change impacts;
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(b) Adhere to and adopt the universal norms, principles, and standards of humanitarian
assistance such as the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, UN Guiding Principles and
Guidelines on Internal Displacement and Durable Solutions, Convention on the Elimination
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of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW), Convention on the Rights of the Child and
the global effort on risk reduction as concrete expression of the country‟s commitment to
overcome human sufferings due to recurring disasters;
(c) Incorporate internationally accepted principles and guideline of disaster risk management in
the creation and implementation of national, regional and local sustainable development
and poverty reduction strategies, policies, plans and budgets;
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(d) Adopt a disaster risk reduction and management approach that is holistic, comprehensive,
integrated and proactive in lessening the socioeconomic and environmental impacts of
disasters including climate change, and promote the involvement and participation of all
sectors and all stakeholders concerned, at all levels, especially the local community.
(e) Develop, promote, and implement a comprehensive National Disaster Risk Reduction and
Management Plan (NDRRMP) that aims to strengthen the capacity of the national
government and the local government units (LGUs) , together with partner stakeholders, to
build the disaster resilience of communities, and – to institutionalize arrangements and
measures for reducing disaster risks, including projected climate risks, and enhancing
disaster preparedness and response capabilities at all levels;
(f) Adopt and implement a coherent, comprehensive, integrated, efficient and responsive
disaster risk reduction program incorporated in the development plan at various levels of
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government adhering to the principles of good governance such as transparency and
accountability within the context of poverty and environmental protection;
(g) Mainstream disaster risk reduction and climate change adaptation and mitigation in
development processes such as policy formulation, socioeconomic development planning,
budgeting and governance, particularly in the areas of environment, agriculture, water,
energy, health, education, poverty reduction, land-use and urban planning, and public
infrastructure and housing, among others;
(h) Institutionalizing the policies, structures coordination mechanisms and programs with
continuing budget appropriation on disaster risk reduction from national down to local
levels towards building a disaster-resilient nation and communities;
(i) Mainstream disaster risk reduction into the peace process and conflict resolution
approaches in order to minimize loss of lives and damage to property, and ensure that
communities in conflict zones including Internally Displaced Persons (IDPs) can
immediately go back to their normal lives during periods of intermittent conflicts;
(j) Ensure that disaster risk reduction and climate change measures are gender responsive,
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sensitive to indigenous knowledge systems and cultures, and respectful of human rights;
(k) Recognize the local risk patterns across the country and strengthen the capacity of LGUs
for disaster risk reduction and management through decentralized powers, responsibilities,
and resources at the regional and local levels;
(l) Recognize and strengthen the capacities of LGUs and communities in mitigating and
preparing for, responding to, and recovering from the impact of disasters;
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(m) Engage the participation of civil society organizations (CSOs), the private sector and
volunteers in the government‟s disaster risk reduction programs towards complementation
of resource and effective delivery of services to citizenry;
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(n) Develop and strengthen the capacities of vulnerable and marginalized groups to mitigate,
prepare for, respond to, and recover from the effects of disasters;
(o) Enhance and implement a program where humanitarian aid workers, communities health
professionals, government aid agencies, donors, and the media are educated and trained on
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how they can actively support breastfeeding before and during a disaster and/or an
emergency; and
(p) Provide maximum care, assistance and services to individuals and families affected by
disaster, implement emergency rehabilitation projects to lessen the impact of disaster, and
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facilities resumption of normal social and economic activities.

Section 4 – Scope of Application – These Rules provide for the development of policies and
plans and the implementation of actions and measures pertaining to all aspects of disaster risk
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reduction and management, including good governance, risk assessment and early warning,
knowledge building and awareness raising, reducing underlying risk factors, and preparedness
of effective response and early recovery. These shall apply to all levels of governance, civil
societies, private sectors and all other DRM stakeholders.
RULE 2 – DEFINITION OF TERMS

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Section 1 – whenever used in these Rules, the following shall refer to:
(a) “Adaptation” – the adjustment in natural or human systems in response to actual or
expected climactic stimuli or their effects, which moderates harm or exploits beneficial
opportunities.
(b) “Capacity” – a combination of all strengths and resources available within a community,
society or organization that can reduce the level of risk, or effects of a disaster. Capacity
may include infrastructure and physical means, institutions, societal coping abilities, as well
as human knowledge, skills, tools, systems, processes, appropriate technologies and
collective attributes such as social relationships, leadership and management. Capacity may
also be described as capability.
(c) “Civil Defense” – disaster preparedness and prevention activities, other than military
actions, geared towards the reduction of loss of life and property brought about by natural
and human-induced disasters. Civil defense may also be referred to as Civil Protection.
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(d) “Civil Society Organizations” or “CSOs” – non-state actors whose aims are neither to
generate profits nor to seek governing power. CSOs unite people to advance shared goals
and interests. They have a presences in public life, expressing the interests and values of
their members or others, and are based on social, ethical, cultural, scientific, religious or
philanthropic and other considerations. CSOs include non-government organizations
(NGOs), professional associations, foundations, independent research institutes,
community-based organizations (CBOs), faith-based organizations, people‟s organizational,
social movements, and labor unions.
(e) “Climate Change” – a change in climate that can‟t be identified by changes in the mean
and/or variability of its properties and that persists for an extended period typically decades
or longer, whether due to natural variability or as a result of human activity.
(f) “Community-Based Disaster Risk Reduction and Management” or “CBDRRM” – a process
of disaster risk reduction and management in which at risk communities are actively
engaged in the identification, analysis, treatment, monitoring and evaluation of disaster
risks in order to reduce their vulnerabilities and enhance their capacities, and where the
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people are at the heart of decision-making and implementation of disaster risk reduction
and management activities.
(g) “Complex Emergency” – a form of human-induced emergency in which the cause of the
emergency as well as the assistance to the afflicted is complicated by intense level of
political considerations.
(h) “Contingency Planning” – a management process that analyzes specific potential events or
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emerging situation that might threaten society or the environment and establishes
arrangements in advance to enable timely, effective and appropriate responses to such
events and situations.
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(i) “Disaster” – a serious disruption of the functioning of a community or a society involving
widespread human, material, economic or environmental losses and impacts, which exceeds
the ability of the affected community or society to cope using its own resources. Disasters
are often described as a result of the combination of: the exposure to hazard; the conditions
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of vulnerability that are present; and insufficient capacity or measures to reduce or cope
with the potential negative effects on human, physical, mental and social well-being,
together with damage to property, destruction of assets, loss of services, social and
economic disruption and environmental degradation.
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(j) “Disaster Mitigation” – the lessening or limitation of the adverse impacts of hazards and
related disasters. Mitigation measures include but not limited to the engineering techniques
and hazard-resistant construction but includes as well as improved environmental policies
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and programs and public awareness.

(k) “Disaster Preparedness” – the knowledge and capacities developed by governments,
professional responses and recovery organizations, communities and individuals to
effectively anticipate, respond to, and recover from – the impacts of likely, imminent or
current hazard events or conditions. Preparedness actions is carried out within the context
of disaster risk reduction and management and aims to build the capacities needed to
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efficiently manage all types of emergencies and achieve orderly transitions from response
to sustained recovery. Preparedness is based on a sound analysis of disaster risk, and good
linkages with early warning systems, and includes such activities as contingency planning,
stockpiling of equipment and supplies, the development of arrangements for coordination,
evacuation and public information, and associated training and field exercises. These must
be supported by formal institutional, legal and budgetary capacities.
(l) “Disaster Prevention” – the outright avoidance of adverse impacts of hazards and related
disasters. It expresses the concept and intention to completely avoid potential adverse
impacts through action taken in advance such as construction of dams or embankments that
eliminate flood risk, land-use regulations that do not permit any settlement in high-risk
zones, and seismic engineering designs that ensure the survival and function of a critical
building in any likely earthquake.
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(m) “Disaster Response” – the provision of emergency services and public assistance during or
immediately after a disaster in order to save lives, reduce health impacts, ensure public
safety and meet the basic subsistence needs of the people affected. Disaster response is
predominantly focused on immediate and short-term needs and is sometimes called
“disaster relief”.
(n) “Disaster Risk” –the potential disaster losses in lives, health status, livelihood, assets and
services, which could occur to a particular community or a society over some specified
future time period.
(o) “Disaster Risk Reduction” – the concept and practice of reducing disaster risks through
systematic efforts to analyze and manage the causal factors of disasters, including through
reduced exposures to hazards, lessened vulnerability of people and property, wise
management of land and the environment, and improved preparedness for adverse events.
(p) “Disaster Risk Reduction and Management” – the systematic process of using
administrative directives, organizations and operational skills and capacities to implement
strategies, policies an improved coping capacities in order to lessen the adverse impacts of
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hazards and the possibility of disaster. Prospective disaster risk reduction and management
refers to risk reduction and management activities that address and seek to avoid the
development of new or increased disaster risks especially if risk reduction policies are not
put in place.
(q) “Disaster Risk Reduction and Management Information System” – a specialized database
which contains, among others, information on disaster and their human material, economic
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and environmental impact, risk assessment and mapping and vulnerable groups.
(r) Disaster Victims – persons or groups of persons who have been adversely affected a natural
or human-induced hazard who have to leave their habitual places of residence due to exiting
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or impending threats, damaged shelter units, with casualty among immediate family
members or those who remained in their habitual places of origin when still habitable but
whose main source of income or livelihood had been damaged and are experiencing
hopelessness and difficulty in coping or responding to the onslaught of the hazardous
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events on their own resources.
(s) “Early Recovery” – multidimensional process of recovery that begins in a humanitarian
setting. It is guided by development principles that seek to build on humanitarian
programmes and catalyze sustainable development opportunities. It aims to generate self-
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sustaining, nationally-owned, resilient processes for post-crisis recovery. It encompasses

the restoration of basic services, governance, security and rule of law, environment and
social dimensions, including reintegration of displaced populations.
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(t) “Early Warning Systems” – the set of capacities needed to generate and disseminate timely
and meaningful warning information to enable individuals, communities and organizations
threatened by a hazard to prepare and to act appropriately and insufficient time to reduce
the possibility of harm or loss. A people-centered early warning systems necessarily
comprises four (4) key elements: knowledge of the risk; monitoring, analysis and
forecasting of the hazards; communication or dissemination of alerts and warnings; and
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local capabilities to respond to the warning received. The expression “end-to-end warning
system” is also used to emphasize that warning systems need to span all steps from hazard
detection to community response.
(u) “Emergency” – unforeseen or sudden occurrence, especially danger, demanding immediate
action.
(v) “Emergency Management” – the organization and management of resource such as
volunteer funds, donations, food and non food items, temporary/evacuation centers, and
responsibilities for addressing all aspects of emergencies, in particular preparedness,
response and initial recovery steps.
(w) “Exposure” = the degree to which the elements a risk are likely to experience hazard events
of different magnitudes.
(x) “Geographic Information System” – a database which contains, among others, geo-hazard
assessments, information on climate change, and climate risk reduction and management.
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(y) “Hazard” - dangerous phenomenon, substance, human activity or condition that may cause
loss of life, injury or other health impacts property damage, loss of livelihood and services,
social and economic disruption, or environmental damage.
(z) Internally Displaced Persons (IDPs) or Persons Displaced by the disaster – are persons or
groups of persons who have been forced or obliged to flee or to leave their homes or places
of habitual residence, in particular as a result of or in order to avoid the effects of natural or
human-induced disasters, and who have not crossed and internationally recognized State
border.
(aa) “Land-Use Planning” – the process undertaken by public authorities to identify, and
evaluate and decide on different options for the use of land including considerations of
long-term economic, social and environmental objectives and the implications for different
communities and interest groups, and the subsequent formulation and promulgation of plans
that describe the permitted or accepted uses.
(bb) “Mitigation” – structural and non-structural measures undertaken to limit the adverse
impact of natural hazards, environmental degradation, and technological hazards and to
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ensure the ability of at-risk communities to address vulnerabilities aimed at minimizing the
impact of disasters. Such measures include, but are not limited to, hazard-resistant
construction and engineering works, the formulation and implementation of plans,
programs, projects and activities, awareness raising, knowledge management, policies on
land-use and resource management, as well as the enforcement of comprehensive land-use
planning, building and safety standards and legislation.
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(cc) “National Disaster Risk Reduction and Management Framework” or “NDRRM
Framework” – provides for comprehensive, all hazards, multi-sectoral, inter-agency and
community-based approach to disaster risk reduction management.
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(dd) “National Disaster Risk Reduction and Management Plan” or “NDRRMP” – the document
to be formulated and implemented by the Office of Civil Defense (OCD) that sets out goals
and specific objectives for reducing disaster risks together with related actions to
accomplish these objectives. The NDRRMP shall provide for the identification of hazards,
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vulnerabilities and risks to be managed at the national level; disaster risk reduction and
management approaches and strategies to be applied in managing said hazards and risks;
agency roles, responsibilities and lines of authority at all government levels; and vertical
and horizontal coordination of disaster risk reduction and management in the pre-disaster
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and post-disaster phases and the budgetary resources to implement the plan. It shall be in
conformity with the NDRRM framework.
(ee) “Post-Disaster Recovery” – the restoration and improvement where appropriate, of
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facilities, livelihood and living conditions of disaster-affected communities, including

efforts to reduce disaster risk factors, in accordance with the principles of “build back
better”
(ff) “Preparedness” – pre-disaster actions and measures being undertaken within the context of
disaster risk reduction and management and are based on sound risk analysis as well as pre-
disaster activities to avert or minimize loss of life and property such as, but not limited to,
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community organizing, training, planning, equipping, stockpiling, hazard mapping, insuring

of assets, and public information and education initiatives.
(gg) “Private Sector” – the key actor in the realm of the economy where the central social
concern and process are the mutually beneficial production and distribution of goods and
services to meet the physical needs of human beings. The private sector comprises private
corporations, households and nonprofit institutions serving households.
(hh) “Public Sector Employees” – all persons in the civil service.
(ii) “Rehabilitation” – measures that ensures the ability of affected communities/areas to restore
their normal level of functioning by rebuilding livelihood and damaged infrastructures and
increasing the communities organizational capacity.
(jj) “Resilience” – the ability of a system, community or society exposed to hazards to resist,
absorb, accommodate and recover from the effects of a hazard in a timely and efficient
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manner, including through the preservation and restoration of its essential basic structures
and functions.
(kk) “Response” – any concentrated effort by two (2) or more agencies, public or private, to
provide assistance or intervention during or immediately after a disaster to meet the life
preservation and basic subsistence needs of those people affected and in the restoration of
essential public activities and facilities.
(ll) “Risk” – the combination of the probability of an event and its negative consequences, also,
the probability of harmful consequences, or expected losses (deaths, injuries, properties,
livelihoods, economic activity disruption or environment damage) resulting from
interactions between natural, human-induced hazards and vulnerable conditions.
(mm) “Risk Assessment” – a methodology to determine the nature and extent of risk by
analyzing potential hazards and evaluating existing conditions of vulnerability that together
could potentially harm exposed people, property, services, livelihood and the environment
on which they depend. Risk assessments with associated risk mapping include: a review of
the technical characteristics of hazards such as their location intensity, frequency and
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probability; the analysis of exposure and vulnerability including the physical, social, health,
economic and environmental dimensions; and the evaluation of the effectiveness of
prevailing and alternative coping capacities in respect to likely risk scenarios.
(nn) “Risk Management” – the systematic approach and practice of managing uncertainty to
minimize potential harm and loss. It comprises risk assessment and analysis, and the
implementation of strategies and specific actions to control, reduce and transfer risks. It is
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widely practiced by organizations to minimize risk in investment decisions and to address
operational risks such as those of business disruption, production failure, environmental
damage, social impacts and damage from fire and natural hazards.
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(oo) “Risk Transfer” – the process of formally or informally shifting the financial consequences
of particular risks from one party to another whereby a household community, enterprise or
state authority shall obtain resources from the other party after a disaster occurs, in
exchange for ongoing or compensatory social or financial benefits provided to that other
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party.
(pp) “State of Calamity” – a condition involving mass casualty and/or major damages to
property, disruption of means of livelihoods, roads and normal way of life of people in the
affected areas as a result of the occurrence of natural or human-induced hazard.
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(qq) “Sustainable Development” – development that meets the needs of the present without
compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs. It contains within it
two (2) key concepts: (1) the concept of “needs”, in particular, the essential needs of the
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world‟s poor, to which overriding priority should be given; and (2) the idea of limitations
imposed by the state of technology and social organizations on the environment‟s ability to
meet present and future needs. It is the harmonious integration of a sound and viable
economy, responsible governance, social cohesion and harmony, and ecological integrity to
ensure that human development now and through future generations is a life-enhancing
process.
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(rr) “Volunteer” – individual/person or group who for reasons arising from their socio-
developmental, business and corporate orientation, commitment or conviction, contribute
time, service, and resources whether full time or part time base to a just and essential social
development cause, mission or endeavor in the belief that their activity is mutually
meaningful and beneficial to public interest as well as to themselves.
(ss) “Vulnerability” – the characteristics and circumstances of a community, system o asset that
make it susceptible to the damaging effects of a hazard. Vulnerability may arise for various
physical, social, economic and environmental factors such as poor design and construction
of buildings, inadequate protection of assets, lack of public information and awareness,
limited official recognition of risks and preparedness measure, and disregard for wise
environmental management.
(tt) “Vulnerable and Marginalized Groups” – includes individuals or groups of people that face
higher exposure to disaster risk and poverty including, but not limited to, women, especially
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pregnant women, youth, children especially orphans and unaccompanied children, elderly,
differently-abled people, indigenous people, the disadvantaged families and individuals
living in high risk areas and danger zones, and those living in the road right-of-ways and
highly congested areas vulnerable to industrial, environmental, health hazards and road
accidents. Included into the exposures of poverty are the marginalized farmers and fisher
folks.
RULE 3 – THE NATIONAL DISASTER RISK REDUCTION AND MANAGEMENT

COUNCIL
Section 1. National Disaster Risk Reduction and Management Council – The present National
Disaster Coordinating Council or NDCC shall henceforth be known as the National Disaster
Risk Reduction and Management Council, hereafter referred to as the NDRRMC or the
National Council.
Section 2. Composition – The National Council shall be headed by the Secretary of the
Department of National Defense (DND) as Chairperson with the Secretary of the Department
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of Interior and Local Government (DILG) as Vice Chairperson for Disaster Preparedness, the
Secretary of the Department of Social Welfare and Development (DSWD) as Vice
Chairperson for Disaster Response, the Secretary of the Department of Science and
Technology (DOST) as Vice-Chairperson for Disaster Response, the Secretary of the
Department of Science and Technology (DOST) a Vice-Chairperson for Disaster Prevention
and Mitigation, and the Director-General of the National Economic and Development
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Authority (NEDA) as Vice Chairperson for Disaster Rehabilitation and Recovery. Other
members of the Council are:
(a) Secretary of the Department of Health (DOH);
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(b) Secretary of the Department of Environment and Natural Resources (DENR);
(c) Secretary of the Department of Agriculture (DA);
(d) Secretary of the Department of Education (DepEd);
(e) Secretary of the Department of Energy (DOE);
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(f) Secretary of the Department of Finance (DOF);
(g) Secretary of the Department of Trade and Industry (DTI);
(h) Secretary of the Department of Transportation and Communications (DOTC);
(i) Secretary of the Department of Budget and Management (DBM);
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(j) Secretary of the Department of Public Works and Highways (DPWH);

(k) Secretary of the Department of Foreign Affairs (DFA);
(l) Secretary of the Department of Justice (DOJ);
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(m) Secretary of the Department of Labor and Employment (DOLE);

(n) Secretary of the Department of Tourism (DOT);
(o) The Executive Secretary;
(p) Secretary of the Office of the Presidential Adviser on the Peace Process (OPAPP);
(q) Chairperson, Commission on Higher Education (CHED);
(r) Chief of Staff, Armed Forced of the Philippines (AFP);
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(s) Chief, Philippine National Police (PNP);

(t) The Press Secretary or his equivalent;
(u) Secretary General of the Philippine Red Cross (PRC);
(v) Commissioner of the National Anti-Poverty Commission-Victims of Disaster and
Calamities Sector (NAPC_VDC);
(w) Chairperson, National Commission on the title Role of Filipino Women which is
known today as the Philippine Commission on Women (PCW);
(x) Chairperson, Housing and Urban Development Coordinating Council (HUDCC);
(y) Executive Director of the Climate Change Office of the Climate Change
Commission;
(z) President, Governance Service Insurance Systems (GSIS);
(aa) President, Social Security Systems (SSS);
(bb) President, Philippine Health Insurance Corporation (PhilHealth);
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(cc) President of the Union of Local Authorities of the Philippines (ULAP);
(dd) President of the League of Provinces of the Philippines (LPP);
(ee) President of the League of Cities of the Philippines (LCP);
(ff) President of the League of Municipalities of the Philippines (LMP);
(gg) President of the Liga ng Mga Barangay (LMB);
(hh) Four representatives from CSOs;
(ii) One representative from the private sector; and
(jj) Administrator of the OCD.
In case of the CSO and Private sector representatives, the National Council shall provide for
the guidelines of selection and screening thereof.
Section 3. Power and Functions – the National Council, being empowered with policy making,
coordination, integration, supervision, monitoring and evaluation functions, shall have the
following responsibilities:
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(a) Develop a NDRRM Framework which shall provide for comprehensive, all-hazards, multi-
sectoral, inter-agency and community-based approach to disaster risk reduction and
management. The Framework shall serve as the principal guide to disaster risk reduction
and management efforts in the country and shall be reviewed on a five (5) year interval, or
as may be deemed necessary, in order to ensure its relevance to the times;
(b) Ensure that the NDRRM Plan is consistent with the NDRRM Framework;
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(c) Advise the President on the Status of disaster preparedness, prevention, mitigation,
response and rehabilitation operations being undertaken by the government, CSOs, private
sector, and volunteers; recommend to the President the declaration of a state of calamity in
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areas extensively damaged; and submit proposals to restore normalcy in the affected areas,
to include calamity fund allocation;
(d) Ensure a multi-stakeholder participation in the development, updating and sharing of a
Disaster Risk Reduction and Management Information System and Geographic Information
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System-based national risk map as policy, planning and decision-making tools;
(e) Establish and/or strengthen a comprehensive, all hazards national early warning and
emergency alert system to provide accurate and timely advice to national or local
emergency response organizations and to the general public through diverse mass media to
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include digital and analog broadcast, cable, satellite television and radio, wireless
communications, and landline communications;
(f) Develop appropriate risk transfer mechanisms that shall guarantee social and economic
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protection and increase resiliency in the face of disaster;

(g) Monitor the development and enforcement by agencies and organizations of the various
laws, guidelines, codes or technical standards required by the Act;
(h) Manage and mobilize resources for disaster risk reduction and management including the
National Disaster Risk Reduction and Management Fund;
(i) Provide necessary guidelines and procedures, and monitor the Local Disaster Risk
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Reduction and Management Fund (LDRMF) releases as well as utilization, accounting and
auditing thereof;
(j) Develop assessment tools on the existing and potential hazards and risks brought about by
climate change to vulnerable areas and ecosystems in coordination with the Climate Change
Commission;
(k) Develop vertical and horizontal coordination mechanisms for a more coherent
implementation of disaster to address the specific weaknesses of various government
agencies and LGUs, based on the results of a biennial baseline assessment and studies.
(l) Formulate, harmonize and translate into policies a national agenda for research and
technology development on disaster risk reduction and management;
(m) In coordination with the Climate Change Commission, formulate and implement a
framework for climate change adaptation and disaster risk reduction and management from
which all policies, programs and projects shall be based;
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(n) Constitute a technical management group composed of representatives of the
abovementioned departments, offices, and organizations, that shall coordinate and meet as
often as necessary to effectively manage and sustain national efforts on disaster risk
reduction and management;
(o) Task the OCD to conduct periodic assessment and performance monitoring of the member-
agencies of the NDRRMC, and the Regional Disaster Risk Reduction and Management
Councils (RDRRMCs), as defined in the NDRRMP;
(p) Coordinate or oversee the implementation of the country‟s obligations with disaster
management treaties to which it is a party and see to it that the country‟s disaster
management treaty obligations be incorporated in its disaster risk reduction and
management frameworks, policies, plans, programs, and projects; and
(q) Coordinate or oversee the implementation of the country‟s obligations with disaster
management treaties to which it is a party such as the ASEAN Agreement on Disaster
Management and Emergency Response (AADMER), which came into force on 24
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December 2009, ad see to it that the country‟s disaster management, treaty obligations be
incorporated in its disaster risk reduction and management frameworks, policies, plans,
programs, and projects.
Section 4. Authority of the Chairperson – The Chairperson of the NDRRMC may call upon
other instrumentalities or entities of the government and non-government, civic and private
organizations for assistance in terms of the use of their facilities and resources for the
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protection and preservation of life and properties in the whole range of disaster risk reduction
and management. This authority includes the power to call on the reserve force as defined in
Republic Act No. 7077 to assist in relief and rescue during disasters or calamities.
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Section 5. Duties &Responsibilities of the National Council members
5.1 The Chairperson, assisted by the four Vice-chairpersons, shall provide the overall
direction, exercise supervision and effect coordination of relevant DRRM programs,
projects and activities consistent with respective National Council Member Departments
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or Agency mandates.
5.2 Every member agency shall be assigned functions relevant to their mandates, programs,
geographic jurisdiction and special constituencies to be indicated in the NDRRMP. Each
agency shall formulate its own DRRM Implementing Plan and their manual of
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operations. A copy of DRRM Implementing Plan shall be submitted to the National

Council for adoption.
5.3 Every member agency of the NDRRMC shall establish their respective Emergency
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Operations Center (EOC), subject to exemptions granted by the National Council, and
shall likewise designate a focal officer for DRRM.
Section 6. Meetings of the National Council – The National Council shall meet regularly every
quarter on dates and place to be determined by the said council. The chairperson of the
Council may call for a special meeting as the need arises. The Council shall formulate internal
rules for its meetings.
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RULE 4 – REGIONAL DISASTER RISK REDUCTION AND MANAGEMENT COUNCIL

Section 1. Regional Disaster Risk Reduction and Management Councils – the current Regional
Disaster Coordinating Councils shall henceforth be known as the Regional Disaster Risk
Reduction and Management Councils (RDRRMCs).
Section 2. Composition – The Civil Defense Officers of the OCD who are or may be designated
as Regional Directors of the OCD shall serve as chairpersons of the RDRRMCs. Its Vice
chairpersons shall be the Regional Directors of the DSWD, the DILG, the DOST, and the
NEDA. The RDRRMCs shall be composed of the executive of regional offices and field
stations (at the regional level] of [the] government agencies that are members of the National
Council.
Section 3. Function and responsibilities – Except for the policy making function of the
NDRRMC, the RDRRMCs shall likewise carry out coordination, integration, supervision,
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monitoring and evaluation functions covering Regional Council Member Agencies and the
local Disaster Risk Reduction Management Councils (LDRRMCs) within their jurisdictions.
The RDRRMC shall also be responsible in ensuing risk-sensitive regional development plans,
and in case of emergencies, shall convene the different regional line agencies and concerned
institutions and authorities.
3.1 the RDRRMC Chairperson may tap the facilities and resources of other government
agencies and private sectors, for the protection of life and properties in pursuit of disaster
risk reduction and management.
3.2 the RDRRMCs shall constitute a technical working group composed of representative of
the member agencies that shall coordinate and meet as often as necessary to effectively
manage and sustain regional efforts on disaster risk reduction and management.
Section 4. Meetings and Secretariat – the RDRRMC shall meet regularly every quarter on dates
and place to be determined by the Regional Council. The Chairperson of the Council may call
for a special meeting as the need arises. The existing regional offices of OCD shall serve as
secretariat of the RDRRMCs. The council shall formulate internal rules for its meetings.
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Section 5. Operations Center – The RDRRMCs shall establish an operating facility on a 24-hour
basis, to be known as the Regional Disaster Risk Reduction and Management Operations
Center ( RDRRMOC).
Section 6. Metro Manila Disaster Risk Reduction and Management Council (MMDRRMC)
– in keeping with the provisions of Republic Act No. 7924 designating Metro Manila as a
special administrative region, the MMDRRMC shall be chaired by the chairperson of the
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Metro Manila Development Authority (MMDA). It shall also have an organizational structure
similar to that of the RDRRMCs to be composed of the executives of MMDA departments or
offices and/or regional offices or filed stations operating in the National Capital Region, OCD
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Civil Defense Officer designated as Regional Director of the National Capital Region shall
serve as the RDRRMC‟s Vice-Chairperson on Disaster Preparedness or such other functions
as may be determined by the MMDRRMC Chair.
All other national government agencies operating in NCR shall be members of the
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MMDRRMC.
Section 7. Autonomous Region in Muslim Mindanao (ARMM) - In the case of the ARMM,
the Regional Governor shall be the RDRRMC Chairperson. The RDRRMC – ARMM may
likewise have four Vice Chairpersons comprising of the Secretaries of the DSWD – ARMM
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for disaster response, the DILG – ARMM for Disaster Preparedness, and the DOST – ARMM
for Disaster Mitigation and Prevention, and the Executive Director of the Regional Planning
and Development Office (RPDO) for Disaster Rehabilitation and Recovery. The RDRRMC –
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ARMM shall formulate internal rules for its meetings.

Section 8. Other entities – RDRRMCs may invite other concerned institutions, organizations,
agencies and instrumentalities in the private and public sector when deemed necessary to
perform their mandate.
RULE 5 – LOCAL DISASTER RIS REDUCTION AND MANAGEMENT COUNCILS

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Section 1. Local Disaster Risk Reduction and Management Councils – The existing
Provincial, City, and Municipal Disaster Coordination Councils shall henceforth be known as
the Provincial, City, and Municipal Disaster Risk reduction and Management Councils. The
Barangay Disaster Coordinating Councils shall cease to exist and its powers and functions
shall henceforth be assumed by the existing Barangay Development Councils (BDCs) which
shall serve as the LDRRMCs in every barangay.
Section 2. Composition – As may be determined by the LDRRMC, it shall be composed of, but
not limited to, the following:
1. The Local Chief Executive, Chairperson;
2. The Local Planning and Development Officer, member;
3. The Head of the LDRRMO, member;
4. The Head of the Local Social Welfare and Development Office, member;
5. The Head of the Local Health Office, member;
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6. The Head of the Local Agriculture Office, member;
7. The Head of the Gender and Development Office, member;
8. The Head of the Local Engineering Office, member;
9. The Head of the Local Veterinary Office, member;
10. The Head of the Local Budget Office, member;
11. The Division Head/Superintendent of Schools/District Supervisor of the DepEd,
member;
12. The highest-ranking officer of the Armed Forces of the Philippines (AFP)
assigned in the area, member;
13. The Provincial/ City Director/ Component City/ Municipal Chief of the
Philippine National Police (PNP), member;
14. The Provincial Director/ City Municipal Fire Marshall of the Bureau of Fire
Protection (BFP), member;
15. The President of the Liga ng mga Barangay, member;
16. The Philippine Red Cross (PRC), member;
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17. Four accredited CSOs, member; and
18. One private sector representative, member.
2.1 The LDRRMC is encouraged to include the following as its members:
1) The Provincial Director/City/Municipal Office of the Department of Interior and
Local Government;
2) The Provincial Director/ City/ Municipal Officer of the Department of Environment
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and Natural Resource;
3) The appropriate official of the Philippines Coast Guard or Forest Guard in the
locality, where applicable;
4) A Representative of the Sanggunian.
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Section 3. Criteria for CSOs and private sector representative – The criteria for the selection of
CSOs and the private sector representation in the LDRRMC shall adhere with the guidelines
to be issued by the National Council for said purpose, including accreditation and operational
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mechanisms or processes.
Section 4. Functions – The LDRRMCs shall have the following functions:
(1) Approve, monitor and evaluate the implementation of the LDRRMPs and annually
review, test and develop the plan consistent with other national and local planning
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programs;
(2) Ensure the integration of disaster risk reduction and climate change adaptation into local
development plans, program and budgets as a strategy in sustainable development and
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poverty reduction;
(3) Recommend the implementation of forced or preemptive evacuation of local residents if
necessary; and
(4) Convene the local council as provided by the Act and these Rules
Section 5. Meetings and Quorum – The meetings of the Local Councils shall be held once every
three months on dates and place to be determined by the body. The Chairperson of the Local
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Council may call for a special meeting as he may deem necessary. The Local Councils shall
promulgate their respective internal rules their meetings. The Local Disaster Risk Reduction
and Management Office (LDRRMO), referred to in the succeeding Rule, shall serve as the
Secretariat.
RULE 6 – LOCAL DISASTER RISK REDUCTION AND MANAGEMENT OFFICE
(LSEEMO)
Section 1. Establishment of an Office – There is hereby created an LDRRMO in every province,
city and municipality under the Office of the Governor, City or Municipal Mayor,
respectively, and a Barangay Disaster to be headed by the Punong Barangay.
Section 2. Composition and Structure – The LDDRMOs shall be initially organized and
composed of a DRRMO to be assisted by three staff responsible for: (1) administration and
training; (2) research and planning; and (3) operations and warning.
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2.1 The budgetary source, compensation and hiring procedure for the DRRMO shall conform to
the rules and policies of the CSC and the DBM, among others.
Section 3. Qualification of the DRRM Officer – The DRRM Officer provided under section 12
(b) of the Act shall have the following qualifications:
(a) Must be civil service eligible;
(b) Must have a Civil Defense/DRM experience
Section 4, Functions – The provincial, city and municipal DRRMOs or BDRRMCs, in
coordination with concerned national agencies and instrumentalities, shall perform the
following functions with impartiality, given the emerging challenges brought by disasters of
our times:
(1) Set the direction, development, implementation and coordination of disaster risk
management programs within their territorial jurisdiction.
(2) Design, program, and coordinate disaster risk reduction and management activities
consistent with the National Council‟s standards and guidelines.
(3) Facilitate and support risk assessments and contingency planning activities at the
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local level;
(4) Consolidate local disaster risk information which includes natural hazards,
vulnerabilities, and climate change risks, and maintain a local risk map;
(5) Organize and conduct training, orientation and knowledge management activities on
disaster risk reduction and management at the local level;
(6) Operate a multi-hazards early warning system, linked to disaster risk reduction to
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provide accurate and timely advice to national or local emergency response
organizations and to the general public, through diverse mass media, particularly
radio, landline communications, and technologies for communication within rural
communities;
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(7) Formulate and implement a comprehensive and integrated LDRRMP in accordance
with the national, regional and provincial framework, and policies on disaster risk
reduction in close coordination with the local development councils (LDCs);
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(8) Prepare and submit to the local sanggunian through the LDRRMC and the LDC the
annual LDRRMO Plan and budget, the proposed programming of the LDRRMF,
other dedicated disaster risk reduction and management resources, and other regular
funding soure/s and budgetary support of the LDRRMO/BDRRMC;
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(9) Conduct continuous disaster monitoring and mobilized instrumentalities and entities
of the LGUs, CSOs, private groups and organized volunteers, to utilize their facilities
and resources for the protection and preservation of life and properties during
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emergencies and accordance with existing policies and procedures;

(10) Identify, assess and manage the hazards vulnerabilities and risks that may occur in
their locality;
(11) Disseminate information and raise public awareness about those hazards,
vulnerabilities and risks, their nature, effects, early warning signs and counter-
measures;
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(12) Identify and implement cost-effective risk reduction measures/strategies;

(13) Maintain a database of human resource, equipment, directors, and location of critical
infrastructures and their capacities such as hospitals and evacuation centers;
(14) Develop, strengthen and operationalize mechanisms for partnership or networking
with the private sector, CSOs, and volunteer groups;
(15) Take all necessary steps on a continuing basis to maintain, provide, or arrange the
provision of or to otherwise make available, suitably-trained and competent
personnel for effective civil defense and disaster risk reduction and management in
its area;
(16) Organize, train, equip and supervise the local emergency response teams and the
ACDVs, ensuring that humanitarian aid workers are equipped with basic skills to
assist mothers to breastfed;
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(17) Respond to and manage the adverse effects of emergencies and carry out recovery
activities in the affected area, ensuring that there is an efficient mechanism for
immediate delivery of food, shelter and medical supplies for women and children,
endeavor to create a special place where internally-displaced mothers and children
can find help with breastfeeding, feed and care for their babies and give support to
each other;
(18) Within its area, promote and raise public awareness of and compliance with the Act
and legislative provisions relevant to the purpose of the Act;
(19) Serve as the secretariat and executive arm of the LDRRMC;
(20) Coordinate other disaster risk reduction and management activities;
(21) Establish linkage/network with other LGUs for disaster risk reducing and emergency
response purposes;
(22) Recommend through the LDRRMC the enactment of local ordinances consistent
with the requirement of this Act;
(23) Implement policies, approved plans and programs of the LDRRMC consistent with
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the policies and guidelines laid down in the Act;
(24) Establish a Provincial/City/Municipal/Barangay Disaster Risk Reduction and
Management Operations Center;
(25) Prepare and submit through the LDRRMC and the LDC, report on the utilization of
the LDRRMF and other dedicated disaster risk reduction and management resource
to the local Commission on Audit (COA) for provincial/city level and internal audit
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for municipal and component city level copy furnished the regional director of the
OCD and the Local Government Operations officer of the DILG; and
(26) Act on other matters that may be authorized by the LDRRMC.
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Section 5. The BDRRMC – It shall be a regular committee of the existing BDC and shall be
subject thereto. The punong barangay shall facilitate and ensure the participation of at least
two CSO representatives from existing and active community-based people‟s organization
representing the most vulnerable and marginalized groups in the barangay.
Section 6. Local Ordinance – the local sanggunian concerned shall enact the appropriate
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ordinance to create the DRRMO including the allocation of necessary staffing/ personnel and
budget.
Section 7. Information and Public Awareness on Hazards, Vulnerabilities and Risks – Each
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LGU shall provide an area within its jurisdiction where hazards maps and contingency plans
for major hazards are prominently displayed. In addition, information shall also be
disseminated through the internet and printed materials such as newsletters, brochures and
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pamphlets. Public awareness shall also e undertaken through conduct of drills by the
LDRRMO on a regular basis.
Section 8. Linking Local Database with the National Database – The local databases on human
resources, equipment, directories and location of critical infrastructures and their capacities,
developed and compiled by the NDRRMOs shall be linked with the national database
maintained by the OCD.
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Section 9. Access to Database – The database shall be accessible and available to everyone
subject to reasonable restrictions arising from legal and security requirements, if any. Specific
information may be obtained provided that a written request is submitted and under the
condition that proper citation and reference is made.
RULE 7 – THE OFFICE OF CIVIL DEFENSE
Section 1. Mandate – The Office of Civil Defense (OCD), as the implementing arm of the
National Council, shall have the primary mission of administering a comprehensive national
civil defense and disaster risk reduction and management program by providing leadership in
the continuous development of strategic and systematic approaches as well as measures to
reduce the vulnerabilities and risks to hazards and manage the consequence of disasters.
Section 2. The Administrator - The Administrator of the OCD shall also serve as Executive
Director of the National Council and, as such, shall have the same duties and privileges of a
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department undersecretary. The Administrator shall be a universally acknowledged expert in
the field of disaster risk reduction management and of proven honesty and integrity
Section 3. Powers and Functions – The OCD shall have the following powers and functions in
partnership and in coordination with member agencies and in consultation with key
stakeholders, as maybe applicable.
(a) Advise the National Council on matters relating to disaster risk reduction and
management consistent with the policies and scope as defined in these Rules;
(b) Formulate the NDRRMP within six months from the affectivity of these rules and
provide leadership in the implementation of the Plan. It shall ensure that the physical
framework, social, economic and environmental plans of communities, cities,
municipalities and provinces are consistent with such plan. The strategic National Action
Plan (SNAP) for Disaster Risk Reduction (DRR) adopted through Executive Order no.
888 shall be used as the strategic foundation and building block for the NDRRMP. The
National Council shall approve the NDRRMP.
(c) Identify, assess and prioritize hazards and risks in consultation with key stakeholders;
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(d) Develop and ensure the implementations of national standards and standard operating
procedures (SOP) in carrying out disaster risk reduction programs including
preparedness, mitigation, prevention, response and rehabilitation works, from data
collection and analysis, planning, implementation, monitoring and evaluation. These
national standards and SOPs shall be developed alongside the NDRRMP;
(e) Review and evaluate the local Disaster Risk Reduction and Management Plans
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(LDRRMPs), in coordination with concerned agencies and or instrumentalities, to
facilitate the integration of disaster risk reduction measures into the local Comprehensive
Development Plan (CDP) and Comprehensive Land-Use Plan (CLUP).
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(f) Ensure that LGUs, through the Local Disaster Risk Reduction and Management offices
(LDRRMOs) are properly informed and adhere to the national standards and programs;
(g) Formulate standard operating procedures for the deployment of rapid damage assessment
and needs analysis (DANA) teams, information sharing among different government
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response system, to ensure effective consequence management of disasters of
emergencies;
(h) Establish an incident command system (ICS) as part of the country‟s existing on-scene
disaster response system, to ensure effective consequence management of disasters or
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emergencies;
(i) Establish standard operating procedures on the communication system among provincial,
city, municipal, and barangay disaster risk reduction and management of disasters risk
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reduction and management councils, for purposes of warning and alerting them and for
gathering information on disaster areas before, during and after disasters;
(j) Establish Disaster Risk Reduction and Management Training Institutes in such suitable
locations as maybe deemed appropriate in accordance with Rule 8 herein;
(k) Ensure that all disaster risk reduction programs, projects and activities requiring regional
and international support shall be in accordance with duly established national policies
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and aligned with international agreements;

(l) Ensure that all disaster risk reduction programs, projects and activities requiring regional
and international support shall be in accordance with duly established national policies
and aligned with international agreements;
(m) Ensure that government agencies and LGUs give top priority and take adequate and
appropriate measures in disaster risk reduction and management;
(n) Create an enabling environment for substantial and sustainable participation of CSOs
private groups, volunteers and communities, and recognize their contributions in the
government‟s disaster risk reduction efforts;
(o) Conduct early recovery and post-disaster needs assessment institutionalizing gender
analysis as part of it;
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(p) Establish an operating facility to e known as the National Disaster Risk Reduction and
Management Operations Center (NDRRMOC) that shall be operated and staffed in a
twenty-four (24) hour basis;
(q) Prepare the criteria and procedure for the enlistment of the accredited community disaster
volunteers (ACDVs). It shall include a manual of operations for the volunteers which
shall be developed by the OCD in consultation with various stakeholders;
(r) Provide advice and technical assistance and assist in mobilizing necessary resource to
increase the overall capacity of LGUs specifically the low income and in high-risk areas;
(s) Create the necessary offices to perform its mandate as provided under this Act;
(t) Perform secretariat functions of the National Council; and
(u) Perform such other functions as may be necessary for effective operations and
implementation of the Act.
Section 4. Staffing requirements – The office of Civil Defense, in coordination with the
Department of Budget and Management and Civil Service Commission, shall come up with
relevant staffing pattern within thirty days from approval of these rules. The enhanced OCD
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organization shall be composed of competent and qualified technical personnel of relevant
offices as may be deemed necessary to effectively carry out its functions and duties prescribed
herein, subject to the approval of the Department of Budget and Management and existing
civil service rules and regulations.
Section 5. Compliance with Salary Standardization Law - The compensation and emoluments
of the officials and employees of OCD shall be in accordance with the Salary Standardization
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Law and other applicable laws under the National Compensation and Classification Plan.
RULE 8 – NATIONAL DISASTER RISK REDUTION AND MANAGEMENT TRAINING
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INSTITUTES
Section 1. Purpose – Pursuant to Section 9 (i) of the RA10121, NDRRM Training Institutes shall
be established for the following purposes:
(a) Train public and private individuals, both local and national, in such subject as disaster
rusk reduction and management, including emergency response, capacity-building
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programs for the implementation of Section 14of this Act;
(b) Consolidate and prepare training materials and publications of disaster risk reduction and
management books and manuals to assist disaster risk reduction and management
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workers in the planning and implementation of its program and projects;

(c) Conduct research programs to upgrade knowledge and skills and document best practices
on disaster risk reduction and management; and
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(d) Conduct periodic awareness and education programs to accommodate new elective
officials and members of the LDRRMCs.
Section 2. Training Programs – The OCD may engage the expertise of the other National
Council member agencies and other training organizations accredited by the National
Council. It shall be inclusive in conducting, designing and developing the training programs,
materials and syllabus of the institute, to ensure that the training programme and resource
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materials are supportive of the mandated tasks of the NDRRMC.

Section 3. Location – Suitable locations for the establishment of said institutes shall be
determined in consultation with concerned stakeholders and with the approval of the National
Council.
Section 4. Organized Structure – The organizational structure of the NDRRM Training Institutes
shall be developed by the OCD, subject to the approval of the National Council, in accordance
with the existing laws, rules and regulations.
RULE 9 – ACCREDIATION, MOBILIZATION, AND PROTECTION OF DISASTER
VOLUNTEERS AND NATIONAL SERVICE RESERVE CORPS, CSOs AND
PRIVATE SECTOR
Section 1. Accreditation – The government agencies, CSOs, private sector and LGUs may
mobilize individuals or organized volunteers to augment their respective personnel
complement and logistical requirements in the delivery of disaster risk reduction programs
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and activities. The agencies, CSOs, private sector, and LGUs concerned shall take full
responsibility for the enhancement, welfare and protection of their volunteers, and shall
submit the list of volunteers to the OCD, through the LDRRMOs, for accreditation and
inclusion in the database of community disaster volunteers.
A national roster of Accredited Community Disaster Volunteers (ACDVs), National Service
Reserve Corps (NSRC) under RA 9163 or the National Service Training Program Act of
2001, CSOs, and the private sector shall be maintained by the OCD through the LDRRMOs.
Accreditation of volunteers and issuance of their identification cards shall be done at the
municipal or city level.
Section 2. Mobilization – Mobilization of volunteers shall be in accordance with the guidelines to
be formulated by the NDRRMC consistent with the provisions of the Act.
Section 3. Capacity Building – Training for volunteers shall form part of the volunteer
mobilization activities of the N/R/LDRRMC and the BDC.
Section 4. Insurance for the ACDVs – Any volunteer who incurs death or injury while engaged
in any of the activities defined under the Act shall be entitled to compensatory benefits and
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individual personnel accident insurance. The government agency, CSO, private sector or LGU
which mobilized the ACDVs shall be responsible for providing the latter with insurance and
necessary benefits.
Section 5. Guidelines on Mobilization, Accreditation, Capacity-Building and Protection of
ACDVs from Various Sectors – The NDRRMC, through the OCD, shall formulate,
promulgate and issue within three months from the affectivity of these Rules the guidelines on
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the mobilization, accreditation, capacity-building and protection of ACDVs from the
government agencies, CSOs, private sector and LGUs.
RULE 10 – INTEGRATION OF DISASTER RISK REDUCTION EDUCATION INTO THE
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SCHOOL CURRICULA AND SANGGUNIAN KABATAAN (SK) PROGRAM AND
MANDATORY TRAINING FOR THE PUBLIC SECTOR EMPLOYEES
Section 1. Integration into the school curricula – The DepED, the CHED , the Technical
Education and Skills Development Authority (TESDA), in coordination with the OCD, the
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National Youth Commission (NYC), the DOST, the DENR, the DILG-BFP, the DOH, the
DSWD and other relevant agencies, shall integrate disaster risk reduction and management
education in the school curricula of secondary and tertiary level of education, including the
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National Service Training Program (NSTP), whether private or public, including formal and
non-formal, technical-vocational, indigenous learning, and out-of-school youth courses and
programs.
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Section 2. Community Education and Training – The NDRRMC, the RDRRMCs, the
LDRRMCs, the LDRRMOs, the BDRRMCs and the SK councils, in coordination with the
National Youth Commission (NYC), shall encourage community, specifically the youth,
participation in disaster risk reduction and management activities, such as organizing quick
response groups, particularly in identified disaster-prone areas, as well as the inclusions of
disaster risk reduction and management programs as part of the SK programs and projects. In
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the same manner, they shall likewise encourage and involve the community, specifically the
youth, in the Disaster Risk Reduction Training either through actual conduct or as participant
to the said training.
Sector 3. Education and Training of Employees of the Public Sector – The public sector
employees shall be trained in emergency response and preparedness with strong focus on
gender responsiveness, sensitivity to indigenous knowledge systems and respect for human
rights. Towards this end, the following guidelines are hereby establish to ensure its effective
implementation and compliance:
(a) The Civil Service Commission shall issue a directive requiring all heads of government
department and agencies, including government financing institutions and local
government units to conducting training on DRRM for their respective personnel.
(b) A Train-the-Trainers approach shall be adopted for this purpose whereby member
agencies of the NDRRMC, including other government agencies and local government
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units, shall organized and train their respective DRRM Core of trainers who shall be
responsible in cascading the training to their regional/field level and/ or LGU staff.
(c) A standard training design and instructional materials on DRRM shall be developed by
the DRRM Training Institute in accordance with RUE 8, section 1 (b) of these Rules and
shall be implemented by the CSC.
(d) Members of the National Council which already conduct specialty and highly technical
skills course may continue with the conduct of said training programs.
RULE 11 – COORDINATION DURING EMERGENCIES
Section 1. Lead Agency during emergency – The LDRRMCs take the lead in preparing for,
responding to, and recovering from the effects of any disaster based on the following criteria:
(a) The BDC, if barangay is affected;
(b) The city/municipal DRRMCs, if two (2) or more barangays are affected;
(c) The provincial DRRMC, if two or more provinces are affected;
(d) The regional DRRMC, if two or more province are affected; and
(e) The NDRRMC, if two or more regions are affected.
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The NDRRMC and intermediary LDRRMCs shall always act as support to LGUs which
have the primary responsibility as first disaster responders. Private sector and civil society
organizations shall work in accordance with the coordination mechanism and policies set by
the NDRRMC and concerned LDRRMCs.
Section 2. The National Disaster Risk Reduction and Management Operations Center
(NDRRMC). The present NCC Operations Center based in Camp General Emilio Aguinaldo
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shall henceforth be known as the National Disaster Risk Reduction and Management
Operations Center or the NDRRMC, which shall serve as the Operating Facility of the
NDRRMC. It shall be operated and maintained on a twenty-four (24) hour basis by OCD staff
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during normal situation to be complemented by NDRRMC member agency representatives
whenever blue and red alerts status are raised or as may be determined by the National
Council through OCD.
Section 3. The NDRRMOC Core Functions – The NDRRMC shall serve as the nerve center for
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alert and monitoring, multi-agency and multi-level operational coordination, response and
resource mobilization and information management. To carry out its functions, the Center
shall utilize support systems such as early warning and emergency broadcast system,
geographic information system and other space-based technologies, incident command
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system, rapid damage assessment and needs analysis, emergency logistics management,
public-private partnerships for emergency response, and humanitarian assistance coordination
mechanism.
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Section 4. Sovereignty and territorial Integrity – The sovereignty and territorial integrity of the
State shall be respected at all times. In this context, the Philippines shall have the primary
responsibility to respond to disasters, occurring within its territory and external assistance and
offers assistance shall only be provided upon its request or consent.
RULE 12 – DECLARATION OF STATE OF CALAMITY
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Section 1. Declaration and Lifting of State of Calamity of the President – The National
Council shall recommend to the President of the Philippines the declaration of a cluster of
barangays, municipalities, cities, provinces, and regions under a state of calamity, and the
lifting thereof, based on the criteria set by the National Council. The President‟s declaration
may warrant international humanitarian assistance as deemed necessary.
Section 2. Declaration and Lifting of State of Calamity by the Local Sanggunian – The
declaration and lifting of the state of calamity may also be issued by the local sanggunian,
upon the recommendations of the LDRRMC, based on the results of the damage assessment
and needs analysis.
Section 3. Criteria in Recommendations the Declaration and Lifting of a State of Calamity –
The National Council shall determine the criteria for the declaration and lifting of a state of
calamity, including epidemics.
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RULE 13 – REMEDIAL MEASURES
Section 1. Mandatory remedial measures – The declaration of a state calamity shall make
mandatory the immediate undertaking of the following remedial measures by the member-
agencies concerned as defined in the Act:
Imposition of price ceiling on basic necessities and prime commodities by the President upon
the recommendation of the implementing agency as provided for under Republic Act No.
7581, otherwise known as the “Price Act”, or the National Price Coordinating Council;
Monitoring, prevention and control by the Local Price Coordination Council of
overpricing/profiteering and hoarding of prime commodities, medicines and petroleum
products;
Programming/reprogramming of funds for the repair and safety upgrading of public
infrastructures and facilities; and
Granting of no-interest loans by government financing or lending institutions to the most
affected section of the population through their cooperatives or people‟s organizations.
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RULE 14 – MECHANISM FOR INTERNATIONAL HUMANITARIAN ASSISTANCE
Section 1. Request for International Assistance – A call for international assistance may be
issued by the President of the Philippines upon the recommendation of the Chairman,
NDRRMC, depending on the scope, magnitude of damage or implications of the adverse
effects of the disaster. As party to the ASEAN Agreement on Disaster Management and
Emergency Response (AADMER), the request for assistance may be sent directly to other
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ASEAN Member States or through the ASEAN Humanitarian Assistance (AHA) Center in
Jakarta, Indonesia. It may also request assistance from other entities where appropriate.
For purpose of ensuring a concerted effort abroad, the Department of Foreign Affairs, through
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the embassies or consulates of the Philippines, may facilitate the call for international
assistance and closely coordinate with the NDRRMC for this purpose.
Section 2. Request for assistance by the LDRRMC – The LDRRMCs may directly submit or
request for assistance abroad in accordance with the Section 23 of the Local Government
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Code 1991.
Section 3. Authorized importation and donation – The importation and donation of food,
clothing, medicine and equipment for relief and recovery and other disaster management and
recovery-related supplies is hereby authorized in accordance with Section 105 of the Tariff
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and Customs Code of the Philippines, as emended, and the prevailing provisions of the
General Appropriations Act covering national internal revenue taxes and import duties of
national and local government agencies, and
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Any importation and donation intended for the operation of the NDRRMC and its member
agencies shall be treated as importations by and/or donations to the NDRRMC, subject to the
rules and regulations of the Tariff and Customs Code or special facilities created by the Office
of the President for the purpose. Payment of duties and taxes by concerned member agencies,
if any, shall be subject to deferred payment scheme.
Foreign donations and importations for humanitarian assistance and disaster relief shall also
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be guided with the International Disaster Response Law (IDRL) and other related guidelines
as may be deemed appropriate.
RULE 15 – INVENTORY AND MONITORING OF ALL RELIEF GOODS

Section 1. Inventory and Monitoring of All Relief Goods – The National Council shall provide
for the guidelines on the inventory and disposition and utilizing and monitoring of all relief
goods, including donations, within a reasonable period, in order to ensure the proper
disposition and use thereof.
RULE 16 – PROHIBITED ACTS

Section 1. Prohibited acts – Any person, group or corporation who commits any of the following
prohibited acts shall be held liable and be subjected to the penalties as prescribed in Section
20 of the Act and Rule 17 hereunder:
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(a) Derelictions of duties which leads to destruction, loss of lives, critical damage of
facilities and misuse of funds;
(b) Preventing the entry and distribution of relief goods in disaster-stricken areas, including
appropriate technology such as Geographic Information System, Information and
Communication Technology Database/ System Management for Relief Inventory;
System for Management of the Dead/Casualty and the like, tools, equipment, accessories,
disaster teams/ experts;
(c) Buying, for consumption or resale, from disaster relief agencies such as the DSWD,
NFA, PRC, International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC), World Food Program
(WFP) and other such private organizations, any relief goods, equipment or other aid
commodities which are intended for distribution to disaster affected communities;
(d) Buying, for consumption or resale, from the recipient disaster affected persons any relief
goods, equipment or other aid commodities received by them;
(e) Selling of relief goods, equipment or other aid commodities which are intended for
distribution to disaster affected communities;
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(f) Forcibly seizing relief goods, equipment or other aid commodities intended for or
consigned to a specific group of victims or relief agency;
(g) Buying, for consumption or resale, from the recipient disaster affected persons any relief
goods, equipment or other aid commodities received by them;
(h) Accepting, processing, using or disposing relief goods, equipment or other aid
commodities not intended for nor consigned to him/her;
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(i) Misrepresenting the source of relief goods; equipment or other aid commodities by:
1) Either covering, replacing or defacing the labels of the containers to make it appear
that the goods, equipment or other aid commodities came from another agency or
persons;
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2) Repacking the goods, equipment or other aid commodities into containers with
different markings to make it appear that the goods came from another agency or
persons or was release upon the instance of a particular agency or persons;
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3) Making false verbal claim that the goods, equipment or other aid commodity in its
untampered original containers actually came from another agency or persons or was
released upon the instance of a particular agency or persons;
4) Substituting or replacing relief goods, equipment or other aid commodities with the
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same items or inferior/cheaper quality.

(j) Illegal solicitations by persons or organizations representing others as defined in the
standards and guidelines set by the NDRRMC;
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(k) Deliberate use of false or inflated data in support of the request for funding, relief goods,
equipment or other aid commodities for emergency assistance or livelihood projects; and
(l) Tampering with or stealing hazard monitoring and disaster preparedness equipment and
paraphernalia.
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RULE 17 - PENAL CLAUSE

Section 1. Penalty, Fines – Any individual, corporation, partnership, association, or other
juridical entity that commits any of the prohibited acts provided for in Section 19 of the Act
shall be prosecuted upon conviction shall suffer a fine of not less than fifty thousand pesos
(Php 50,000) or any amount not to exceed Five hundred thousand pesos (Php 500,000) or
imprisonment of not less than six years and one day or not more than twelve years or both at
the discretion of the court, including perpetual disqualification from public office if the
offender isa public officer, and confiscation of forfeiture in favor of the government of the
objects and the instrumentalities used in committing any of herein prohibited acts.
Section 2. Who are liable – if the offender is a corporation, partnership or association, or other
juridical entity, the penalty shall be imposed upon the officer or officers of the corporation,
partnership, association or entity responsible for the violation without prejudice to the
cancellation or revocation of these entities‟ license or accreditation issued to them by any
licensing or accredited body of the government. If such offender is an alien, he or she shall, in
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addition to the penalties prescribed in the Act, be deported without further proceedings after
service of the sentence.
Section 3. Other liabilities – The prosecution of offenses set forth in Section 19 of the Act shall
be without prejudice to any liability for violation of Republic Act No. 3185, as amended
otherwise known as the Revised Penal Code, as well as any other special penal law enacted by
Congress, & shall be without prejudice to other civil liabilities.
RULE 18 – LOCAL DISASTER RISK REDUCTION AND MANAGEMENT FUND

Section 1. Utilization of the LDRRMF – The present Local Calamity Fund shall henceforth be
known as the Local Disaster Risk Reduction and Management Fund (LDRRF). Not less than
five percent (5%) of the estimated revenue from regular sources shall be set aside as the
LDRRMF to support disaster risk management activities such as, but not limited to, pre-
disaster preparedness programs including training, purchasing life-saving rescue equipment,
supplies and medicines, for post-disaster activities, for the payment of premiums on calamity
insurance and construction of evacuation centers. The LDRMMC shall monitor and evaluate
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the use and disbursement of the LDRRMF based on the, LDRRMP as incorporated in the
local development plans and annual work and financial plan. Upon the recommendation of the
LDRRMO and approval of the sanggunian concerned, the LDRRMC may transfer the said
fund to support disaster risk reduction work of other LDRRMCs which are declared under
state of calamity.
Section 2. Quick Response Fund – Of the amount appropriated for LDRRF , thirty percent (30%)
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shall be allocated as Quick Response Fund (QRF) or stand-by fund for relief and recovery
programs in order that situation and living conditions of people in communities or areas
stricken by disasters, calamities, epidemics, or complex emergencies, may be normalized as
quickly as possible.
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Section 3. Special Trust Fund – unexpended LDRRMF shall accrue to a special trust fund solely
for the purpose of supporting disaster risk reduction and management activities of the
LDRRMCs within the next five years. Any such amount still not fully utilized after five years
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shall revert back to the general fund and made available for other social services to be
identified by the local sanggunian.
Section 4. Guidelines on Fund Tracking and Utilization of Funds – guidelines on fund tracking
and utilization of the LDRRMF shall be in accordance with existing auditing and accounting
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guidelines on public funds, local government code and other applicable laws.
Section 5. Public Disclosure of Fund Utilization – The LDRRCs shall make public its reports on
the utilization of the LDRRMF by publication and posting thereof in a conspicuous place,
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including websites, if any, of the LGU/LDRRMO. The reports of the LDRRMCs on the
utilization of the LDRRMF shall be available to the public.
RULE 19 – NATIONAL DISASTER RISK REDUCTION AND MANAGEMENT FUND

Section 1. Utilization of the NDRRM fund – The present Calamity Fund appropriated under the
annual General Appropriation Act shall henceforth be known as the National Disaster Risk
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Reduction and Management Fund (NDRRM Fund) and it shall be used for disaster risk
reduction or mitigation, prevention and preparedness activities such as but not limited to
training of personnel, procurement of equipment, and capital expenditures, it can also be
utilized for relief, recovery, reconstruction and other work or services in connection with
natural or human-induced calamities which may occur during the budget year or those that
occurred in the past two years from the budget year.
Section 2. Amount – The specific amount of the NDRRM Fund and the appropriate recipient
agencies and/or LGUs shall be determined upon approval of the President of the Philippines
in accordance with the favorable recommendations of the NDRRMC.
Section 3. Quick Response Fund – Of the amount appropriated for the NDRRM Fund, thirty
percent shall be allocated as Quick Response Fund (QRF) to the agencies identified by the
NDRRMC.
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Section 4. Accounting – All departments/agencies and LGUs that are allocated with DRRM funds
shall submit to the NDRRMC their monthly statements on the utilization of DRRM funds and
make an accounting thereof in accordance with existing accounting and auditing rules.
Section 5. Funding for DRRM projects – All departments, bureaus, offices and agencies of the
government are hereby authorized to use a portion of their appropriations to implement
projects designed to address DRRM activities in accordance with the guidelines to be issued
by the NDRRMC in coordination with the DBM.
RULE 20 – FUNDING OF THE OCD

Section 1. Budget - as lead agency to carry out the provisions of the Act, the OCD shall be
allocated a budget of One Billion Pesos revolving fund starting from the effectivity of this
Act, which shall be taken from sources to be identified by the National Council. Thereafter,
the fund necessary to carry out the provision of this law shall be included in the General
Appropriations Act.
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RULE 21 – ANNUAL REPORT
Section 1. Deadline for the annual report – The National Council, through the OCD, shall
submit to the Office of the President, the Senate and the House of Representatives, within the
first quarter of the succeeding year, an annual relating to the progress of the implementation
of the NDRRMP.
Section 2. Inputs of other agencies to the annual report – Within the month of January of the
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succeeding year and every January thereafter, all member agencies shall submit to the OCD,
as Secretariat of the NDRRMC, their respective annual reports for purposes of consolidation
and analysis. These annual reports shall in turn be submitted by the OCD to the Chairperson,
NDRRMC
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RULE 22 – CONGRESSIONAL OVERSIGHT COMMITTEE
Section 1. Functions – The Congressional Committee created and composed under section 26 of
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the Act shall monitor and oversee the implementation of the provisions thereof. The national
Council may submit proposed remedial legislation to the Congressional Oversight Committee.
Section 2. Period for Review – Within five years after the effectivity of the Act, or as the need
arises, the Congressional Oversight Committee shall conduct a sunset review. For purposes of
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these Rules, the term “sunset review” shall mean a systematic evaluation by the
Congressional Oversight Committee of the accomplishments and impact of the Act, as well as
the performance and organizational structure of its implementing agencies, for purposes of
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determining remedial legislation.
RULE 23 – TRANSITORY PROVISION

Section 1. Existing Practices , Guidelines – Pending the development and approval of the
necessary guidelines cited in the Act and these Rules, i.e., accreditation of volunteers, etc.,
within the period specified herein, existing practice and procedures shall be maintained.
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RULE 24 – SEPARABILITY CLAUSE

Section 1. Validity of provisions – If any provision of these Rules shall be held
unconstitutional or invalid, the other provisions not otherwise affected shall remain in full
force and effect.
RULE 25 – AMENDATORY CLAUSE

Section 1. Amendment – the National Council, through its Chairperson, may cause the
amendment of these Implementing Rules and Regulations, as the need arises.
RULE 26 – EFFECTIVE CLAUSE

Section 1. Publication – These Rules shall take effect fifteen days following the complete
publication thereof in a newspaper of general circulation.
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APPENDIX:
2009 UNISDR Terminology on Disaster Risk Reduction
Published by the United Nations International
Strategy for Disaster Reduction (UNISDR)
Geneva, Switzerland, May 2009
© United Nations, 2009
© United Nations International Strategy for Disaster Reduction, 2009
All rights reserved
This publication may be freely quoted or reprinted, but acknowledgement of the source is requested.
The UNISDR encourages its reproduction and translation. If any reproductions or translations are
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generated, a copy of the document is requested to be forwarded to the UNISDR. The English
terminology, and its translations into Arabic, Chinese, French, Russian, and Spanish, are available on
the UNISDR website at:
http://www.unisdr.org/we/inform/terminology and on PreventionWeb at: www.preventionweb.net
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The United Nations International Strategy for Disaster Reduction (UNISDR)
Terminology aims to promote common understanding and common usage of disaster
risk reduction concepts and to assist the disaster risk reduction efforts of authorities,
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practitioners and the public. The previous version “Terminology: Basic terms of disaster
risk reduction” was published in “Living with risk: a global review of disaster risk reduction
initiatives” in 2004. The following year, the Hyogo Framework for Action 2005-2015
requested the UNISDR to “update and widely disseminate international standard
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terminology related to disaster risk reduction, at least in all official United Nations
languages, for use in programme and institutions development, operations, research,
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training curricula and public information programmes”.

` The 2009 version is the result of a process of ongoing review by the UNISDR and
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consultations with a broad range of experts and practitioners in various international

venues, regional discussions and national settings. The terms are now defined by a
single sentence. The comments paragraph associated with each term is not part of
the definition, but is provided to give additional context, qualification and
explanation. It should be noted that the terms are not necessarily mutually exclusive,
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and in some cases may have overlapping meanings.

The Terminology has been revised to include words that are central to the
contemporary understanding and evolving practice of disaster risk reduction but
exclude words that have a common dictionary usage. Also included are a number of
emerging new concepts that are not in widespread use but are of growing professional
relevance; these terms are marked with a star (*) and their definition may evolve in
future. The English version of the 2009 Terminology provides the basis for the
preparation of other language versions. Comments and suggestions for future
revisions are welcome and should be directed to the UNISDR
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Terms
Acceptable risk economic disruption, or environmental
The level of potential losses that a society damage.
or community considers acceptable given
existing social, economic, political, cultural Comment: Examples of biological hazards
technical and environmental conditions. include outbreaks of epidemic diseases,
plant or animal contagion, insect or other
Comment: In engineering terms, animal plagues and infestations.
acceptable risk is also used to assess and
define the structural and non-structural Building code
measures that are needed in order to A set of ordinances or regulations and
reduce possible harm to people, property, associated standards intended to control
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services and systems to a chosen tolerated aspects of the design, construction,
level, according to codes or “accepted materials, alteration and occupancy of
practice” which are based on known structures that are necessary to ensure
probabilities of hazards and other factors. human safety and welfare, including
resistance to collapse and damage.
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Adaptation
The adjustment in natural or human Comment: Building codes can include both
systems/ in response to actual or expected C technical and functional standards. They
climatic stimuli or their effects, which should incorporate the lessons of
moderates harm or exploits beneficial international experience and should be
opportunities. tailored to national and local
circumstances. A systematic regime of
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Comment: This definition addresses the enforcement is a critical supporting
concerns of climate change and is sourced requirement for effective implementation
from the secretariat of the United Nations of building codes
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Framework Convention on Climate Change

(UNFCCC). The broader concept of Capacity
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adaptation also applies to non-climatic The combination of all the strengths,

factors such as soil erosion or surface attributes and resources available within a
subsidence. Adaptation can occur in community, society or organization that
autonomous fashion, for example through can be used to achieve agreed goals.
market changes, or as a result of
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intentional adaptation policies and plans. Comment: Capacity may include

Many disaster risk reduction measures can infrastructure and physical means,
directly contribute to better adaptation. institutions, societal coping abilities, as
well as human knowledge, skills and
Biological hazard collective attributes such as social
Process or phenomenon of organic origin relationships, leadership and
or conveyed by biological vectors, management. Capacity also may be
including exposure to pathogenic micro- described as capability. Capacity
organisms, toxins and bioactive substances assessment is a term for the process by
that may cause loss of life, injury, illness or which the capacity of a group is reviewed
other health impacts, property damage, against desired goals, and the capacity
loss of livelihoods and services, social and gaps are identified for further action.
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Capacity Development changes attributable to natural causes.
The process by which people, The IPCC definition can be paraphrased for
organizations and society systematically popular communications as “A change in
stimulate and develop their capacities over the climate that persists for decades or
time to achieve social and economic goals, longer, arising from either natural causes
including through improvement of or human activity.”
knowledge, skills, systems, and
institutions. Contingency planning
A management process that analyses
Comment: Capacity development is a
specific potential events or emerging
concept that extends the term of capacity
situations that might threaten society or
building to encompass all aspects of
the environment and establishes
creating and sustaining capacity growth
arrangements in advance to enable timely,
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over time. It involves learning and various
effective and appropriate responses to
types of training, but also continuous
such events and situations.
efforts to develop institutions, political
awareness, financial resources, technology Comment: Contingency planning results in
systems, and the wider social and cultural organized and coordinated courses of
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enabling environment. action with clearly identified institutional
roles and resources, information processes,
Climate change
and operational arrangements for specific
(a) The Inter-governmental Panel on
Climate Change (IPCC) defines climate
C actors at times of need. Based on scenarios
of possible emergency conditions or
change as: “a change in the state of the
disaster events, it allows key actors to
climate that can be identified (e.g., by
envision, anticipate and solve problems
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using statistical tests) by changes in the
that can arise during crises. Contingency
mean and/or the variability of its
planning is an important part of overall
properties, and that persists for an
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preparedness. Contingency plans need to

extended period, typically decades or
be regularly updated and exercised.
longer. Climate change may be due to
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natural internal processes or external

Coping capacity
forcings, or to persistent anthropogenic
The ability of people, organizations and
changes in the composition of the
systems, using available skills and
atmosphere or in land use”. (b) The United
resources, to face and manage adverse
Nations Framework Convention on Climate
conditions, emergencies or disasters.
Change (UNFCCC) defines climate change
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as “a change of climate which is attributed Comment: The capacity to cope requires

directly or indirectly to human activity that continuing awareness, resources and good
alters the composition of the global management, both in normal times as well
atmosphere and which is in addition to as during crises or adverse conditions.
natural climate variability observed over Coping capacities contribute to the
comparable time periods”. reduction of disaster risks.
Comment: For disaster risk reduction
Corrective disaster risk management *
purposes, either of these definitions may
Management activities that address and
be suitable, depending on the particular
seek to correct or reduce disaster risks
context. The UNFCCC definition is the more
which are already present.
restricted one as it excludes climate
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Comment: This concept aims to distinguish economic disruption and environmental
between the risks that are already present, degradation.
and which need to be managed and
reduced now, and the prospective risks Disaster risk
that may develop in future if risk reduction The potential disaster losses, in lives,
policies are not put in place. health status, livelihoods, assets and
See also Prospective risk management. services, which could occur to a particular
community or a society over some
Critical facilities specified future time period.
The primary physical structures, technical
facilities and systems which are socially, Comment: The definition of disaster risk
economically or operationally essential to reflects the concept of disasters as the
the functioning of a society or community, outcome of continuously present
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both in routine circumstances and in the conditions of risk. Disaster risk comprises
extreme circumstances of an emergency. different types of potential losses which
are often difficult to quantify.
Comment: Critical facilities are elements of Nevertheless, with knowledge of the
the infrastructure that support essential prevailing hazards and the patterns of
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services in a society. They include such population and socio-economic
things as transport systems, air and sea development, disaster risks can be
ports, electricity, water and assessed and mapped, in broad terms at
communications systems, hospitals and
C least.
health clinics, and centres for fire, police
and public administration services. Disaster risk management
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The systematic process of using
Disaster administrative directives, organizations,
A serious disruption of the functioning of a and operational skills and capacities to
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community or a society involving implement strategies, policies and

widespread human, material, economic or improved coping capacities in order to
environmental losses and impacts, which lessen the adverse impacts of hazards and
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exceeds the ability of the affected the possibility of disaster.

community or society to cope using its
own resources. Comment: This term is an extension of the
more general term “risk management” to
Comment: Disasters are often described as address the specific issue of disaster risks.
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a result of the combination of: the Disaster risk management aims to avoid,
exposure to a hazard; the conditions of lessen or transfer the adverse effects of
vulnerability that are present; and hazards through activities and measures
insufficient capacity or measures to reduce for prevention, mitigation and
or cope with the potential negative preparedness.
consequences. Disaster impacts may
include loss of life, injury, disease and Disaster risk reduction
other negative effects on human physical, The concept and practice of reducing
mental and social well-being, together disaster risks through systematic efforts to
with damage to property, destruction of analyse and manage the causal factors of
assets, loss of services, social and disasters, including through reduced
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exposure to hazards, lessened the plan. Linkages to climate change
vulnerability of people and property, wise adaptation plans should be made where
management of land and the possible.
environment, and improved preparedness
for adverse events. Early warning system
The set of capacities needed to generate
Comment: A comprehensive approach to and disseminate timely and meaningful
reduce disaster risks is set out in the warning information to enable individuals,
United Nations-endorsed Hyogo communities and organizations
Framework for Action, adopted in 2005, threatened by a hazard to prepare and to
whose expected outcome is “The act appropriately and in sufficient time to
substantial reduction of disaster losses, in reduce the possibility of harm or loss.
lives and the social, economic and
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environmental assets of communities and Comment: This definition encompasses the
countries.” The International Strategy for range of factors necessary to achieve
Disaster Reduction (ISDR) system provides effective responses to warnings. A people-
a vehicle for cooperation among centred early warning system necessarily
Governments, organisations and civil socie comprises four key elements: knowledge of
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ty actors to assist in the implementation of the risks; monitoring, analysis and
the Framework. Note that while the term forecasting of the hazards; communication
“disaster reduction” is sometimes used, the or dissemination of alerts and warnings;
term “disaster risk reduction” provides a
C and local capabilities to respond to the
better recognition of the ongoing nature of warnings received. The expression “end-to
disaster risks and the ongoing potential to end warning system” is also used to
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reduce these risks. emphasize that warning systems need to
span all steps from hazard detection
Disaster risk reduction plan * through to community response.
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A document prepared by an authority,

sector, organization or enterprise that sets Ecosystem services
out goals and specific objectives for The benefits that people and communities
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reducing disaster risks together with obtain from ecosystems.

related actions to accomplish these
Comment: This definition is drawn from
objectives.
the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment.
The benefits that ecosystems can provide
Comment: Disaster risk reduction plans
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include “regulating services” such as

should be guided by the Hyogo Framework
regulation of floods, drought, land
and considered and coordinated within
degradation and disease, along with
relevant development plans, resource
“provisioning services” such as food and
allocations and programme activities.
water, “supporting services” such as soil
National level plans needs to be specific to
formation and nutrient cycling, and
each level of administrative responsibility
“cultural services” such as recreational,
and adapted to the different social and
spiritual, religious and other non-material
geographical circumstances that are
benefits. Integrated management of land,
present. The time frame and
water and living resources that promotes
responsibilities for implementation and the
conservation and sustainable use provide
sources of funding should be specified in
the basis for maintaining ecosystem
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services, including those that contribute to expression “disaster management” is
reduced disaster risks. sometimes used instead of emergency
management.
El Niño-Southern Oscillation phenomenon
A complex interaction of the tropical Emergency services
Pacific Ocean and the global atmosphere The set of specialized agencies that have
that results in irregularly occurring specific responsibilities and objectives in
episodes of changed ocean and weather serving and protecting people and
patterns in many parts of the world, often property in emergency situations.
with significant impacts over many
months, such as altered marine habitats, Comment: Emergency services include
rainfall changes, floods, droughts, and agencies such as civil protection
changes in storm patterns. authorities, police, fire, ambulance,
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paramedic and emergency medicine
Comment: The El Niño part of the El Niño- services, Red Cross and Red Crescent
Southern Oscillation (ENSO) phenomenon societies, and specialized emergency units
refers to the well above-average ocean of electricity, transportation,
temperatures that occur along the coasts communications and other related services
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of Ecuador, Peru and northern Chile and organizations.
across the eastern equatorial Pacific
Ocean, while La Niña part refers to the Environmental degradation
opposite circumstances when well-below-
C The reduction of the capacity of the
environment to meet social and ecological
average ocean temperatures occur. The
Southern Oscillation refers to the objectives and needs.
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accompanying changes in the global air Comment: Degradation of the environment
pressure patterns that are associated with can alter the frequency and intensity of
the changed weather patterns experienced natural hazards and increase the
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in different parts of the world. vulnerability of communities. The types of

human-induced degradation are varied
Emergency management
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and include land misuse, soil erosion and

The organization and management of loss, desertification, wildland fires, loss of
resources and responsibilities for biodiversity, deforestation, mangrove
addressing all aspects of emergencies, in destruction, land, water and air pollution,
particular preparedness, response and climate change, sea level rise and ozone
initial recovery steps. depletion.
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Comment: A crisis or emergency is a

threatening condition that requires urgent Environmental impact assessment
action. Effective emergency action can Process by which the environmental
avoid the escalation of an event into a consequences of a proposed project or
disaster. Emergency management involves programme are evaluated, undertaken as
plans and institutional arrangements to an integral part of planning and decision
engage and guide the efforts of making processes with a view to limiting or
government, non-government, voluntary reducing the adverse impacts of the
and private agencies in comprehensive and projector programme.
coordinated ways to respond to the entire Comment: Environmental impact
spectrum of emergency needs. The assessment is a policy tool that provides
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evidence and analysis of environmental Comment: In meteorology a forecast refers
impacts of activities from conception to to a future condition, whereas a warning
decision-making. It is utilized extensively in refers to a potentially dangerous future
national programming and project condition.
approval processes and for international
development assistance projects. Geological hazard
Environmental impact assessments should Geological process or phenomenon that
include detailed risk assessments and may cause loss of life, injury or other
provide alternatives, solutions or options health impacts, property damage, loss of
to deal with identified problems. livelihoods and services, social and
economic disruption, or environmental
Exposure damage.
People, property, systems, or other
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elements present in hazard zones that are Comment: Geological hazards include
thereby subject to potential losses. internal earth processes, such as
earthquakes, volcanic activity and
Comment: Measures of exposure can emissions, and related geophysical
include the number of people or types of processes such as mass movements,
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assets in an area. These can be combined landslides, rockslides, surface collapses,
with the specific vulnerability of the and debris or mud flows.
exposed elements to any particular hazard
C Hydrometeorological factors are important
to estimate the quantitative risks contributors to some of these processes.
associated with that hazard in the area of Tsunamis are difficult to categorize;
interest. although they are triggered by undersea
earthquakes and other geological events,
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Extensive risk * they are essentially an oceanic process
The widespread risk associated with the that is manifested as a coastal water-
exposure of dispersed populations to related hazard.
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repeated or persistent hazard conditions

of low or moderate intensity, often of a Greenhouse gases
Gaseous constituents of the atmosphere,
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highly localized nature, which can lead to

debilitating cumulative disaster impacts. both natural and anthropogenic, that
absorb and emit radiation of thermal
Comment: Extensive risk is mainly a infrared radiation emitted by the Earth’s
charac-teristic of rural areas and urban surface, the atmosphere itself, and by
margins where communities are exposed clouds.
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to, and vulnerable to, recurring localized

floods, landslides storms or drought. Comment: This is the definition of the
Extensive risk is often associated with Intergovernmental Panel on Climate
poverty, urbanization and environmental Change (IPCC). The main greenhouse gases
degradation. See also “Intensive risk”. (GHG) are water vapour, carbon dioxide,
nitrous oxide, methane and ozone.
Forecast
Hazard
Definite statement or statistical estimate
A dangerous phenomenon, substance,
of the likely occurrence of a future event
human activity or condition that may
or conditions for a specific area.
cause loss of life, injury or other health
impacts, property damage, loss of
387
livelihoods and services, social and Intensive risk *
economic disruption, or environmental The risk associated with the exposure of
damage. large concentrations of people and
economic activities to intense hazard
Comment: The hazards of concern to events, which can lead to potentially
disaster risk reduction as stated in catastrophic disaster impacts involving
footnote 3 of the Hyogo Framework are “… high mortality and asset loss.
hazards of natural origin and related
environmental and technological hazards Comment: Intensive risk is mainly a
and risks.” Such hazards arise from a characteristic of large cities or densely
variety of geological, meteorological, populated areas that are not only exposed
hydrological, oceanic, biological, and to intense hazards such as strong
technological sources, sometimes acting in earthquakes, active volcanoes, heavy
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combination. In technical settings, hazards floods, tsunamis, or major storms but also
are described quantitatively by the likely have high levels of vulnerability to these
frequency of occurrence of different hazards. See also “Extensive risk.”
intensities for different areas, as
determined from historical data or Land-use planning
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scientific analysis. The process undertaken by public
See other hazard-related terms in the authorities to identify, evaluate and decide
Terminology: Biological hazard; Geological on different options for the use of land,
hazard; Hydrometeorological hazard;
Natural hazard; Socionatural hazard;
C including consideration of long term
economic, social and environmental
Technological hazard. objectives and the implications for
different communities and interest groups,
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Hydrometeorological hazard and the subsequent formulation and
Process or phenomenon of atmospheric, promulgation of plans that describe the
hydrological or oceanographic nature that permitted or acceptable uses.
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may cause loss of life, injury or other

health impacts, property damage, loss of Comment: Land-use planning is an
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livelihoods and services, social and important contributor to sustainable

economic disruption, or environmental development. It involves studies and
damage. mapping; analysis of economic,
environmental and hazard data;
Comment: Hydrometeorological hazards formulation of alternative land-use
include tropical cyclones (also known as decisions; and design of long-range plans
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typhoons and hurricanes), thunderstorms, for different geographical and

hailstorms, tornados, blizzards, heavy administrative scales. Land-use planning
snowfall, avalanches, coastal storm surges, can help to mitigate disasters and reduce
floods including flash floods, drought, risks by discouraging settlements and
heatwaves and cold spells. construction of key installations in hazard-
Hydrometeorological conditions also can prone areas, including consideration of
be a factor in other hazards such as service routes for transport, power, water,
landslides, wildland fires, locust plagues, sewage and other critical facilities.
epidemics, and in the transport and
dispersal of toxic substances and volcanic
eruption material
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Mitigation Natural hazard
The lessening or limitation of the adverse Natural process or phenomenon that may
impacts of hazards and related disasters. cause loss of life, injury or other health
impacts, property damage, loss of
Comment: The adverse impacts of hazards
livelihoods and services, social and
often cannot be prevented fully, but their
economic disruption, or environmental
scale or severity can be substantially
damage.
lessened by various strategies and actions.
Mitigation measures encompass
Comment: Natural hazards are a sub-set of
engineering techniques and hazard-
all hazards. The term is used to describe
resistant construction as well as improved
actual hazard events as well as the latent
environmental policies and public
hazard conditions that may give rise to
awareness. It should be noted that in
future events. Natural hazard events can
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climate change policy, “mitigation” is
be characterized by their magnitude or
defined differently, being the term used for
intensity, speed of onset, duration, and
the reduction of greenhouse gas emissions
area of extent. For example, earthquakes
that are the source of climate change.
have short durations and usually affect a
relatively small region, whereas droughts
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National platform for disaster risk
are slow to develop and fade away and
reduction
often affect large regions. In some cases
A generic term for national mechanisms
hazards may be coupled, as in the flood
for coordination and policy guidance on
disaster risk reduction that are multi-
C caused by a hurricane or the tsunami that
is created by an earthquake.
sectoral and inter-disciplinary in nature,
with public, private and civil society
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Preparedness
participation involving all concerned
The knowledge and capacities developed
entities within a country.
by governments, professional response
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and recovery organizations, communities

Comment: This definition is derived from
and individuals to effectively anticipate,
footnote of the Hyogo Framework.
respond to, and recover from, the impacts
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Disaster risk reduction requires the

of likely, imminent or current hazard
knowledge, capacities and inputs of a wide
events or conditions.
range of sectors and organisations,
including United Nations agencies present Comment: Preparedness action is carried
at the national level, as appropriate. Most out within the context of disaster risk
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sectors are affected directly or indirectly by management and aims to build the
disasters and many have specific capacities needed to efficiently manage all
responsibilities that impinge upon disaster types of emergencies and achieve orderly
risks. transitions from response through to
National platforms provide a means to sustained recovery. Preparedness is based
enhance national action to reduce disaster on a sound analysis of disaster risks and
risks, and they represent the national good linkages with early warning systems,
mechanism for the International Strategy and includes such activities as contingency
for Disaster Reduction. planning, stockpiling of equipment and
supplies, the development of
arrangements for coordination, evacuation
and public information, and associated
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training and field exercises. These must be Comment: Public awareness is a key factor
supported by formal institutional, legal in effective disaster risk reduction. Its
and budgetary capacities. The related term development is pursued, for example,
“readiness” describes the ability to quickly through the development and
and appropriately respond when required. dissemination of information through
media and educational channels, the
Prevention establishment of information centres,
The outright avoidance of adverse impacts networks, and community or participation
of hazards and related disasters. actions, and advocacy by senior public
officials and community leaders.
Comment: Prevention (i.e. disaster
prevention) expresses the concept and
Recovery
intention to completely avoid potential
The restoration, and improvement where
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adverse impacts through action taken in
appropriate, of facilities, livelihoods and
advance. Examples include dams or
living conditions of disaster-affected
embankments that eliminate flood risks,
communities, including efforts to reduce
land-use regulations that do not permit
disaster risk factors.
any settlement in high risk zones, and
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seismic engineering designs that ensure
Comment: The recovery task of
the survival and function of a critical
rehabilitation and reconstruction begins
building in any likely earthquake. Very
soon after the emergency phase has
often the complete avoidance of losses is
not feasible and the task transforms to
C ended, and should be based on pre-
existing strategies and policies that
that of mitigation. Partly for this reason,
facilitate clear institutional responsibilities
the terms prevention and mitigation are
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for recovery action and enable public
sometimes used interchangeably in casual
participation. Recovery programmes,
use.
coupled with the heightened public
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awareness and engagement after a

Prospective disaster risk management *
disaster, afford a valuable opportunity to
Management activities that address and
develop and implement disaster risk
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seek to avoid the development of new or

reduction measures and to apply the “build
increased disaster risks.
back better” principle.
Comment: This concept focuses on
Residual risk
addressing risks that may develop in future
The risk that remains in unmanaged form,
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if risk reduction policies are not put in

even when effective disaster risk reduction
place, rather than on the risks that are
measures are in place, and for which
already present and which can be
emergency response and recovery
managed and reduced now. See also
capacities must be maintained.
Corrective disaster risk management.
Comment: The presence of residual risk
Public awareness implies a continuing need to develop and
The extent of common knowledge about support effective capacities for emergency
disaster risks, the factors that lead to services, preparedness, response and
disasters and the actions that can be taken recovery together with socio-economic
individually and collectively to reduce policies such as safety nets and risk
exposure and vulnerability to hazards. transfer mechanisms.
390
Resilience hazards or hazard scenarios, and the
The ability of a system, community or practicality and costs of different
society exposed to hazards to resist, retrofitting options. Examples of
absorb, accommodate to and recover from retrofitting include adding bracing to
the effects of a hazard in a timely and stiffen walls, reinforcing pillars, adding
efficient manner, including through the steel ties between walls and roofs,
preservation and restoration of its installing shutters on windows, and
essential basic structures and functions. improving the protection of important
facilities and equipment.
Comment: Resilience means the ability to
“resile from” or “spring back from” a Risk
shock. The resilience of a community in The combination of the probability of an
respect to potential hazard events is event and its negative consequences.
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determined by the degree to which the
community has the necessary resources Comment: This definition closely follows
and is capable of organizing itself both the definition of the ISO/IEC Guide 73. The
prior to and during times of need. word “risk” has two distinctive
connotations: in popular usage the
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Response emphasis is usually placed on the concept
The provision of emergency services and of chance or possibility, such as in “the risk
public assistance during or immediately of an accident”; whereas in technical
after a disaster in order to save lives,
C settings the emphasis is usually placed on
reduce health impacts, ensure public the consequences, in terms of “potential
safety and meet the basic subsistence losses” for some particular cause, place
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needs of the people affected. and period. It can be noted that people do
not necessarily share the same perceptions
Comment: Disaster response is of the significance and underlying causes
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predominantly focused on immediate and of different risks.

short-term needs and is sometimes called
“disaster relief”. The division between this See other risk-related terms in the
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response stage and the subsequent Terminology: Acceptable risk; Corrective

recovery stage is not clear-cut. Some disaster risk management; Disaster risk;
response actions, such as the supply of Disaster risk management; Disaster risk
temporary housing and water supplies, reduction; Disaster risk reduction plans;
may extend well into the recovery stage. Extensive risk; Intensive risk; Prospective
D
disaster risk management; Residual risk;

Retrofitting Risk assessment; Risk management; Risk
Reinforcement or upgrading of existing transfer.
structures to become more resistant and
resilient to the damaging effects of Risk assessment
hazards. A methodology to determine the nature
and extent of risk by analysing potential
Comment: Retrofitting requires hazards and evaluating existing conditions
consideration of the design and function of of vulnerability that together could
the structure, the stresses that the potentially harm exposed people,
structure may be subject to from particular property, services, livelihoods and the
environment on which they depend.
391
Comment: Risk assessments (and Comment: Insurance is a well-known form
associated risk mapping) include: a review of risk transfer, where coverage of a risk is
of the technical characteristics of hazards obtained from an insurer in exchange for
such as their location, intensity, frequency ongoing premiums paid to the insurer. Risk
and probability; the analysis of exposure transfer can occur informally within family
and vulnerability including the physical and community networks where there are
social, health, economic and reciprocal expectations of mutual aid by
environmental dimensions; and the means of gifts or credit, as well as formally
evaluation of the effectiveness of where governments, insurers, multi-lateral
prevailing and alternative coping banks and other large risk-bearing entities
capacities in respect to likely risk scenarios. establish mechanisms to help cope with
This series of activities is sometimes known losses in major events. Such mechanisms
as a risk analysis process. include insurance and re-insurance
PY
contracts, catastrophe bonds, contingent
Risk management credit facilities and reserve funds, where
The systematic approach and practice of the costs are covered by premiums,
managing uncertainty to minimize investor contributions, interest rates and
potential harm and loss. past savings, respectively.
O
Comment: Risk management comprises Socio-natural hazard *
risk assessment and analysis, and the The phenomenon of increased occurrence
implementation of strategies and specific
C of certain geophysical and
actions to control, reduce and transfer hydrometeorological hazard events, such
risks. It is widely practiced by organizations as landslides, flooding, land subsidence
D
to minimise risk in investment decisions and drought, that arise from the
and to address operational risks such as interaction of natural hazards with
those of business disruption, production overexploited or degraded land and
E
failure, environmental damage, social environmental resources.

impacts and damage from fire and natural
hazards. Risk management is a core issue Comment: This term is used for the
EP
for sectors such as water supply, energy circumstances where human activity is
and agriculture whose production is increasing the occurrence of certain
directly affected by extremes of weather hazards beyond their natural probabilities.
and climate. Evidence points to a growing disaster
burden from such hazards. Socio-natural
D
Risk transfer hazards can be reduced and avoided

The process of formally or informally through wise management of land and
shifting the financial consequences of environmental resources.
particular risks from one party to another
whereby a household, community, Structural and non-structural measures
enterprise or state authority will obtain Structural measures: Any physical
resources from the other party after a construction to reduce or avoid possible
disaster occurs, in exchange for ongoing or impacts of hazards, or application of
compensatory social or financial benefits engineering techniques to achieve hazard
provided to that other party. resistance and resilience in structures or
systems; Non-structural measures: Any
392
measure not involving physical Technological hazard
construction that uses knowledge, practice A hazard originating from technological or
or agreement to reduce risks and impacts, industrial conditions, including accidents,
in particular through policies and laws, dangerous procedures, infrastructure
public awareness raising, training and failures or specific human activities, that
education. may cause loss of life, injury, illness or
other health impacts, property damage,
Comment: Common structural measures loss of livelihoods and services, social and
for disaster risk reduction include dams, economic disruption, or environmental
flood levies, ocean wave barriers, damage.
earthquake-resistant construction, and
evacuation shelters. Common non- Comment: Examples of technological
structural measures include building codes, hazards include industrial pollution,
PY
land use planning laws and their nuclear radiation, toxic wastes, dam
enforcement, research and assessment, failures, transport accidents, factory
information resources, and public explosions, fires, and chemical spills.
awareness programmes. Note that in civil Technological hazards also may arise
and structural engineering, the term directly as a result of the impacts of a
O
“structural” is used in a more restricted natural hazard event.
sense to mean just the load-bearing
structure, with other parts such as wall Vulnerability
cladding and interior fittings being termed
C The characteristics and circumstances of a
non-structural. community, system or asset that make it
susceptible to the damaging effects of a
D
Sustainable development hazard.
Development that meets the needs of the
present without compromising the ability Comment: There are many aspects of
E
of future generations to meet their own vulnerability, arising from various physical,
needs. social, economic, and environmental
factors. Examples may include poor design
EP
Comment: This definition coined by the and construction of buildings, inadequate

1987 Brundtland Commission is very protection of assets, lack of public
succinct but it leaves unanswered many information and awareness, limited official
questions regarding the meaning of the recognition of risks and preparedness
word development and the social, measures, and disregard for wise
D
economic and environmental processes environmental management. Vulnerability

involved. Disaster risk is associated with varies significantly within a community
unsustainable elements of development and over time. This definition identifies
such as environmental degradation, while vulnerability as a characteristic of the
conversely disaster risk reduction can element of interest (community, system or
contribute to the achievement of asset) which is independent of its
sustainable development, through reduced exposure. However, in common use the
losses and improved development word is often used more broadly to include
practices. the element’s exposure.
393
* Emerging new concepts that are not in widespread use but are of growing professional
relevance; the definition of these terms remain to be widely consulted upon and may
change in future.
UNISDR Geneva |Tel.:+41 22 917 8908/8907| [email protected] | www.unisdr.org

UNISDR Liaison Office, New York | [email protected]
UNISDR Africa, Nairobi | [email protected] | www.unisdr.org/africa
UNISDR Asia and the Pacific, Bangkok | [email protected] | www.unisdr.org/asiapacific
UNISDR the Americas, Panama | [email protected] | www.eird.org
UNISDR-20-2009-Geneva | UNISDR Europe, Geneva | [email protected] | www.unisdr.org/europe
UNISDR West Asia and North Africa, Cairo |www.unisdr.org/wana | [email protected]
North Africa, Cairo | [email protected]
PY
O
C
E D
EP
D
394

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Disaster Readiness

This book was collaboratively developed and reviewed by

educators from public and private schools, colleges, and/or universities.

feedback, comments, and recommendations to the Department of

We value your feedback and recommendations.

Published by the Department of Education

Printed in the Philippines by __________________

Office Address: Ground Floor, Bonifacio Building, DepEd Complex

For example, agencies of the Department of Science and Technology (DOST)—the

TABLE OF CONTENTS ......................................................................................................................... v

I. Basic Concept of Hazard ................................................................................................................. 1

II. Basic Concept of Disaster and Disaster Risk................................................................................... 3

IV. VOLCANO HAZARDS ................................................................................................................... 75

Volcanoes and Volcanic Hazards ...................................................................................................... 80

V. OTHER RELATED GEOLOGICAL HAZARDS ................................................................................... 104

Landslide Types and Processes ....................................................................................................... 104

MGB Embarks on Subsistence Susceptibility Assessment ............................................................... 122

VI. HYDROMETEOROLOGICAL HAZARDS ....................................................................................... 125

VIII. EXPOSURE AND VULNERABILITY ............................................................................................. 245

#4: Making Disaster Warning Signs ............................................................................................ 320

#1: Purifying Water .................................................................................................................... 321

APPENDIX: ..................................................................................................................................... 381

or animal contagion, insect or other animal 1. International Federation of Red Cross

Comment: This definition closely follows

thereby subject to potential losses.

with the specific vulnerability of the exposed

the world's most 'at-risk' country for natural hazards.

may be described as capability. Capacity

quakes uproot 22 million in 2013, numbers to rise.

1. INTRODUCTION Africa has come a long way since the

Gains in development are inextricably Different types of hazards, vulnerability

International Strategy for Disaster widespread human, material, or

2.1 Disaster Some aspects of this definition need to be

not on any actual disaster event itself, definition is on “a serious disruption”.

disaster. However, this should not be seen

was in fact human- made. If proper

to natural hazards and vulnerability can be

Typical examples of hazards can be the

livelihoods, assets and services, which

disaster is the result of a hazard’s

entire range of constantly

possesses, as the external structures on activities.

2.6 Resilience “spring back from” a shock. The resilience

2010, when an earthquake with a military apparatus, which cannot ensure

some villages, about 90 per cent of

introduced only very gradually and emergency

Government contributed significantly to the impact

Chile – a high performer

Shortly after the devastating earthquake in Haiti, another and

In particular, two dimensions of good governance are

discussed in the literature for good disaster management:

“Corruption Perception Index”, ahead of Belgium, the United

the low number of deaths.

In addition, innovative technologies were established in

that each must be strengthened actors. As long as the concerned

preparedness and reconstruction after a transferred to them. This can be successful

include the consideration of local reinforcements or salt-water sealing for

Hundreds of thousands of trees toppled by the livelihoods of inhabitants and supply

disaster risk in four ways, corresponding to between environmental degradation and

landslides by 15 %, thus representing a