Ernst and Peter Neufert

llliii

I
Fourth Edition

Updated by Professor Johannes Kister

on behalf of the Neufert Foundation
with support from the University of Anhalt
Dessau Bauhaus (Dipl. lng. Mathias Brockhaus,
Dipl. lng. Matthias Lohmann and
Dipl. lng. Patricia Merkel)

TRANSLATED BY DAVID STURGE

(5BWILEY-BLACKWELL
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English language first published 2012
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First English language edition published by Crosby Lockwood Staples 1970

Reprinted 5 times
Second (International) English language edition published by Granada Publishing 1980
Reprinted 3 times
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Third English language edition published by Blackwell Science Ltd 2000
Fourth Edition language edition published by Blackwell Publishing Ltd 2012

Originally Published in the German Language by Vieweg + Teubner, 65189 Wiesbaden, Germany, as "Ernst Neufert: Neufert
Bauentwurfslehre. 39. Auflage (39th Edition)"
© Vieweg + TeubneriGWV Fachverlage GmbH, Wiesbaden 2009

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2012
 Using this book

This book provides architects and designers with a concise elsewhere must familiarise themselves separately with such national
source of the core information needed to form a framework for the and local legislation and guidance. Again, local conditions must be
detailed planning of any building project. The objective is to save taken into consideration for each individual case.
the designers of buildings time during their basic investigations.
The information includes: principles of the design process, basic The terminology and style of the text is UK English, which
information on siting, constructing and servicing buildings, as will need to be taken into account by readers accustomed to
well as illustrations and descriptions of a wide range of building American English. These readers will need to be aware that, for
types. Architects need to be well informed about the requirements example, 'lift' has been used instead of 'elevator' and 'ground
for all the constituent parts of new projects, to ensure that their floor/first floor' instead of 'first floor/second floor'.
designs satisfy their clients and the buildings conform to accepted
standards and regulations. The data and examples included in the text are drawn from a
wide range of sources; as a result a variety of conventions for
The contents list shows how the book is organised and the order dimensions is used throughout. The measurements shown are
of the subjects discussed. all metric but a mixture of metres, centimetres and millimetres is
used (and sometimes not identified).
To avoid repetition and keep the book to a manageable length,
the different subjects are covered only once in full. Readers Readers will also find some superscript numbers associated with
should therefore refer to several sections to glean all the measurements. When these appear by dimensions in metres with
information they require. For instance, an architect wanting to centimetres, for instance, they represent the additional millimetre
prepare a scheme for a college will need to refer to sections component of the measure (e.g. 1.265 denotes 1 m, 26 em,
other than that on universities and colleges, such as: drafting 5 mm). Anyone familiar with the metric system will not find this
guidelines; multi-storey buildings; various sections on services troublesome. Those people less comfortable with metric units can
and environmental control; catering; residential buildings, hotels use the conversion tables (to imperial measures) at the end of the
and flats (for student accommodation); office buildings (for book.
working environments); libraries; car parks; accessible building;
indoor and outdoor sports facilities; gardens; details on doors, The plans and diagrams of buildings do not have scales as
windows, stairs and other building components; the section on the purpose here is to show the general layout and express
construction, and more. relationships between different spaces, making exact scaling
unnecessary. However, all relevant dimensions are given on the
Readers should note that most of the material is from European detailed drawings and diagrams of installations, to assist in the
(substantially German) contributors. This means, for example, design of specific spaces and constructions.
that information on climate and daylight is from the perspective
of a temperate climate in the northern hemisphere. The actual To help readers identify relevant background information, details
conditions at the site of a proposed building will always have to be of British Standards Institute (BSI) and German Institute of
ascertained. Similarly, in the section on roads, illustrations show Standardisation (DIN) building-related standards are provided in
traffic driving on the right-hand side. two types of location. At the end of the book is a selected list of
BS and DIN standards, arranged broadly by topic. Additionally,
References to standards, regulations and guidelines reflect the the margin of many pages of the main text contains relevant BS
book's origins. For this translation, the publishers took the decision to and DIN codes. Please note that, if a British or Gerrnan code
leave the specific text references to German standards, regulations includes EN or ISO (signifying European or international), there is
and guidelines in place, to indicate where similar standards, automatically a German dr British counterpart with the same code
regulations and guidelines might exist in other jurisdictions. Users and title.

Acknowledgements

The publishers wish to thank the translator, Mr David Sturge. The and proofreader, Ms Kay Hyman, for the very significant
publishers also wish to acknowledge and thank the copyeditor contribution she has made to this publication.

v
 Contents
Foreword ................................................................................... xii BUILDING COMPONENTS
Foundations
BASICS Building excavations .................................................................. 66
Abbreviations and symbols ..................................................... 1 Foundations ............................................................................... 69
Sl units ........................................................................................ 2 Tanking, basement drainage ..................................................... 71
Repair ........................................................................................ 73
Drawings
Paper formats .............................................................................. 4 Walls
Technical drawings ...................................................................... 5 Natural stone masonry .............................................................. 74
Layout of drawings ...................................................................... 6 Brick and block masonry ........................................................... 75
Construction drawings ................................................................. 7 Composite construction ............................................................. 78
Construction drawing symbols .................................................... 8 Repair ........................................................................................ 79
Water supply and drainage symbols, ........................................ 12 Floor Slabs
Electrical installation symbols ................................................... 14 Slab construction ....................................................................... 80
Security installation symbols ..................................................... 17 Refurbishment ........................................................................... 81
Gas installation symbols ........................................................... 18 Concrete repair ......................................................................... 82
Drawing by hand ....................................................................... 19 Floors ........................................................................................ 83
Computer-aided drawing ........................................................... 20
Roofs
Accessible Building Roof shapes .............................................................................. 85
Dimensions for wheelchair users .............................................. 21 Pitched roofs ............................................................................. 86
Accessible public buildings ....................................................... 22 Flat roofs ................................................................................... 91
Accessible housing ................................................................... 23
Windows
Dimensional Basics and Arrangement ............................................................................. 96
Relationships Requirements ............................................................................ 97
Man as measure and purpose .................................................. 26 Design types ............................................................................. 98 c
The universal standard ............................................................. 27 Thermal insulation ..................................................................... 99
Body measurements and space requirements ......................... 28 Sound insulation ...................................................................... 100
Geometrical relationships .......................................................... 30 Cleaning buildings .................................................................. 101
Dimensions in building .............................................................. 34 Loft windows ........................................................................... 102
Building Biology Skylights and dome rooflights ................................................. 103
Basics ........................................................................................ 36 Glass
Room climate ............................................................................ 37 Basics ...................................................................................... 104
Electromagnetic fields ............................................................... 38 Insulated glazing ..................................................................... 105
Visual Perception Security and noise control glass ............................................. 107
The eye ..................................................................................... 39 Optically variable glass ........................................................... 108
Perception of colour .................................................................. 41 Cast glass ............................................................................... 108
Glass doors ............................................................................. 108
DESIGN PROCESS Profiled glass .......................................................................... 109
Glass blocks ............................................................................ 110
Design Fire protection glazing .............................................................. 111
What is design? ......................................................................... 42 Curtain walling ......................................................................... 112
Planes of reference ................................................................... 43
Questionnaire ............................................................................ 44 Doors
Arrangement ........................................................................... 113
Sustainable Building Constructional details .............................................................. 114
General, design, construction ................................................... 46 Special doors .......................................................................... 115
Operation, demolition ................................................................ 47 Garage/industrial doors ........................................................... 116
Facility Management Lock suites .............................................................................. 117
Background ............................................................................... 48 Security of buildings and grounds ........................................... 118
Methods ... : ................................................................................ 49 Stairs
Refurbishment Principles ................................................................................ 120
Conservation and alteration ...................................................... 50 Regulations ............................................................................. 121
Care of historic monuments ...................................................... 51 Construction ............................................................................ 122
Listed building protection .......................................................... 52 Ramps, spiral stairs ................................................................ 123
Recording of old buildings ......................................................... 53 Access and escape ladders .................................................... 125
Conversion ................................................................................ 54 Escalators
Design and Construction For shops and offices .............................................................. 126
Management Moving Walkways
Public building and planning law ............................................... 56 For shops and offices .............................................................. 127
Private building law, VOB, HOAI ............................................... 57
Work phases ............................................................................. 58 Lifts
Measures of building use .......................................................... 63 Principles ................................................................................ 128
Setback areas ........................................................................... 64 Control equipment ................................................................... 129
Construction costs .................................................................... 65 Passenger lifts for residential buildings ................................... 130

vii
Passenger lifts for offices, hotels, banks ................................. 131 Playgrounds
Small goods lifts ...................................................................... 132 Playground equipment ............................................................ 190
Hydraulic lifts ........................................................................... 133
Schools
Special lifts .............................................................................. 134
General classrooms ................................................................ 191
Specialist classrooms .............................................................. 192
RESIDENTIAL BUILDINGS Information and communal area ............................................. 193
Sanitary facilities, break and circulation area .......................... 194
Basics
Arrangement of classrooms, clusters ...................................... 195
Design basics .......................................................................... 135
Model room programmes for primary schools ........................ 196
House-building policy .............................................................. 136
Examples ................................................................................ 197
Housing Density
Universities and Colleges
Parameters .............................................................................. 137
Lecture theatres ...................................................................... 198
Orientation Examples of lecture theatres ................................................... 200
Layout of buildings .................................................................. 138 Seating and projection ............................................................ 201
Seminar and service rooms .................................................... 202
Access
Laboratories ............................................................................ 203
Detached and terraced development ...................................... 139
Deck access ............................................................................ 140
Stepped houses ...................................................................... 141 CULTURAL VENUES
Vertical access ........................................................................ 142
Museums and Art Galleries
Floor Plans General ................................................................................... 207
Houses .................................................................................... 143 Display rooms ......................................................................... 208
Flats ........................................................................................ 145
Theatres
Rooms Historical review ...................................................................... 209
Access ..................................................................................... 146 Typology .................................................................................. 210
Kitchens .................................................................................. 149 Auditorium ............................................................................... 211
Living areas ............................................................................. 154 Seating .................................................................................... 212
Bathrooms ............................................................................... 160 Stage ....................................................................................... 213
Subsidiary rooms .................................................................... 162 Subsidiary rooms .................................................................... 215
Garages and carports ............................................................. 166 Workshops and staff rooms .................................................... 216
Rehearsal and public rooms ................................................... 217
ACCOMMODATION Modernisation and extension .................................................. 218

Student Residences Concert Halls

General design notes .............................................................. 167 Origins, variants ...................................................................... 219
Technical requirements, organ, orchestra ............................... 220
Elderly People's Accommodation Acoustics ................................................................................. 221
Retirement flats ....................................................................... 168
Nursing and care homes ......................................................... 169 Cinemas
Examples ................................................................................ 170 Projection ................................................................................ 222
Auditorium ............................................................................... 223
Hotels Multiplex cinemas ................................................................... 224
Basics ...................................................................................... 171 Multiplex cinemas, examples .................................................. 225
Rooms ..................................................................................... 172 Drive-in cinemas ..................................................................... 226
Examples ................................................................................ 173
Circus
Catering Stationary ................................................................................ 227
Restaurants ............................................................................. 174
Dining rooms, serving ............................................................. 176 Zoos
Fast food outlets ..................................................................... 177 Basics ..................................................................................... 228
Restaurant kitchens ................................................................ 178 Keeping animals ..................................................................... 229
Large kitchens ......................................................................... 181 Enclosures .............................................................................. 230
Examples of large kitchens ..................................................... 183
Youth Hostels ADMINISTRATION AND OFFICES
General design notes .............................................................. 184
Office Buildings
Holiday/Weekend Cabins Structures ................................................................................ 231
General design notes .............................................................. 185 Tendencies/criteria .................................................................. 232
Motels Typology until 1980 ................................................................. 233
Typology since 1980 ............................................................... 234
General design notes .............................................................. 186
Space requirement ................................................................. 235
Camping Computer workstations ........................................................... 236
General design notes .............................................................. 187 Archives .................................................................................. 237
Additional areas ...................................................................... 238
EDUCATION AND RESEARCH Room typology ........................................................................ 239
Grid .......................................................................................... 240
Children's Daycare Access .................................................................................... 241
Access and building layouts .................................................... 188 Building services ..................................................................... 242
Rooms, outdoor areas ............................................................ 189 Construction ............................................................................ 243

viii
High-Rise Buildings Operational areas .................................................................... 296
Basics ...................................................................................... 244 Outpatient area ....................................................................... 297
Construction ............................................................................ 245 Outpatient medical centre- example ...................................... 298
Requirements .......................................................................... 246 Examination and treatment ..................................................... 299
Libraries Care ........................................................................................ 305
Administration, social services ................................................ 312
Basics ..................................................................................... 247
Fittings .................................................................................... 249 Supply and waste disposal ...................................................... 313
Technical supply ...................................................................... 316
Space requirement ................................................................. 250
Scientific libraries .................................................................... 251
Archives .................................................................................. 252 SPORT AND LEISURE
Banks Stadiums
Banks ...................................................................................... 253 Overview ................................................................................. 318
Spectator stands ..................................................................... 319
RETAIL Sports Facilities
Playing areas .......................................................................... 320
Retail Outlets
Athletics ................................................................................... 323
Guidelines and typologies ....................................................... 254
Tennis ...................................................................................... 327
Retail regulations .................................................................... 255
Miniature golf .......................................................................... 329
Entrances and shop windows ................................................. 256
Golf courses ............................................................................ 331
Checkout and waiting zones ................................................... 257
Water sport, marinas ............................................................... 333
Waiting zones - examples ...................................................... 258
Water sport, rowing and canoeing .......................................... 339
Routeing, escalators ............................................................... 259
Equestrian sport ..................................................................... 341
Fittings -dimensions .............................................................. 260
Ski jumping ............................................................................. 343
Food shops ............................................................................. 261
Ice rinks ................................................................................... 344
Self-service shops .................................................................. 262
Roller skating rinks .................................................................. 345
Speed roller skating, skateboarding ........................................ 346
INDUSTRY AND TRADE Cycle-cross, BMX ................................................................... 347
Industry Shooting ranges ...................................................................... 348
Basics ..................................................................................... 263 Sports Halls
Shed construction ................................................................... 265 Dimensions ............................................................................. 350
Multi-storey industrial buildings ............................................... 266 Layout, construction ................................................................ 352
Transport ................................................................................. 267 Equipment ............................................................................... 353
Warehousing ........................................................................... 268 Stands ..................................................................................... 354
Subsidiary rooms .................................................................... 270 Examples ................................................................................ 355
Examples ................................................................................ 273 Judo ........................................................................................ 356
Workshops Wrestling ................................................................................. 356
Joinery .................................................................................... 274 Weight-lifting ........................................................................... 356
Carpenter's shop ..................................................................... 275 Boxing ..................................................................................... 356
Metalwork ............................................................................... 276 Badminton ............................................................................... 356
Vehicle repairs ......................................................................... 277 Squash .................................................................................... 357
Bakery ..................................................................................... 278 Table tennis ............................................................................. 357
Meat processing plant ............................................................. 279 Billiards ................................................................................... 357
Other trades ............................................................................ 280 Condition, fitness .................................................................... 358
Laundry ................................................................................... 281 Climbing halls .......................................................................... 360
Fire station .............................................................................. 283 Bowling alleys ......................................................................... 361

Swimming Pools
RELIGIOUS BUILDINGS Indoor swimming pools ........................................................... 362
Outdoor pools ......................................................................... 367
Christian Churches
Indoor/outdoor pools ............................................................... 368
Liturgical elements .................................................................. 285
Private pools ........................................................................... 371
Furnishing, vestry .................................................................... 286
Bell towers .............................................................................. 287 Spa
Sauna/small sauna/wellness .................................................. 372
Synagogues
General design notes .............................................................. 288 Amusement Arcades
Amusement arcades ............................................................... 375
Mosques
General design notes .............................................................. 289
TRANSPORT
HEALTH Roads
Street spaces .......................................................................... 376
Doctors' Practices
Types of road .......................................................................... 377
Single and group practices ..................................................... 290
Motorways .............................................................................. 378
Hospitals Traffic space ........................................................................... 379
General, modular grid ............................................................. 291 Inter-urban roads .................................................................... 380
Building design ........................................................................ 293 Intersections ............................................................................ 381
Examples ................................................................................ 294 Footpaths and cycle ways ...................................................... 382
Corridors, doors, stairs, lifts .................................................... 295 Bicycle traffic/storage ............................................................. 383

ix
Traffic calming ......................................................................... 385 Greenhouses
Noise protection ...................................................................... 386 Greenhouses .......................................................................... 441

Parking Facilities Ponds and Pools

Vehicles ................................................................................... 387 Garden pond ........................................................................... 442
Vehicles turning ....................................................................... 389 Natural swimming pool ........................................................... 443
Parking spaces ....................................................................... 390 Water plants for natural swimming pool .................................. 444
Multi-storey car parks .............................................................. 392
External Works - Example
Ramps ..................................................................................... 393
Federal Environment Agency .................................................. 445
Multi-storey car park regulations ............................................. 394
Parking systems ...................................................................... 395
Vehicles- trucks ..................................................................... 397 AGRICULTURE
Trucks - parking and turning ................................................... 398
FARMYARDS
Service areas .......................................................................... 399
Basics ..................................................................................... 446
Petrol stations ......................................................................... 400
Space requirements ................................................................ 447
Car wash ................................................................................. 402
Machinery ................................................................................ 448
Public Transport Fodder storage ........................................................................ 449
Conditions, means of transport ............................................... 403 Dung and drainage ................................................................. 450
Stops and stations .................................................................. 404 Climate in animal housing ...................................................... .451
Traffic spaces ......................................................................... 405
Animal Husbandry
Bus stations ............................................................................ 406
Housing poultry ....................................................................... 452
Railways Keeping small animals ............................................................ 453
Tracks ...................................................................................... 408 Sheep housing ........................................................................ 454
Typical Continental European structure - Laying hens ............................................................................ 455
gauges and clearances ........................................................... 410 Pig keeping ............................................................................. 456
UK structure- gauges and clearances ................................... 411 Dairy farming ........................................................................... 457
Freight Transport .................................................................... 413 Finishing beef cattle ................................................................ 458
Freight transport ..................................................................... 413 Keeping horses ....................................................................... 459
Stations ................................................................................... 414
Supply and Disposal
Station buildings ...................................................................... 415
Loading yards ......................................................................... 461
Platforms ................................................................................. 416
Loading ramps, bridges, lifting platforms ................................ 462
Platform furniture .................................................................... 417
Rubbish chute systems ........................................................... 463
Aviation Rubbish collection rooms ........................................................ 464
Basics ..................................................................................... 418 Emergency power rooms ....................................................... .465
Airports ................................................................................... 419
Runways ................................................................................. 420
Terminals ................................................................................ 421
BUILDING SERVICES
Terminal and apron ................................................................. 422 Renewable Energy
Aeroplanes .............................................................................. 423 Overview ................................................................................. 466
Solar energy ............................................................................ 467
EXTERNAL WORKS Bioenergy ................................................................................ 468
Geothermal energy, heat pumps ............................................. 469
Cemeteries CHP, block heating and power,
Morgue and crematorium ....................................................... .424 fuel cells .................................................................................. 470
Graves, cemetery chapel ........................................................ 425
Cemeteries .............................................................................. 426 Building Physics
Thermal insulation ................................................................... 471
Landscape Architecture
Sound insulation ...................................................................... 477
Design aspects and concepts ................................................ .426 Room acoustics ...................................................................... 482
Earthworks Lightning protection ................................................................. 485
Soi1 .......................................................................................... 428
Daylight
Garden Enclosures Physical basics ....................................................................... 488
Walls and fences ..................................................................... 430 Position of the sun .................................................................. 489
Pergola and Trellis Insolation ................................................................................. 490
Pergolas .................................................................................. 432 Shadow ................................................................................... 493
Trellises ................................................................................... 433 Radiation energy ..................................................................... 494
Examples of plants ................................................................. 434 Window lighting ....................................................................... 495
Rooflighting ............................................................................. 497
Paths, Paving, Steps Quality criteria ......................................................................... 498
Design aspects ....................................................................... 435 Directing sunlight .................................................................... 499
Drainage Sun shading ............................................................................ 500
Rainwater management .......................................................... 436 Lighting
Vegetation Artificial lighting ....................................................................... 501
Plants ...................................................................................... 437 Lamps ..................................................................................... 502
Plants and lawns ..................................................................... 438 Types of lighting ...................................................................... 505
Lighting layout ......................................................................... 506
Biological Engineering Quality criteria ......................................................................... 507
Supporting slopes and riverbanks ......................................... .439 Illuminance ............................................................................. 508

X
Fluorescent tubes ................................................................... 509 Heating .................................................................................... 532
Workplace Guideline 'Artificial lighting' (excerpt) .................... 510 Small sewage treatment plants ............................................... 536
Fire Protection Chimneys and Ventilation Shafts
Basics ....................................................................................: 511 Chimneys ................................................................................ 537
Classification ........................................................................... 512 Open fireplaces ....................................................................... 538
Fire compartment walls ........................................................... 513 Ventilation shafts ..................................................................... 539
Building components ............................................................... 514
References ............................................................................. 540
Fire-resistant glazing ............................................................... 516
Fire-resistant door sets ........................................................... 517 BS and DIN Standards ........................................................ 548
Fire fighting installations ......................................................... 518
Conversion of Units
Smoke and heat extractor systems ........................................ 519
Weights and measures ........................................................... 555
Sprinkler systems .................................................................... 520
Conversion tables ................................................................... 560
Other extinguishing systems ................................................... 521
INDEX ..................................................................................... 575
Domestic Installation
Drainage ................................................................................. 522
Ventilation ............................................................................... 528

xi
 Foreword

The 'Neufert' continues to be the most comprehensive, yet The new German edition has once again been produced at the
compact, first source of information on the design of buildings. same location that was formative for Neufert's development
Just as the daily office grind of the architect proceeds in many as the office manager for Walter Gropius- the Bauhaus in
small steps and a few long strides, the sustained progress of Dessau. The decision to return to the roots here seems to have
the 'Neufert' is characterised not only by meticulous attention to been the right one, because the previous edition was greeted
standards and regulations, whose omnipresence in construction positively by architects, students, lecturers and other interested
is undeniable, but also by reflection of the great issues of our parties. The concepts in this edition have been developed
time as they affect building project design. These important further by Nicole Delmes, nee Neufert, and lngo Neufert. My
matters undoubtedly include concern for our environment and the thanks are due to them both, for the trust and understanding
absolute demand for sustainability in architecture. Sustainable they have shown, which made our collaboration straightforward
building has many aspects, to be weighted differently according and enjoyable. Also, I would especially like to thank Mathias
to the design brief. Brockhaus, Matthias Lohmann and Patricia Merkel, a team that
works in an exceptionally professional manner, the students of
The team working with Professor Johannes Kister has set out, the Hochschule Anhalt- Fanjuan Kong, Tobias Schwarzwald
right through the book, to emphasise new sustainability standards and Mandy Wagenknecht- and the external consultants, whose
and perspectives using the criteria 'objective information' and valuable advice and reliable collaboration made an essential
'topicality', which is presumably how Ernst Neufert would have contribution to the success of the project.
approached the task. We hope that this new edition, which
continues the redesign commenced in the previous one, will Dessau, March 2009 Johannes Kister
further consolidate the Foundation's reliable and exhaustive
reference volume on building design. External consultants:
Prof. Dr. Dirk Bohne Building services
Neufert Foundation, March 2009 Karl-Heinz Breuer Basics
Paul Coral! Fire protection
Thomas Ehrenberg Filling stations and service
areas
Olaf Gersmeier Design and construction
management
Lydia Haack, John Hiipfner Filling stations and car wash
Karl-Josef Heinrichs Building physics
Prof. Alfred Jacoby Synagogues
Stefan Jackel, Tobias Micke External works
and Andreas Kotlan
Dr. Jiirg Junhold Zoos
LOr Meyer-Bassin Theatre
Hans-Peter MOhlethaler Restaurants
Prof. Dr. Gunther Nogge Zoos
Marcellus Puhlemann Design and construction
management
Hermann Schnell Facility management
Finn Stoll Administration
Wolfgang Thiede Health
Carsten Thiemann Railways
Heiko Uelze Catering
Prof. Susanne Weber Lighting
Carola Wunderlich Air transport

xii
 Preface
This handbook developed from the notes made for my lectures at should liberate them from all teachings, when it comes down to
the Bauhochschule in Weimar. They derive from measurements, it even from this one, and lead them to their own creative work.
experience and understanding gained from practice and research It should provide initial assistance: run- everyone must build for
in the human sphere, necessary for the design of buildings, but themselves.
also keeping an eye open for new opportunities and demands.
The architectural forms of our time are the result of the same
On the one hand we stand on the shoulders of our forebears but, process, which our predecessors underwent in order to produce
on the other, everything is fluid and we are children of our time with their splendid temples, cathedrals and palaces. They had
our gaze towards the future, though the outlook of each individual no models other than their own imaginations and intentions,
is often different. This results from differences in education and ideas and ideals, with which they neared their aspirations. The
training, the influence of the environment, personal predisposition commission formulated along these lines was enough to enliven
and the relevant degree of internally driven self-development. concepts, which took solid form in line with the technological
possibilities of the time and local conditions, and only bore a
Whether the 'fixed opinion' of today is absolutely correct remains remote similarity to what had gone before. These new buildings
to be seen, however, because it is only valid at the time of could be technically much better and deliver more because of
formation. Experience shows that fairer judgement develops improvement in the state of technology. They could, however, also
with time than is possible immediately, since we do not have the be compared artistically to similar structures from the past.
necessary detachment for breadth of vision. This makes clear
what reservations need to be imposed on teaching to prevent If we compare an industrial building of today- light, roomy, with
heresy. All teaching remains subjective and determined by its good dimensions and slimmer, lightweight construction -with a
time and environment, despite all efforts to achieve truth and factory from the 18th century or a workshop of the 15th century,
objectivity and all intentions to critically examine our favourite then the advantages of our modern buildings will be apparent
opinions. The danger of heresy can be avoided if the teaching even to the most blinkered conservationist. This means that,
also makes clear that it is not an end product but rather serves, whenever construction projects serve a genuine requirement of
and is subject to, all that is vital, upcoming and unfolding our time, work can be expected from energetic contemporary
architects that will bear comparison to, or even overshadow, the
This will then provide for our students the attitude meant by best of old buildings.
Nietzsche when he said, 'Only those who change themselves
remain associated with me.' A lively-minded university should offer primarily a view of our time
and a look to the future, glancing back only to the extent that this
The essential feature of such teaching of continuous progress, is advisable or unavoidable. This was the advice of one of the
the servant of development, is that there are no ready recipes, greatest of our profession, Fritz Schumacher, when he warned
no 'canned wisdom', but rather only building blocks, components a young student in his architecture lectures against getting too
or corners requiring the addition of combination, construction, lost in art history issues while researching the past. Being led
composition and harmony. astray by a doctorate into learned byways could be at the cost of
the energy required to meet the more varied requirements of the
Confucius put it like this more than 2500 years ago: 'I give my profession.
students a corner and they will have to find the other three
themselves!' Born architects, or those who yearn to build, will In contrast to this, it is better just to hand students the elements
keep their ears and eyes closed when a solution to a task is of architecture, as is done in this Architects' Data, where I
prescribed, because born architects are full of their ideas and have attempted to reduce the building blocks of design to the
ideals, and only need the elements in order to set to work and essentials, to schematise and even to abstract in order to make
make something of them! imitation difficult and force students to produce form and content
from within themselves. Their various design ideas will be
Those who have found faith in themselves, an insight into coordinated anyway to a certain extent by current fashion, that
connectivity, the play of forces, materials, colours, dimensions, idiosyncratic feeling of community which characterises mankind's
who can absorb the reality and the appearance of a building, joint efforts at a particular time and finds a durable and visible
study its effect, investigate it critically and rebuild it in the mind, expression in contemporary style.
are on the only true path to the great satisfaction offered by
active creation. This view of life should help them on their way. It Ernst Neufert

xiii
 ABBREVIATIONS AND SYMBOLS

Abbreviation Meaning Abbreviation Meaning ABBREVIATIONS

AND SYMBOLS
AEG General Railway Law UIC International Union of Railways
AFP Agricultural Investment Support Programme VDE Association of German Electrical Engineers
ArbStattR Workplace Guidelines VOl Association of German Engineers
ArbStattV Workplace Regulations VdS Loss Prevention (fire and security testing institute)
BauGB Building Law VkVO Retail Regulations
BGB German Civil Code VOB Contract Regulations for Building Works
BGR Association of Commercial Accident Insurance VStattVO Places of Assembly Regulations
Companies Wh withers height (horse)
BlmSchG Federal Prevention of Emissions Law WSG Water Protection Law
BOStrab Construction and Operation of Trams Regulation ZH Indicates Guidelines of BGR (Association of
BS(I) British Standards (Institute) Commercial Accident Insurance Companies)
CEN Committee for European Normalisation ZVEI Central Association of Electrical and Electronics
CHP combined heat and power Industries
CIE International Lighting Commission
CPM Critical Path Method Unit, Abbreviation Greek Alphabet
DB Deutsche Bahn - German Railways 1012 10 em 12 mm (superscript A a (a) Alpha
DEHOGA German Hotel and Inn Association
number= mm) B p (b) Beta
DFS German Air Traffic Control
DiBt German Institute for Building Technology
English inch r y (g) Gamma
English foot 11. 0 (d) Delta
DIN German Institute for Standardisation
H or h height or high E E (e) Epsilon
ON normal diameter
EBO Construction and Operation of Railways Regulation
Worw
h
width or wide
hour
z s
H l1 (e)
(z) Zeta
Eta
EEG Renewable Energy Law
EIA Environmental Impact Assessment
min minute e 1'} (th) Theta
s second I l (i) Iota
EN European (standard)
12° degrees in Celsius (C) K K (k) Kappa
EnEV Energy Saving Regulation
J joule, energy A 'A (I) Lambda
FEA Federal Environment Agency
N newton, force M ~ (m) Mu
FEU 40-foot equivalent unit (container)
Pa pascal, pressure N v (n) Nu
FFL finished floor level
2° 3' 4" 2 degrees, 3 min, 3 X (x) Xi
FIS International Ski Federation
4 s. 360-degree division 0 0 (o) Omicron
FGSV Research Company for Roads and Traffic
German Facility Management Association
% per cent, hundredth n TT (p) Pi
GEFMA p p (r)
%o per thousand, thousandth Rho
GIF Company for Property Industry Research
0 diameter L ()' (s) Sigma
GUV Guidelines of the German Association of
I per (e.g. t/m =tonne perm) T 't: (t) Tau
Accident Insurers (health and safety) y u (y) Upsilon
HeizAniV Heating Plant Regulation
<I> <I> (ph) Phi
HGV heavy goods vehicle
X 'I' (ch) Chi
HOAI Fee Regulations for Architects and Engineers
'¥ v (ps) Psi
HWR auxiliary inverter
0 <p (o) Omega
ICAO International Civil Aviation Organisation
ICE Inter-City Express
Mathematical Symbols Roman Numbers
lndBauR Industrial Building Guidelines
ISO International Standards Organisation > greater than I= 1
KfW 'Reconstruction' Subsidy Bank ;s equal or greater than II= 2
KFZ vehicle < less than Ill= 3
LBO state building regulation ~ less than or equal IV= 4
LC liquid crystal ~ sum of V= 5
LED llight emitting diode <I angle VI= 6
LIDC luminous intensity distribution curve sin sine VII= 7
LiTG German Technical Light Association cos cosine VIII= 8
LPZ lightning protection zone tan tangent IX= 9
LU large animal unit (500 kg live weight) ctg cotangent X= 10
MBO model building regulation (basis for LBO) equal XV= 15
MPM Metra Potential Method not equal C= 100
MTA medical/technical assistant * approximately CL= 150
MVZ outpatient medical centre infinity CC= 200
ODP operating department practitioner parallel CCC= 300
OPNV public transport X times, multiplied by CD= 400
PKW passenger car I divided by D= 500
RAL German quality assurance mark j_ right-angled DC= 600
RAS-L (-EW I -Q) Road Construction Guidelines - Road Layout v volume DCC= 700
(Drainage I Cross-section) m solid angle DCCC= 800
SchBauR School Building Guidelines --1 square root of CM = 900
StLB Standard Book of Bill Items - congruent M = 1000
StVo Street Traffic Regulations 11. triangle MCMLX= 1960
suv sports utility vehicle It same direction, parallel
TEU 20-foot equivalent unit (container) n opposite directions, parallel

1
 Sl units- Systeme International d'Unites UNITS
The international system of units: the most commonly used system Sl Units
of measurement and units in science. Basic units, which are not
derived from any other.
UNITS
Quantily Basic unit Symbol Definition based on Sl units included Prefixes and their Abbreviations are:
Sl Units name in definition T (!era-) ~ 10 12 (million million) c (centi-) ~ 1/100 hundredth
1 length metre m wavelength of krypton - G (giga-) ~ 109 (thousand million) m (milli-) ~ 10"3 thousandth
radiation M (mega-)~ 10 6 (million) ~ (micro-) ~ 10~ millionth
103 n (nano-) ~ 1o- 12
2 mass kilogram kg international prototype - k (kilo-) (thousand)
p (pica-) ~ 10-12
h (hekto-) ~ 100 (hundred)
3 time second s period of caesium - da(deca-) ~ 10 (ten) f (femto-) ~ 1o- 15
radiation
d (deci-) ~ 1/10 (tenth) a (alto-) ~ 10-18
4 electrical current ampere A electrodynamic force kg, m, s
between two conductors only one prefix may be used to describe a decimal multiple
5 temperature kelvin K triple point of water -
(thenmodynamic C) Decimal multip\1ers and dividers of units
temperature)
6 luminous intensity candela cd radiation from freezing kg, s
platinum Quantity to be measured Unit in the Sl system, compulsory Conversion
from 1978 factor
7 amount of substance mole mol molecular mass kg
length m metre
0 Basic Sl units area m2 square metre

a) Thermal insulation volume m' cubic metre

Symbol Unit Description mass kg kilogram

t (°C, K) temperature force N newton ~ 1 kg m/s 2 9.8

t (K) temperature difference pressure Pa pascal ~ 1 N/m 2 133.3

q (Wh) quantity of heat bar bar~ 100,000 Pa 0.98
),. (W/mK) thermal conductivity Pa ~ 100,000 N/m
),.' (W/mK) equivalent thermal conductivity temperature ·c degree Centigrade 1
K kelvin• 10
A (W/m2K) coefficient of thermal transmittance
work (energy, heat Ws, J, Nm watt second =joule = newton metre 4186
a (W/m 2K) coefficient of thermal transmission
quantity)
u (W/m 2K) coefficient of thermal transmittance
Wh watt hour~ 3.6 KJ 1.163
1/A (m2KIW) thermal insulation value
kWh kilowatt hour~ 103 Wh ~ 3.6 MJ 1.163
1/a (m 2KIW) thermal transmission resistance
1/k (m 2KIW) thermal transmittance resistance, 1/U
power (energy transfer, w watt 736
heat transfer) w watt 1.163
D' (m 2K/Wxcm) thermal resistance per em
"compulsory from 1975
c (WhlkgK) specific thermal capacity
s (Wh/m 3K) volumetric specific heat 0 Conversion of basic units
p (1/K) coefficient of thermal expansion
a (mK) distance coefficient
1 mxm~1 m2 1 m x 1 s-1 ~ 1 m s-1 (~ 1 m/s)
p (Pa) pressure
1 m x 1 s·2 ~ 1 ms-2 (~ 1 m/s 2)
P, (Pa) (partial) vapour pressure 1 kg x 1 m x 1 s-2 ~ 1 kg m s-2 (~ 1 kg m/s-2)
g, (g) vapour quantity 1 kg x 1 m-3 ~ 1 kg m-3 (~ 1 kg/m 3)
g, (g) condensed water quantity 1 m x 1 m x 1 s-1 ~ 1 m2s-1 (~ 1 m2/s)

v
~
(%)
H
relative air humidity
diffusion resistance coefficient
e Examples of 'derived Sl units' through combining basic units

~xd (em) diffusion-equivalent air layer

A, (g/m 2hPa) water vapour resistance factor coulomb 1 c 1As ohm 1n 1V/A
farad 1F 1AsN pascal 1 Pa N/m2
1/A0 (m2hPa/g) diffusion resistance
henry 1H 1 Vs/A siemens 1s 1/D
~),. (W/mK) layer factor
hertz 1Hz 1 s-1 ~ (1/s) tesla 1T 1Wb/m2
~A: (W/mK) layer factor of air layers joule 1J 1 Nm~1 Ws volt 1V 1W/A
p (EikWh) cost of heat lumen 11m 1 cd sr watt 1W 1 J/s
b) Sound insulation lux 11x 11m/m2 weber 1Wb 1 Vs
),. (m) wavelength newton 1N 1 kg m/s2
f (Hz) frequency For apparent electrical power, the watt may be described as volt ampere (VA),
fgr (Hz) limit frequency idle electrical power as Var (ver).
f, (Hz) resonance frequency
Edva (N/cm 2) dynamic elasticity modulus
Q Names and symbols for derived Sl units

S' (N/cm 3 ) dynamic stiffness

R (dB) sound reduction CONTENTS (airborne sound) in laboratory 1 N 21 s 21m 2 ~ 1 Nsm2 1A21s~1As~1C

Rm (dB) median airborne sound reduction 1 rad 21 s 2 ~ 1 rad s1 (~ 1 rad/s) 1AsN~1 CN~1 F
R' (dB) sound reduction CONTENTS with flanking transmission
(airborne sound) 8 Examples of Sl units derived through combining basic units with named derived
units
LSM (dB) airborne sound insulation margin
Ln (dB) impact sound pressure level
V/M (dB) sound improvement due to one floor or ceiling layer thermal resistance 1/A ~ 1 m 2h K/kcal ~ 0.8598 m2K!W
TSM (dB) impact sound reduction thermal conductivity l.~1 kcal/m h K ~1.163 W/m K
coefficient of thermal transmittance U ~ 1 kcal/m 2 h K ~ 1.163 Wfm2K
a H degree of sound absorption
coefficient of thermal transmission a ~ 1 kcal/m 2h K ~ 1.163 W/m 2K
A (m2) equivalent sound-absorbing area
bulk density ~1 kg/m 3 ~ 1 kg/m 3
r (m) resonance radius calculation weight ~1 kp/m 3 ~0.01 kN/m 3
L (dB) sound level reduction compressive strength ~ 1 kp/cm 2 ~0.1 N/mm2

f) Physical symbols in the Sl system 0 Conversion of table values to new units

2
Units of measurement in building UNITS
The international system of measurement with Sl units has been valid since 1 January 1978.
Sl Units

Measurement Symbol Sl unit Statutory unit Old unit Description

STANDARDS
Name Symbol Name Symbol Name Symbol
Sl units
normal angle a~y radian rad 1 rad = 1 mlm = 57.296" = 63.662 gon
round angle pia 1 pla=2rrrad
right angle L 1L = Y. pia= (rrl2) rad
degree 0
1" = 1LI90 = 1 plal360 = rrl180 rad
minute 8 18=1°160
second ( 1( = 18160 = 1"13600
gon or grad gon new degree 9 1 gon=1 g=1LI100=1 plal400=rrl200rad
new minute a 1 c= 10-2 gon
new second cc 1 cc= (10-2 ) c= 10-" gon
length I metre m micrometre ~m inch in 1 in =25.4 mm
millimetre mm foot ft 1ft= 30.48 em
centimetre em fathom fathom 1 fathom= 1.8288 m
decimetre dm mile mil 1 mile= 1609.344 m
kilometre km sea mile sm 1 sm= 1.852 km
area, cross-sectional A,q square metre m2
area, area of plot are a 1 a=10 2 m2
of land hectare ha 1 ha=104 m2
volume v cubic metre m'
litre I 11=1 dm3 =10·3 m3
normal volume v, normal cubic metre Nm 3 1 Nm3 = 1 m3 in normal condition
cubic metre cbm
time, period, duration t second s
minute min 1 min=60s
hour h 1 h = 60 min = 3600 s
day d 1 d = 24 h = 86 400 s
year a 1 a= 8765.8 h = 31.557 x 106 s
frequency f hertz Hz 1 Hz= 1/s for the expression of frequencies in
duration of a cycle dimensional equations
angular frequency <p reciprocal second 11s <p=2xf
angular velocity <p radians per s rad/s <p=2xn
speed of revolutions n reciprocal second 1/s revolutions per sec/min r/s revs per sec/min r.p.s. 11s=tis=Uis
rim r.p.m
velocity v metre per second m/s kilometres per hour kmlh 1 m/s = 3.6 kmlh
knot kn 1kn = 1sm/h = 1.852 mph
acceleration due to g metre per second m/s 2 gal gal 1 gal= 1 cmls2 = 1o·2 mls2
gravity squared
mass: m kilogram kg
weight (on scales) gram g 1 g=10"3 kg
tonne t 1 t=1 Mg=10 3 kg
pound lb 1 lb = 0.45359237 kg
metric hundredweight cwt (metric) 1 cwt (metric)= 50 kg
force F newton N 1 N = 1 kglmls 2 = 1 Wslm = 1 Jim
thrust G dyne dyn 1 dyn = 1 g cmls 2 = 10·' N
pond p 1 p=9.80665x10.3 N
kilopond kp 1 kp = 9.80665 N
mega pond Mp 1 Mp = 9806.65 N
kilogram force kg 1 kg = 9.80665 N
tonne force t 1 t = 9806.65 N

mech. stress, newton per square Nlm 2 newton per square Nlmm2
strength " metre millimetre kplcm 2 1 kp/cm 2 = 0.0980665 Nlmm2
kplmm 1 kpimm 2 = 9.80665 N/mm2

work, energy W,E joule J 1 J=1 Nm=1 Ws=107 erg

kilowatt hour kWh 1 kWh = 3.6 x 106 J = 3.6 MJ
horsepower per hour h.p.lh 1 h.p. = 2.64780 X 106 J
erg erg 1 erg= 10·7 J
heat quantity Q joule J calorie cal 1 ca1=4.1888 J= 1.163 x 10·3 Wh
torque M newton metre Nm kilopond metre kpm 1 kpm = 9.80665 J
bending moment Mb or joule J
power, p watt w 1 W = 1 Jls = 1 N mls = 1 kg m21s 3
energy current horsepower h.p. 1 h.p. = 0.73549675 kW

thermodynamic T kelvin K degree Kelvin "K 1"K=1 K

temperature degree Rankine 1°R=5/9K
Centigrade iJ K degree Centigrade "C oR,"RK !J= T- T0 T0 =273.15 K
temperature !J.!J =b. T, where:
temperature interval Mlor oc degree deg 1 K=1°C=1 degree
and differential b.T to be used in equations
Fahrenheit IJF degree Fahrenheit "F IJF= 915 IJ+ 32=915 T -459.67
temperature
Reaumur !JR degree Reaumur "R !JR = 415 !J, 1"R = 5/4 "C
temperature

0 Sl units and statutory units (excerpt applicable to building)

3
 DRAWINGS
Paper Formats

t-----x/2-
DRAWINGS Standardised formats provide a foundation for office furniture
Paper formats design, which then determines the development of the floor plan.
Technical
drawings Good knowledge of paper formats is therefore important for the
Layout of designer.
drawings
Construction 1--------- X --j 1--------- X --j
drawings Paper formats have generally been standardised (apart from
Construction
drawing symbols
0-0 Basis of paper formats in the USA) to conform to the internationally accepted {ISO)
Water supply and series of paper sheet sizes {A,B,C,D). These were developed
drainage symbols
Electrical Format Series A Series B Series C on the basis of an area of 1 m2 , divided according to the ratio
installation of the sides:
symbols 0 841 X 1189 1000 X 1414 917 X 1297
Security
1 594 X 841 707 X 1000 648 X 917
installation x:y=--12~0 lengthofsidex=0.841 m
symbols 420x 594 500 707 485x 648
2 X
Gas installation xxy=1 length of side y = 1.189 m
symbols 3 297x420 353 X 500 324x458
Drawing by hand
Computer-aided 4 210 X 297 250 X 353 229 324
X
The basic format (a rectangle with an area of 1 m2 and side
drawing
5 148x210 176 X 250 162 X 229 lengths as above) forms the basis for all the smaller sizes. The
BS EN ISO 216 A format series is produced by halving or doubling the basic
BS 1467 6 105 X 148 125 X 176 114x 162
DIN 476 format ~ 0 + f). The additional series B and C are intended
7 74 X 105 88 X 125 81 X 114
DIN 821 for items in dependent paper sizes, e.g. envelopes, binders and
DIN 4999 8 52x74 62x88 57 81
X
files~ 0.
9 37x52 44x62

10 26x37 31 x44 The formats in the B series are the geometric mean dimensions of
11 18 x26 22x31
the A series. The formats in the C series are the geometric mean
dimensions of the A and B series ~ 0.
12 13 X 18 15x22

8 Sheet sizes Strip (or side margin) formats are made by dividing the main formats
lengthwise into halves, quarters and eighths (for envelopes, signs,
drawings etc.) ~ 0 + e.
Format Abbreviation mm

half length A4 %A4 105 X 297

File cards without tabs correspond exactly to the standard
quarter length A4 Y.A4 52 X 297 formats. Tab cards are larger to allow for the tab, i.e. they have a
eighth length A7 Y.A7 9x 105 projection at the upper edge for classification.
half length C4 Y, C4 114 X 324
Binders, files and folders are wider than the standard format
etc.
to provide space for the fixing mechanism. Widths should if
e Strip formats possible be selected from the possible dimensions from series
A, s, c~e.

Pads and carbonless duplicate books have precisely the standard

formats; if there is a standing perforated edge, then here the
A4 sheets are smaller than the standard format~ e.
(it Strip formats in A4
Bound and trimmed books have precisely the standard format.
If a further trim is necessary during binding, then the pages will
0 Loose-leaf binder be slightly smaller than the standard format, and the cover will
project accordingly. The cover size must be at least the standard
r----- 210 -----! format ~ (). The cover width is determined by the binding
process.

picas mm

type area width 39.51 40.5 167 171

type area height (without header/footer) 58.5 59 247 250

fj) Pads, carbonless duplicate books
1

space between columns 1 5

max. width, double columns 39.5 167

max. width, single column 19 81

inside (gutter) margin, nominal 16 14

outer (side) margin, nominal 27 25

top (head) margin, nominal 20 19

Foot border
bottom (foot) margin, nominal 30 28

C) Bound and trimmed books ~ Layouts and type area of the A4 standard format -> C!)

4
 DRAWINGS
Technical Drawings

uncut drawing sheet, DRAWINGS

depending on requirement, The use of standard drawing formats makes it easier for
is 2-3cm wider than Paper formats
final trimmed original architects to lay out drawings for discussion in the design office Technical
drawing and print or on the building site, and also facilitates posting and filing. The drawings
trimmed, original drawing or print must therefore conform to the Layout of
drawings
formats of the ISO A series--> 0, 8-0. Construction
a drawings
box for written The title block should be the following distance from the edge of Construction
details and
the drawing: drawing symbols
parts list
Water supply and
a for formats AO-A3 10 mm drainage symbols
for formats A4-A6 5 mm Electrical
installation
For small drawings, a filing margin of up to 25 mm can be used, symbols
0 Standardised drawing which reduces the usable area of the finished format. As an Security
installalion
Sheet sizes exception, narrow formats can be made by adding together a
symbols
according to ISOAO ISOA1 ISOA2 ISOA3 ISOA4 ISOA5 row of identical or adjacent shapes from the format range. Gas installation
ISO series A symbols
Format: untrimmed
880 X 1230 625x 880 450x625 330 X 450 240 X 330 165 X 240
From normal roll widths, the following sizes can be used to provide Drawing by hand
blank sheet (mm) Computer-aided
formats in the A series: drawing
Format: trimmed
finished sheet (m)
841 X 1189 594 X 841 420 X 594 297 x420 210 X 297 148 x210 for drawing paper, tracing paper 1500, 1560 mm
(derived from these: 250, 1250, 660, 900 mm) BS EN ISO 128
f) Sheet sizes for print paper: 650, 900, 1200 mm.
BS 1192
BS EN ISO 4157
If all the drawing formats up to AO are to be cut from a paper web, DIN 824
·-·-·-·-·-·:::;-! a roll width of at least 900 mm will be necessary.
Drawings which are to be stored in A4 box files should be folded
as follows --> 0:
1. The title block must always be at the front, in the correct
position and clearly visible.
2. At the start of folding, a width of 21 em must always be folded
cut-out ISO A2, A 1, AO first (fold 1), ideally with the use of a 21 x 29.7 em template.
3. A triangle is folded into the drawing starting from c (fold 2) so
that on the completely folded drawing only the below left field

ei..:::.-·-·-·-·-·-·-·::::i
ISOsizeA2;A1;AO
marked with a cross is punched or clamped.
4. The drawing is then folded parallel to side a to a width of
18.5 em, for which a template of 18.5 x 29.8 em is useful.
·-·-·-·m The last section is folded in half to adjust the sheet size,
bringing the title block to the front. Long narrow formats can be
correspondingly folded.
5. The resulting strip is folded from side b.
A piece of card of size A5 = 14.8 x 21 em can be glued to the back
of the punched side to reinforce the edge. Any sheet size can be
folded by following the instructions above. If the drawing length
remaining after the folding of the first 21 em cannot be divided by
0 ISOsizeA3 18.5 em into an even number 2, 4, 6, etc., then the remaining width
should be folded in the centre .
..<;:.""

~
'
.1 I 0
cut-out ISO A4
ISOsizeA5

I Division for No. identical fields by sheet size

I I I
ISOAO

T.,I
'--·
"'"i• l box
~
I
0
a
b
AO
16
12
I
I
A1

1~ I
Field divisions (grid squares)
A2

~ I ~ I
A3

ISOA1
A4
4
4

0 ISOsizeA4 ISOA2

e Folding schemes and dimensions

5
 DRAWINGS
Layout of Drawings

DRAWINGS A strip 5 em wide should be left blank at the left-

Paper formats hand edge for binding or filing. The title block on
Technical south elevation east elevation north elevation west elevation
drawings section the right 0 should include:
Layout of
drawings 1. Description of the type of drawing (sketch,
Construction preliminary design, for construction etc.)
drawings
Construction N 2. Category of building shown or type of drawing
drawing symbols (layout plan, ground plan, section, elevation,
Water supply $ diagram etc.)
and drainage garden
basement ground floor upper floor' layout writing
symbols
box 3. Scale
Electrical I I I I
installation m 4. If appropriate, details of dimensions.
symbols
Security Drawings for building permit applications (to the
~,.,Jee\
installation building regulations authorities) should also include:
symbols
~5
Gas installation 1. Name (signature) of the client
symbols
Drawing by hand 2. Name (signature) of the architect
foundations layout of joists roof truss layout site plan
Computer-aided 3. If required, (signature) of the site manager
drawing
4. If required, (signature) of the contractor
BS EN ISO 9431 0 Suitable layout for a construction drawing
5. Comments by the building regulations
BS EN ISO
10209 10
authorities:
10 20 30 40
BS EN ISO a) About inspection
14617 ~~+H+H------~----+-----4------1
b) About approval
DIN 406
DIN 825 f) Suitable layout for scale details If necessary, on back of sheet
DIN 1356
Layout plans, floor plans etc. should show the
compass direction with a north pointer.
Scales --1 f)
The main scale of the drawing should be shown in large letters in the title block and
in smaller letters for other scales; the latter should be repeated next to their respective
\- diagrams. All objects should be drawn to scale; dimensions of parts which are not drawn
to scale should be underlined. Scales should be restricted to the following if at all possible:
for construction drawings 1:1, 1:5, 1 :10, 1 :20, 1 :25, 1:50, 1:100, 1:200
for site layouts 1 :500, 1 :1000, 1:2000, 1:2500, 1 :5000, 1 :10000, 1:25000.
Dimensioning
Dimensioning is indicating dimensions on a drawing.
Levels should be given on sections and plans or elevations. The signs+ or- before the
number refer to the difference from level ± 0.00 (generally the planned finished floor
level, on the ground floor in the entrance area, related to sea level). For parapets, the
structural height above the structural slab level may also be given.
If the height of wall openings, particularly for doors and windows, is to be given on
drawings in addition to their width, then the width measurement is given above the
dimension line and the height measurement is given below it. Rectangular cross-
sections can, as a simplification, be dimensioned by stating their side lengths as a
fraction, e.g. 12/16 (in section: width/height).
Round cross-sections have the diameter sign 0 before the measure: e.g. 0 12. Radii have
the capital letter R before the measure.
Dimensions and other markings --1 e
C) Example of a standard dimensioned drawing of All dimensions are given in the unfinished structural condition (wall thicknesses). In
an angled floor plan. The dimensions given are continental Europe, dimensions of less than 1 m on building drawings are generally
structural dimensions without finishings given in em, dimensions over 1 mare given in m or mm. (However, recently the trend has
been to give all dimensions in mm, which is standard practice in the UK.)

,.,.,.;.;.;.;.;.,.&:.;§;:,.,.,. . . Sections on plans

On plans, vertical planes of one or more sections are shown as lines with short and long
+2.75 dashes --1 p. 9 0, and the direction of viewing is also given. The entire line of the section
sz does not have to be shown, but if the plane of a section breaks, this does --1 e. If there is
+2.69 more than one section, then each should be clearly labelled.
y Room numbers are given in a circle.
in ground plans
Room areas, in m2 , are shown in a square or rectangle --1 e.

9 -<----- 6250 _ , . -

+ 3.12
e t--- 6250 --t :1'---
G Marking of heights on sections and elevations f) f- ~~;~ - j f-

6
 1 2 3 4 5 6 DRAWINGS
Line group Construction Drawings
I II 111 1) IV2l
Line weight Application Scale
;;;1:100 "'1:50 Dimensioning consists of: dimension DRAWINGS

Line width (mm) figure, dimension line, extension line, Paper formats
Technical
solid line (heavy) boundary of areas in section 0.5 0.5 1.0 1.0 dimension arrow ~ e. drawings
solid line (medium) visible edges and visible outlines of 0.25 0.35 0.5 0.7 Dimension figures are normally Layout of
building elements, boundary of narrow drawings
located above the relevant continuous Construction
or small building elements in section
dimension line so that they can be read drawings
solid line (fine) dimension lines, extension lines, pointer 0.18 0.25 0.35 0.5 Construction
from below or from the right when the drawing symbols
lines, walking lines, outlines of cut-outs,
simplified depictions drawing is used~ f) + 0. Water supply and

dashed line (medium)

---- hidden edges and hidden outlines of
building elements
0.25 0.35 0.5 0.7
Dimension lines are shown as solid
lines~ 0. They are located parallel to
drainage symbols
Electrical
installation
chain dot line (heavy)
·-·-·
chain dot line (medium).--·--·
indication of location of section planes
axes and centre-lines
0.5
0.18
0.5
0.25
1.0
0.35
1.0
0.5
the length being dimensioned.
Extension lines: dimensions which
symbols
Security
installation
dotted line (fine) ....................... building elements in front of or over 0.25 0.35 0.5 0.7 cannot be shown directly on the arrow symbols
Gas installation
section plane at the edge of an area, are relocated symbols
dimensions text size 2.5 3.5 5.0 7.0 outside with the aid of extension lines. Drawing by hand
1l Line group I is only to be used when a drawing has been prepared with line group Ill, was reduced in the ratio of 2:1 These are generally at right angles to the Computer-aided
drawing
and is to be worked on further. In this case, the text size 5.0 mm is to be selected for the drawing with line group Ill. dimension line and extend a little past it.
Line group I does not fulfil the requirements for microfilming. BS EN ISO 4157
2l Line group IV is to be used for construction drawings if a reduction from scale 1:50 to scale 1:100 is intended and the reduction dimension figure
DIN 1356
dimension line
has to meetthe requirements for microfilming. The reduction can then be further worked on using widths in line group II.

If building drawings are manually or mechanically drawn with ink and standardised drawing equipment, then the line
I
-3.76~
I \
extension line
_........-dimension arrow

widths according to the above should preferably be used. These widths are suitable for the usual application of common
reproduction methods.

0 Line types and thicknesses to be used in construction drawings

==lJ
e Dimensioning terms

1 2 3 4

~~
unit for dimensions dimensions
dimensions <1m, e.g. >1 m,e.g.
1 em 24 88.5 388.5
2 m and em 24 885 3.88 5

188.5~~26
236.5+=-----437.5
24 3 mm 240 885

NB Recent trend is to give all dimensions in mm,

3885

---674 standard practice in UK-; p. 6.

Dimensioning outside the drawing (scale C) Units for dimensions f) Pointer lines to notes
1:100, units~ em)

3E
w
..;..,.
... 0
----- ---- ----- -m---- I
I
---,I
I
M.---
I
"' I
I
I
I
I
0 I
I
I I
I C2
"' I
t I
I I
m
G Dimensioning of pillars and openings, e.g. scale 1:50 em, units= em I
I
I
I
I I
I
I
I
< t t
t
I
0 I

<3
I
:
-~
t I
----- I
I I

"'
0
020B
I
I
I
I
t
t
m
0

axis 01 02 01 2 3 4
field Oc Ob Oa a c
Ob1 Ob2

9 Dimensioning with coordinate~ e.g. scale 1:50 m, em, units em and mm e Axis-field grid

7
 Monochrome I Colour To be used for DRAWINGS
1111111\llfllll""""""- light green grass Construction Drawing Symbols
::IC.)C~)

DRAWINGS
tt~ ) , 'l sepia peat dust and similar

Building element Opening Dimensions Location Related to

~~
Paper formats
burnt sienna ground C ceiling BR break-through widthx u under Ttop
Technical
Wwall G groove depth x o over B bottom
drawings
Layout of . ····· ... black/ white infilled earth
Ffloor
FO foundation
Dduct height UF unfinished floor
FF finished floor
drawings
Construction
8 Labelling of openings: examples
drawings
Construction ~ brown-red brick masonry in lime mortar
drawing Description Label Dimensions Depiction
symbols
Water supply and ~ brown-red brick masonry in cement mortar Plan
I
Elevation,
(section, view)
drainage symbols slab breakthrough SBR AxB
I:ZH
Electrical
installation ~ brown-red brick masonry in cement-lime mortar
f-A-1
~
1-A-l
symbols
groove in slab (top) GS AxBxC I-A-<
Security
~ ~
.0
brown-red porous brick masonry in cement mortar ro
installation U.i 1111111 ~c
symbols

~
Gas installation hollow pot brick masonry in cement groove in slab GS AxBxC
~
brown-red
symbols lime mortar (underneath) ~:c
!111111 1-A-l c
Drawing by hand

~
Computer-aided brown-red floor slab breakthrough FSBR AxB
drawing
clinker block masonry in cement mortar
(foundation= FO) L~:J~
1-A-l = I-A-<

~ ~{I)
BS EN ISO 4157 brown-red sand lime block masonry in lime mortar
DIN 1356 £~ C~-~~~~--~~~-+~~~~-t----------~
~ floor slab duct
FSD A x B x C HA
~ brown-red alluvial stone masonry in lime mortar
Q) -a floor slab groove
FSG : IsI ~I 'II' ~0
~~
I <I

wall breakthrough WBR Ax c

~ brown-red stone masonry in mortar (foundation= FO dashed
on basement plan)
IZI2
I-A-<

~ brown-red natural stone masonry in cement mortar wall groove(horizont~ WG AxBxC

foundation = FO -> U

~~J:?.'?~"o: sepia gravel

wall groove (vertical) WG AxBxC
·. "· ·~'l!ili?"cf. foundation= FO -> 8 :·:·:·:·jzj(·:·:·: IB 1111111?
I-A-<
~:~~~~'II;
Cf.'~I;O;. . c.
grey black slag
A) Under floor duct in section
B) Same on plan
:~~~·;~~j~)i~~~t~;tl~{ zinc yellow sand

0.7.#.##.;?:; ochre screed (gypsum) ~ %?3if//c: A) Pipe sleeve on elevation

B) Same on plan

t:"i:~?:·:;·~~~;{~H;~~~~ white plaster

/22'10:0 ~2'0 Chimney on plan

violet pre-cast concrete elements

2ZWW w~ Gas chimney on plan
11111111111111111111111
e Presentation of openings, grooves and channels: examples
..
~
z '/.~""""~
,"zr ,7 ~
blue green reinforced concrete
!1.1
II
~3~%Jf~~~?,~fi. olive green unreinforced concrete 1/1
ltl
't'
T [J:j black metal u
~ ~
brown timber in section

--
Closed in final state Remains open
Uli!JilUI!lll! blue grey insulation materials

black and white sealants

e Grooves , apertures and breakthroughs in walls

cJ
Natural monument (border with points) according to:
NSG =conservation area
grey existing building elements
LSG = landscape conseJVation area
GLB = Protected landscape element
0 Symbols and colours used on plans and sections §23 =under §23 HENatG protected habitat
GA = Population of particularly protected or threatened species

f rCJ:k
Tree protection

f : :: ::
Layout plan To special Tree with species,
Tree to be removed with
- - - - - - existing public road fac1h!1es trunk centre, crown
species, trunk centre,
radius & trunk dia.
r=250 crown radius & trunk dia.
U=60 (Existing: full line,
Planned but not yet planned: dot-dash line
existing roads
I+++ ICemetery
am
Group of bushes to be partly removed
Existing: full line
~Park
t___,:,__j
~ Pennanent Planned: dot-dash line
Existing buildings tttti:J allotment To be removed: crossed-out full line
~ Camping and rr=\1
~ weekend site Q Sports field Border of area to be built on, whose soil is considerably contaminated

~Planned buildings
with harmful substances.
~Swimming lA! Children's Border of areas, whose soil is considerably contaminated with
~pool L\£J playground harmful substances.

f) Symbols for building permit applications

0 Symbols used in open spaces planning

8
 DRAWINGS
Construction Drawing Symbols

a)
b)
c)
Floor surfaces
Ceiling surfaces
Wall surfaces
>
Without
deducti?n
of openings
) in m2 with
2 figures after
decimal oint
general insulation layer against heat
loss and noise
DRAWINGS
Paper formats
Technical
d) Clear wmdow areas p drawings
e) Clear door areas Layout of
f) Flooring types mineral wool insulation drawings
g) Type of paint or cladding to walls Construction
h) Type of paint or cladding to ceilings drawings
Construction
0 Dimensions and other information, if required glass fibre insulation drawing symbols
Water supply and
drainage symbols
Electrical
sealing membrane (damp course) wood fibre insulation installation
symbols
Security
• • 8 • • • vapour barrier peat fibre insulation
installation
symbols
Gas installation
aaaaaaaa symbols

- - - - - -
separating/plastic foil

oil paper
xxxxxxxx synthetic foam
Drawing by hand
Computer-aided
drawing

-·-·-·-·-·-·-·-- waterproofing membrane with fabric inlay

IVVVV\J\j\ cork
BS EN ISO 4157
DIN 1356

1\1 \l\l\l\l\l\/\l\1 \1'

waterproofing membrane with metal foil
inlay
ml\l\l\Ml\l\l\1\llli~MM~ magnesite-bonded wood wool board

IIIII IIIII intermediate layer, spot glued moom~~%\lfm~1W?Ef1Bi~B\I cement-bonded wood wool board

1111111111111111111111111111111 fully glued layer • • • • •• • • • • •• • • gypsum building boards

• • • • • • • •
mastic

·:·:·:·:·:·:·: plasterboards

~ appliedgravellayer 0 Symbols for insulation

primer coat, paint base

crr:r:IICJ:CIC:IC:II:JOTC:r:CII1CCTI1] sealing slurry

--:._-----=---------------=-- waterproof paint (e.g. 2-layer)

plaster lath/reinforcement

llllllillillllllillilllllllll impregnation

0 0 {) {) 0 filter mat
0

111111111111111111111111
sw
tm drain mesh (plastic)

standing water on ground/slope

surface water

e•e e emerging damp, mould, dirt etc .

•••••••••••••••••
~ penetratingdamp

~'% earth, undisturbed soil

f) Symbols for waterproofing, drainage, insulation, non-pressurised water etc.

9
 DRAWINGS
Windows set in reveals, scale 1:100 Construction Drawing Symbols

DRAWINGS
Paper formats
Technical
drawings
Layout of
7.~=~(,-l
~,~
~~

-w-ith----'- '-wit-hou-t---.-E:"""III-.-.\11!

--- ---window niche

lllifj_ 8_ =--- ~,i(l
~~

·=\lli\lll\\1,--m_
~,i(l

0)<0

___-_____ -

drawings
Construction
0 Single window opening inward gains f) Box window (B) opening inward, 0 Single window opening outward G Double window (D) opening
space and offers a place for the double window, combined window outward
drawings
radiator
Construction
drawing Sash window, scale 1:100 Sliding window, scale 1:100
symbols
Water supply and
drainage symbols ~~~ ~~~
Electrical
installation
symbols
=lli!illm=m=lm=l11oo..,;_.-_-
__-__-'-_ ' - - - - - - ""~""W""W""W""11""'
__·_-_D-_-:--_-=_ - - -
Security
installation
symbols
e Single window Double window (D), box window,
combined window
f) Single window (S) e Double window (SD)

~
Gas installation
symbols
Drawing by hand
Computer-aided
drawing

0 Single-leaf door without lintel '~!) Single-leaf door 4) Double-leaf 4l} Double-leaf door
pair, with lintel

e Pivoting door 4D
~ Without threshold e
m~m
WLJ
Threshold one side
u

0) Rising Gi) Sliding door G) Double sliding door ~ Sliding door with lifting
single-leaf door mechanism

~ Two-leaf revolving door @) Three-leaf revolving door @) Four-leaf revolving door ~ Folding partition

16 risers 16 risers

12 risers 17.5/291 17.5/291

18.5/25

-2.22

Cellar
m ±0.00

Ground floor
I I +2.80

Upper floor
+5.60

Attic When drawing windows, the left side is always shown with wall
niche and the right side without ----1 0- e.
fi Stairs with one flight

Revolving doors replace wind lobbies ----1 €D - fD and offer an

opening without draughts. Because revolving doors can cope
with relatively little through traffic, the door leaves can be folded at
peak times and pushed to the side.

The horizontal section through the stairwell on each floor's plan

is shown at about % storey height or 1 m above floor level. The
steps should be continuously numbered upwards and downwards
starting from ± 0.000. The number of steps below± are preceded
Cellar Ground floor Attic by a minus sign-. The numbers begin on the first step and exit on
the landing. The centre-line starts at the first step with a circle and
fi Stairs with two flights ends on arriving with an arrow (also in the cellar).

10
Living room Bedroom DRAWINGS

~
table

D 85 x 85 x 78 ~ 4 places
130 x 80 x 78 ~ 6 places
bed
100 X 200
Construction Drawing Symbols

floor cupboard DRAWINGS

0 round table
0 90 ~ 6 places D side table
50x70, 60x70
Paper formats
Technical

D wall cupboard drawings

Layout of
drawings

~
Construction

0 shaped table 70- 100 double bed

100 X 200
ironing board

electric oven
drawings
Construction
drawing
symbols
Water supply and
drainage symbols
pull-out table 120 x 180 Electrical
twin bed (French bed)

D
installation
145 X 200 dishwasher symbols
Security
installation

~
DO stool 0 45 x 50 children's bed
70x140-170
refrigerator
symbols
Gas installation
symbols
Drawing by hand

IDI armchair 70 x 85
VN/t'
Bathroom
clothes cupboard
60 X 120

Stoves with fuel type

chest freezer
Computer-aided
drawing

bath
couch 95 x 195
75 X 170,
K oJI 85x185 solid fuel

II.__________JII
sofa 80 x 175 0] small bath
70 X 105,
70 X 125 oil

upright piano
60 X 140-160
D
symbol symbol scale 1:50
shower 80 x 80,
90 X 90, 75 X 90
gas

scale 1:100

grand pianos: washbasin 50 x 60,

electric
baby grand 155 x 114 60x70
salon grand 200 x 150
concert grand 275 x 160
2 washbasins radiator

double washbasin
television 60 X 120, 60 X 140 heating boiler with grate

sewing table 50 x 50-70 vanity unit 45 x 30

sewing machine 50 x 90
CJ
gas-fired

nappy changing
we 38 x 70
table 80 x 90

urinal 35 x 30 oil-fired
washing basket 40 x 60

bidet 38 x 60

chest 40 x 100-150
waste disposal unit
urinal stand

~
cupboard 60 x 120
Kitchen waste chute

Clothes storage sink 60 x 100

hook spacing
I I I II I I

"1'1
11 I
15-20 em

hanging rail
double sink 60 x 150 nrlL air supply and extraction
shaft

EH+t*i I
clothes and linen
cupboard 50 x 100-180 DJ[J] stepped sink
A PTL ~ patient lift
GL ~ goods lift
PL ~ passenger lift
FL ~food lift (paternoster)

Jcgjrul
desk

D 70 X 130 X 78
80 X 150 X 78
kitchen bucket sink
HL ~ hydraulic lift

11
 Drainage pipes and appliances DRAWINGS
Plan Elevation Description Water Supply and Drainage Symbols

I
DRAWINGS
Paper formats
-os-
I i!l
I
pressurised blackwater pipe is marked with DS Water supply
Plan Elevation Description

~
I
Technical cellar drainage pump
drawings
--oR--
I
:5
I
pressurised rainwater pipe is marked with DR [Q]
Layout of I

4
drawings

~
Construction blackwater lifting system
drawings mixed water pipe
Construction
drawing symbols
Water supply
/C ,1/ "==J bath

and drainage ventilation duct, direction given, e.g. starting and

symbols
Electrical
--- jl running upward c:::J shower tray

/
installation
symbols
Security ~ 0 vanity unit, hand washbasin

installation
symbols
Gas installation
0 according to type stack, downpipe [a \! sitting washbasin

v
direction:
symbols
Drawing by hand
Computer-aided
a) / a) passing through
v urinal
b) b) starting and running downward
drawing ......-""' c) coming from above and ending

~
c)
a'
~
d) d) starting and running upward urinal with automatic flushing
BS EN 12056
DIN 1451

=
t
DIN 1986
---r- change of material
(QJ ~ we, floor-mounted

1 ----! pipe end closed

6 v
77777777
we, wall-mounted

CJ D slop sink
--E3-
f cleaning opening, round or rectangular

[IJ -o single sink

-EJ
I cleaning opening
[[l] CD double sink

~
t 125
change of nominal diameter
-am -am dishwasher

1- odour trap
ill ill washing machine

CJ- c::::L_

~ ~
outlet or drainage gutter without odour trap
washer/dryer

D- Ci!- outlet or drainage gutter with odour trap

[]!]- [][;l- waste outlet with backflow device for faeces-free -crJ -crJ air conditioner

wastewater

~
small wastewater wet riser pipe
treatment plant, two-level
--®- IIr fat separator

-®- ~ starch separator

Q1 small wastewater
treatment plant,
wet-dry riser pipe FNT

-®- -m- petrol interceptor (separator for volatile liquids) multi-level

-®-- Lir silt trap

-@ small wastewater
treatment plant, multi-leve
dry riser pipe FT

-®- ~ acid separator

small wastewater sprinkler pipe

-(8)-- LBT ()
heating oil separator (separator for volatile liquids) F SPR
treatment plant,
multi-level
D- Ci!- heating oil stop valve
H Sp H Sp

[]!]-
H Sp
[][;l-
HSp heating oil stop valve with backflow preventer
-€) soakaway shaft sprinkler system
R
•
--ao-- --ao-- backflow device for faeces-free wastewater
hi
underfloor hydrant spray flooding system '"
'"
ill

••
---cx::J- ---cx::J- backflow device for wastewater containing faeces

--e- _o_ shaft with open through-flow (shown with blackwater pipe)
above-floor hydrant water spray system
H
---9- J:L shaft with closed through-flow
fire fighting hose
connection pipe

12
Water supply (continued) DRAWINGS
wall or slab opening with Water Supply and Drainage Symbols
water pipe E3
protecting sleeve and stopping
marking of location of shut-
off or throttling valve end of pipe
bleed valve, water softener, DRAWINGS
Xl --{]E]-

l marking of location of emptying valve demineralisation plant Paper formats

) detachable connection,
supply valve

detachable connection
general type of connection
can be simplified by use of
short code
s screwed connection
v wall battery
-[£[]-

0
filter

pump
Technical
drawings
Layout of
drawings
Construction
T-RL threaded connection
4 free-standing
drawings

'®l
non-detachable connection battery
with right-left thread Construction
F flange connection !1 30m'/h 5! booster pump drawing symbols
~ hose

apparatus without rotating

c coupling
SK socket connection =t>- mixer !
L·-·-·-·-·-·....1
!
Water supply
and drainage
symbols
1 parts
CL clamped connection
-@]
Electrical

apparatus with rotating

& flushing cistern washing machine installation
symbols

-o parts, display or registration

instrument
it- flange connection
6 showerhead ----[g] dishwasher
Security
installation
symbols
Gas installation
J,
9
display or recording
-} screw connection,
threaded connection
shower hose
----[!] washer/dryer symbols

z
instrument Drawing by hand

-w
self-closing valve Computer-aided
air conditioner drawing

-D- measuring instrument built

into pipe

drinking water pipe, cold,

~ socket connection

~
pressure flusher
§ flow gauge, through-flow
gauge
BS EN 12056
DIN 1451
DIN 1986
TWBO
e.g. 0 80
{j- coupling
t
pipe anti-vacuum

~
device and bleeder
drinking water pipe, warm, flow meter, water meter
TWW50-WD

TWZ40
e.g. 0 50
drinking water pipe,
circulation, e.g. 0 40
+ type of connection can be
simplified by use of
short code
w welded connection
n pipe anti-vacuum
device and bleeder
with dripping water ~ calorimeter

pipe
TW15 drinking water pipe, hose, s soldered connection
G glued connection y connection for measuring
~ e.g. 015

marking of location for

T threaded connection
SK socket connection
II' pipe ventilator instrument

~
p pressed connection
50 , l 40 change of nominal diameter, pipe ventilator, thermometer
e.g. from 0 50 to 0 40
l><l shut-off valve, general + through-flow
pressure gauge
~
as above but also as
reducer fitting
marking of location for
t pipe bleeder B type of gauge can be
indicated by use of short
code
ST
I
( cu change of material, f>l<l shut-off gate valve 1 pipe interrupter l!.p differential pressure
e.g. from steel to copper 11
I gauge
crossing pipes (without -lSJ- shut-off flap valve pt pressure pulse

*
connection) backflow preventer generator
shut-off valve,
branch, one-sided l><l through-flow valve through-flow valve logger
-.<1-- [i] if required, mark type of
-+- branch, two-sided type of connection can be
simplified by use of short
with backflow
preventer device with short code
v through flow

p,P
0

d'
riser pipe
direction:
a) passing through
b) starting and running
code
SO screw-down valve
SS slanted seat valve
T throttle valve
BP valve behind plaster
z
~
outlet valve with
ventilator and
threaded hose
connection
v volume
T temperature
.6.p pressure difference

p
upward
--------- control cable

~
c) coming from below
elbow valve draw-off tap with
.P
cf
d) starting and running
downward
e) coming from above and ~ three-way valve !~ backflow preventer,
ventilator and 9 fluid-driven

ending
electrical separation,
® four-way valve
threaded hose
connection '1 float-driven

---ljf-- isolation piece

[;:o::] through-flow valve H- pipe rupture valve,

r weight-driven

l potential equalisation, hose rupture valve

'
earthing type of connection can be spring-driven

n expansion bend

length compensator, wave

simplified by use of
short code
T tap cock
B ball valve
y free outlet, system
separation T manual

-J1J1r pipe compensator I:ffJ three-way tap ~ pipe disconnecter <¥> electricity-driven

membrane-driven
sealing bush compensator 9
---<==--- @ four-way tap

~
safety valve,

~
spring-loaded piston-driven
pipeline fixed point clamped tapping
)CJ-- (e.g. at side)

~
sliding pipe fixing

pipe fall, pipe rise, e.g. 5% ~

clamped tapping with
valve (e.g. top) ti elbow safety valve,
spring-loaded
~
electromagnet-driven

~
pressure reducer, --[@]- metering device container, non-pressure,
wall or slab opening with
protecting sleeve
IX1 pressure stopcock open, with overflow

13
 Electrical consumer appliances DRAWINGS
electrical appliance, general light fitting, general
C9 secondary clock Electrical Installation Symbols

G
multiple light fitting stating
DRAWINGS
electric stove with three
rings
-7( 5 x 60 no. lamps and power, e.g. main clock sound recorder
Paper formats five lamps at 60 W
Technical
0<
drawings
Layout of
drawings
Construction
electric stove with built-in
coal oven
~
adjustable light fitting

light fitting with switch 0 main clock with signal

amplifier, cable peak

sound pick-up

~
drawings
Construction
drawing symbols
electric stove with oven for
baking --7< light fitting with current
bridge for lamp chains
denotes amplification
direction
magnetic tape recorder

Water supply and

drainage symbols
Electrical oven for roasting and baking -¥ light fitting, dimmable
fi telephone, general call and switch off panel

installation
~ panic light
symbols
Security
installation
symbols microwave cooker
~ emergency light e multiple telephone meter

Gas installation
symbols
(X searchlight
L8J telephone, long-distance
meter panel, e.g with a fuse
Drawing by hand
Computer-aided
drawing
infra red grill
C) light fitting with additional
emergency light
g telephone, semi-internal

BS EN 50110
DIN 18015
warming plate
G) light fitting with two
separate filaments
t§] telephone, internal
ll time clock, e.g. for switching
tariff

CQ light fitting for discharge

lamps with accessories
Q] loudspeaker
8 temperature detector
dishwasher
~3
~
light fitting for discharge
lamps with details

light fitting for fluorescent

radio
dJ time relay, e.g. for stair
lighting

food processor

1----+---t----l
lamp, general
light band, e.g. three lamps television
[ZJ blink relay, blink switch

refrigerator, e.g. freezer

compartment, no. stars
36W at36W
[1J current impulse switch

~
light band, e.g. two lamps at intercom, e.g. house or door sound frequency ripple
2x58W entry phone control relay

freezer, no. stars Signal and radio devices two-way intercom, e.g.
house or door entry phone -§ sound frequency cut-off

motion detector, e.g. with

air conditioner
safety circuit
telephone exchange,
general 9 alarm clock, general

water heater, general

vibration detector (safe
door opener tf? alarm clock, stating current
type
pendulum)
hot water storage cylinder alarm lamp, signal lamp,
light signal LN gong alarm clock

~'.'.I
continuous-flow water light beam detector, light
heater barrier bell button
Si? alarm clock for safety circuit

fryer
B press-knob fire alarm
call buttons with name
labels 9 alarm clock with
run-down drive
fan
ill automatic fire alarm
microphone

generator, general

motor, general
-{Z] police alarm
earpiece -0- motor alarm clock

alarm clock without automatic

motor with statement of ~ fire alarm with drive main distributor

(communications)
cancel, continuously ringing
alarm clock
protection type

~
fusible link alarm, automatic alarm clock with visual
hand dryer, hair dryer alarm
splitter, flush
buzzer

washing machine -!]] automatic temperature

alarm
splitter, surface-mounted buzzer
washer/dryer

infra red lamp

-M automatic extension fire
alarm beeper or horn, general siren, general

~~'
room heating, general beeper or horn stating
pass lock security systems siren stating current type
current type
storage heater

centre of fire alarm system house intercom ~0 siren stating frequency, e.g.
140Hz
electrically heated clear-
view screen light beam alarm system,
~70
siren with wailing tone, e.g.
automatic, e.g. photo cell entry phone varying between 150 and
270Hz

14
Electricity
converter, general DRAWINGS
isolated cable in
direct current 0 rectifier, e.g. Electrical Installation Symbols
installation duct
isolated cable for dry alternating current mains
~ A alternating current, general (t)
rooms, e.g. sheathed wire connection
DRAWINGS
isolated cable for wet rectifier, e.g. pole changer, approach effect, general
~ 2 kHz stating the frequency (f) rooms, e.g. wet room Paper formats
chopper
contact effect, general Technical
cable
drawings
~ T technical alternating cable for outdoor or Layout of
(k) fuse, general passive infra red motion
current underground laying drawings
detector
direct current or alternating Construction
Cables, marking, application screw-in fuse, e.g. 1OA and drawings
current (universal current) time relay, e.g. for stair
type Dll, three-pole Construction
protection cable, e.g. for lighting drawing symbols
mixed current earthing, neutralisation or low-voltage high- Water supply and
protection circuit (old) performance fuse, e.g. SOA current impulse switch drainage symbols
size 00 Electrical
sound frequency installation
signal cable
alternating current symbols
trip, e.g. 63A, three-pole empty connection box
high frequency alternating Security
telephone cable installation
current

very high frequency radio cable switch, make contact r\. multiple socket symbols
Gas installation
alternating current symbols

Supporting points
cable with marking

simplified depiction
earth leakage circuit
breaker, four-pole
A single earthed socket Drawing by hand
Computer-aided
drawing

J~
in mast cables as above but for three-
phase current BS EN 50110
816~
protective earth cable
cable, general cable protection switch, DIN 18015
(PE)
e.g. 16A, three-pole
underground cable PEN cable
motor protection switch,
~ double earthed socket

support point, mast,

!
~
neutral cable three-pole
general socket with off switch
0 guyed mast Cu 20 x 4 conductor rail excess current switch, e.g.
timber mast ,s',SSS\7$\Wl foreign cable ballast switch
~ socket, lockable

roof stands, brackets, ++++++ further markings, e.g.

~
tubular mast, general ·X-X-X-X-X· telephone, night circuit, emergency off switch depiction of vertical if
·0-0-0-0-0· required
e guyed mast -1-1-1-1-1-
blinking light cable,
emergency lighting cable
star-delta switch

•
lattice mast, general

guyed mast
twisted cable, e.g. two- 5,-l
starter, rheosta~ e.g. with
0 socket for isolating
transformer

reinforced concrete mast,

general
wire

coaxial cable
LJ five starting steps
IT] electrical connection,
general
© button switch

3~E
._ guyed mast rectangular hollow

mast with foot D cable, e.g. for very high

frequency ® light switch
three-phase connection

8 double mast __} cable running upward switch with smoke extraction
indicator light ventilator switch
transverse H-mast or portal
mast
I cable running downward
switch 1/1 (off switch, smoke extraction press-

I cable running upward and single-pole) button alarm

8 portal mast of lattice masts
downward
switch 1/2 (off switch, fire alarm (press-button
lengthwise A-mast cable connection two-pole) alarm)

support point with tension branch connection box, switch 1/3 (off switch,
IT connection socket
anchor depiction if necessary three-pole)

switch 4/1 (group switch, broadband

support point with brace 0 socket
single-pole) communications system
mast with lamp sealing end, end branch
switch 5/1 (series switch,
telephone distributor
single-pole)
Cables and high-voltage house
cable connections connection box, general
switch 6/1 (two-way switch,
telephone socket
~IP54 as above, stating single-pole)
existing
protection type
two-way switch as pull
under construction distribution aerial socket
switch
r·-·-·.., framing for devices,
planned !t-·-·-·..J! e.g. housing, switching
switch 7/1 (cross-switch,
cabinet, switching panel aerial splitter, e.g. twice
single-pole)
mobile cable
underground cable earthing, general
aerial distributor ,e.g.
time switch
overground cable, e.g. connection point for twice
0 mast-mounted
@ earth wire
cable on porcelain isolators dimmer aerial amplifier
(isolation bells) 1 mass, body
aerial socket (through
mm cable on surface of plaster element, accumulator or approach switch
sockets)
battery
/79 /H cable plastered in
aerial socket with end
contact switch
mm cable beneath plaster ~230/8V transformer, e.g. doorbell
transformer
resistance

15
 Visual indicators Lightning protection installations DRAWINGS
indicator light, general building outline Electrical Installation Symbols
No. (min.) of
No. Tvoe of aooliance Sockets1) Outlets Connected load 'kW\
gutter and down pipe Uvin room and bedroom
blinking indicator light with
DRAWINGS direction pointer reinforced concrete with f~J~:r~~;~~:~t~~~o 8
8-12 m"2
m2
Paper formats connection 12-20 m2
Technical >20m"
drawings
indicator light wilh
darkening switch
ILT steel construction, metal
rails sockets,Jlghtlng
Kitchen kitchenette AC 3-ohase

Layout of 5 for kitchenette 2'1

6 for kitchen 2'1
drawings 7 ventilator/extractor hood 141
Construction indicator light with glimmer 8 stove 8.0-14.0
metal covering 9 refrigerator/freezer 0.2
drawings light 10 dishwasher 1 3.5 4.5
Construction 11 waterheater 1'1 2.0 4.0-6.0
chimney Bathroom
drawing symbols pointer indicator with 12 sockets,lighting
Water supply and automatic return roof stands for electric 13 extractor fan
14 washing machine9) 3.3 7.5
drainage symbols Jines 15 heater
Electrical 16 water heater 2.0 4.0-6.0
pointer indicator with we
installation diaphragm tank, tank 17 sockets, lighting 1"1 1
symbols automatic return, lit 18 extractor fan 14),8)
Security pointer indicator with Utili room
-J-J-1-1- snow guards 19 sockets, lighting
installation automatic return, lit or 20 extractor fan
symbols
Gas installation
swinging t aerial 21
22
23
~::~~r7d~~~h!ne
ironino machine
3.3
3.3
2.1 3.3
7.5

symbols pointer indicator without Hall corridor

metal pipe
Drawing by hand automatic return 0 Sockets, lighting
24 for length up to 2.5 m
Computer-aided 25 over2.5 m
drawing pointer indicator without lightning conductor, Outdoorsittin
26 sockets ll htinq 1"1
automatic return, lit open Storeroom >3 m2
BS EN 50110 27 !i hUng
DIN 18015 lightning conductor, Hobb room
underground 28 sockets I! htin 3
indicator with filling device Residential cellar and basement
lightning conductor, under 29 sockets II ht!n 1
rbof and under plaster Commercial cellar and basement
Sockets, lighting
30 forusableareaupto20m2
recording indicator • @ terminal pole, flagpole 31 over20m2
Cellar and basement assa e
117)
117)

32 fi htin
connection point to
meter 1 Q-- pipes
1) Or jtmcl!on boxes for consumer devices <2 kW
2) Sockets next to beds are double sockets, which, arranged next to aerial sockets, are triple sockets. These multiple
sockets, are counted in the table as single sockets.
3) The worktops should be Ill with as little shadow and glare as possible.
4) If a single extract fan Is to be provided.
--1-t- 5) Unless hot water is provided by other means.
meter with indicator lamp separation point 6) Of which one may be combined with the vanity unit light.
----ro-
pipe and rod earth terminal
7) For bathrooms with 4 m2 usable area, one connection above the vanity unit Is sufficient.
~~ fn°[e~7d':~f.W~~~~~~~~~ut ~~~:~~~~~e swltch is via the general lighting, with time lag.
10) Unless a utility room Is provide:!or the appliances can be accommodated In another suitable room.
a
multiple detector 11) ForWCswith a vanity unit.
12) Unless accommodated in the bathroom or another suitable room.
earthing 13) Switchab!e from one location.
14) Switchab!e from two locations.
15) From 8m2 usable space.
sparking distance
1 1
j~~ ~~~:~~~~ ag~'~uWei:,"~~~~n~~~:f~~~~o:e~~~i t~~-rating-l!ke partitions, e.g. wire mesh.
acknowledgement detector 18) For passages >6 m long, one ouUetevery6 m of length begun.
closed sparking distance
excess voltage
0 Power supply to electrical appliances
Batteries r;-L:-:ivi-og_a_re-,a(-cm');:-r--;N-;-o-.c.,-ircu--:;-its-;fo-r:;-llg-;ch!;-in-g-.,-;d-,o-,ck:-e:-1,-,
discharge conductor Uvingarea(m2} No. circuits for lighting and sockets
elemental battery
ITIIIIIIl roof fixing up to 50
50--75
upto45
45-55 4
3

accumulator battery (four 75-100 55-75 6

lil!l!;j 111 cells)
lift 100--125 75-100 7
over125 over 100 8
-If--If- element, accumulator
water meter, gas meter
f) No. circuits by size of living area 8 High level of equipment

16A1 =
i: ® ~4~
16A2
* [ ~

' 16A3
' 20 4
A -@)
WKitchen
{' ~
l' 16A5 m
16A6 [ @J
£.1iiii.T. __ .::__·-·-·-
i: *;o~
16A8 [ ~
If required
i:--'-""-"--![
16A9
[I] Utility room

House
supply
conne~

ction
Resetve

8 Circuit diagram 9 Electrical installation plan

16
 DRAWINGS
Security Installation Symbols

DRAWINGS
Burglar alarm systems r::\ 1!;1
~
'----'
connection relay man Jock Paper formats
Lo.J optical signal generator
1 strike plate contact ------ Technical

• opening contact sea connection relay

l2J digital line coupler ~ turnstile
drawings
Layout of
drawings

•
Construction
r~ E]-r-
~
remote switching device analog-digital converter revolving door drawings
magnetic contact
I! ~ with line coupler signal Construction

~ tx'
drawing symbols
vibration sensor
alarm searchlight
1~1 flow device
Water supply and

+•
D :.J <JOt> electrically unlocked door
drainage symbols
oscillation contact
Fire alarm systems ro'
L ..J
display tableau ...... electrically opened door
Electrical
installation
symbols

.J1Jlj"'-
thread tension switch

foil
[g maximum heat detector
L::_"::./~ operating panel
st- overlight
Security
installation
symbols
Gas installation

D differential heat detector

D
II II protective grille symbols

*"A
breakthrough sensor housing Drawing by hand

~
Computer-aided
:::w:. pressure sensor/step mat [§;] optical smoke detector
r ., security escutcheon drawing

~
monitored housing
glass breakage sensor
~ ionisation smoke detector L _j long security handle plate

rv-,
~ A I~
structure-borne sound monitored distributor tilt and turn window
sensor
<~.,. infra red flame sensor L .J casement lock

$(> passive infrared sensor <"'.>..

1~
y
ultra violet flame sensor
CCTV surveillance systems

r;_] TV camera
9
~
lock for four-sided key

falling bolt lock

<}---<> light barrier

~
pressure sensor (sprinkler

occ:__ J TV camera with varifocal

~
activation)
lens deadbolt lock

<$ light sensor [3] manual alarm

~ TV camera protective
~~ hinge bolts (dog bolts)

~
housing
r6' image detector connection relay
L .J'
CJ:m) protective housing with
~ roller shutter locking

~t
pan and tilt head

<J~
microwave doppler motion fire brigade key depot
detector L:. J
r:__ }m) TV camera with pan and ~ folding shutter locking

Control centres/accessories tilt head

<l-- -I> microwave barrier

luEMI attack and break-in alarm '\f two-key lock system

~J
TV camera with motion

~~ control centre detector

~ HF field alteration sensor

[]ill 'I' lockable window handle

[3~ LF field alteration sensor

fire alarm control centre
rol monitor
[} security strike plate

[ill access control centre

L!' ·..J
0

~~ .... capacitive field alteration

sensor
[ill CCTV surveillance control
centre
~~
L--=.../
operating panel view
selection device •=" cross-bolt lock, double
bolt lock

§!---~ HF barrier
r· ::-, ....-.-
[ill GJ monitor with video signal- cellar grating security

v
shop theft alarm control

rr~
dependent picture switching
ultrasound doppler motion centre L• • •..J
detector cylinder lock

[}{I] intercom control centre Access control systems

~---~ ultrasound barrier

[ill door opener control centre []- pass reader II vertically sliding door lock

[31 banknote contact -·-~-·

fence

~-
stand-alone reader with
[2] converter additional code entry

[3] attack detector

·X-X-X-X• barbed wire fence

0 ~
transmission system online reader

rl-, electromechanical +++ solid fence, mesh

1..,; .J switchgear
[6] analog-digital converter
® roller shutter with closing

~-
pass reader with security
r?-, additional code entry

~
mental switchgear
L'.J mains rectifier
@ steel roller shutters

f"J' [Illi- stand-alone reader with

~
time clock switchgear
L .J
accumulator battery - additional code entry
@ roller or concertina shutter

rx'
L: :.J
light switch device [JJ automatic dialling and
announcement device bl data terminal with [QJ safe

operating panel
rd'
L: :..1
acoustic signal generator [JJ recording system handle
~

/!_-
0 •_j
-:J' Y5IT. laminated safety glass

17
 Gas installations DRAWINGS
exposed horizontal pipe Gas Installation Symbols
25
(stating nominal diameter) gas storage water heater
concealed horizontal pipe
DRAWINGS (stating nominal diameter)
Gas Heating Gas

~
gas room heater for external wall
Paper formats change of cross-section
Technical
)( (stating nominal diameter)
connection (stating connection appliance capacity volume flow
capacity) (kW) (m 3/h)
drawings rn'ln
Layout of gas water 8.8-28.1 1.14-3.62
drawings gas pipe house entry heater
Construction gas heating boiler
circulating 9.5-28.4 1.23-3.67
drawings
Construction water heater
drawing symbols isolating piece flexible hose storage 5.1-13.9 0.70-1.91
Water supply water heater
symbols
Electrical riser pipe heating 2.6-B0.3 0.34-7.79
installation stove/boiler
symbols
Security
installation
continuously rising pipe
0 Connection specifications for gas
appliances
symbols downpipe
Gas installation
symbols
Drawing by hand
crossing of two pipes
without connection
~ Introduction and
inclined feed tube
Computer-aided
drawing crossing connection

branch location f) House supply connection at right 8 Gas pipe laid on undisturbed soil;
angles to front of building does not have to be frost-free
---j RT cleaning T-piece

-+ RK cleaning K-piece

jjj long-threaded connection 1 house introduction

screwed connection
combination
2 pressure regulator
8 Flow-operated safety device
and flue gas flap valve
B 3 shut-off
IJ flanged connection 4gas meter
5 riser
~ welded connection 6 gas supply line
-txKJ-- shut-off tap 7 branch line
8 devices connecting fitting
---{;::(K)-- shut-off gate valve thennally activated device
~ shut-offvalve 9 gas equipment: stove,
water heater
thermally activated shut-off
device

elbow valve
9 Gas meter in cellar

~ pressure regulator
0 Gas meters on each storey
~ gasmeter
1 power cable, local area
network management
2 steel service pipe
3 casing
[><Xl gas stove (four rings)
~ 4 pull out
5 shut off the main with
integrated insulating joints 1 A gas line installed free, gas lines can also be

~ gas oven (four rings) 6 boundary between gas valve

laid outside the building, such as a gas heater
on the roof. A gas line needs to be frost-free.

m
unit (GVU) and installer
2 Gas pipe laid under plaster.
7 pressure regulator 3 Gas pipelines in shafls or channels have
to be loaded and ventilated. Openings
gas refrigerator approximately 10 cm2• For suspended
ceilings, these openings are placed
diagonally.

~ gas heat pump e Laying gas pipes

800 exhaust gas/flue pipe

(stating diameter)

exhaust gas systems 1 Minimum size 1 m 3/kW

(stating dimensions), also for 2 Combustion air opening in
exhaust gas flue/chimney boiler output to ~50 kW cmZ
at ground level
filter 3 Combustion air opening at
about 50 kW boiler capacities.
Cross-section of the opening
gas room heater of 150 cm 2 per kW + 2cm 2 ,
the over 50 kW goes out.
Example: boiler output 65 kW
continuous flow gas water
50kW+ 15 kW
heater
150 cm 2 + (15 x 2 = 30) cm 2
= 180 cm 2
combi gas water heater
t) House supply connection for water (!) Heating room ~35 kW
and gas in one compartment 1 m
wide and 0.30 m deep

18
 DRAWINGS
Drawing by Hand
ISO

DRAWINGS
Designers use drawings and
Paper formats
diagrams to communicate in- Technical
formation in a factual, un- drawings
ambiguous and geometric form Layout of
drawings
that can be understood anywhere Construction
in the world. Unlike painting, drawings
Construction
construction drawing is a means drawing symbols
to an end, and this differentiates Water supply and
drainage symbols
diagrams/working drawings and Electrical
Q Sketching paper f) Sketching: construction engineering f) Cutting paper to size illustrations from artistic works. installation
symbols
grid A4 sketch pads with 0.5 em
Security
squared graph paper are ideal installation
for freehand sketches to scale. symbols
Gas installation
For more accurate sketches, symbols
millimetre graph paper with thick Drawing by
cone shape: hand
centimetre, faint 0.5 em and even Computer-aided
correct
finer millimetre divisions should drawing
be used -7 0. Different paper is
BS EN ISO 8560
used for drawing and sketching BS 6750
according to standard modular DIN 4172
coordinated construction and
engineering grids -7 f). Use trac-
ing paper for sketching with a soft
lead pencil. Suitable sheet sizes
G Reinforcing edges e Drawing board 0 Drafting machine for drawings can be cut straight
from a roll, single pages being
torn off using a T-square -7 8
or cut on its underside -7 e.
Construction drawings are done
in hard pencil or ink on clear, tear-
resistant tracing paper, bordered
with protected edges -7 e and
stored in drawers. Ink drawings
are made on transparent paper
and water-resistant paper is used
for paintings or diagrams. Fix
the paper on a simple drawing

0 Specialised T-square e Drawing aids

board (designed for standard
formats) made of limewood or
poplar, using drawing pins with
conical points -7 E). First turn
over 2 em of the paper's edge
(later to be used as a filing edge-
see p. 4): this lifts the T-square a
\p.01 € little during drawing and prevents
017mm
the T-square from smudging the
work. (For the same reason, draw
from top to bottom!) The drawing
can be fixed with drafting tape
rather than drawing pins -7 e
(which means that the drawing
4Ii) Drawing aids G French curves f) Good drawing practice
underlay can be made of plastic-
Cellon or a similar smooth
material). Drafting machines
are common in engineering
a
disciplines -7 0. In addition to
simple parallel rules, there are
also special versions with built-
in protractors for setting angles;
these are ruled with centimetre
b and octametre divisions -7 0.
Other drawing aids feature
pocket scale sets, parallel scale
G) Drawing aid (D Aid for hatching 4D a) Clutch pencil (lead holder); for hatching, division of lengths
b) Correct way of holding pencil -70.

19
 DRAWINGS
Computer-Aided Drawing

DRAWINGS Drawings
Paper formats y
Drawings are always an abstraction of reality because they are
Technical
drawings in two dimensions. The degree of abstraction depends on the
Layout of ----¥ (X,y) content and, above all, on the intended purpose of the drawing.
drawings
Construction I The lowest degree of abstraction is represented by perspectives,
I
drawings
I
collages and renderings, which attempt to come quite close to
Construction
drawing symbols
I reality. In order to produce the desired impression, it is particularly
Water supply and X
X important to leave some free rein for the fantasy of the viewer.
drainage symbols Diagrams can be used to explain functional interactions. Working
Electrical
installation drawings contain all the required information about dimensions,
symbols
Security
0 Cartesian coordinate system. All
points are defined through their x
Polar coordinate system. All points
are defined through their distance I
materials and arrangement of the object to be produced. In this
installation case, all details must be unambiguous and comprehensible for the
and y coordinates. The zero point from the zero point and the angle a
symbols
can be set for each drawing or related to the x-axis.
producer, and therefore have a high degree of abstraction.
Gas installation
symbols related to world coordinates.
Drawing by hand In the age of computer-generated images, it still remains important
Computer-aided
to have a command of the rules and regulations of traditional
drawing
Measurement system Abbr. 1 mm= 1 unit drawing --+ pp. 39-40.
BS EN ISO
point pt 2.8346 pt 0.3528 mm
13567 Computer-aided drawings
ISO 13567 inch 25.4 mm Drawing with a computer is very different from the classic
in" 0.0394"
methods of drawing on paper. There are two basic principles:
8 Conversion factors for common computer units
raster graphics, in which every pixel of a drawing is saved (image
processing), and vector graphics, where the start, end and the
properties of a drawing element are saved (CAD). Because
Text layer
the output appears on a monitor screen or plot, there are also
Dimensions layer problems representing bodies and rooms in two dimensions.
Only very simple CAD programs work with two-dimensional
Furniture layer
data models. More common are three-dimensional data models
Openings layer
(object-oriented programs), which produce the desired type of
illustration on output (monitor, plotting). The information required
Construction layer for this is stored in a database in the computer. This enables the
elements of a drawing (line type, line thickness and colour) to be
Surround and title block layer
linked to further information, which is not visible, e.g. which layer
G Structuring of a CAD drawing by arranging groups of similar objects on their they belong to, dependence on other objects, material properties,
own layers
manufacturing information, order numbers etc. These properties
can be exploited for the structuring of content or for further use
(e.g. tenders or cost estimation).

w Volume modules permit further simulations. Structural, acoustic,

climatic or lighting investigations can make precise statements
Who-where-what naming of layers with variable field sizes (according to CadForum).
about a building through the use of the appropriate software. 3D
The layer names have suitable abbreviations containing 2 or 3 pieces of information, scanners, CNC machines and 3D plotters also enable the input
each separated by an underscore. The content should be clear from the first and output of three-dimensional objects.
20 characters, because some CAD systems restrict the layer names to this length.
Special characters should be avoided in order to prevent exchange problems. Data exchange
Because data is normally processed by a number of operators
Who (1-5) =author Where (7-11) =categorisation
(various specialist technicians and engineers), a unified,
possible abbreviations for authors possible categories understandable and clear system of organisation is important.
Arch Architect BS basement When selecting a CAD system or deciding the working methods,
lArch Interior architect GR ground floor
LArch Landscape architect FL 1 1st floor
it is important to know that all future processors of the data will
Bing Building engineer EL_ N north elevation work with the same software, or which interfaces can be used to
Ei Electrical engineer SEC_A section A-A exchange data. Exchange formats usually have a limited range
St Structural engineer
of structuring possibilities and therefore organisation categories,
HLS Heating/ventilation/sanitary
Geom Surveyor which are not supported, will be lost or have to be recreated, with
the associated waste of time. The naming of layers is governed
What (13-20) =description examples of layer names by ISO 13567, which, however, uses cryptic abbreviations.
possible descriptions Arch_GR_axes It seems more practical to use the more flexible and easily
axes Arch_GR_structure understood naming system published by the specialist magazine
structure Arch_GR_finishes
openings
CadForum --7 0.
Arch_GR_hatching
finishings
furniture on smaller projects, the
hatching 2nd category (facultative) can be
left out:
dimensioning Geom_level curves
labelling Arch_structure
drawing outline Bing_openings

9 Example of naming layers with variable, understandable labels

20
 ACCESSIBLE BUILDING
Dimensions for Wheelchair Users

General design basics ACCESSIBLE

BUILDING
Building regulations cover the design, construction and furnishing
DimensiQns
of housing, of accessible public buildings or parts of buildings, for wheelchair
f--------1.07 -----1 f-- 65-70-! >-25-30-l users
of workplaces and their external spaces. These buildings must
0 Standard wheelchair, side elevation f) Front elevation, folded be accessible for all people free of barriers. The users must be in
Accessible public
buildings
a position to be almost completely independent of outside help. Accessible
housing
This applies notably to wheelchair users, the blind and visually
impaired, those with other disabilities, old people, children and BS 8300
T
0
those of exceptionally short or tall stature. DD266
DIN 18024
~ Movement areas DIN 18025
All
Are those necessary for moving a wheelchair and are to be

t
MBO
designed according to the minimum space requirement of a
see also: Lifts
wheelchair user. The wheelchair --7 0 - 8 and the movement pp. 128-134
0

~
area for the person --7 0- m
provide the modules for this. The
All dimensions of the movement area are 0.90-1.80 m and may
7 7
H-66---+i
1---- 80 ------1 1 overlap - except in front of lift doors. A depth and width of
at least 1.50 m should be provided in every room for turning.
1----i;; 1.90----1 (More information on movement areas is found on the following
t) Plan Q Space requirement for wheelchair pages.)
parking space and movement area

f---1.00-1.05----l

0 Wheelchair on slope 0 Onstairs Q Computer workplace e Atawindow

120
200 ,___ _ _ <;150 - - - - - 1
100 200
180 ? 180
80
~--- -.....
r--. r--b( b a b

,
60 a f"' b 160 160 ,..._
....... ==~IH' I ' 140 ~---
40 140
20 lfc .v"' 120 II\~ 120
-t"' rc::: -1S ~ 100
0
20 I Nl XI'J.
Ill
100
80
60 ~
- \
I
r- 80
60
1'-l
1-r--'
40
60 1\ y 'X. 40 40 \
.'17 I rn; ~ 20 -ll ] It
20
80
~ 0
II r- ;- IL
100 0 100 80 60 40 20 0 20 40 60 80 100 120

C!)
100 80 60 40 20 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 100 80 60 40 20 0 20 40 60 80 100 120
Onaplan 4Ii) From the side m From behind 4!) Minimum turning space

t ::
T ~~{ ~t. , ,.,.,.,.,~~:
,..,
.,
+ :·:_ +
0
0>
All
.,.... ~1·:.

1-.-
I

_........
:.
:~:
....
1 :·:
....

~~
r-t~;~
~
::::
.L ~It ~l
...
;;; 1.50 :~:~ ;;; 1.50 :::
.. Kl--78--+-i;; 90-H
(9 Passage through one door 4D Through two doors 4D With three doors 0 With four doors

21
 I - - <!;1.50 ----1 1 - - <!;1.90 ---l ACCESSIBLE BUILDING
T Accessible Public Buildings
0
"1
Ni
ACCESSIBLE Movement areas must be:
BUILDING
Dimensions for
wheelchair users min. 1.50 m wide and min. 1.50 m deep ...
Accessible
0
in every room as a place to turn, at the start and end of rarnps,
public buildings "!
Accessible
in front of telephone boxes, public telephones, service counters,
housing
Ni passages, pay desks, checkpoints, post boxes, automatic service
1 machines, calling/speaking equipment.
BS 8300
DIN 18024 I - - <!;1.50 ---1 f.-- ;;; 1.90 ----;
DIN 18025
f) min. 1.50 m wide ...
0 Movement areas In front of hand-
operated side-hung doors
Movement areas in front of hand-
operated sliding doors in corridors, main routes and next to stairs up and down.
MBO

see also: Lifts min. 1.50 m deep ...

128-134
in front of therapy facilities (e.g. bath, couch), in front of wheelchair
parking places, next to the long side of the vehicle of a wheelchair
user in car parks ~ p. 23 41i).

min. 1.20 m wide ...

alongside facilities which a wheelchair user has to approach from
the side, between the wheel kerbs of a ramp and next to operated
equipment.
min. 0.90 m wide ...
in access ways next to cash desks and checkpoints and on side
routes.
8 Ramp
Accessibility without steps
All levels of buildings designed in accordance with the principles
15 15
H---- 1.20 --H of accessibility must be accessible without steps, i.e. using a lift
or a ramp.

Lifts
Cars of lifts must have a min. clear width of 1.10 m and a clear
depth of 1.40 m. The movement area in front of the doors must
be as large as the floor area of the car, but min. 1.50 m wide and
1.50 m deep ~ 0. This area must not overlap with other traffic
f-- 95-1.35 ----l routes and movement areas.
e Ramp in section

,_;;; 1.10-t
0

,-,1
.
Dimensions of corridors and
passages

"1
All
Ramps
May have a maximum slope of 6% ~ 0. If ramps are longer than
6 m, an intermediate landing of min. 1.50 m length is required.
The ramp and the intermediate landing are both to be provided
with 10 em high wheel kerbs and handrails (diameter 3-4.5 em)
at a height of 85 em. The clear ramp width must be min. 1.20 m.
J Wheel kerbs and handrails must project 30 em horizontally into
"' the platform area. There must be no stairs down in the extension
of the ramp.

Stairs. The movement area next to the stairs going up and down
must be min. 1.50 m wide; the tread of the first step is not to be
included in the calculation of the movement area ~ f).
I I

e Plan, with clear dimensions of the

lift car and movement area in front
L-------1

f) Movement area in front of stairs

going up and down
Doors
Clear passage width of doors ~0.90 m ~ 0 +f). Doors to toilets,
of the doors showers and changing rooms must open outward.
f-<;;95-j
.. ,~ Sanitary facilities

I l~
At least one toilet must be provided for wheelchair users in all

i
. ,__
sanitary facilities. The seat height should be 48 em ~ 8.
L=::t=:t=ll.
0 I ; Corridors and meeting areas

L_(_j _l
"1
All
JJ Corridors and routes longer than 15 m must have a passing place
for two wheelchair users of at least 1.80 m width and depth.

Wheelchair parking place

f--Hso----j f--ii; 1.50---11 A wheelchair parking place for each wheelchair user is to be
0 Overlapping of movement areas in f) Movement area next to operated included in the design, preferably in the entrance area. Space
sanitary facilities facility requirement and movement area ~ p. 21 0.

22
 ACCESSIBLE BUILDING
Accessible Housing

IT
.COD
-;;;.
Movement areas which must be: ACCESSIBLE
BUILDING
Dimensions for
min. 1.50 m wide and min. 1.50 m deep ..•
TI
wheelchair users
a turning place in every room (excepting small rooms, which the Accessible public
buildings
wheelchair user can use by moving backwards and forwards), the Accessible
shower ---7 0 +e. in front of the we and vanity unit ---7 f)- e. in housing

1------;;; 1.50 - - l an outside seating area, in front of lift shaft doors, at the start and BS 8300
end of a ramp and in front of the intake of a rubbish chute.
0 Movement area by shower; Movement area in front of and
DD266
DIN 18024
alternative - bath next to we and washbasin DIN 18025
min. 1.50 m deep .•.
r--;;; 1.50 --I in front of the long side of a wheelchair user's bed ---7e. in front of MBO

1--;;; 95---+-35+--1 cupboards, in front of kitchen installations ---7 0-0, in front of the
;;; 30
access side of a bath ---7 0 +e. in front of a wheelchair parking
place and in front of the long side of a vehicle ---7 G).

min. 1.50 m wide ...

between walls outside the house, next to steps going up and
down, where the tread of the uppermost step is not to be included
in the movement area.

min. 1.20 m wide ...

along furniture which the wheelchair user approaches from the
side, along the access side of a non-wheelchair user's bed ---7 0,
r---- ;;; 1.50 ----1 1--- ;;; 1.50 -----i between walls within the dwelling, next to operated equipment ---7
C) Overlapping of movement areas in 0 Overlapping of movement areas in p. 22 e. between wheel kerbs of a ramp ---7 p. 22 e
and on routes
bathroom (with bath) bathroom (with shower)
within a house.

Accessibility without steps

All rooms belonging to a dwelling and the communal facilities of a
house must either be without steps, or have a lift ---7 p. 22 e. or be
accessible with a ramp ---7 p. 22 e.
Door stops and thresholds at
T
0
the bottom of doors should be avoided, but if absolutely necessary
"l may not be higher than 2 em.
~

All

1 Wheelchair parking place

A wheelchair parking place is to be included in the design for
each wheelchair user, preferably located in the entrance area, for
!---;;; 1.50 --I 1--;;; 1.50--1
9 Movement area in a double-space
kitchen
e Movement area in an L-layout
kitchen
transferring from street to indoor wheelchair. Space requirement
and movement area ---7 p. 22 e.

Bathroom
The bathroom is to be provided with a wheelchair-accessible
shower. The later installation of a bath should be possible near
the shower. The movement area to the right or left of the we must
be at least 95 em wide and 70 em deep. From one side of the we
towards the wall, or furniture, there must be a distance of min.
30 em ---7 f) - e. No bathroom doors may open inwards.
I- 60-i ~ +i
36' 23'
Dimensions at the sink, stove and
refrigerator
e Dimensions in the kitchen
Kitchen
The main items of equipment items like the refrigerator, stove and
sink, plus the worktop, are to be arranged as close as possible
to each other. It must be possible for a wheelchair to pass under

l
f--;;; 1.50--; the sink and worktop without limitation. For the sink, this means
Wheelchair user's
that either a waste fitting behind the plaster or a flat fitting on
the surface is necessary. Shelf space must be accessible for the
0
0 wheelchair user and no tall units should be included in the design.
tti
The horizontal reach area is about 60 em, and the vertical activity

J~
range is 40-140 em. The optimum height of the worktop (approx.
75-90 em) should be discussed with the disabled person and
fixed at a height to suit the user ---7 0 + 0.
I
.1.~
f.-;;; 1.20--1
Non-wheelchair user's
Car parking place
A weather-protected car parking place or garage is to be provided
C) Space requirement at the long side 4I!) Space requirement in a garage
for each dwelling. A movement area of 1.50 m depth should be
of a wheelchair user's and non-
wheelchair user's bed provided next to the long side of the car ---7 G).

23
 ACCESSIBLE
~~~~~9e shelf
letterbox r Housing suitable for wheelchairs
ACCESSIBLE BUILDING

Wheelchair users must be able to travel into all the rooms of a

Accessible Housing

BUILDING
dwelling, and into all rooms available to the residents of a house in
Dimensions for
wheelchair users
common, and to use all facilities. The wheelchair user must be in
Accessible public a position to be mostly independent of outside help. This applies
buildings notably to the blind and visually impaired, the deaf and hearing-
Accessible
housing impaired, the physically disabled, old people, children and people
of exceptionally short or tall stature.
BS 8300
00266 In order to turn 180°, a wheelchair user requires at least 1.50 m2
~ 0 + f). This space requirement determines the size of, and
DIN 18024
DIN 18025 0 Deep entrance area with coat rack 0 Transverse layout of entrance area
movement area in, corridors, rooms, garages etc. In residential
MBO apartment blocks, access through corridors or hallways is the most
frequent arrangement. In this case, angles and corners are to be
J---3.10----l
avoided as far as possible; a straight access corridor is suitable.

~!I IJ[Jc
J-1.40 -t-- 80 -+50-j40l
II The minimum area of an entrance hall should be 1.50 x 1.50 m, and
an entrance lobby with a single-leaf door 1.70 x 1.60 m. A window
with a clear view from a parapet height of 60 em should be provided
in at least one living room of a dwelling. An entry phone at the flat or
house door is an important item of equipment for a blind resident.
Living area
Adequate freedom of movement for wheelchair users is important
in living rooms. There should also be room for at least two further
wheelchair users as visitors. For a living room with an eating area,
J-1.40-+B0-+--90-J
8 Entrance lobby with double-leaf
door
e Dining area layout for two or four
people
the minimum floor area should be: in a flat for one person 22 m2 ,
for 2-4 people 24 m2 , for five people 26 m 2 and for six people
28m 2 ; minimum room width 3.75 m (1-2 person household).
Open-air seating area
Every dwelling should be provided with an open-air seating area
such as a terrace, loggia or balcony with a min. size 4.5 m2 • The
movement area must be min. 1.50 m wide and 1.50 m deep~ 0.
6
Additional living space
t"'
0 Additional living space should be provided for every wheelchair
<0
..L user if required. The floor area of a flat is normally increased by
0 Plan of open-air seating area
0 Elevation of open-air seating
about 15 m 2 by this requirement.
area

1----- 4.75 - - - j

I
1--<:; 3.75-----1
\
~~r----~o)
I
!_ _____ :
I I §[i'~
0
T
0
10
,;

t
0
<d 10

D "',..:

1
0

1__ 0_ 10
<d

D ~~
0
<q
00

l e
00
I I

1 ~Kitchen
I I _l_
I I

f5s!-- 2.oo-+- 1.80 ---t-1

I :

f - - - 4.75 ------j
f) Living room for 1-2 people Living room with dining area for
4-5 people (23.75 m2) Single-room flat for wheelchair user Cii) Two-room flat (50--55 m')
(40--45 m 2)

CD Accessible extension to two-family 4f) Installation of an accessible

house; ramp to overcome level
difference
vertical lift G) Accessible flat for three people in a
block with two flats per floor
0 Accessible flat for four people in a
block with three flats per floor

24
 C=::J ACCESSIBLE BUILDING
Ll on<) Accessible Housing
~. 0'---0
live

ACCESSIBLE
~
Accessible building
BUILDING
(§50 of MBO- Model Building Regulations- applied at state level)
j <SChild Dimensions for
0 (1) In buildings with more than two flats, the flats on one floor
must be accessible. In these flats, the living rooms and bedrooms,
wheelchair users
Accessible public
buildings
0 Flat in two-family house before f) Flat in two-family house after
one toilet, one bathroom and the kitchen or kitchenette must be Accessible
conversion --7 f) conversion for serious disability housing
accessible with a wheelchair.
BS 8300
(2) Buildings which are publicly accessible, must in their parts DD266
serving the general public be capable of being accessed and used, DIN 18024
DIN 18025
according to their purpose, by disabled people, old people and
Sal·
people with small children, without outside help. This requirement MBO
applies notably to cultural, educational, sport, leisure and health
facilities, offices, administration buildings and courts, sales and
catering establishments, parking, garages and toilets.
(3) Buildings, according to (2), must be accessible through an
entrance with a clear opening width of at least 0.90 m without
zy, living room and 1 bedroom flat One living room and two bedroom steps. An adequate movement area must be available in front of
before conversion ~ 0 flat after conversion (for a visually doors. Ramps may not have a slope of more than 6%, must be at
impaired child)

T II!!!!!!-· least 1.20 m wide and have a fixed handrail with a safe grip on both
sides. A landing is to be provided at the start and end of the ramp
and also an intermediate landing every 6 m. The landings must
have a length of at least 1.50 m. Stairs must have handrails on
both sides, which are to be continued past landings and window
openings and past the last steps. The stairs must have solid risers.
Corridors and entrance halls must be at least 1.50 m wide. One
toilet must also be suitable and accessible for wheelchair users;
this is to be indicated by a sign.
(4) Sections 1-3 do not apply if the installations can only be fulfilled
with unreasonable expense on account of difficult terrain conditions,
the installation of an otherwise unnecessary lift, unsuitable existing
buildings or the safety of disabled or old people.
0 One-room flat (40 m2)

1 person 2 people 3 people

living room 20.0 20.0 22.0

dining area 6.0 6.0 10.0

bedroom 16.0 24.0 16.0

child (1 bed) - - 14.0

bathroom 6.0 7.0 7.0

kitchen 8.0 9.0 9.0

corridor 5.0 6.0 6.0

storage room 1.0 1.0 1.5

storage (E-wheelchair) 6.0 6.0 6.0

spare room (washing machine) 1.0 1.0 1.0

living area 69.0 80.0 98.5

Q Two-room flat (54 m') Flat(60 m2) Guideline sizes for flats with one wheelchair user -living area in m2
[determination of requirements www.nullbarriere.de]

41!) Four-room flat (11 0 m') 4D Three-room flat (95 m2)

25
 DIMENSIONAL BASICS AND RELATIONSHIPS
Man as Measure and Purpose

DIMENSIONAL dimensions of buildings and their constituent parts. This involved,

BASICS AND Throughout history human beings have created things to be of
RELATION- service to them, using measurements relating to their bodies. for the first time, the investigation, development and comparison
SHIPS of many fundamental questions.
Until relatively recent times people's limbs were the basis for
Man as measure
and purpose
all the units of measurement. Even today we can still have a
The universal better idea of the size of an object if it is compared to humans or Current technical options have been included here to the
standard their limbs: it was so many men high, so many ells (arm lengths) greatest possible extent. Account is taken of common
Body
measurements long, so many feet wider or so many heads bigger. These are standards. Description is often reduced to the absolute
and space expressions that we are born with: it could be said that their sizes minimum and supplemented or even replaced with illustrations
requirements
Geometrical are in our nature. But the introduction of the metre brought all wherever feasible. This should provide the creative architect
relationships that to an end. or designer, in methodically ordered, brief and coherent form,
Dimensions in
building
the necessary information which would otherwise have to be
We should therefore attempt to achieve the most precise and vivid laboriously extracted from countless books or researched
possible idea of this unit. Building clients do the same when they circuitously by surveying existing buildings. Great value has
measure out the rooms of their properties in order to envisage been placed on the restriction of the content to a digest of
the dimensions shown on the drawings. Anyone who intends to the fundamental data and experience, with the inclusion of
learn how to build should start by visualising the size of rooms completed buildings only where they seemed necessary as
and objects as clearly as possible, and constantly practise, so general examples.
that every line they draw and every stated dimension of yet to be
designed furniture, rooms or buildings can appear as an image By and large, of course, each building commission is different and
before their eyes. (apart, of course, from adherence to relevant standards) should
be studied, approached and designed anew by the architect.
We do, however, immediately have an accurate idea of the scale Completed projects can much too easily tempt us to imitate, or
of an object when we see a person beside it, whether in the at least establish conventions, which the architect entrusted with
flesh or as an illustration. It is a poor reflection on our times a similar task can often escape only with difficulty. If, however,
that our trade and professional journals only too often depict as is intended here, creative architects are given only the tools,
rooms or buildings without any people in them. Such pictures then this compels independent thinking so that they weave all the
can often create a false impression of the scale of a building and components of the current commission into their own imaginative
it is often astonishing how different they look in reality - mostly and unified construction.
much smaller. This contributes to the frequent lack of cohesive
relationships between buildings, because their designers have
Finally, the tools presented here have not been collected more
worked to various arbitrary scales and not to the only proper
scale, human beings. or less randomly from some journal or other, but systematically
sought out in the literature as the data required for each building
task. They have been checked against well-known examples
If this is to be changed, then architects and designers of similar buildings and, where necessary, data has also been
must be shown where these haphazard dimensions, mostly acquired through models and experiments. This was always
accepted without thought, originated. They must understand the
with the intention of saving the practising architect or designer
relationships of the size of the limbs of a healthy human being and the effort of these basic investigations, so that sufficient time and
how much space a person occupies in various postures and in leisure can be devoted to the important creative aspects of the
movement. They must also be familiar with the dimensions of the commission.
appliances, clothing etc. which people encounter every day, in
Ernst Neufert
order to be able to determine the appropriate sizes for containers
and furniture. They must know how much space a person needs
between furniture in the kitchen, dining room, libraries etc. in
order to undertake the necessary reaching and working among
these fittings in comfort without squandering space. They must
know how furniture should be placed so that people can fulfil
their tasks or relax in the home, office or workshop. And, finally,
the architect and designer need to know the minimum practical
dimensions of spaces in which people move around on a daily
basis, like trains, trams, vehicles etc. These typically very
restricted minimum spaces give the designer fixed impressions,
which are then used, even if unintentionally, to derive dimensions
of other spaces.

The human being, however, is not just a living creature that needs
space. The emotional response is no less important. The way a
room is dimensioned, divided, painted, lit, entered and furnished
has great significance for the impression it makes. Starting from
all these considerations and insights, I set out in 1926 to collect,
in an organised way, the experience gained from a wide variety of
professional practice and teaching.

The present data book was developed from this work, starting from
the human being and providing the framework for assessing the O Leonardo da Vinci: Rules of Proportion

26
 DIMENSIONAL BASICS AND RELATIONSHIPS
The Universal Standard

DIMENSIONAL
BASICS AND
RELATION-
SHIPS
Man as measure
and purpose
The universal
standard
Body
measurements
and space
E requirements
Geometrical
relationships
Dimensions in
building

l:

l:

l:
E

T l:

l: geometrical division of
length a by employing
the golden section

a
l:

E
E
l:

E
l

Man's dimensional relationships 1fs h = foot length

The oldest known canon describing the dimensional relationships 1/s h = head length from hair parting to underside of chin, spacing

of the human being was discovered in a burial chamber among the of nipples
pyramids near Memphis (about 3000 BcE). Certainly, since then, 1J1o h = face height and width (including ears), hand length to the
scientists and artists have been engaged in trying to decipher wrist,
human proportional relationships. We know about the proportional 1f12 h = face width at level of underside of nose, leg width (above
systems of the Egyptian pharaohs, of the time of Ptolemy, of the the ankle) etc.
ancient Greeks and Romans, and the Canon of Polykleitos, which The sub-divisions extend to 1f4o h.
was long considered the standard, plus the work of the Middle
Ages and of Alberti, Leonardo da Vinci, Michelangelo and, above In the last century, A. Zeising achieved greater clarity than
all, DOrer's world-famous advances. anyone on this subject with his investigations of the dimensional
relationships of man's proportions. He made exact measurements
In all these systems, the human body was measured according to and comparisons based on the golden section --> p. 33.
lengths of head, face or foot, which were than later sub-divided and Unfortunately, this work did not earn appropriate recognition until
related to each other so that they were applicable in everyday life. recently, when E. Moessel, an important researcher in this area,
Even into our own times, the foot and the ell (arm's length) have endorsed Zeising's work with detailed examinations using his
remained common measures. In particular, the details worked out by methods.
DOrer became a common standard. He started from the height (h) of
a human being and expressed the sub-divisions as fractions: From i 945, Le Corbusier also used, for all his projects, the sectional
relationships of the golden ratio, which he called 'Le Modular'. His
1f2 h = the entire torso from the crotch upwards measures were human height = i .829 m; navel height = i .130 m
114 h = leg length from ankle to knee, length from chin to navel etc. --> p. 33.

27
 DIMENSIONAL BASICS AND RELATIONSHIPS
Body Measurements and Space Requirements

DIMENSIONAL
BASICS AND
RELATION-
SHIPS
Man as measure
and purpose
The universal
standard
Body
measurements
and space
requirements l----750---\ t------625-----j t-875------1 f---625-----j !-----700-----1
Geometrical
relationships
Dimensions in
0 Crawling f) Sitting cross-legged Sitting (from
the front)
0 Sitting (from the side) e Kneeling e Squatting

building

J----875---j }---875---j J----875------1 1----1125----l

f) Bending over e Standing leaning forward,

standing
0 In movement (!) Outstretched arm (forwards) CD Outstretched arm (sideways)

f----875--l f----875 ------1 l--900-1000---\ 1----1250----1

C!) Dimensions: at the desk m Dimensions: at the dining table f) Dimensions: in a small easy chair Q Dimensions: in an armchair

J---660---l

i'
' ~-1
'
I
I

e Working while standing 0) Kneeling Gi) Sitting on a chair cg) Sitting on the floor

1------1875------1

1--1250-----i

fli) Sitting on a mattress ~ Leaning against sloping backrest ~ Lying with raised back @) Lying

28
 DIMENSIONAL BASICS AND RELATIONSHIPS
Body Measurements and Space Requirements
SPACE REQUIRED BETWEEN WALLS
DIMENSIONAL
BASICS AND
RELATION-
SHIPS
Man as measure
and purpose
The universal
standard
Body
measurements
and space
requirements
I- 625 -l ---1 ---1 ------1 Geometrical
l-375-i 1- 875 1--- 1000 ~ 11 so 1--- 1700 ----1 1---- 2250 ~
relationships
0 Between walls ("'10%
supplement for people moving)
f) Two people next to each other 8 Three people next to each other Q Four people next to each other Dimensions in
building

SPACE REQUIRED BY GROUPS

1- 1250 --1 1- 1875 -----1 1- 2000 ----1 f- 2125 -----1 ~ 2250 -------1
e Closely packed 0 Normal spacing Q Choir group e Longer periods of standing C) With back packs

STEP LENGTHS

1-750 -+- 750 -1- 750 -l 1- 875 - t - 875 -+- 875 --1 1-- 1250 .__j f.-- 625 -l 2000

4I!) Walking in step CD Marching @) Strolling G) Max. no. people per m 2 : 6

(e.g. cable car)
SPACE REQUIRED FOR VARIOUS BODY POSTURES

~
n
-'1'-
1-
I

)I
-
I-- 1125 ---i f-- 1000 --1 1- 1125 ---1 I- 875 -l I- 625 -I 1-- 875 --l 1- 1000 ---1 1 - - 1750 - - - I
0 Kneeling 0 Atthedesk ~ Stretching

SPACE REQUIRED WITH HAND LUGGAGE SPACE REQUIRED WITH WALKING STICK AND UMBRELLA

1- 800 --I I - 1000 --1 1-- I- 875 --1 I- 750--1 I-- 1125 --1 1--- 2375

@) One
suitcase
e Two suitcases G) Two people with two
suitcases each
a> Handbag (D With walking
stick
@) With umbrella @) Two people with umbrellas

29
 fourth 3/4 DIMENSIONAL BASICS AND RELATIONSHIPS
third 4/5
Geometrical Relationships

DIMENSIONAL There have been agreements about the dimensioning of buildings

BASICS AND
RELATIONSHIPS since early times. The first specific statements date from the time
Man as measure of Pythagoras, who started from the basis that the numerical
and purpose proportions found in acoustics must also be optically harmonic.
The universal
standard This led to the development of the Pythagorean rectangle --7 0,
Body minor third 5/6 which contains all the harmonic interval proportions but not the
measurements
.and space
requirements
0 Pythagorean rectangle includes all f) Pythagorean triangle two disharmonic intervals -the second and seventh.
interval proportions but excludes
Geometrical the disharmonic seconds and
Spatial measurements can be derived from these number
relationships sevenths relationships. Pythagorean or diophantic equations produce
Dimensions in
building
number groups f)- 0, which should be used for the width, height
and length of rooms:
a a b c p m X y
36"87' 3 4 5 53"13' 1 1 2
22"62' 5 12 13 67"38' 1 2 3 a2 + b2 = c2
16°26' 7 24 25 73"74' 1 3 4 a= m (y2 -x2)
28°07' 8 15 17 61"93' 0.5 3 5
9 40 41 1 4 5
b=mx2xxxy
12°68' 77°32'
18°92' 12 35 37 71°08' 0.5 5 7 c=m(y2 +x2)
43°60' 20 21 29 46°40' 0.5 3 7
31"89' 28 45 53 58"11' 0.5 5 9 Where x, y are whole numbers, x is less than y, m is the
0 Number relationships from magnification or reduction factor.
Pythagorean equations (selection)
The geometric shapes named by Plato and Vitruvius are also of
critical importance: circle, triangle --7 e
and square --7 0, from
which polygonal traverses can be constructed. Each halving then
gives further polygonal traverses. Other polygonal traverses (e.g.
heptagon --7 0, nonagon --7 Cli)) can be formed only by approximation
or by superimposition. For example, a 15-sided polygon --7 0 can be
constructed by superimposing an equilateral triangle onto a pentagon.

The pentagon --7 0 or pentagram has a natural relationship to the

golden section, as does the derived decagon, but in earlier times
its particular dimensional relationships were hardly ever used --7
p. 32 0-0.
Polygonal traverses are necessary for the design and construction
of so-called 'round' buildings.
The determination of the most important measurements- radius r,
8 Equilateral triangle, hexagon 0 Square chord c and height of a triangle h - is shown in --7 0- G) --7 p. 32.

Q Pentagon: bisection of the radius

gives point B; an arc with centre B
e 15-sided polygon
AC=~-!_=_1_
and radius AB gives point C; distance 5 3 16 Cl) Approximated heptagon: line BC Ci) Approximated nonagon: arc
AC equals the side of a pentagon halves line AM at D. Distance BD Is centred on A with radius AB gives
approx. i/7 of circumference point D on line AC. Arc centred
1----M m---l on C with radius CM gives point E
f--M---+-m-1 on arc BD. Distance DE Is approx.
f---M--t-m--l
1-rn--t--M--tm+-M-i 1/9 of circumference

I I
h=r.cosp

~=r. sin p
2

s=2·r·sinP

h =~. cotang p
2
1----m----------j
r-------M----~~

CD Pentagon and golden section Cf} Decagon and golden section

CD . Calculation of dimensions in a 4D Formula__, 0
polygonal traverse__, p. 34

30
 DIMENSIONAL BASICS AND RELATIONSHIPS
Geometrical Relationships

~1/2 DIMENSIONAL
A right-angled isosceles triangle (two sides of equal length),
BASICS AND
with a relationship of baseline to height of 2:1, can be used for
0 Right-angled Isosceles triangle:
can be used for quadrature
f) Triangle (base= height)
quadrature (the process of constructing a square of equal area
RELATION-
SHIPS

45.
to a given shape) --+ 0. An isosceles triangle with the base and Man as measure
and purpose
height forming two sides of a square was used successfully by The universal
the master cathedral builder Knauth to determine the dimensional standard
Body
'Av'2 relationships of the cathedral in Strasbourg --+ 0. measurements
/ !'Av. The rr/4 triangle of A. v. Drach --+ 8 is rather more pointed than
and space
requirements
- v. v'2 Geometrical
that described above because its height is determined by the relationships
v. point of the slewed square. It was used successfully by its inventor Dimensions in
for details and devices. building

0 n/4 triangle (A. v. Drach) Squares developed from the The investigations of L. R. Spitzenpfeil into a number of old
octagon -> e -e buildings have discovered octagonal relationships. These are
based on the so-called diagonal triangle, where the height of
the triangle is the diagonal of the square constructed over half
of the base --+ G - C). The sides of the rectangle formed from
the diagonal triangle--+ 0 have a ratio of 1:-./2, so all halving or
doubling of the rectangle produces the same ratio of 1 :-./2. This
was used as the basis for the ISO A series paper formats --+ p. 4.
Geometrical progressions in this relationship are produced by the
hierarchies inside an octagon --+ e -e
and the hierarchy of the
e.
0 _.e
square roots of numbers 1-7--+

-- - ...........
.......
-17 = 2.646
The relationship between the square roots of whole numbers is
shown in --+ C). The factorisation procedure permits the application
'' of square roots for the installation of non-rectangular building

1
V2
elements. Building from approximated values for square numbers,
Mengeringhausen developed the MERO space frame. The
principle is the so-called 'snail' --+ CD - 0. The imprecision of the
right angle is compensated by the screw connections of the rods at
the nodes. A different approximate calculation of the square roots of
whole numbers -.Jn for non-rectangular building elements is offered

1 l---1 ----1
by continued fractions (--+ p. 33) according to the formula:

G = -.Jn = 1 + n -1
1+G
--+ 4!).

8 1:~2 rectangle e Hierarchy of square roots

10

20
28
40

28

Relationship between square roots 4li) Related numbers as

approximation of -./2 ('snail')
1 I _;11 1

0.5 zkfa 1.5

0.6 51 7 1.4

0.58333 •.. 12117 1.41687 •••

0.56821 •.• 29 41 1.41379 ...

0.5857143 .•. 70 99 1.4142657 •.•

0.5857989 •.• 169 239 1.4142011 ••.

Examples of non-rectangular
0.5857865 •.• v'2 1.4142135 .••
coordination -> p. 34 MERO space
frames: based on -./2 and-./3
CD Continued fractions of --12

31
 DIMENSIONAL BASICS AND RELATIONSHIPS
Geometrical Relationships

DIMENSIONAL
BASICS AND
The use of geometrical and dimensional relationships based on
RELATIONSHIPS the previous information was described by Vitruvius: according
Man as measure to his investigations, the Roman theatre, for example, is based
and purpose on a triangle rotated four times -7 0, and the Greek theatre on
The universal
standard a square rotated three times -7 f). Both constructions result in a
Body
measurements
0 Roman theatre (according to f) Greek theatre (according to dodecagon, which is recognisable on the stairs.
Vitruvius) Vitruvius)
and space
requirements Moessel claims to have verified dimensional relationships
Geometrical
relationships 1 newest
according to the golden ratio, although this is unlikely -7 0. The
Dimensions in cave a only Greek theatre based on a pentagon is in Epidaurus -7 0. The
building 2 oldest
cave a design principle of the golden (holy, divine) section (ratio, mean)
3 orchestra
4 scenery was applied in a Roman residential quarter excavated in Ostia
storage Antica, the ancient harbour of Rome -7 0 - 0. This principle is
5 side
gangway based on the bisection of the diagonals of a square. If the points
6 retaining
wall at which the arcs (radius ..f2/2) intersect the sides of the square are
joined up, this produces a nine-part grid. Its centre is the square
of the golden section. The arc AB is with up to 0.65% deviation
the same length as the diagonal CD of the original halved square.
C) Gable corner of a Doric temple:
dimensional relationships based on
e Theatre in Epidaurus
The golden section therefore represents an approximate method
for squaring the circle. The entire complex at Ostia, from layout to
the golden section fitting out details, was based on this ratio.

Palladia, in his four books on architecture, provides a geometrical

key based on the work of Pythagoras. He used the same spatial
relationships (circle, triangle, square etc.) and harmonies for his
buildings -7 0 - (!j).

Similar laws of proportion are also expressed in clear rules by the

ancient cultures of the East. The Indians with their 'Manasara',
the Chinese with their modulation according to the 'Toukou', and
y X y/x (~2 = 1.4142 ... ) above all the Japanese with their 'Kiwariho' methods created
1 1 1 building systems which ensure traditional development and offer
3 2 1.5 immense economic advantages -7 $.
7 5 1.4
17 12 1.4166...
41 29 1.4137...

8 Golden section, buildings in Ostia 0 Dimensional relationships of the

Antica golden section

f) Plan of the entire quarter e Floor mosaic in a house in Ostia

Antic a
0 Geometrical key to Palladia's villas 41!) Palladia, Villa Pisani in Bagnolo

"10

G) Japanese treasury
$ Pian of the BMW Administration 48-sided polygon developed from
Rugen guildhall in ZOrich Building in Munich a triangle -> 0)

32
 B
DIMENSIONAL BASICS AND RELATIONSHIPS
Geometrical Relationships

The golden section DIMENSIONAL

BASICS AND
The 'golden section' means that a length I is divided so that the RELATION-
ratio of the entire length to the larger part is the same as the ratio SHIPS

of the larger part to the smaller part. The golden section of a length Man as measure
A. C
and purpose
1--~--l Major Minor
can be determined either geometrically or by using a formula: The universal
standard
0 Geometric construction of the Relationship between square, For the geometrical construction, the distance I (to be divided) is Body
golden section circle and triangle drawn as a vertical AB and the horizontal line AC (= AB/2) as the measurements
and space
baseline of a right-angled triangle. The length of the baseline AC requirements
2 parts is transferred using a compass with centre C onto the hypotenuse Geometrical
relationships
3 parts BC of this triangle, thus dividing the hypotenuse into the parts Dimensions in
5 parts BD and DC. The distance BD is the major part M of the vertical building

8 parts AB. This distance M is then transferred onto the vertical AB, thus
13 parts dividing AB into a major part (M) and a minor part (m) ~ 0.
21 parts
34 parts
major
Therefore:
55 parts major minor
89 parts
144parts
The connection between the golden section and the proportions of
square, circle and triangle is shown in ~ f). The golden sectioning
8 Continued fraction: golden section of the distance can also be determined with the continued fraction

1
G=1 +-
G

This is the simplest infinite regular continued fraction ~ 8.

The Modulor
The architect Le Corbusier developed a theory of proportion
based on the golden section and the dimensions of the human
body. He marked out three intervals in the human body, which
formed what Fibonacci named a golden section series: between
the foot, the solar plexus, the head, the fingers of the raised
hand. Le Corbusier first assumed 1. 75 m to be the average height
Q Unlimited values
of a European, and divided this, according to the golden section,
Values expressed in the metric system
into the dimensions i 08.2 - 66.8- 4i .45 - 25.4 em ~ e.
Red series Blue series Because this last dimension is almost exactly i 0 in, Le Corbusier
Centimetre Metre Centimetre Metre found a connection with the English inch, but this did not apply to
95280.7 952.80 the larger dimensions. Consequently he later altered his average
58886.7 588.86 117773.5 1177.73 body height to 6 English feet(= i .828 m) and from there developed,
36394.0 363.94 72788.0 727.88 according to the golden section, the so-called red series upwards
22492.7 224.92 44985.5 449.85 and downwards ~ e.
Because the steps in this series were too
13901.3 139.01 27802.5 278.02 large for practical use, he then developed an additional blue
8591.4 85.91 17182.9 171.83 series, starting from 2.26 m (fingertips of the raised hand), with
5309.8 53.10 10619.6 106.19 double the values in the red series ~ e. The values in the red and
3281.6 32.81 6563.3 65.63 blue series were then implemented by Le Corbusier as practical
2028.2 20.28 4056.3 40.56 measurements~ 0.
1253.5 12.53 2506.9 25.07
774.7 7.74 1549.4 15.49
478.8 4.79 957.6 9.57
295.9 2.96 591.8 5.92
182.9 1.83 365.8 3.66
113.0 1.13 226.0 2.26
69.8 0.70 139.7 1.40
43.2 0.43 86.3 0.86
Q unit A=i08
double 8=216
26.7 0.26 53.4 0.53 extension of A=C=i75
16.5 0.16 33.0 0.33 shortening of 8= D=83

10.2 0.10 20.4 0.20

6.8 0.06 7.8 0.08
2.4 0.02 4.8 0.04
1.5 0.01 3.0 0.03
0.9 1.8 0.01
0.6 1.1
etc. etc.

e Illustration of the values and sets of the Modular, according to Le Corbusier f) The Modular e Proportional figure

33
 DIMENSIONAL BASICS AND RELATIONSHIPS
Dimensions in Building

Preferred numbers
DIMENSIONAL Preferred numbers have been introduced for the standardised
BASICS AND sizing of machinery and technical devices. The starting point is
RELATION·
SHIPS the continental unit of length the metre (-'> 40 in). The engineering
Man as measure requirement for geometrical graduation made the purely decimal
and purpose stBndard dimensions: 250 x 126 x 62.5mm division of the metre impractical. The geometrical 10-part preferred
The universal nominal dimensions: 240 x 115 x 52mm
standard
number series is therefore: 1; 2; 4; 8; 16; 31.5; 63; 125; 250; 500;
Body Q Nominal and standard size of continental European wall bricks 1000. These are formed from the halving series (1000, 500, 250,
measurements 125) and the doubling series (1, 2, 4, 8, 16); the doubling number
and space
reqUirements 32 was rounded down to 31.5 towards the exact value of the halving
Geometrical number (31.25), and the halving number 62.5 was rounded up to 63.
relationships
Dimensions in The larger 5-part and the finer 20- and 40-part series fit in
building accordingly with their intermediate numbers.
BS 6Y50
Preferred numbers offer many advantages for calculation:
BS EN ISO 8560 products and quotients of any number of preferred numbers are
BS 2045
DIN 323
themselves preferred numbers, whole-number percentages of
DIN 4172 preferred numbers are again preferred numbers, and doubled and
halved preferred numbers also remain preferred numbers.
Although there is scarcely a need for geometrical graduation in
building (considering the predominantly arithmetical addition of
similar elements like: blocks, joists, rafters, trusses, columns,
windows and similar) the so-called building preferred numbers
have been defined and laid down.
Brickwork dimensions in the UK differ: in the past large variations
in the size of fired clay products often led to critical problems
with bonding clay bricks. Now, BS 3921 provides one standard
for dimensioning -'> 0: coordinating size (225 x 112.5 x 75 mm,
including 10 mm in each direction for joints and tolerances), and the
relating work size (215 [2 headers plus 1 joint] x 102.5 x 65 mm).

Series preferred for the structure Series preferred for individual Series preferred for finishings
dimensions
a b c d e f g h i
25
25 2 1¥ 25
4
2.5
25
TO 5 2x5 4x5 5x5

5 5
6% 7.5
f) Modular structural dimensions (RR) and nominal dimensions (NM) for brickwork
12%
8% 10
12.5
10 10

1211, 15 15
16% 17.5
18% 20 20 20 20
Terms 22.5
25 25 25 25 25 25
Building preferred numbers are those for modular construction 27.5
31% 30 30 30
dimensions and the individual, structural and finished dimensions 331;3 32.5%
derived from them. 37Y.,
35 35
37% 37.5
Modular dimensions are only theoretical dimensions, but are 41% 40 40 40 40
43% 42.5
the basis for the individual, structural and finished dimensions 45 45
50 50 50 50 50 50 50 50
used in practice. Structural dimensions or nominal dimensions (for 52.5
construction types with joints and wall finishes) are derived from 56% 55 55
58% 57.5
modular dimensions by deducting or adding the component for the 60 60 60 60
62% 62% 62.5
joint or the finish thickness. (Example: modular dimension for the 65 65
66 68% 67.5
length of a brick=25 em; thickness of the vertical joint= 1 em; nominal 70 70 70
dimension for the length of the brick= 24 em; modular dimension for 75 75 75 75
72.5
75 75 75
the thickness of poured concrete walls= nominal dimension= 25 em). 81Yi 80 80 80 80
83% 82.5
Individual dimensions are dimensions (mostly small} for 85 85
87% 87% 87.5
units of structure or finishing such as joint thicknesses, plaster 91% 90 90 90
thicknesses, door rebate sizes, wall projection sizes, tolerances. 93?::i 92.5
95 95
Structural dimensions are of the unfinished structure, such as 97.5
100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100
masonry dimensions (without plaster thicknesses), structural slab
thicknesses, sizes of unplastered door and window openings. e Building preferred numbers

Finished dimensions are for the finished building, such as clear 225 225 225 225 225

sizes of plastered rooms and openings, storage space dimensions, 215 215
10
215
10 215
10
215
10

floor-to-floor heights.
Nominal dimensions are the same as modular dimensions for
building types without joints. For building types with joints,
the nominal dimension is the modular dimension less the joint
10 mm: joints
thicknesses. 65 mm: actual
75 mm: format
Small dimensions are 2.5 em and less. They can be selected from w w 102.5 102.5 ~f102.6 w102.6 w102.5 w102.6 w102.6 w102.5 w102.5 w 102.6
112.5
mm: actual
mm: format
mm: actual
the sizes: 2.5 em; 2 em; 1.6 em; 1.25 em; 1 em; 8 mm; 6.3 mm; I 112.5 I 112.5 I 112.5 I 112.5
1
112,5 I 112.5
1
112.6
1
112.6 I 112.5 I
215
225 mm; format
5 mm; 3.2 mm; 2.5 mm; 2 mm; 1.6 mm; 1.25 mm; 1 mm. 0 Wall elevation illustrating brick sizes in the UK

34
z
/
v
/
fJ
/

//X
/
vv
v
Coordinate system
/Y

r~r
Boundary
-
Coordinate plane

Ce!!e
DIMENSIONAL BASICS AND RELATIONSHIPS

Modular coordination in building

Dimensions in Building

The modular system is a means of coordinating the dimensions

applicable to building work. The term 'coordination' is the key:
DIMENSIONAL
BASICS AND
RELATION-
SHIPS

Reference Reference
a modular building standard contains details of a design and Man as measure
and purpose
detailing system based on coordination as an aid in the design and
e Boundary reference, centre-line
reference
construction of buildings. It gives geometrical and dimensional
The universal
standard
Body
definitions for the spatial coordination of building components.
measurements
It also enables technical areas, which depend on each other
e Coordinate line (intersection of two
planes)
with regard to geometry and dimensions (e.g. building, electrical
engineering, transport) to be connected.
and space
requirements
Geometrical
relationships
Dimensions in

~~ Geometrical considerations
A coordinate system is always object-specific. It is used to
building

BS EN ISO 8560
--- BS 6750
coordinate building structures and components, and determine
DIN 18000
their position and size. From these are derived nominal dimensions
of building components, plus joint and connection thicknesses
~ 0 - 0. A coordinate system consists of planes arranged at
0 Coordinate point (intersection of 0 Superimposed partial coordinate right angles to each other, spaced according to the coordinate
three planes) systems measurements. Depending on the system, these can be of
different sizes and in all three dimensions.

Building components are normally arranged in one dimension

between two parallel coordinate planes so that they fill the
coordinate dimension, including the joint component and
0 Non-modular zone
also taking tolerances into account. A building component
is therefore defined in its extent, i.e. its size and position, in
one dimension. This is called boundary reference ~ e. In
other cases, it can be advantageous not to position a building
component between two planes but rather to have its centre-
line coincide with a coordinate plane. The component is thus
Storey height= 30 m
specified in one dimension, but only in terms of position. This
Flight length on plan 42 m
Selected: is called centre-line reference ~ e. A coordinate system can
16 risers 18.75/26.2 em be sub-divided into various sub-systems for different groups
(assuming/em joints) of building elements (e.g. load-bearing structures, space-
e Modular zone with laterally
connected, non-modular building
C) Pre-cast reinforced concrete stair
element
demarcating components etc.) ~ ().

components
It has become apparent that not all individual components have
n9 ·M = to be modular (e.g. each step in a staircase, windows, doors,
,;; (n3 - n6)· M
etc.), but only the building elements they are combined into (e.g.
staircases, fagade or partition elements etc.) ~ 0. For non-
modular building components which continue along or across
the whole building, a non-modular zone can be introduced,
which completely divides the coordinate system into two
sub-systems. The precondition is that the size of the building
component in the non-modular zone is already known at the
.» n1 · n = time when the coordinate system is set out, because the non-
(n1 - n9 ) • M

4Ii) Application example- sloping

roof
m Compensating measure on the
verticals
modular zone can only have completely specified dimensions
~ 0. Further ways of arranging non-modular building
components are the so-called central position and edge position
in modular zones ~ e.
The units of the modular system are the basic module M =
100 mm and the multi-modules 3 M = 300 mm, 6 M = 600 mm
and 12 M = 1200 mm. There are also standardised non-modular
supplementary dimensions I = 25 mm, 50 mm and 75 mm for
fitting elements or overlapping connections ~ G). Combination
rules can be used to fit building components of various sizes into
a modular coordinate system.

Number groups (e.g. Pythagoras') or factorisation (e.g. continued

fractions) can be utilised to fit non-rectangular building
components into a modular coordinate ~ 6). The construction
of polygon traverses (e.g. triangle, square, pentagon and their
4f) Construction of a curving roof edge @) Modular polygon traverse--> 0 halves) can be used to design so-called 'round' building structures
from regular polygon traverses (site
plan) ~0-0.

35
 BUILDING BIOLOGY
Basics

BUILDING Building biology is a collective term for the study of the holistic
BIOLOGY
interaction between building and resident ---7 0 - f). Its
Basics
Room climate aim is to determine any deleterious effects for the human
Electromagnetic organism through the consideration of physical, chemical and
fields
microbiological conditions in interiors and, if appropriate, take
Guidelines of the measures to relieve the causes (via 'healthy living'). The themes
Association of
German Building
of building biology partially overlap with other disciplines:
Biologists VDB building ecology, whose main focus is the protection of nature
e. V. and environment in the construction and operation of buildings
and in the manufacture, processing and final disposal of building
materials, building physics and electrical engineering as well as
biology, chemistry and medicine.

The principles of building biology are especially suitable for

0 Building biology as the study of the holistic interaction between building and application in residential building but also in the construction of
resident schools, hospitals, kindergartens and offices.

The fact that the people today spend 90% of their lives inside
~ I buildings and are surrounded to an increasing degree by
---... South I electromagnetic fields has increased public interest in building
I biology in recent years. Meanwhile, 2-5% of the German
I
population now suffer complaints (e.g. headaches, insomnia,
I tiredness and concentration problems) due to the presence of
I I building biological pollution of their homes and offices.

I l The investigation of a building therefore normally includes the

I following areas:
--..1su/
- measurement of electric, magnetic and electromagnetic
fields from technical devices in the low- and high-frequency
ranges
f) Electromagnetic fields in and around a building
- testing of building materials for toxins, heavy metals and
radiation
- testing of rooms' air quality for pollutants (toxins and gases,
~io----~--------4------------------------- fibres, fine dust and allergens)
- microbiological investigations of bacteria and mould formation,
and measurements of noise, vibration and light ---7 8.

Measurements related to radiaesthesia ('radiation sensitivity') can

also be carried out, in attempts to demonstrate geopathogenic
disturbance zones (e.g. underground watercourses and 'earth
15 20 30 35 rays') can be discovered using dowsing, pendulums and other
J I Rod responses
' t Lu!uu!h!!!ll!hrl!!!l! I
alternative scientific methods ----> e.

The term 'building biology' is not yet officially regulated in

Germany. This means that anyone can call themselves a building
Groundwater running
biologist independent of their level of education and practical
8 Differences in electrical potential above a groundwater aquifer experience. It is possible to discern two basic directions in the
field of building biology. Scientific-oriented building biology
attempts to use scientific methods to create healthy living and
electrical and magnetic low-frequency alternating electrical fields through
fields ('electro-smog,) connected power cables, electrical devices etc.
working conditions. Measurements must be carried out using
low-frequency alternating magnetic fields through scientifically recognised and reproducible methods, in order that
switched-on electrical devices etc. harmful effects in buildings can be reliably detected and remedied.
high-frequency fields from mobile phone transmitters,
telephone etc. Alternative-oriented building biology assumes that the influences
static electricity from synthetic materials, wools etc. affecting people have so far been recognised scientifically only
static magnetic fields
to a limited extent. The resulting measurements, and the theories
building material heavy metals, toxins, radiation and threshold values they are based on are therefore disputed,
measurements as there are sometimes no reliable methods for measuring such
threshold values.
air pollutants air pollution, toxins, gases, fine dust, allergens

noise/vibration

earth radiation and geopathogenic disturbance zones (e.g. underground

earth magnetic field watercourses and 'earth rays')

8 The extent of building biology measurements of the built environment (example)

36
 BUILDING BIOLOGY
Room Climate

Thermal comfort is experienced when the thermal circulation BUILDING

BIOLOGY
regulated by the body is in balance, i.e. the body can regulate
Heat loss Temperature Basics
(%) regulating measures warmth with as little effort as possible. This type of comfort is Room climate
of the body experienced when the heat produced by the body corresponds to Electromagnetic
fields
the actual heat loss to the surroundings.
Breathing Temperature-regulating measures in the body
Blood circulation under
11%
skin, heat transported Warming: flow of blood through the skin, increase of blood
through veins
Evaporation flow rate, vascular enlargement and muscle shivering. Cooling:
26% t\:----:1-itt--!-- Sweat secretion, sweating.
cooling

Radiation Heat exchange between the body and the surroundings

31% Inner heat flow: heat flow from the inside of the body to the skin
depending on blood circulation. Outer heat flow: heat conduction
Convection
through the feet; convection (air speed, room air and temperature
32%
difference between clothed and unclothed areas of the body);
radiation (temperature difference between the external area of the
body and the surroundings); evaporation, breathing (body surface,
vapour pressure difference between skin and surroundings) ---7 0.
0 Heat output and temperature-regulating measures of the human body

Water content of the air Suitability for Sensation of breathing

(g/kg) breathing

0-5 very good light, fresh

28"c 5-8 good normal
8-10 satisfactory still bearable

10-20 increasingly bad heavy, muggy

20-25 already dangerous damp heat

:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:-:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:-:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·: over 25 unsuitable unbearable
f) Thermal comfort 0 Thermal discomfort 41 water content of exhaled air 37"C (100 %)

over41 water condenses pulmonary alveoli

p
e Air humidity values for breathing air
30
I /,
.E 28
<t>" 26 1-. ) /
/
'/I Low radiation temperature. Recommendations for room
I"
~ 24 ~

~Iter""" I~"
by 0 / I climatic conditions and temperature of air and surrounding

~22 ,---- ~oedler

Frank -
I I surfaces
E 2'1 uncomfortable I I In summer, 20-24°C is comfortable, in winter about 21°C (± 1°C).
~

~
'6
20
18 " "l'qb
/
/
)'.9!
v
I 1/ The temperature of the surrounding surfaces should not differ
from the air temperature by more than 2-3°C. Alterations of the
~ 16 I----
:? 14
/
'Zo / air temperature can be compensated for to a certain extent by
alteration of the temperature of the surrounding surfaces (sinking
·o;
.2 12
/
I'- comfortable uncom-
0
I 1 fortfble air temperature- rising surface temperature). If these temperatures
§5 10 are too different, this causes excessive air movement. The critical
12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28
Room air temp, -oLin oc Room air temp, l'J.L in oc locations are above all the windows. Large heat transfers to the
floor through the feet should be avoided (floor temperature should
0 Thermal comfort zone (temperature 9 Thermal comfort zone (room
be greater than 1?"C). Hot feet and cold feet are experienced by
of surrounding surfaces and of air) air movement and room air
temperature) the sufferers and are not properties of the floor. The bare foot
feels heat/cold through the floor covering and its thickness, the
clothed foot through the floor covering and the temperature of
the floor. The surface temperature of the ceiling depends on the
40 30 room height. The temperatures perceived by people correspond
38 "l *lmf~rtaJiy w~rm
still
28
['-.,.
to approximately the average of the temperature of the air and that
p
36
34 \ comfortable c
·-ll'24
26
""' ""'
com-
of the surrounding surfaces.
Air and air movement. Air movement is experienced as draughts,
32 \
' i 22 ~able 1-- which in this case result in a local cooling of the body.
30
28 com-
fortabl
1ii 20
1l 18 -
E
still
~ortfble
J> Air temperature and relative humidity. Relative humidity of
40-50% is thermally comfortable. If the humidity is less than 30%,
26
!\
~ 16 dust particles can fly.
24 \ 0
.g 14 - 1-- f--uJcoJ--..._ Fresh air and air exchange: The ideal is controlled ventilation
uncom- rather than incidental or permanent ventilation. The C0 2 content
22 fortably 12 - 1- f--fot1
of the air must be replaced by oxygen. A C0 2 content of 0.10% by
20 cnlrl 10
12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 volume should not be exceeded, which requires 2-3 air changes
Room air temp, i\ in oc Room air temp, dL in oc
per hour in living rooms and bedrooms. The fresh air required by a
Thermal comfort zone (ceiling and f) Thermal comfort zone (floor and person is about 32.0 m3 /h. Air changes in living rooms: 0.4-0.8 x
room air temperature) room air temperature) room volume per person/h.

37
 BUILDING BIOLOGY
Electromagnetic Fields

BUILDING The use of technologies like power supply networks and

BIOLOGY
mobile telephones creates various electrical, magnetic and
Basics
Room climate
electromagnetic fields in the human environment. These can
Electromagnetic be described through their field strength, given in volt/metre
fields (V/m), their magnetic flux density, in tesla (T), their wavelength,
Federal measured in metres (m) and their frequency, in hertz (Hz). This last
Emissions unit describes the number of cycles per second of the change
Protection
Regulations of polarity of the electrical current. There is a difference between
(BimSchV) high- and low-frequency fields.

In contrast to ionising radiation (e.g. X-rays), the energy of these

fields is not sufficient to electrically charge- to ionise- atoms and
molecules. Nonetheless, these fields, above a certain strength,
have certain effects on health, and are sometimes described
0 Induction of body currents as the main effect on the body of alternating as 'electrosmog'. The nature and extent of the harmfulness of
magnetic and electromagnetic fields
electrical, magnetic and electromagnetic stimulation for people
and environment implied by this term has been the central theme
The 26th German Federal Emissions Protection Regulations of many building biology investigations.
(BimSchV) lay down threshold values for electrical field
strength and magnetic flux density. These are, for the mains Building biology effects
supply frequency (50 Hz), 5 KV/m or 100 1-lT, and for railway power In everyday life, exposure is mostly from low-frequency electrical
supply (16 2/3 Hz) 10 KV/m or 300 1-lT. and magnetic fields between 1 Hz and 100 kilohertz (kHz),
which are emitted from the power supply (50 Hz) and electrified
Because of the state of scientific uncertainty about the transport systems like railways (16 2/3 Hz). In the course of the
possible effects on health of low-frequency fields, the Federal rapid development of mobile telephones, the population is also
Office for Radiation Protection (BfS) recommends the following increasingly subjected to high-frequency electromagnetic fields of
precautionary measures: up to 300 gigahertz (gHz).

Optimise cable runs and isolation of electrical installations to keep If an external electrical field acts on a person, then forces
the exposure of people as low as possible. Possible field sources act on charges in the body and result in 'body currents'. This
and devices should be completely switched off after use and not process is called influence. In the case of alternating fields, the
left in 'standby' mode (this applies particularly to televisions and charge redistribution is constantly repeated at the frequency.
hi-fi systems). Field sources in sleeping areas (e.g. mains radio- Above a certain threshold value, which varies from person to
alarm clocks) should be placed as far as possible from beds. person, electrical fields are perceived. In addition to direct
effect, there are also indirect effects of electrical fields, like
body current density (mA/ m =)
discharge currents and electrification. The causes of this are
charge differences between variously charged objects and the
... damage clearly possible affected person. These charge differences reach equilibrium
additional heart contractions as soon as an electrically conducting contact is created by
ventricular fibrHiation touching ('shock').
1000~--------------------------
danger to health possible
clear changes in excitability In contrast to an alternating electrical field, an alternating
of central nervous system
100~r-----------------~------
magnetic field directly causes currents inside the body as a result
confirmed effects: of induction currents. The decisive parameter for the evaluation
optical sensations of health effects is the density of these body currents, measured
reports of accelerated bone healing
10--~------------------------
in milliampere/square metre (mA/m 2).
no confirmed effects
no verified reports of Electrical currents also occur inside the body without external
individual discomfort
fields. Nerves carry their signals by transporting electrical
no confirmed biological effects impulses, the heart is electrically active (---) electrocardiogram)
and almost all metabolic processes include the movement
f) Biological effects of body current densities (SIS --> refs)
of charged particles (ions). These natural body currents have
densities in the range of 1-10 mA/m 2 • A threshold value of
2 mA/m 2 has been established for the body current density
Device/appliance 3cm 30 em 100cm
caused by fields.
telephone 6-2000 0.01-7 0.01-3
electric razor 15-1500 0.08-9 0.01-3 Low-frequency electrical and magnetic fields are produced
fluorescent lamp 40--400 0.5-2 0.02-0.25 by household appliances and electrical installations. In this
microwave 73-200 4-8 0.25-0.6 case, as with railway traction power and high-voltage cables,
television 2.5-50 0.04-2 0.01-0.04 the electrical and magnetic field strength reduces rapidly with
distance ---) 8. Electrical fields present outdoors are mostly
computer 0.5-30 <0.01
shielded by the external walls of buildings, but the shielding
refrigerator 0.5-1.7 0.01-0.25 0.01 of magnetic fields is not possible without great expense.
0 Values of magnetic flux densities of household appliances, measured in ~T. at (Drawings and text from: www.bfs.de/elektro, abbreviated -
various distances (SSK--> refs) BfS---) refs).

38
 The black circle looks from
a distance about 1/3
VISUAL PERCEPTION
smaller than the white circle. same size same effect
The Eye
1111111111111111
111111111111111
••••••
ViSUAL
PERCEPTION

••••••
The eye
The perception of
colour

0 Black areas and objects appear

smaller than those of the same
size that are white; people wearing
f) If black and white areas are to
appear equally large, then the
••••••
C) Do you see grey circles between the
squares? Our brain 'thinks up' these
circles.
Q Deception of the senses: we think
we see a white square. In fact, the
latter have to be correspondingly outer lines are not there.
black clothes seem slimmer, and smaller. A light colour next to a
those wearing white fatter, than dark colour makes the latter seem
they really are. This also applies darker.
correspondingly to building elements

),_______;a:...___-<(
b
( )

e
Js#
B F C
8 Spirals? The picture consists of
circles.
The lower line is not shorter than
the upper- just an optical illusion.
0 The vertical lines are actually parallel
in this 'Zollner figure' but seem to
e The lines a and b appear to be
of different lengths due to minor
converge due to the hatching. attributes, and A-F and F-D also
appear to be different due to
inclusion in various figures. They
are all the same length.

Numbers given in
modules (units)

616

0 How many trees? Not one! There is

no connection between roots and
0 Deceptive illustration infringing the
conventional rules of perspective.
!~
(D
a b
t d

The colour and patterning of clothing

changes people's appearance.
0
1211:1216
v
150

Walls which slant inward with

increasing height appear vertical,
crowns. Black makes people look thin --? a, and steps, cornices and friezes
because black absorbs light. when bowed correctly upwards
People appear fatter if wearing look horizontal (horizontal
white --? b, because white scatters curvature)
light.
Vertical stripes increase height -7 c,
horizontal stripes increase width --? d.

DODD DO
DODD DD
DODD Q[]
r-r.•·"' •· · · · ·.••.•""'
i,··.·•.·••
•. •.••.•.
........ . .,.,,,.,.,,,,,,2.5
·" '·• •.•·.••.•••"'-••.t.rr_···"··------=·····= .{;· · · · · •· · · · · · a· · · · · · · -· · - - - - - - - - 1 CD.
Quite apart from the architectural articulation (vertical, horizontal or mixed)--?
the perception of scale can be altered just by the ratio of window openings to the
4D Dimensions in the vertical appear much more impressive than those in the remaining area of wall, despite the building and storey heights being the same
horizontal. (window bar layout can have a significant effect).

39
 VISUAL PERCEPTION
The Eye

VISUAL The activities of the eye can be divided into seeing and observing.
PERCEPTION
Seeing is primarily for our physical safety, but observation starts
The eye
The perception of where seeing stops, leading to the enjoyment of the 'pictures'
colour 0 A room with a low ceiling is f) A room with a high ceiling is registered through seeing.
perceived 'at a glance' (still image) perceived through the eye
scanning upwards (scanned image)
Images perceived by the eye differ according to whether the eye
remains still on an object or scans around it. The still image is
T displayed in what approximates to a segment of a circle, whose
0.014 diameter is the same as the distance of the eye from the object
1 --> 0. Inside this 'field of view', the objects appear to the eye 'at a
glance'. The ideal still image appears balanced. Balance is the first
characteristic of architectural beauty. (Physiologists are working
0.80 on a theory of the sixth sense, the balance or static sense, which
~ is also supposed to explain the beauty we see in symmetrical,

0 The human field of view, with

steady head and moving eye, is
e The field of vision ofthe fixed
normal eye covers 1o of the
harmonious objects and proportions --> pp. 30-33 or in elements
which are in balance.)
54" horizontally, 27" upwards, perimeter, i.e. about the area of the
1oo downwards. thumbnail of an outstretched hand
Outside this framework, the eye receives its impressions from
The eye makes precise distinctions
the scanned image. The scanning eye progresses along lines of

~~TI
in only 0"1' of the perimeter= field resistance, which it discovers going away from us in width or depth.

if
of detailed vision (readability). The

~
book ~~ o
~ '§ ~
* 1
LJ Lq borderline distance E of the details
If these lines of resistance are found at even or repeating
I je:!llery j v~ Vlll to be distinguished can therefore be
distances, the eye perceives this as beat or rhythm, which results
box ~ o.
calculated according to the formula:
1------------- 3,30 -------'!
E = size of detail d in a stimulus similar to the ear receiving music ('Architecture,
I - - - 4.00 - - - - 1
tan 0"1' frozen music', Neufert --> refs).
9 Borderline distances Minimum size d of the detail:
d =Ex tan 0"1'
This effect also occurs in a closed room, via the still or scanned
image --> 0 - f). A room whose upper boundary (the ceiling) is
perceived by us in our still image provides a sense of security,

1 but on the other hand in long rooms also a depressed feeling.

If the ceiling is higher and the eye only sees it while scanning

l
upwards, then the room is perceived as free, exalted even, always
supposing that the wall spacing, and thus the overall proportions,
are in harmony.
0.65

;~ \ It should not be forgotten here that the eye is subject to optical

~:/ 0
0
illusions. It estimates the width more accurately than depths or
heights, which always seem larger. As is well known, a tower
1--~=-''r-- 20.0-------1 seen from above seems much higher than from below --> p. 39 CE).

e Should, for example, text still be 0 The size of the still distinguishable
1 Vertical edges appear to overhang upwards and horizontal edges
appear curved in the middle; see also--> p. 39 0- (D.
legible at a distance E = 700 m, building elements can be
the width d of the letters must calculated easily using the normal
be "'700 m x tan 0"1' = 0.204 m viewing distance and trigonometry When considering these matters, one should not fall into the
(--> Ol; the normal height h for many H9l opposite way of thinking (exemplified by the Baroque) and, for
fonts is5 x d=5 x 0.204= 1.02 m
example, emphasise the perspective effect via inclined windows
and cornices (e.g. St Peter's, Rome) or even through cornices,
vaulting or similar painted in perspective.

The decisive factors for the measurement of dimensions are the

e

~I
size of the field of view ...... 0, or the field of vision ...... and,
for the exact distinction of details, the size of the field of detailed
vision (readability)--> 9-6. The distance of the latter determines
the size of the details to be distinguished. The Greeks worked to
1---h-----;
Details
precisely these principles and determined the size of the smallest
1----2h--l
Overall appearance
bead moulding under the cornice's corona, a different dimension
r----------3h----------~
in each temple, so that, at an angular distance of 27°, it always
Overall view with surroundings o.
filled the field of detailed vision of 0°1' ......
e The above distances are appropriate
for street widths, If the intention
C1) Building elements intended
to be seen but located above
From this also arise the reading distances for books (which vary
is to permit an overview and the projections must be high enough
observation of details. (a); single elements can present according to the size of the letters), of audience seats from the
larger surfaces to the eye through performance etc. (Maertens --> refs; see here the illustrations
slight deformations (b, c) developed from his writing --> 0 - 0).

40
 red active
VISUAL PERCEPTION
Perception of Colour

Colours have a power over people. They can create feelings of VISUAL
PERCEPTION
well-being, unease, activity or passivity. Paint schemes in factories,
The eye
offices or schools can improve or dull performance, in hospitals The perception
can improve the health of the patients. The influence of colour on of colour

green passive
people can take place indirectly through physiological effect, for
example making rooms appear wider or narrower, leading to an
0 Goethe's colour circle: basic colours- f) Dark and bright colours and their
oppressive or liberating feeling ~ 9 - (!!). Colour's influence is
red-blue-yellow; mixed colours: green- effect on people
orange-violet (= mixed colours of the also exercised directly through impulses produced by each colour
first rank, obtained by mixing the basic ~ f) - 0. Orange has the strongest impulse power, followed by
colours) yellow, red, green and purple. Blue, turquoise and violet (cold and
passive colours) have the lowest power.
carmine
red
Strongly impulsive colours are suitable only for small areas within
rooms, but non-impulsive colours can be used across extensive
stretches. Warm colours have an active effect, stimulating or even
exciting. Cold colours are passive, calming or spiritual. Green is
relaxing for the nerves.
violet
The effect produced by colours also depends on their brightness
and location. Warm and light shades viewed overhead have a
mentally stimulating effect; at the side, warming and coming close;
below, relaxing and lifting. Warm and dark colours overhead exert
bluey
green green an enclosing and dignified influence; at the side, surrounding;
Heavy and light colours (not the same
as dark and light colours) -> f).
e The 12-segment colour circle
below, they offer secure grip and footing.
Cold and light colours viewed overhead are brightening and,
On addition to the darkness, the natural relaxing; at the side, they seem to lead away; below, they are
red component is also decisive for the smooth and encourage walking. Cold and dark colours viewed
impression of heaviness) overhead are threatening; at the side, cold and sad; below,
burdensome and dragging down.
White is the colour of absolute purity, cleanliness and order. White
plays a major role in interior design, to separate and neutralise
other colour groups, then to structure them with light and vitality.
As the colour of order, white is used to denote areas in warehouses
and car parks, and for road markings.

white paper ........ .. .................... 84 pure turquoise blue ............................ 15

lime white .......... . ..................... 80 grass green ...................................... = 20
lemon yellow ............... 70 pastel green ..................................... = 50
ivory ... =70 silver grey .... = 35
cream ...................... . ..... =70 lime plaster grey .............................. = 42
Rooms seem lower when the ceiling Colourful side walls seem to pure gold yellow .... . .. ........ 60 dry concrete grey ............................. = 32
is heavily coloured extend the room upwards and straw yellow . ............. 60 plywood .... .... .. . .. ................ = 38
downwards light ochre ........................... . .. =60 yellow brick .. ..... .. ................. = 32
pure chrome yellow .............. 50 red brick .... . .. ........... =18
pure orange ... ............ 25--30 dark brick ...... . ........ = 10
light brown . . ............. =25 Solnhofen slab ............. .. .. ...... =50
pure beige ...... =25 medium stone .. .. .... 35
medium brown ... . =15 dry asphalt . ........... =20
salmon pink . ....... =40 wet asphalt . .. ....... =5
full scarlet red ... . ....... 16 dark oak ......... .. ..... = 18
vermilion red ........ . ................... 20 light oak. . ....... =33
carmine red ..... .. 10 walnut ............... . . ........ = 18
deep violet .. .......... =5 light spruce ........................... .. .... =50
light blue ....... ........... 4D-50 aluminium foil ..................... .. ........ 83
deep sky blue ........ ................ 30 zinc plated steel ................................. 16

Q Colourful end walls make long rooms Colourful floors and ceilings make
4D Brightness of surfaces. Values between theoretical white (1 00%) and absolute
black(O%)
seem shorter rooms seem lower and wider

I ::11:::1m
'~
:o

I
C) Vertical stripes make walls seem
higher
Horizontal stripes widen the wall
and the room seems lower
Dark single elements in front of light
walls are powerfully emphasised
Ught elements in front of dark
walls seem even lighter

41
 DESIGN
What is Design?

"(... ) What is design?

The work starts with the production of a detailed building How does design work and what differentiates 'building' from
programme by an experienced architect on the basis of the 'architecture'?
DESIGN
questionnaire ..._. pp. 44 and 45.( ... )
What is design?
Reading the text by Ernst Neufert from the first edition of
Planes of The sketch scheme is begun by drawing individual rooms of 'Architect's Data', opposite, it is still clear that he is talking
reference about the essential stages of the design process and describing
the required areas as simple rectangles, to scale, grouped in
Questionnaire
the desired relationships to each other( ... ) and to the compass for the reader the human experience of the working method,
directions. During this stage, the building commission becomes which we can understand via his encouraging but pretention-free
increasingly clear and a picture forms in the architect's eye. words.
Instead of starting on the drawings, however, on the basis of the
previous work establishing the building area, the final position Ernst Neufert's views of the influences driving the creative process
of the structure on the site should be determined. This is often in architecture would certainly be different if he wrote them today.
decided by exploring the compass direction, the wind direction, In what way and to what purpose, we cannot know, considering
possible access routes, the lie of the land, existing trees and the the developments in architectural theory in the last 20-30 years.
neighbourhood. Unless the one correct location of the building So the current generation is faced with the question, what should
is obvious in advance, this will require many attempts to exhaust be the fundamentals of design, in order to encourage an authentic
the possibilities (...) and detailed discussions about the pros and architectural form?
cons. These investigations will normally render decision-making
fairly quick, and the image of the future building gradually into Design seems to be very easy, and at the same time very difficult,
focus( ... ). with many influences. But it is always about space and its
construction through architectural elements: if a single space is
And now come the birth pains of the actual design stage, first formed by its function, then a number of spaces require overall
in the architect's imagination out of their deep immersion in the organisation, a spatial theme. The architectural elements are
organic and organisational issues raised by the commission and in accordance with the theme and mould the specific form and
the thoughts behind them. This creates a schematic idea in the the authenticity of style in its time. History shows that a building
mind of the architect of the overall configuration of the building commission is only fixed to a certain extent in its spatial style. A
and its spatial atmosphere, from which can be developed the building type often changes for reasons which do not always have
outline of its appearance in plan and elevation. to do with function. A building can offer many uses, because it
more than just a 'glove' for the function - which is demonstrated
On the other hand, according to the architect's temperament, for by the long lives of old buildings.
some a rapid sketch or an intricate scribble is the first product of
this birth process. The impetus of the first sketch can often be The essential drivers of change in typological characteristics are
squandered by unskilled helpers, however. The clarity of this image more often pictorial ideas about the cultural significance of a
in the mind normally increases with the experience and character building, which result in alterations to the spatial and architectural
of the designer. Older, mature architects are often capable of elements. Buildings with a great influence on architectural history
drawing the final design layout freehand to the precise scale and mostly have a very precisely emphasised spatial theme, which
in full detail. Some refined, mature works are produced in this way, determines the overall layout. Excellent and masterful can have
although they mostly lose the verve of earlier designs. two different meanings in this case: Reduction in the complexity
of a commission to a single simple concept or a combination
Once the preliminary design is completed (...) a rest period
of themes with great variety.
of 3-14 days is advisable, as this allows detachment from it
and permits defects to become more obvious, but also offers
Design is never academic; works are the result of intuitive
suggestions for their remedy, because such a waiting time removes
processes, in which the entire sensual perception of their creator
many preconceived notions, not least through discussions with
plays a role. Nonetheless, they make use of an architectural
employees or the client.
grammar, which is organised thematically rather than stylistically.
Now the detailed processing of the design starts, the meetings with
The architectural considerations determining a building
the structural and services engineers, in short the determination
of the construction and the installations. After this (but mostly form a complex system of themes, which arise as knowingly
in advance), the drawings are sent off to the building approval staged or work coincidentally to different extents, but at any
authority, whose examination normally takes 3-6 months. rate are inseparably intertwined. The basic elements of an
architectural language are to be displayed and implemented
During this time, the costs are estimated and the works put out to according to an architectural grammar. The reference planes are
typology, topography and the architectural elements. Each
tender using ready-made forms, so that the tenders are available
when the building approval is granted, the contracts can be building relates to a location and a topographical situation.
awarded promptly and work can start. All the tasks described here These create and offer a topos. It is selected for a function and a
can keep the architect busy for 2-3 months (for a large detached spatial typology, and architectural elements provide the stylistic
form.
house) or 3-12 months (for a larger project such as a hospitalj,
depending on the circumstances.

It is not advisable to try to save money on design work, as more

time spent on careful preparation at this stage can quickly be
recouped during the building phase. In addition, the client saves
costs and interest."
Quoted from: Ernst Neufert, Architects' Data, 1st ed., p. 34

42
 DESIGN
Planes of Reference

Typology
The typological structure of
a building grows out of the
function and also from the DESIGN
construction and town planning What is design?
situation. It is three-dimensional Planes of
and therefore to be understood reference
Questionnaire
as a spatial theme.
0 Volumes in the structure f) Open and enclosed bodies 8 Room plan/cavities in volumes
Bodily composed building elements, Free spaces and volumes are Single or a composed sequence of Topography
which take plastic shape inside a inseparably connected to each interior rooms organise themselves The theme of topography refers
structure other. The spatial theme extends in their specific form within the
from courtyard concepts to solitary volume
to the unique location of the
buildings building and develops from this
a town planning or landscape-
related statement. This statement
has a major influence on the
quality of the public space.

Architectural elements
The structural elements com-

ll:a--..:.-1-----',1 posing a building are always to

be designed in keeping with the
overall appearance and follow
0 Oncolumns Hollow 0 Plateau design principles just as much
The volume of the structure frees The structure creates a place The plinth zone separates the as technical requirements and
itself from underground to create related to itself; the weight of rising fagade from the street; the utility criteria.
an especially impressive space the volume sinks in. topographical elevation liberates the
In-between. structure and creates a special place.
Fac,;ades/openings -+ 8 - Cl)
All opening elements form a
graphical structure on the sur-
face of the wall. A mixture and
combination of various struc-
tural principles can lead to an
over-loaded fac;:ade.

Plastic elements --1 ~ - 0

Functional components like
f) Point on a surface
Point-type openings in a wall
e Line on a surface
Horizontal or vertical ribbon
0 Structuring on a surface
Glass division and construction form
balconies and loggias, but also
columns, form three-dimen-
windows a network of lines, an independent sional structures which model
design element
the wall surface. The formation
of structuring for the entire wall
surface should not interfere with
these.

Roof --1 ~ - CD The closure of

the roof makes the building a
complete sculpture. Town plan-
ning context and architectural
concepts are decisive for the
4!} selection of a type of roof.
4Ii) Wall panel and columns Cut-outs Projections
Punctiform -striped- flat wall Cut-outs and deepened cavities Plastic elements projecting from
element In the volume the volume

4)
D
Flatroof (9 Roof as body Gi} Allover
Horizontal upper edge emphasises the Pitched roof surfaces form a Equal treatment of roof and wall
body of the building geometrical body

43
 DESIGN
Questionnaire

The design process is often rushed; projects are tendered and started with insufficient documents. So it has to be understood that the
'final' drawings and costs are available only when the building is almost complete. Explanations to clients will not help this situation; the
only answer is faster and better organised work by the architect, with adequate preparation in the office and on the site.
DESIGN
What is design?
Every project demands similar information; detailed questionnaires and forms, which should already be to hand when the project is
Planes of commissioned, can help speed up progress. Variations will of course always be necessary but a long list of decisions is so generally
reference applicable that questionnaires can assist every building professional, even if only as an encouragement.
Questionnaire

The following questionnaire forms just a part of the work-saving forms which an efficient architect's office should have available, along
with forms for cost estimates etc.

Briefing questionnaire

Commission no.: 7. Is a site manager required? Desired? Experienced or

Client: junior? When? Permanent or temporary? For how long?
Project: 8. Is the client in agreement with our decisions about the
Information collected by: legal situation of the site manager?
Copies to: 9. Will the client make space available for the site office?
Equipment (telephone, computer, etc.)?
I. Information about the client
1. Company's outlook? Financial situation? Level of IV. General
employment? Total capital? Where was this information 1. If there is no enclosure, must a fence or hoarding be
obtained? Confidential! installed? Can this be let for advertising? Should a
2. How does the business seem to be conducted? signboard be erected? What lettering should be on it?
3. Who is our main contact? Who is their deputy? Who has 2. Precise address of the project? Its later name?
the final authority? 3. Address of nearest railway station?
4. Has the client any special wishes regarding design? 4. Address of nearest post office?
5. What attitude do they have to art? Particularly with regard 5. Is there a telephone connection at the site?
to our way of working? 6. Working time on the site?
6. Which personal views/characteristics of the client should
be taken into account? V. Construction
7. Who is likely to cause us difficulties? Why? With what 1. Who has drawn up the building schedule? Is it sufficiently
potential effects? detailed? Will it have to be added to by us or others? Does
8. Is the client interested in later publication of their building? it have to be approved by the client before the start of
9. Do the drawings have to be understandable by non- design work?
experts? 2. To which existing or future buildings does the building
1D. Who was the client's previous architect? have to relate? --+VIII, 9.
11. For what reason did the former architect not receive this 3. Which local or statutory regulations are applicable? Local
commission? planning responsibility?
12. Is the client planning further buildings? Which? How large? 4. What has been written about this building in the specialist
When? Have designs already been produced for these? press? What is in our collection of cuttings?
Is there a chance that we could obtain the commission? 5. Where has a similar commission been carried out, with
What steps have been taken in this direction? With what excellent results?
success? 6. Via whom is it possible to view it? Already notified?

II. Agreements on fees VI. Basic design factors

1. On what agreement is the calculation of the fees based? 1. What do the surroundings look like? Landscape? Existing
2. What approximate degree of finishing is to be assumed? trees? Climate? Compass direction? Wind direction?
3. Should the project cost be estimated, is this the basis for 2. What is the form of the existing buildings? Of what building
the fee calculation? materials are they? -7 VIII, 9.
4. What is the estimated project cost? 3. Are photographs available of the surroundings of the new
5. Will we also be responsible for the finishing works? project (stating where taken from)? Ordered?
6. Has a contract been signed or a written confirmation of 4. What must the design also take into consideration?
agreement? 5. Existing storey and building heights? Street frontages?
Building lines? Later streets? Trees (type, size)?
Ill. People and firms involved in the project 6. What later construction has to be taken into account now?
1. With whom do we conduct preliminary discussions? 7. Is a general development plan desirable?
2. Who is responsible for what special areas of activity? 8. Are there local rules for the external appearance of new
3. Who is responsible for checking the invoices? buildings on this site?
4. What ordering and checking procedure will be used? 9. Who will check the building application with regard to
5. Will we have authority to award contracts directly in aesthetic matters? What is their attitude? Is it advisable to
the name of the client? Up to what value? Has the present a preliminary design for discussion?
authorisation been issued to us in writing? 1D. What office is responsible for complaints at a higher level?
6. Which contractors are recommended by the client? (Trade, What is the procedure? The duration of a complaint? What
address, telephone, etc.) is the attitude of this office?

44
 DESIGN
Questionnaire

Questionnaire (continued) 25. Waste chutes and waste disposal units? Where? How
large? For what waste? Waste incineration? Paper press?
VII. Technical basics
26. Other.
1. What type of subsoil is found in the area?
2. Have site investigations been undertaken at the site? At DESIGN
VIII. Design documents
what locations? With what results? What is design?
1. Has the land registry been viewed? Copy obtained? What Planes of
3. What ground pressure can be assumed? reference
significance for the design?
4. Normal groundwater level? High groundwater level? Questionnaire
2. Is there a plan of the town? Ordered? With details of
Exceptionally high groundwater level?
transport systems?
5. Has the plot been built on previously? With what? How
3. Is there a layout plan? Ordered? Officially approved?
many storeys? How deep was the cellar?
4. Is there a level plan? Ordered?
6. What type of foundations seem sensible?
5. Has the water supply plan been clarified?
7. What method of construction should be used for the building?
6. Has the drainage plan been clarified?
Cellar floor: Construction? Loading? From what?
7. Has the gas supply connection been determined on plan?
Coverings? Protective coating? Measures to resist
8. Has the electrical supply connection been determined on
groundwater?
plan? Confirmed by the utility supplier? Cable or masts?
Slab over cellar: Construction? Loading? From what?
9. Has the front of the neighbouring houses been surveyed?
Protective coating?
Has the type of building been determined (general
Ground floor slab: Material? Loading? From what?
development plan).
Coverings?
10. Has a benchmark been determined without problems and
Roof slab: Construction? Loading? From what?
fixed?
Coverings? Protective coating?
11. Is a building site set-up plan required?
What roof covering? Gutters? Downpipes inside or outside?
12. Where does the building application have to be handed
8. What insulation types should be provided? Against noise?
in? How many copies? In what form? Paper size? Prints?
Horizontal? Vertical? Against vibration? Against heat?
Blue? Red? On linen? How do the drawings have to be
Horizontal? Vertical?
coloured (plan regulations)?
9. How should the columns be detailed? External walls?
13. What are the requirements for handing in structural
Internal walls?
calculations? Who is accredited as a checking engineer?
10. What type of stairs? Loading?
Who could be considered? (Who is named by the building
11. What windows? Steel? Timber? Aluminium? Type of
authority?)
glass? Sound insulation or sun protection glass? Opening
inward or outward? Single-glazed, combined, double-
IX Tender documents
glazed windows? Sound insulation windows?
1. What is the distance of the site from a goods station?
12. What doors? Steel linings? Plywood? Steel? With rubber
2. Is there a siding to the building site? Normal gauge,
seals? Fire-resisting or fireproof? With door closers?
narrow gauge? What are the unloading possibilities?
13. What type of heating? Fuel? Storage for what duration?
3. How are the access routes? Site roads required?
Oil heating? Electric heating?
4. What storage space is available for building materials?
14. What domestic water heating? What quantities are
Flat open spaces? Flat-roofed spaces? What height
required? When? At which locations? What is the chemical
relationship to the building? Can a number of contractors
corn position of the drinking water? Provide water softener?
work next to each other without problems?
15. What type of ventilation? Air changes? In which rooms?
5. Will any deliveries or works be undertaken by the client?
Smoke extraction?
What? Building cleaning? Security? Gardening?
16. What cooling? Ice supply?
6. Is there a prospect of advance payment, cash payment?
17. What water supply? Diameter of the supply pipe?
Or what payment terms and financial distribution are to be
Diameter of the hoses of the local fire brigade? Water
observed?
supply pressure? Does this vary widely? Details?
7. What building materials are usual locally? Particularly
Water price per m3? Outside taps?
cheap? Particularly expensive?
18. What drainage? Connection to sewers? Where? What
diameter does the main sewer have? Depth? Where does X Production deadlines for
drain water go to? Is percolation possible? Sensible? Allowed? 1. Sketches for meetings with the employees?
Own treatment plant? Will mechanical cleaning suffice or is 2. Sketches for meetings with the client?
biological cleaning required? Rainwater collection? 3. Preliminary design (scale) with estimate?
19. What diameter gas supply? Efficiency? Price per m3 ? 4. Design (scale)?
Discount for large consumers? Are there special 5. Cost estimate?
regulations about laying pipes? Venting? 6. Handing in the building approval drawings with structural
20. What lighting? Electricity supply? Voltage? Possible calculations and any other verifications?
connections? Consumer limit? Price per kW for lighting? 7. Forecast duration of the building approval procedure?
Power? Off-peak price from, to? Discount for large Appeal route? Possibilities of acceleration?
consumers? Transformer? High-voltage station? Own 8. Construction drawings?
power generation? Diesel, steam turbine, wind generator? 9. Start of tender period?
21. What telephone system? 10. Tender deadline?
22. What intercom? Entry phone? Light? Command system? 11. Contract award procedure? Construction schedule?
23. What type of lift? Special loadings? Floor or parapet 12. Start of construction?
access? Speed? Machine roorn at top or bottom? 13. Completion of structure?
24. What other transport systems? Extent? Route? 14. Final completion (ready for moving in)?
Performance? Pneumatic tube? 15. Final invoice?

45
 investigation of the need for the is a new building necessary or could an existing SUSTAINABLE BUILDING
planned building building be suitable?
optimisation of the space layout of the space allocation programme for actual General, Design, Construction
allocation programme needs
optimisation of route relationships
checking and optimisation of the plot suitable for the building project? Sustainability
plot situation supply situation, vehicle flows etc.
optimisation of the building design optimum usability and possible conversion (building
Since the agreement of Agenda21 at the Rio de Janeiro Conference
depths, structural system, access cores etc.) for Environment and Development in 1992, sustainability has been
SUSTAINABLE
design: typology, relationship of plan to fa9ade, a central theme of national and international environmental policy.
BUILDING contemporary and original appearance etc. Sustainable development has for years been considered the
thermal comfort for the users
General, design,
long, useful service life durability, conversion possibilities, simple to renew
best model for mankind to meet the challenges of the future.
construction
Operation use of durable building materials longer life cycle, reduction of maintenance and 'Sustainable development describes development in accord
Demolition renewal cost with the needs of the current generation without endangering
suitability and ageing characleristics of the opportunities for future generations to satisfy their own needs
materials used
and choose their own lifestyle .. .' (Brundtland Report, 1987). The
optimisation of building element to increase the usefulness, greater scope of use,
geometries better continued use and reuse Federal Ministry of the Environment introduced management rules
avoidance of composite materials better suitability for recycling and reuse, continued for sustainable development in 1998 - Regeneration: renewable
and parts, which can only be use or reuse of used materials and parts natural resources may only be exploited in the long term within
separated with difficulty
their capability of regeneration; Substitution: non-renewable
low content of damaging simpler continued use or reuse, simple disposal of
substances in building waste, protection of soil and groundwater
resources may only be used to the extent that their use cannot
components and materials be replaced by other materials or energy sources; Adaptability:
controlled demolition when no separation of materials and mostly continued use or the release of substances or energy may not be greater than the
further use is possible reuse of building materials and parts adaptability of ecological systems.
0 Cascade of design principles (Federal Office for Building and Planning -; refs)
Sustainable building
IFrom nature I To nature I Building and the built environment can play a key role in our
Energy'---,------,-----,--------, future development. The construction and operation of buildings
Heat, heat
reclamation is a basic strain on the environment which should be reduced as
far as possible. The construction and use of buildings consume
a considerable share of natural resources, energy and water but
construction according to sustainable principles works within an
economic, ecological and social context.

Waste
Sustainable building consists of a multitude of concepts and
measures, which have to be appropriate to the particular project.
The social and cultural effects of the project (function, design
and aesthetics, listed status etc.) are to be considered with equal
weighting.
f) Energy and raw material circulation in buildings' phases of existence

ecological use on area Buildings are normally operated over a long time period, i.e.
dimension use, scattering and mixing of mineral and energy raw materials savings or extra costs can be effective in the long term. The
emissions in the form of undesirable release of solid, liquid or gaseous intention is a minimisation of the use of resources and energy and
substances, which could damage the biosphere or environment
waste products, which release pollutants and remove valuable resources
the least possible impairment of the natural ecological system
from the natural cycles for all phases of the life cycle of a building (design, construction,
noise, dust and vibration use, refurbishment, demolition). Instruments have been developed
economic lifecycle costs of buildings with which the various materials, construction methods etc.
dimension rebuilding and maintenance costs in relation to initial investment
social
can be compared with each other and balanced according to
creation and maintenance of jobs
dimension preservation of living space in accordance with needs, by age and size of differentiated criteria.
household
creation of a suitable residential environment Sustainable architecture
creation of cheap residential space, increasing the owner-occupier
percentage
The quality of architecture, design and the planning of buildings
networking of work, living and leisure in residential areas, 'healthy living' play a decisive role in the sustainability of a building. The cost of
inside and outside the home constructing a building is always to be related to the (forecast)
e Evaluation of aspects of sustainability
duration of its use, and a longer service life often justifies more
expensive design and construction.

The average service life of a building is 50-100 years (2-3

generations), although many buildings which are still in use today
are much older. The cycles of renewal and modernisation are
therefore much longer term than for the building services. As a
result, a typologically flexibly usable structure is worth much more
for sustainability than ever could be the case with the building
services installation. The attention of the architect should therefore
concentrate on the design of the building as a composition of
structure and design.

0.2
0 Comparison of the relationship of area of building envelope to usable building
area per m 2 (Schema SolarbOro, Dr. Peter Goretzki)

46
Heating Domestic hot water SUSTAINABLE BUILDING
-optimum design of control and -checking if hot water is necessary
Operation, Demolition
regulation -for the remaining hot water supply:
-consideration of incoming solar observation of the requirements for the
radiation through fayade-related zoning maintenance of hygiene regulations Many factors are decisive for the sustainability of architecture:
of the heating system in the control concerning drinking water, rational
process. energy and water consumption,
relationship of the design to the location and the building
-different regulation circuits for parts of optimisation of the system and purpose
the building with different requirements operating costs contemporary and original appearance of the design SUSTAINABLE
-extended regulation concepts for -investigate the possibilities of solar- easily usable and effective structures BUILDING
flexible room layouts assisted domestic water heating
-setting of the temperature per room and
durability of construction and materials General, design,
suitability and ageing characteristics of the materials used construction
prescription of time programme
Operation
flexibility for changes of use Demolition
0 Potential savings of heating energy possibility of conversion if required
BS EN ISO
133YO
The intensive use of raw materials and energy in the erection of BS ISO 15686-5
Lighting Heating, cooling Air conditioning Electrical devices DIN EN 15232
buildings is normally connected with a long period of usefulness.
ASTM E917-05
fullest exploitation energy-saving, reduction of energy-saving This phase of the life cycle of a building is therefore very significant. DIN 276
of daylight independently air flows to the devices (normal DIN 4108-2
efficient lamps regulating absolute minimum operation and DIN EN ISO
electronic ballast for circulation pumps low pressure loss stand-by)
A significant part of the use of energy and raw materials takes 13791
fluorescent lights constructional ductwork devices with off- place during the use of the building through the operation of DIN EN ISO
13792
lighting controls measures for fans and motors of switch at the mains technical devices and installations. New buildings should always DIN EN 15232
economical lighting summer thennal high efficiency (if operationally be designed in accordance with the current state of technology DIN 18386
outlay for external protection possible)
areas cooling load
and existing buildings should be regularly checked to investigate
calculation for whether any updating (thermal insulation, building services etc.) is
necessary air- possible or necessary in order to ensure energy-saving operation.
conditioning In addition to the durability and long life of the services installation,
systems
mechanisms and methods of saving resources should be the
f) Potential savings of electrical energy
highest priority. Ideally, cycles should be set up to enable the
reuse of water and energy.

ecological criteria environmental impact through treatment of building waste The aims are:
transport impact health and thermal comfort in the use phase
emission of health~ impairing substances
emissions with global effects (ozone hole, acid rain,
minimisation of the energy, operating and maintenance
greenhouse effect) costs, reduction of cleaning costs (partially self-cleaning:
noise, dust emissions e.g. fagades, roofs etc.)
use of land minimisation of the servicing and maintenance cost
use of new material
energy required for waste disposal
recognition and separation of polluted batches Rules and regulations:
waste materials and their disposal Energy Saving Regulations (EnEV)
SIA 380/4 Electrical Energy in Building: Swiss Engineers and
saving of environmental transport required for new production
impact through emissions of hazardous substances Architects Association, Recommendations
substitution of new use of land area 'Verification of sufficient summer thermal protection' standards
production processes use of regenerative and non-regenerative resources 'Building automation' standards
minimisation of energy consumption for building material
Heating systems regulations (HeizAniV)
production
waste materials from building materials production and
their disposal

effects of thermal calorific value of the building waste

exploitation

economic criteria regulations, their application and tightening

acceptance of products from the recycling of building waste
materials
necessary capacities
costs

technical criteria high-quality recycling

technical feasibility

e Evaluation of the waste disposal process

Electric energy
Watering
Kitchen waste
Cooking gas
CHP============~
Heat energy
Fertilizer
(compost)
1. avoidance
reuse (e.g. steel joists, bricks etc.) Sand filter Biogas
further use (e.g. pre-cast elements with new function) (ventilated) system

2. exploitation
f) The application of cycles through the example of a residential building in
recycling e.g. crushing of concrete for aggregate Freiburg-Vauban
Arch.: Common & Gies
downcycling, e.g. calcium silicate blocks as fill material
thermal exploitation, e.g. timber

3. disposal
'
composting
landfill

0 Disposal routes (basics of recycling)

47
 FACILITY MANAGEMENT
Background

Client - responsibility and duties

~Architect~
The client, or commissioner, as the actual decision-maker about
Project manager Interior architect
I \ its characteristics, bears an essential part of the responsibility for
Town planner Landscape architect
I \ the quality and sustain ability of a planned building.
FACILITY surveyor Acoustic designer
MANAGEMENT The architect has a central role as the consulting expert, who
\ I
Background Facade designer Light designer directs and coordinates all the specialists involved in the design
Methods ~ /
Structural ~ervices engineer and construction process in a single-minded intention to meet the
BS ISO 15686-5 formulated project aims. In relation to the client, the architect has
PD 6079-4 professional client trade and industry
DIN 276
a role which combines typical expert duties, like exercising their
- CREM (corporate real estate management) 50-100 trades
DIN 277 power of persuasion regarding innovative design and construction
DIN 18205 -technical project manager
-facility management solutions, with the disciplines of a modern service provider, for
see also -7 Office example transparency and ensuring the reliability of completion
buildings dates and cost estimate.
pp.231 fl.
Client Architect Tradesmen Considering the oversupply of property since the start of the 21st
10 trades century and the resulting aggressive competition for building
purchasers and tenants, it seems advisable to look in detail into
renaissance
the economic requirements of the typical client.
Client Master builder Site hut
Clients may be owner-occupiers or investors:
3 trades
The owner-occupier or owner-operator is mainly concerned
middle ages with a reasonable relationship between function and an
appropriate image for their company, on the one hand, and
User Man builds Self-build cost, on the other.
The investor is, in contrast, interested in letting or selling with
early times the greatest possible success under current market conditions.

0 Product and producers- development since the beginning of culture

These demand different development, design and construction
processes, which, especially in the US and UK, have achieved a
high degree of professionalism and success that has motivated
investment.
/ Complex requirements for buildings
Development /// The expression 'added value' comes from the field of production and

(-:~,,..~/~~/ /
has increasingly been adopted in the property management field.
It includes a complex combination of quantitative and qualitative
parameters:
actually achievable rents, disregarding tax or political effects
Operation ManJlgement Design complete and comprehensible costs over the entire life cycle of

.,-:1~///~,;,, ~
the building
practical conversion possibilities laid out in use scenarios
planned long term, with all relevant consequences, particularly
disturbance-free operation.
ci' <+~· and build Life-cycle assessment
The modern approach in architectural design is typified by the
f) The life-cycle assessment of a building holistic consideration of all phases of the lifetime of a building,
called the life-cycle or whole life assessment ~ f). This means
that all relevant functional, aesthetic, cost, scheduling and
organisational features are systematically categorised for each
Costs
phase. Of particular importance is the transfer of experience
100%
gained during the operation phase to the start of the life cycle
of later projects. The result is to transform the planned building
into an asset supported by comprehensive responsibility, which
can normally continue to be used and maintained after its original
purpose has expired.
50%
Project development and programme production
The initial work phase, in which the room and function programmes
....... __ are developed for an owner-operator, is of course of great

@
-------------------- significance in the architectural life cycle. When the client is an
investor, typical tenant scenarios will be developed ~ 0. Careful
time
programming of rooms and functions can result in a considerable
CD Concept phase - Cumulative costs
increase in the value of a building project:
® Design phase - - ... Influence on costs functional improvement of typical working and communication
@ Building phase processes (the primary or core processes) in the building
@ Operation phase reduction of the space consumed to fulfil functions through
Possibilities tor project development to influence building costs appropriate compression of use

48
 FACILITY MANAGEMENT
Methods

A new professional discipline

A facility manager is the description for the professional manager
-Value of an entire building operation. They undertake all the tasks of
Yield, sale
Identity the client which can be delegated to specialists. This profession
FACILITY
-Comfort arrived from the USA at the end of the 20th century and has MANAGEMENT
Ambience, service
Quality developed very positively in recent years, against the trend for most Background
-Use property-related professions. Its origins were in the planning of the Methods
Function, ergonomics
Flexibility occupation of space (property management). Facility management
BS 8536
(FM) developed from related professions like those of architects, BS EN 15221
-Costs building services engineers or infrastructure service providers. DIN 18960
Investment, operating DIN 32736
maintenance
conversion The consistent implementation of FM can save up to 30% in GEFMA 100
- Impairment GEFMA 130
Downtimes
comparison with traditional forms of building management for the
Emissions, stress same user requirements. Because the operating costs amount to
- Resources/ consumption about 80% of the total costs for the entire life-cycle, FM is qutckly
Environment
becoming established as the key profession for the sustainable
implementation of architecture ---7 0. A range of national and
international facility management associations, such as GEFMA,
Q Factors which can be influenced and controlled by facility management IFMA and BIFM, produce guidelines for facility managers.

The main principle of FM is the combination and optimisation of

the many services concerned with a building and its users, which
normally already exist but are scattered in their organisation. The
architect provides the essential roots for successful FM, is thus
the most important partner of a facility manager and also has the
best qualifications to take over the tasks of this discipline.

Structural and service aspects

FM is based on a four-column model ---7 f). These columns list the
technical fields involved, ordered according to their qualification
background. These are very heterogeneous, which means that the
Technical Commercial Infrastructure Space facility manager has to be a generalist, who typically comes from
-Energy -Budget -Catering -Occupation one specialisation and controls the others. Utilising the wide range
-HQV -Controlling -Cleaning -Tenants
- Renovation
of thinking skills included in FM, the facility manager has to be
-IT - Benchmarking -Gate/security
-Security - Purchasing - External works -Furnishing able to provide the users and owners of property with an all-round
-Materials snow & ice -Project consulting interface, covering complex specialist issues in an
transport -Telephone management
-Automation exchange
understandable fashion and managing decisions under pressure.
-Car parking
-Caretaker A further special feature of the job description is, similar to the
-Further
services architect, the varied extent of functions, from strategic and
intellectual to operative and practical, and thus the requirement to
Operating Principles be qualified to work with very diverse partners. This places above-
Flow Principle- Pooling of Resources- Optimization of Processes average moderating, management and personal capabilities at the
top of the requirement list. Ethical and philosophical qualities like
f) The four columns of facility management
authenticity and integrity are also important qualifications for the
sustainable control of complex buildings.

Management methods
The working methods relevant in FM do not normally come from
the building industry, but from technical sectors such as the car
Visualisation industry and aviation. Only the building databases that form the
- Information design
foundation of all planning and operational processes and the as-
- Presentation techniques
built building drawings, which can be activated to illustrate various
aspects (CAFM = computer-assisted facility management) are
Organisation closely derived from modern architectural, drawing, tendering and
-Organisation diagrams room schedule tools ---7 f).
- Space organisation
For the purposes of facility management planning and decision-
Interaction making, various management methods from the industries named
- Moderation/
mediation
above are used:
- Specification examination of alternatives and scenarios with total-cost
assessment
Scheduling complex quality and risk management
-Barcharts psychology-based moderation/mediation
-Flow chart 'information design', the graphically descriptive illustration of
0 Methods of facility management abstract, multi-faceted and complex information.

49
 REFURBISHMENT
Conservation and Alteration

Average life expectancy of building elements

Once buildings have been built, they continue to require care
Up to 10 years Up to 80 years
lime-washed fa<;ade external render and maintenance. Building and finishing elements have differing
window paint, external fair-faced concrete lifetime expectations according to their function, use and
wallpaper roof construction of: maintenance. The scale of operations from maintenance, repair,
REFURBISH- textile flooring -nailed trusses
MENT - laminated timber trusses
replacement or conversion is blurred """' 0.
surface treatment of floors
Conservation pumps roof tiles Projects involving work on existing buildings should be split into
and alteration stairs, indoor, softwood measures under the categories listed below. In addition to advice
Care of historic Up to 20 years
monuments felt roof covering
doors about the need for approvals, this enables the client to clearly
timber, aluminium windows
Listed building mineral paints divide the required investment into items which can be grant-aided
protection external windowsills:
Recording of old
awnings -concrete and those which can be forwarded to tenants. It also enables the
buildings plastic external elements -natural stone architect to correctly assign fee supplements """' f).
Conversion plastic-based emulsion paint unbonded screed
double glazing
Many of the measures for which the term renovation is used
bonded screed
BS 7913 silicon seals and joints stone/ceramic floor coverings
stem from construction law but are relevant only in the context
BS 8221 linoleum and PVC floor coverings of municipal building. As the term is not differentiated regarding
DIN 31051
sanitary appliances, porcelain
taps and valves drainpipes building costs and contracts, it should not be applied.
measurement and control equipment
electrical devices Over 80 years The following measures are differentiated in HOAI, which governs
heating boilers massive construction of:
the fees of German architects:
air-conditioning plant -brick
-calcium silicate blocks Maintenance:
Up to 40 years -concrete
external render - measures for the preservation of the required condition of a
steel construction
pointing to facing brickwork fa9ade cladding of:
building.
plastic windows -glass
window ironmongery Repair:
-stone
fibre cement roof covering timber with constructional weather
measures to recreate the required condition of a building for
zinc gutters protection its intended use, but not including rebuilding or modernisation.
external wall insulation system external stainless steel elements The definition in the standard is the "preservation or recreation
floating screed roof construction of:
heating pipes and radiators of the functional condition".
-solid timber
water installations -steel Modernisation:
electrical installations slate roofing
lifts building measures which lead to the sustainable improvement
internal windowsills:
-stone
of the serviceability of a building without altering the function,
-hardwood such as the improvement of lighting, sound insulation, access
external windowsills, hard brick (lifts, disability access) and the energy exploitation.
0 The life expectancy of building elements can be affected by the quality of
Rebuilding:
construction and maintenance. Maintenance costs can be reduced if elements
liable to wear out are easily accessible. rebuilding works are changes of the design of an existing
property with considerable intervention in construction or
Measure definition costs treatment under approval
existing structure.
tax deductibility HOAI requirement
Extensions:
grant eligibility
- additions to an existing building, extending it upwards or
Maintenance inspection operating costs increase of fee no
service for phase 8 up
sideways.
maintenance to 50% Recreation:
improvement
new construction of destroyed buildings on existing building or
Modernisation improvement of investment, increase of possibly
serviceability measures fee by up to
site elements. This counts as a new building if a new design is
perhaps grant- 20--30% required.
aided
Conversion:
Rebuilding change of use investment increase of yes
fee by up to
describes changes to the type of use of a building. Because
20-30% this normally leads to different requirements under building
Extension new building investment increase of yes regulations, conversion works require building permission
work connected fee by up to like a new building! Conversion includes a change of trade
to existing 20--30% (e.g. from a shop to a restaurant) and also the fitting out of an
f) Classification of works to existing buildings according to HOAI, and effects
existing unoccupied attic for residential purposes.
Project preparation
Conservation It should be noted for all work on existing buildings that the
-simple preservation and maintenance of the existing material of a historic monument
HOAI is primarily intended for new building and rebuilding, where
or listed building with its historic defects and traces.
the requirements are clear in advance. The framework for the
Restoration determination offees according to the HOAI is not adequate for the
- purposeful recreation and making visible of aesthetic and historic assets. The priority
production of a resilient design with varied uses and their effects
is the production of a historic condition; deleterious and concealing additions may
be removed. Layers from other periods can be covered or destroyed in favour of a on cost and listed building protection. The appropriate preliminary
uniform appearance. investigations (measurement and the surveying of defects), and
the ensuing use concepts and variants with cost breakdown,
Reconstruction
-recreation of a destroyed building. if no existing structure is present, then this is not should therefore always be agreed as 'special services' or, better,
the care of an old building but new building. as the production of an expert report before starting design work,
Anastylose ~rebuilding of a building from available original elements in order to give the client 'design security' before the start of the
Translocation =relocation of an existing building.
project. The absence of such design foundations is one of the
8 Classification of works to existing buildings, in light of listed building issues main reasons for exploding costs in refurbishment work.

50
 REFURBISHMENT
Care of Historic Monuments

Artistic significance The care of historic monuments encompasses all measures to

Building as
- individual work of art preserve such cultural assets in their original substance. The
-typical example of a style purpose is the preservation, for the benefit of present and future
generations, of historic structure that is considered valuable, in REFURBISH-
order to preserve cultural memory, which can bestow identity and MENT

Technical/scientific significance
also sustainability in the form of a cultural resource. An important Conservation and
principle was formulated in the Venice Charter of 1964. Listed alteration
Building as example
Care of historic
-of special construct!on 1 or first use historic buildings can normally be preserved only in connection monuments
- particular craftsmanship
-unaltered original condition of typical with a practical use. This makes it necessary to find a compromise Listed building
protection
Mine construction between conservation and alteration. Recording of old
buildings
Conversion
Historic significance Statutory protection of historic monuments
Building as site of The purposes of the statutory protection of historic monuments
- important historic event
-the career of important personalities
include their recognition, recording (drawing up inventories),
(birth, residence, death) preservation and publicising. Scientific background research,
Goethe's garden house
the preservation and furthering of traditional craft skills, expert
consulting for clients and contractors, and public relations work in
Urban planning significance the form of publications, exhibitions and conferences are further
Building as part of:
tasks of authorities responsible for the care of historic monuments.
- a planned layout
-a historically developed town plan All historic buildings and monuments which are placed under
- a typical village structure protection are entered in the official lists. An individual justification
for the listed status must be produced for every building. The
evaluation criteria are based on the cultural, historical, town
planning, scientific, technical or ethnological significance of a
historic building ---> 0. According to locally applicable law, lists of
historic monuments can be constitutive or declarative ---t p. 52 8
The determination as to which aspects of the value as a monument
are most important leads to the contrasting approaches of the
Town plan of Karlsruhe preservation of the current state or the recreation of the original
state of a historic monument. ---t 0
0 Criteria for the evaluation of historic building substance

Conservation Restoration The restoration approach has the aim of the recreation of a certain
Point of view historical, documentation, artistic, aesthetic, related to historical condition of the building (e.g. the Bauhausmeisterhii.user
structure-related form and function in Dessau). This can, however, remove the traces of history. When
What to be protected structure- original structure impression- visual building elements are reconstructed, there is a danger that, if the
with all historic alterations as impression I artistic idea as documentation is insufficient, the original is falsely interpreted. The
a medium of the historic and a medium of the building
preservation of the current state (conservation approach) leaves
building quality quality
the course of history visible, but takes into account that this may
Aim of historic preservation of the structure making the original condition
obscure the original appearance (e.g. the Rathaus, Esslingen).
monument protection in the condition in which clear and visible, including its
it has survived. History recreation
remains visible. Both approaches have their justification but tend to be put forward
Types of measures preservation through recreation- repair and dogmatically. They should, however, always be discussed and
conservation- continual if necessary demolition decided for each individual case, because they have important
building checks. Immediate to recreate the original consequences for the treatment of the historic building. It can be
repair of any damage by the condition
original methods
argued that the conservation approach will permit modern additions
and rebuilding as the continuation of historical development, but
Recreation of destroyed not allowed, or at most rebuilding as a recreation
buildings in the form of anastylose of the original condition
this produces the dilemma that any work involves the destruction
(rebuilding using original according to archive sources of historic building structure.
material)

Contemporary ... problematic, because ... problematic, because this Historic monuments in the ground
extensions and the continuation of would make statements in Archaeological monuments serve to protect the signs of human
alterations history is included in the competition with the original
history in the ground (archaeological sites). In contrast to historic
conservation approach, but structure.
is scarcely possible without buildings, not only known but also unknown sites are placed
the destruction of historic under protection. They should if possible remain in the ground as
building structure. an 'archive', because any investigation or excavation would mean
Criticism only understandable obscuration of the historical their destruction and they would be denied improved methods
by experts. Disfigured development. Destruction of investigation in the future. If preservation is not possible, then
buildings will be preserved. of later historically valuable
additions. If the sources
the responsible party has to pay for recovery and documentation
Changes of use, rebuilding
and modernisation are are insufficient, there is a (archaeological excavation). This duty also covers remains
permissible as part of the danger of historical invention. discovered in the course of building work.
historical development, Frequent conflict: which
under stringent conditions historical state should be
(no destruction of historic chosen for preservation and
building structure) but made visible?
scarcely practical.

f) Restoration and conservation principles: various positions and consequences

51
 REFURBISHMENT
Listed Building Protection

Historic building authorities The listing of buildings is the legal basis for the state to influence the
"Higher authority for the protection of "Lower authority for the protection of
treatment of historic structures. In Germany, the listing of buildings
ancient monuments" ancient monumentsn is part of the cultural sovereignty of the states and is regulated
Monument protection office
by state Jaws for the protection of historic buildings. These Jaws
REFURBISH- Expert conservation office in most
MENT authorised to implement the historic have equal status alongside the other Jaws governing building. If
federal states state monument
Conservation and conservation office monument law is the lower authority, a conflict arises, then each individual case is balanced against
alteration which is mostly integrated into the other(s). Conflicts often derive from fire safety requirements
Care of historic building control.
monuments and between the free market exploitation of property and the duty
Science
Listed building Research Consulting
of the owner to preserve a building. Because legally all interests
protection
Recording of old
Lectures Rights and duties have equal weight, the state requires decisions in accordance
buildings Publications Building technology with the aims of historic building preservation through information,
Conversion Documentation Possible grants advice and financial support (grants, depreciation schemes and
Evaluation of value as monument
Keeping lists of monuments tax reductions).
Approval
Checking applications
r:=--.:::--------;;~;;:;~-k.U"" Reasonableness check Types of listed building protection

Co;:~!t~s~ advice ~ :tirl ~i ~< ~ !~~~::~t

l...El~-"'-'4'1""1·"'fl""
.... Rejection
For a single building, the material condition and the direct
surroundings are protected. Any alterations to the structure,
appearance or use require approval. Because the surroundings
~======~ Implementation are also protected, alterations to neighbouring buildings which
Subsidies
Grants
Monitoring impair the impression of the historic building can also require an
Implementation of conditions approval.
Certificates for tax write-off
Implementation of protection
measures to monuments
The protection of historic buildings in Germany does not
differentiate value or categories. There is only an indirect grading
Care of monuments Protection of monuments
of the character of protection through the protection applied to the
surroundings of historic buildings and the intention of preserving
0 Principles of the division of responsibilities regarding listed building protection
and the care of historic buildings. The individual tasks can vary according to
entire areas or parts of a town in their particular character. The
protection of buildings in this case applies only to the external
state.
appearance. Conservation areas, the protection of ensembles
or local preservation orders are decided by towns and councils
as by-laws. The procedure can be very different according to
Basis of protection Effects
the origin, whether from historic building protection or planning
Single listed building historic buildings protection structure and appearance laws. When work is to be undertaken in such areas, this should be
law are protected and a permit is
discussed and a permit may have to be obtained before starting
required for any alterations or
interventions. any alteration to the external appearance of a building or also to
the landscape, even if the intended work itself does not require a
Conservation area situation directly next to a only the external appearance
building permit. -1 f)
Protection of an listed building, or location in a is protected, not the structure.
ensemble conservation area laid down Alterations to the appearance
in a by-law (based on the may have to be discussed and Because of the scope of discretion and the different attitudes of
historic buildings protection approved. the various authorities, discussions should be opened with the
law)
people responsible as soon as possible before undertaking work
Preservation by-law location in an area defined in protection is based on to listed buildings, in order to work out a reasonable and tolerable
a by-law (based on planning planning concerns, but not the solution.
law) character or appearance.

Protection of existing use

f) Difference and effects of various legal protection measures
The principle of existing use is intended to prevent new
regulations or Jaws making existing uses impermissible. This
Constitutive Declarative
applies to buildings, or their use, which would not obtain
Hamburg, Nordrhein- all other German states approval under current regulations, but formerly would have
Westfalen, Rheinland-Pfalz, been approved or suitable for approval. Buildings which were
Schleswig-Holstein never in need of approval are not protected under this principle!
Historic building entered in an official dwells in the building as The age of a building in this case is immaterial. Buildings with
property document, which leads to property and is dependent on protected existing use may be maintained and also modernised,
listing. an entry in a list. but the work must preserve their identity. In the case of a change
Incorporation into formal process, which serves has no legal consequences of use, replacement of building structure or other alterations in
historic buildings list as the basis for the application and only serves for scientific need of approval, this protection no longer applies, in which
of the historic buildings law. information. Owner does not case the building must be adapted to modern standards. If
Owner must be informed of have to be informed.
this is not done, the authorities can order its demolition. It is
entry.
important to open discussions at the earliest feasible stage with
Result legal security for the owner listing status can be obtained the responsible authority for historic buildings or the building
but higher expense for on enquiry to the responsible
controller in order to clarify whether and to what extent the
authorities and citizens authority.
protection of existing use applies. Exemptions can be applied for
8 Legal consequences of the types of statutory lists of historic buildings as part of the approval process under listed building legislation,
but in order to provide certainty for design work this should be
applied for and agreed in advance.

52
1----------------------1
: Existing building : External sources REFURBISHMENT
1 structure 1
I I
Recording of Old Buildings
I I
: Building inspection 1 Archive research
1 Building measurement : Literature
: Room schedule : Historic building Surveying an existing building
: Dendrochronology : regulations With the implementation of rebuilding works, documentation
1 Paint, plaster & 1 Files of the existing building in the form of drawings and text is an
: mortar analysis : important base for planning. The surveying and investigation of
I I REFURBISH-
I I an existing building should ideally be undertaken before decisions
I I
MENT
: BUILDING RESEARCH are made about construction measures and future use, because Conservation and
I Knowledge and information only substantiated knowledge about the building structure and alteration
I Care of historic
I
I
potential costs can lead to a sensible solution. monuments
I Listed building
L-------------- ------~ L------- -------------~ Drawings of the existing building and a room schedule should protection
be produced by the architect on site even if old drawings Recording of
old buildings
are available, because this enables an understanding of the Conversion
Estimation of building costs Evaluation of historic quality defects and the condition of the building at an early stage. The
of private interests in public interest of society
investigations should be carried out with as little damage as
Client Monuments Authority
possible, but if intrusions into the structure are required, they
0 Building research and documentation give the client a sound basis for design should be agreed with the client and the historic buildings
and costs and the evaluation criteria for protection and grant aid under historic authority and be performed by experts (restorers, building
building legislation research consultants).

Drawings of the existing building

The depiction and the precision of the drawings showing the
existing building and its condition depend on the aims of the
intended work. ~ 0 There is a difference between the precision
of measurement and the precision of the drawings. The precision
of measurement does not depend only on the measuring
instruments used but on the system of measurement and any
resulting imprecision (out-of-parallel, adding errors). In precision
stages I and II ~ 0, the measured dimensions are normally more
precise than can be shown on the drawing.
The drawings produced in this way serve as the basis for defect
f) Survey of an existing building: t) Survey of an existing building: mapping, plans of building age and documentation of finds
measurement sheet as-built plan, sketch and are then processed further for design, listing of works and
construction drawings.

Text description of the existing building

A general building description should contain all the significant
information about the building. This includes details abollt the
plot, property relationships, planning conditions, building use,
data for financing, tenants and rent income, age of the building,
historical building phases, historical design elements, building
materials, standards of equipment, building services, structure,
constructional properties and other features.
A room schedule should record each room in text and graphics
(sketches, drawings and photos), describing necessary measures
and work that has already been carried out. The rooms should
Survey of an existing building: Survey of an existing building:
as-built floor plan, structure
be numbered on each floor, starting from the entrance hall and
as-built elevation
proceeding clockwise. The floor number should be legible from
the key (e.g. G05 for a room on the ground floor or 1.08 for a room
Scale
on the first floor).
I 1:100 schematic recording of the building type and the pian
structure for layout plans, approximate calculation of
floor areas, analysis of use- sufficient for works which Building research
do not alter the structure Information about each phase of building development, the
II 1:50 almost precise survey of the geometry, relation of the methods used and later interference with the structure are not
precision ± 10 em vertical position of the floors, illustration of the load- only useful for the evaluation of historic quality ~ p. 51 0, but
bearing structure
also for sound preliminary design and cost estimation. Some
Ill 1:50 exact measurement, including historical deformation, investigations can be undertaken by the architect, e.g. research in
precision ± 2.5 em as basis for restoration, construction drawings and
scientific investigations
the appropriate archives (building authority, town archive etc.), but
other tasks will require the appointment of specialists (restorers,
IV 1:25-1:10 exact measurement, including historical deformation,
precision ± 2-0.5 em for building with stringent scientific and technical
conservators, scientific investigations of building materials, colour
construction requirements research, dendrochronology, C14 method, analyses of paint,
v 1:25-1:1 exact measurement, including historical deformation, plaster and mortar). The results can not only give pointers to the
precision ± 2-0.1 em for archaeology and building research for particularly age and possible problems arising from earlier rebuilding, but
demanding buildings also enable the selection of compatible building materials and
Measurement precision stages. I and II can be extended up to stage V for
enable a precise description of items in the bill of quantities and
difficult historic building projects and scientific investigations. specification. ~ 0

53
 REFURBISHMENT
Conversion

Concrete construction
The preservation of historically
valuable building structure is
only one aspect of work with old
REFURBISH- buildings. The conversion and
MENT
further use of existing buildings
Conservation and
alteration is also a contribution to sustain-
Care of historic
monuments
O As-built plan of an office block from 1965
ability. A large proportion of the
Listed building office and industrial buildings of
protection the last hundred years no longer
Recording of old
buildings meet current requirements. The
Conversion most important foundation for
the decision as to whether these
buildings, mostly constructed
in reinforced concrete, are suit-
able for use is the analysis and
checking of the structural sys-
tem. This should ideally be un-
dertaken by an experienced
engineer before the design work
starts, because it is an important
factor in determining whether
f) Conversion of the office block into flats with a floor area of 60-200 m 2 each
the building structure is appro-
priate for further use.

Building archives and knowl-

edge of historic building regu-
lations are helpful in addition to
investigation on site, because
non-destructive testing of con-
crete construction is hardly
possible.

Together with the structural

requirements, building phys-
ics stipulations also have to be
C) Conversion of a former warehouse Into a residential and office building. New favade design complied with. Updating work
is made necessary by the in-
creased concrete covering re-
quired for fire protection and
the more stringent regulations
about thermal insulation (EnEV).
The necessary cost of this can
be more easily estimated.

0 As-built floor plan

9 Variant with flats e Variant with office use Arch.: Kister Scheithauer Gross

54
 REFURBISHMENT
Conversion

Upgrading of masonry
buildings
Conversions count as new
building and require building REFURBISH-
permission. The floor slabs MENT
cannot normally comply with Conservation and
the requirements for sound, alteration
Care of historic
thermal and fire insulation and monuments
thus have to be upgraded. Listed building
0 The existing structural system with f) Conversion of an office building to flats. The main wing was extended to the Impact sound insulation, fire
protection
Recording of old
slabs as continuous beams on the garden side, and new slabs and a new load-bearing structure enable varied floor
protection construction and buildings
internal and external walls. layouts. Conversion
the structural strengthening
required for additional loading
reduce the clear ceiling
height considerably. In an
example of the conversion
of an office building to high-
quality apartments, the slabs
were designed as continuous
C) Upgrading of the existing hollow pot 8 The original hollow pot floor was replaced with a reinforced concrete slab, beams over the internal walls.
floor would have been possible only supported on thermally insulating bearings on the external wall to avoid cold
The only solution in this case
at great expense. bridging.
was the complete exchange of
the internal slabs. The use of
thermally separated bearings
enables internal thermal
insulation without cold bridges
and does not impair the
external elevation -7 0 - 0.
Conversions require com-
promise. For a listed factory
hall with a large building depth
and a 5 m ceiling height,
the insertion of an internal
courtyard and reduction of the
height of the less important
External fa9ade insulation system: Thermal insulation: external render, Thermal insulation: Internal plaster, rooms of the maisonettes was
fa9ade structuring is lost and cold calcium silicate boards inside. The fagade remains unaltered, internal
approved -7 e.
bridging is hard to avoid. optical effect of the structuring walls are tied with insulation cages
elements is weakened. in order to avoid cold bridge.

Section

Upper level

Lower level

Conversion of a factory to flats. A greened inner courtyard with gallery access splits the
building depth. A special exemption allows ceiling heights of 2.30 m, below the normal
minimum. Buntgarnwerke Leipzig Arch: Fuchshuber and Partner

55
 DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION MANAGEMENT
Public Planning and Building Law

General provisions scope of application, terms, general requirements § 1-3 Building law code
The plot and its building on plots §4 This federal law contains the most important regulations about
building development access and exit routes § 5 public building law and planning law. It provides local councils
DESIGN AND setback areas, spacings § 6
in particular with the instruments and procedure for controlling
CONSTRUC-
division of plots § 7
land use in their areas by applying their statutory planning
TION MANAGE- authority. The most important instrument is town planning. It
MENT non-built areas, play areas § 8
regulates the permissibility of new building in unzoned urban
Legal basis Buildings design § 9
Work phases areas and outside built-up areas and the organisation of land use
advertising, vending machines § 10
Measures of (reallocation). The 'special town planning law' includes mainly
building use general requirements for construction § 11-16
Setback areas provisions concerning refurbishment and development projects
building products, types § 17-25
Construction and town remodelling.
costs walls, floor slabs, roofs § 26-32
escape routes, openings, fencing § 33-38 Land use regulation
MBO
LBO building services § 39-46 This controls the land use to be laid down in zoning plans. It
use-related requirements § 47--{;1 is divided into the sections nature of building use (e.g. general
Parties involved In basic duties §52 residential area, industrial area), measures of building use (e.g.
building client § 53 floor area ratio, plot coverage ratio, full storeys -> p. 63), type
designer § 54 of building (e.g. open, closed) and buildable plot area (e.g.
contractor § 55
boundaries, building lines).
site manager §56 Planning drawings regulation
Building control structure, responsibilities, tasks § 57-58 This Jays down the uniform illustration of decisions on zoning
authorities, approval requirement, exemption § 59-62 plans.
administrative
approval procedure § 63-77
procedures Regional planning law
building supervision measures § 78-80
This federal law contains provisions about the basics and
official supervision § 81-82
problems of regional planning and the regional planning
easements § 83
responsibilities of the federal states. The basics of the law are put
Summary offences summary offences, legal regulations, transitional § 84-87
into practice through the state development plans, development
and final provisions
programmes and regional plans. Aims laid down at this level have
0 Structure of the MBO (model building regulations, at state level), general to be complied with at all lower levels. The Jaw prescribes regional
provisions (overview)
planning procedures.
State building regulations
This legislation, passed by the states, controls building regulations.
These cover requirements for building and properties, and serve
to reduce risk. They include, for example, provisions about
setback areas, fire protection, rescue routes and building approval
procedures.
Green area Land-use planning
The building law code differentiates between preparatory land-use
Park planning (land use plan) and binding zoning plans (development
Type of building use; plan and project development plan). All zoning plans are
general residential area produced under a fixed procedure, including the participation
Building line of the public, and public agencies and authorities. With the
land use plan, the intended land use is displayed for an entire
Type of building use
2 full storeys, plot council area. The plan is binding on authorities, which means
coverage ratio 0.4--> p.63 that it has to be complied with at lower levels. The development
7~7--17L_T--T~- Building type; open, only plan is then produced from the land use plan and regulates as an
single houses permissible ordinance the control of building for an entire council area, with
'<-?L--.7--7"+-- Building line a catalogue of possible provisions. The project development
plan is a special form for a defined project. The promoter of the
~f--T-;;.L---T-;;.L---T"'-7L--r'-.j-- Limit of validity
project undertakes in an implementation contract to complete the
building commission within a certain time frame and, partially or
f) Decisions in development plans according to the building law code and
completely, to bear the design and development costs.
the land use regulation (example)

56
 DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION MANAGEMENT
Private Building Law

Project Legal relationships

The legal relationships between parties involved in a building
project are normally classified as works contracts under the
German civil code (BGB), or as building contracts under the DESIGN AND
contract award procedure and contract regulations for building CONSTRUC-
Works contract according Architectural service contract works (VOB) ~ 0. TION MANAGE-
to BGB possibly specified (=works contract according MENT
as building contract toBGB) Legal basis
according to VOB Services and fees according The essence of a building contract is to produce a contractually Work phases
toHOAI determined result, in this case the construction of a building. Measures of
building use
In contrast to this, the subject of a service contract (BGB) is Setback areas
the work as such or working. Construction
costs

HOAI BS 1600
HOAI (Fee Regulations for Architects and Engineers - Germany) BS 6079
BS 7000-4
controls the invoicing of fees for the services of architects and ISO 22263
Authority to act engineers. The fee is based on the fee zone to which a building DIN 1960/1
DIN 18299-
Power of attorney for client project has been assigned, the chargeable costs (according to 18386

0 Principal legal relationships between the parties involved in a building contract

the fee table) and the work phases undertaken by the architect
or engineer, to each of which a percentage of the total fee is
DIN 18421
DIN 18451

assigned (services performed in each phase~ f)). In each of the BGB

%fee Work phase No.
work phases, there is a differentiation between basic services, HOAI
VOB
3 collection basic information 1 which are always performed as part of the proper performance
c
7 preliminary design 2 of the service, and special services, which are separately
"'
'iii
Q)
3
0 11 design ordered and invoiced to fulfil particular requirements (e.g. building
6 building permit application 4 remeasurement) ~ p. 58 ff.
25 detailed design 5
c
0
~
10 preparation for tendering 6 HOAI is undergoing revision at the moment. Its scope of
~c 4
31
collaboration in tendering
supervision of works
7
8
application is to be restricted to smaller projects through the
lowering of the final values in the fee table, and the removal
0
()
3 supervision of snagging and documentation 9 of work phases 6-9 and the consulting services. Furthermore,
the fees should in the future be determined on the basis of
f) Services performed In each work phase, HOAI (-->refs)
building costs agreed in advance.
BGB works contract VOB/8
§ 632 payment § 2 payment
VOB
§ 14 invoicing The VOB (contract award procedure and contract regulations for
§ 15 day works building works) is neither law nor legal regulation but represents
§ 632a stage payments § 16 payment (No. 1) freely agreed contract rights, which amend or add to the
§ 633 defects § 4 construction (No. 7)
provisions of the BGB, from whose provisions it varies in essential
§ 13 defect claims (No. 3, 5, 6)
§ 17 security
areas (practical completion, defect claims, payment)~ e.Federal
§ 634 rights of the employer in case § 13 defect claims authorities and many public clients are obliged to apply the VOB
of defect in the tendering and contract award procedure of building works.
§ 634a limitation of defect claims § 13 defect claims (No. 4, 5)
§ 635 supplementary performance § 13 defect claims (No.5 section 1)
The VOB is laid out as follows:
(with § 634 No. 1)
§ 636 particular provisions for damages § 4 construction (No. 7)
Part A contains guidelines for the layout and composition of tender
(with § § 634 No.4, 280, 281, § 8 termination by the employer documents, contract award procedures and building contracts.
283, 311a) particular provisions for (No.5) Part B contains the general conditions of contract for the
termination (with § § 634 No. 3, 323,
326 Section 5)
§ 13 defect rights (No.7)
-not included
construction of building works, as laid out ~ e.
Part C contains, categorised according to trades, general
§ 637 self-remedy of defects § 13 defect rights (No. 5 section 2)
(with § 634 No. 2) technical contract conditions, according to the following uniform
§ 638 price reduction (with § 634 No. 3) § 13 defect rights (No. 6) system:
§ 639 exclusion of liability § 13 defect rights (No.3) 0. Notes for the production of bills of quantities and
§ 640 acceptance § 12 acceptance specifications
§ 641 payment due date § 16 payment
-not included
(an aid for clear and exhaustive tendering)
§ 641 a certificate of completion
§ 642 duties of the employer § 4 construction 1. Scope of application (terms, definition of trades,
§ 643 termination by contractor § 9 termination by contractor differentiation from other trades)
§ 644 transfer of risk § -note§12No.6 2. Materials I building elements (definition of the quality
§ 645 responsibilities of the employer § 7 sharing of risk conditions for the materials and building elements to be used
§ 646 completion instead of acceptance § 12 acceptance
according to DIN standards
§ 647 contractor's lien rights - not included
§ 648 building works security mortgage -not included
3. Construction (definition of the standards for construction with
§ 648a collateral of the employer -not included reference to current DIN standards)
(tradesman collateral) 4. Ancillary work I extra work (differentiation of ancillary work
§ 649 right of termination by employer § 8 termination by the employer (without extra payment) and extra work)
§ 650 cost estimate -note in§ 2
5. Invoicing (invoicing regulations, units, remeasurement,
§ 651 application of commercial law - not part of VOB
deductions etc.)
f) Comparison of BGB works contract law and the corresponding provisions in
the VOB (according to: Boisseree, Mantscheff, Baubetriebslehre 1, p. 53 --> refs)

57
 DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION MANAGEMENT
Work Phases

Special services:
• Collaboration in obtaining credit
• Preliminary inquiry about building permission
DESIGN AND • Preparation of diagrams on special techniques
CONSTRUC- • Preparation of a time and organisation schedule
TION MANAGE-
MENT
• Additional design work for building optimisation (e.g. reduction
Legal basis
of energy consumption) to a greater extent than the requirements
Work phases of legal regulations and standards
Measures of
building use Design
Setback areas
Construction
Subsidiary rooms (HOAI, work phase 3 -7 refs)
costs 0 Consideration of the location of the house on the plot: building development
Basic services:
proposal
BS ISO 15686-5 1. Working through the design concept from work phase 2, using
ASTM E917-05
DIN 276 the contributions of the other specialist parties
2. Description of the building work
see also: HOAI
p. 57 3. Drawings showing the overall design in the form of fully
worked-through design drawings
4. Negotiation with authorities and other specialist parties about
the suitability for approval
5. Cost calculation according to DIN 276 or the local calculation
regulation
6. Cost control through the comparison of cost estimate and cost
calculation
7. Summary of all results

Special services:
• Investigation of concept variants and their (cost-related)
f) Development of the design from the building development proposal
evaluation
• Calculation of cost-effectiveness
Architectural services and fees are contained in the respective • Cost calculation with quantity framework or building element
guidelines for each country I professional body, e.g. in Germany catalogue
HOAI (Fee Regulations for Architects and Engineers), which • Processing particular measures for the optimisation of the
has broadly the same structure as the Royal Institute of British building from work phase 2
Architects (RIBA) Architects' Plan of Work.
Collection of basic information
(HOAI, work phase 1 -7 refs)

Basic services:
1. Clarification of the task
2. Consulting concerning extent of services required
3. Assistance with decisions in the selection of specialist
engineers
4. Summary of the results

Special services:
• Recording of the existing condition
• Analysis of the location
• Production of a room or function schedule
• Investigation of the environmental impact or relevance
Preliminary design
(HOAI, work phase 2 -7 refs)

Basic services:
1. Basic analysis
2. Discussion of the aims (constraints, conflicts)
3. Production of a design-related catalogue of aims
4. Production of a design concept with alternatives (for the same
requirements) in the form of drawings and descriptions
5. Integration of the services of other involved experts
6. Clarification and explanation of the essential interactions and
conditions (e.g. town planning, construction, building services)
7. Preliminary negotiations with authorities and other technical
experts about the suitability for approval
8. Cost estimate according to DIN 276 or the local calculation
regulation
9. Summary of all results

58
 DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION MANAGEMENT
Work Phases

Building permit application

(HOAI, work phase 4 ~ refs)

Basic services:
DESIGN AND
1. Production of the application documents required for CONSTRUC-
permission or approval in accordance with official regulations, TION MANAGE-
MENT
including any application for exceptions and exemptions,
Legal basis
making use of the contributions of other specialists involved in Work phases
the design and including any negotiations necessary with the Measures of
building use
authorities. Setback areas
2. Handing in these documents. Construction
costs
3. Completion and adaptation of design documents, descriptions
and calculations making use of the contributions of other MBO
specialists involved in the design.
see also: HOAI
4. (For external works and extensions forming rooms) checking p. 57
whether permits are necessary, obtaining of permissions and
approvals.

Special services:
• Collaboration in the obtaining of approval from neighbours,
0 Building permit process (outline) production of documents for special testing procedures, expert
and organisational support of the client in protest procedures,
Building permission (MBO) legal actions etc.
The construction, alteration or change of use of buildings always • Alteration of the application documents resulting from
requires approval from the building supervision authorities. circumstances for which the appointed party is not responsible.

There are, however, exemptions for certain buildings. These are Building permit application and application documents
essentially: The building approval application contains the following details:
1. Name and address of the client
Approval-free building projects (e.g. single-storey building 2. Name and address of the architect
with a gross floor area up to 10 m2 and garages up to 30 m2 3. Description of the proposed building measure
with average wall heights of up to 3 m (except outside built-up 4. Description of the plot (street, house number, plot number etc.)
areas ~ p. 55); retaining walls and fencing up to 2 m high, 5. Utility supply and access
the alteration of load-bearing and bracing building elements in 6. Details of already granted permits
buildings of classes 1 and 2; cladding of external walls (except 7. All documents required for evaluation
to high-rise buildings); pergolas, entrance porches and facilities (layout plan, building drawings, building description, verification of
which require approval under other regulations, such as power structural safety and other technical verifications)
stations and traffic-related buildings, in which case the authority All appended documents must be signed by the client, the
responsible for the appropriate legal regulations undertakes the architect and other specialist parties.
role of building control. The building approval application is to be handed in to the
responsible council in writing, which will then forward it with
In connection with a building notification procedure, approval is their comments to the responsible building control authority.
also not required for the construction and alteration of buildings This authority will request comments from all further responsible
of low height which fully correspond to the decisions of a legally authorities (fire service, care of historic buildings, etc.) and the
binding building development plan, whose utility supply and owners of neighbouring properties.
access is ensured. This applies unless the council demands an
application under the simplified building permission procedure Building permit issue
within a certain deadline or applies for an interim prohibition. After the completion of checking, the applicant receives the written
building permit together with copies of the approved documents
The simplified building approval process is applicable for the
(possibly with conditions).
construction and alteration of buildings of classes 1-3 within the A partial building permit can be issued for single building elements
scope of validity of a legally binding building development plan, or stages (e.g. excavation) before the issue of the final building
if the proposed building corresponds to the decisions in the
permit.
building development plan to the full extent and the utility supply The building permit and partial building permit lapse if building
and access are ensured. In this case, the building control authority work is not started within one year of their issue or the works are
only checks the compliance with the regulations of the German interrupted for more than one year. This period can be prolonged
building law code concerning general permissibility.
on application.
Outline building permission Building supervision by the authorities
In advance of the building approval application, a preliminary The MBO provides for supervision during the building phase.
decision can be obtained from the building control authority about This can be limited to spot checks and essentially consists of
individual (critical) questions concerning the building approval the acceptance of the structure (testing of the construction for
appiication by making a preliminary enquiry, in order to simplify structural safety, sound and thermal insulation, fire safety) and
further processing of the building approval application. Outline final acceptance. After the final acceptance certificate has been
building permission is legally binding and valid for one year; the issued, the building can be used.
period can be prolonged on application.

59
 DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION MANAGEMENT
Work Phases

Detailed design
(HOAI, work phase 5-1 refs)

DESIGN AND Basic services:

CONSTRUC- 1. Working through the results of work phases 3 and 4
TION MANAGE-
MENT (staged processing of information and presenting solutions)
Legal basis -taking into account town planning, design, functional,
Work phases technical, building physics, economical, energy-related (e.g.
Measures of
building use rational consumption of energy), biological and ecological
Setback areas requirements- and making use of the contributions of other
Construction
costs
0 Dimensioned drawing for construction, scale 1:50 (reduced excerpt)
specialist parties, until the design is ready for construction.
2. Drawings showing the building with all details required for
see also: HOAI construction, i.e. the final, complete working drawings, details
p. 57
and construction drawings.
Honeycomb grating ---¥.-iib---,ffi'::l£*1--'~ 3. For extensions which form rooms: detailed drawings of the
Steel angle frame ----t-'*:----"'fl:WH--~ rooms and sequence of rooms at scale 1:25 to 1:1, with the
30/30/4 in concrete
rimB15 required textual details and material descriptions.
1.5 em cement rendier-t-_,;;:1-':---~W~I 4. Development of the basis for the other specialist parties
~~t, ~o~~~g~o~ r --+--'MI>':--~:o//-l
0
involved in the design and integration of their contributions until
2cmcemoentrondle~t-~~c--;~~
the design is ready for construction.
5. Continuation of the detailed design during the construction of
the building.

Special services:
• Setting up a detailed description of the proposed works as a
f) Detail drawing of cellar light shaft, scale 1:20 (reduced) building schedule, to be the basis of a works specification with
a performance specification.*!
Means I instruments for construction design • Setting up a detailed description of the proposed works as a
Construction drawings -1 0, with all the details and dimensions room schedule, to be the basis of a works specification with a
required for construction (scale 1 :50). performance specification.*)
Detailed drawings -1 f) supplement construction drawings for • Checking the working drawings produced by contracting
certain sections of the building works (scale 1 :20/1 0/5/1). companies on the basis of the works specification with
Special drawings are intended for the requirements of particular performance specification for compliance with the design.*)
specialist areas (e.g. reinforced concrete, steel or timber • Setting up detailed models. Checking and approving the
construction etc.) and only if necessary show building elements drawings of third parties who are not specialists in the design
not directly relevant to this specialist area (scale 1 :50, depending team for compliance with the construction drawings (for example
on subject). workshop drawings from companies, location and foundation
Room schedules -1 8 contain complete details about drawings from machine suppliers), as long as the services apply
dimensions (length, height, floor area, volume) of the room or to facilities which are not included in the chargeable costs.
part of the building, materials (e.g. wall finishes, floor finishes
etc.), equipment (e.g. heating, sanitary, ventilation, electrical *)This special service becomes wholly or partly a basic service if the works
are specified through a performance specification. In this case, the
installations etc.) in the form of tables. These are in some cases
corresponding basic services in this work phase are omitted.
the basis for a performance specification. Room schedules and
construction drawings can be linked with appropriate software
for tendering, contract award procedure and invoicing.

A2 room description 82 room dimensions 84 service connections for B5 values

1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3 4 5 6 1 3 6
Prov. User Area Height Volume Temp. Vent. Light Remarks
room no. Use Type Type Type Heating Ventilation Sanitary Elec. Comms. ransport
A B e {depij ~ r,;;-- f;n3- "e /h IX (addresses)
w 104 hall N 6.92 L 2.47 N 14.87 - - 1- sw TS 20 1 AS aerial connection socket
eL Sl eL ceiling light
WVT SSO power socket
w 204 bathroom/ N 3.47 L 2.475 N 8.588 eH ZWE BA WB - 24 7 TF potential equalisation
we SWswitch
WB so Sl sink
we TF 1e entry phone
SO socket
w 304 kitchen N 6.09 L 2.47 N 15.04 eH MV Sl sw - 20 4 TS telephone socket
so BAbathtub
SWL WB washbasin
sso WL wall light without SO
eL SWL ditto with switch
w 404 loggia N 1.69 L 2.363 N 4.000 eH MV - - - - we we
w 504 liv./din. N 19.77 L 2.47 N 48.63 sw AS 21 1 FB fuseboard
so eH central heating
eL MV mechanical ventilation
w 604 se!V, rm. F 0.36 L 2.475 N 0.891 - - - -
e Room schedule (short form): A2 room description

60
 DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION MANAGEMENT
Work Phases

Tender documents Preparation of I collaboration in tendering

contents of tender HOAI 15, work phases 6 + 7 ---7 refs)
covering letter technical content legal content +
(request to (1) bill of quantities (2) special contract award Basic services:
tender) OESIGNAND
conditions 1. Determination and listing of quantities as a basis for CONSTRUC-
+
(4) additional technical (3) additional contract production of the works specification, making use of the TION MANAGE-
application
regulations conditions MENT
conditions contributions of other design specialists.
Legal basis
(5) general technical (6) general contract 2. Production of the works specification and bills of quantities, Work phases
regulations terms by areas of work. Measures of
Building contract building use
3. Approval and coordination of the works specifications Setback areas
0 Tender documents required and their collection to form a building contract (VOB) produced by other design specialists. Construction
costs
4. Collection of tender documents for all areas of work.
5. Obtaining of tenders. BS ISO 15686-5
Tender and contract ASTM E917-05
6. Checking and assessment of tenders, including the
The contract award procedure aims to create a contract structure DIN 276
production of a price comparison list, by work sections.
which will guarantee that the plans of a project are carried out
7. Checking and collation of the services of specialists see also: HOAI
within the framework of civil law with its accompanying regulations p. 57
collaborating in the tendering process. VOB p. 57
(---7 p. 57). The contract can be awarded when tenders have been
8. Negotiations with bidders.
received for defined tender documents (specifications, contract
9. Cost forecast according to DIN 276 from the unit or lump sum
conditions and letter stating the possibilities of seeing the tender
prices of the tenders.
documents, location and date of the opening deadline, additional
10. Collaboration in the awarding of the contract.
costs deadline, binding deadline etc.).

The priced tender documents and signature of the bidder or their Special services:
authorised representative constitute an offer, and if these are • Production of work specifications with performance specification,
accepted and the contract awarded, they become, unaltered, the making use of building schedules I room schedules.*)
building contract ---7 0. • Production of alternative work specifications for distinct areas
of work.
Building contracts (and thus also tender documents) should • Production of comparative cost outlines, with evaluation of the
comprehensively and completely remove any differences of contributions of other specialists.
opinion between the contract parties in advance and clearly • Checking and assessing the tenders from the works specification
regulate the duties on each side. with performance specification, including price comparison
list.*!
The specification of the works is therefore the basis for the • Production, checking and assessment of price comparison lists
later building contract. This consists either of bill of quantities or for special requirements.
performance specification and building specification:
*I see note p. 60
Bills of quantities ---7 f) are listings of the individual items
(description of a part of the works according to type, quality,
quantity, dimensions with an item number) and can be structured Item Quantity Description Unit price Total price
by batch (building stage, building phase/production phase) or title Example 1 -quantities and unit prices outside the text
(trade-related).
2.02 105.0 m2 construct ground slab of in-situ concrete
Performance specifications are functional descriptions of the B 25, d = 15 em incl. formwork. The surfaces
are to be formed with falls to gullies.
essential design, technical and economic requirements of the
for 1 m2 35.70 3748.50
completed work. In contrast to bills of quantities, they do not have
a detailed listing of individual items. disadvantages: a) extensive space required for text
b) no details about unit price components
The bills of quantities are normally supplemented by preliminaries c) unit price not in words

in the form of general and general technical contract Example 2- unit price inside the text
conditions (= VOB/B or VOB/C), additional and additional
2.02 105.0 m2 construct ground slab of in-situ concrete B 25, d = 15 em incl.
technical contract conditions from clients who regularly
formwork. The surfaces are to be formed with falls to gullies.
award building works (e.g. German Railways, State of Berlin) wages: € 24.60
and special contract conditions, which regulate conditions for material: € 11.10
special cases. other: €-.- for 1m2 35.70 3748.50
unit price in words: thirty five 70/100
Software is almost always used for the production of bills of disadvantages: quantity and unit price not on one line
quantities today, because this field is ideal for computerisation
due to the linking of tender data with detailed design. The Example 3- unit price and quantity inside the text and on one line

Standard Book of Bill Items (StLB} for the building industry helps 2.02 construct ground slab of in-situ concrete B 25, d = 15 em incl.
with the production of bills of quantities with standard text building formwork. The surfaces are to be formed with falls to gullies.
blocks for individual items, which are assigned to the appropriate 105m2
W/M/0: € 24.60/€ 11.1 0/€ -.-
areas of work (these approximate to trades according to VOB/C).
Model bills of quantities for the production of bills are similar to unit price in words: thirty five 70/100 35.70 3748.50
standard books. They include possible text blocks (texts are created
advantages: a) extensive space saving
by deleting) and are generally very extensive. Manufacturer's b) quantity x unit price= total price in one line
model bills of quantities for the production of bills offer additional
information and are useful for particular constructional solutions. f) Bill of quantities (example)

61
 DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION MANAGEMENT
Work Phases

No.

11
Activity week

Preliminary design
12 Design
- ...
5

~~
~
10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45
Supervision and support of construction
(HOAI, work phases 8 + 9 ---7 refs)

..
13 Approvals application
Basic services:
DESIGN
AND CON-
STRUCTION
14 Building permission
15 Detailed design
•• ~
1. Supervision of the construction of the works for compliance
with the building permit, the construction drawings and the
MANAGEMENT 16 Tendering structure ~
• • _Ill
specifications, as well as the generally recognised qualities of

• •...
Legal basis 17 Tendering finishings
Work phases workmanship and applicable regulations.
Measures of
21 Preliminary structural design ~ 2. Monitoring of the construction of load-bearing structures with
building use 22 Structural design
Setback areas
Construction
costs
23 Working drawings
31 Work preparation
•~· _1111,
a low degree of difficulty for compliance with the structural
safety certificate.
3. Coordination of the parties involved in supervision of the
32 Structural frame works
BS ISO 15686-5
33 Finishing works
works.
ASTM E917-05 4. Supervision and correction of the details of prefabricated
DIN 276
0 Building schedule as bar chart elements.
see also: HOAI 5. Production and monitoring of a construction time plan (bar
p. 57
chart).
6. Keeping a building site diary.
7. Joint measuring up of work with the contracting firms.
8. Acceptance of building works in collaboration with other
design and supervision specialists and identification of
defects.
9. Checking invoices.
10. Final cost statement according to DIN 276 or the local
calculation regulation.
11. Application to authorities for grants, with follow-up.
12. Handing over the building, including collection and issue of
required documents.
13. Listing of guarantee periods.
14. Monitoring of the remediation of defects identified at
acceptance.
15. Cost control through the checking of works invoices from
contracting firms and comparison with the contract prices and
f) Network diagram; example: forward arrow method I Critical Path Method (CPM)
cost estimate.
16. Inspection of the works to identify defects before the expiry of
Techniques of work scheduling
the guarantee periods applicable to the relevant contractors.
Bar charts ---7 0 show the work activities vertically and the 17. Monitoring of the remediation of defects occurring within the
relevant construction time horizontally in a coordinate system. The guarantee period, but at the latest before five years since the
duration of each activity is shown by the length of the relevant bar. acceptance of the building works.
Following activities are shown below each other. Bar charts are 18. Collaboration in the release of securities.
widely used in construction because they are simple and easy to
19. Systematic collection of the drawings and calculation results
understand. However, the interdependencies of activities (critical for the building.
paths) and working directions can scarcely be shown.
Special services:
Line diagrams (time-distance diagrams) show a linear graph of
• Set up, monitor and update a payment plan.
the relationship between work time and distance (or work quantity)
• Set up, monitor and update comparative progress, cost or
in a coordinate system. The speed of work (the slope of the line)
capacity schedules.
and the critical spacings of individual work activities (mutual
• Activity as responsible construction manager, to the extent that
hindrance) can be made clear. Line diagrams are mainly used
this exceeds the basic services of work phase 8 according to the
for construction processes with a pronounced direction of work
relevant state regulation.
(roads, tunnels etc.).
• Production of as-built drawings.
• Production of equipment and materials lists.
Network diagrams ---7 f) are used for the analysis, planning and
• Production of maintenance and care instructions.
control of complex construction sequences with consideration of
• Building security.
as many parameters as possible. The sequence of work is divided
• Building administration.
into part activities or events, which are shown as nodes (Metra
• Building visits after handover.
Potential Method (MPM), event node method/ Program Evaluation
• Supervision of maintenance and care.
and Review Technique (PERT)) or arrows (Critical Path Method
• Preparation of payment material for a project file.
(CPM)), with nodes shown as starting and finishing events. Nodes
• Enquiries and cost calculations for standard cost evaluations.
thus indicates important process or event parameters.
• Checking the building and operating cost-use analysis

62
 DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION MANAGEMENT
Measures of Building Use

Measures of building use ____. 0

The land use regulation specifies parameters for the measurement
of building use in planning law: the plot coverage ratio determines
built area total storey area the permissible ratio of built area on the plot (plan area of building DESIGN AND
Plot coverage ratio (PCR) ~ plot area Floor area ratio (FAR) ~ plot area including garages, parking places and their access, subsidiary CONSTRUC-
TION MANAGE-
areas. . . and underground facilities beneath the plot) and the MENT
floor-area ratio (determines the permissible ratio of storey area Legal basis
(external dimensions of all full floors, without subsidiary areas... , Work phases
Measures of
balconies, loggias, terraces and structures which are permissible building use
inside setback areas) to the plot area. Setback areas
The building mass number represents how many cubic metres Construction
costs
of building mass (external dimensions of the building facilities
from floor level of the lowest to the ceiling of the highest full BS7641
ISO 9836
storey, including occupied rooms in the intermediate floors ASTM C1407-98
with their stairwells, surrounding walls and slabs but without DIN 277

Full storey (according to MBO):

subsidiary rooms ... , balconies, loggias, terraces and structures see also: Land
built volume
Building mass number (BMN) ~ plot area Ceiling height over 2/3 of the which are permissible inside the setback area under state law) are use regulation
floor area min 2.30 m, slab permissible per square metre of plot area. p. 56
level min. +1.40 m.

0 Measures of building use Gross floor area

Housing area regulations____. p. 136

Housing area regulations apply to calculations of residential Technical function area
area according to the law to promote living space (includes
housing subsidies): the living area of a dwelling covers all rooms f) Breal<down of floor areas (according to DIN 277-1)

which belong exclusively to the relevant dwelling, including

conservatories, swimming pools (if enclosed on all sides), Floor areas and volumes
balconies, loggias, terraces, but not subsidiary rooms (cellars, DIN 277 contains parameters for the calculation of floor areas and
garages etc:), offices and rooms which do not comply with the room volumes of buildings ____. f). All parameters are calculated
building regulations. separately according to whether they belong to the following
The floor area of a room is determined from the clear dimensions categories:
between the building elements, from the outer face of the element's a) roofed over and enclosed on all sides
cladding (which includes window and door claddings, skirting b) roofed over but not enclosed on all sides
boards, stoves, ovens, baths, built-in furniture, free-standing c) not roofed over
installations, movable partitions). The floor area is measured in
completed rooms or from a suitable building drawing. The gross floor area is the sum of the plan area of all levels
Floor areas are included in the calculation either completely (for (without usable roof areas), measured between the external
rooms and parts of rooms with a clear ceiling height of at least dimensions of the surrounding building elements at floor height.
2 m), or a half (for rooms and parts of rooms with a clear ceiling The constructional floor area is the sum of the plan area of all
height of at least 1 m and less than 2 m) or a quarter (balconies, surrounding building elements (walls, columns, pillars, chimneys,
loggias, terraces etc.). non-accessible shafts, door openings, niches, apertures)
measured between the external dimensions at floor height. The
Calculation of commercial letting areas net floor area is the usable floor area between the building
The guidelines for the calculation of commercial letting areas, elements (without door and window openings, cut-outs and
issued by the Property Industry Research Company (GIF) creates niches) measured at floor level. The net floor area is the sum of the
a uniform standard for the determination of leased commercial usable area (area which serves the building's intended purpose),
and office space. The leased space is calculated from two types the technical function area (rooms for building services, such
of area: as utility connection room, accessible shafts, etc.) and the traffic
1. Areas with exclusive right of use, individually listed in types area (e.g. stairwells, corridors, lift shafts, escape balconies etc.).
of area according to DIN 277: basement garage with number of The gross built volume is the sum of the floor areas of all levels
places (see above), indirectly usable areas (loggias, balconies, multiplied by the relevant height (measured between top of floor
atriums, areas with room heights between 1.50 m and 2.30 m. covering and top of floor covering of the next level, in the basement
2. Areas with communal right of use, individually listed as: from the underside of the constructional structural invert in the
rooms for communal use (WCs/bathrooms, staff rooms, etc.) and roof to the top of the roof covering, without external stairs, light
communal traffic areas (entrance halls, corridors, etc.). wells, roof overhangs, dormer windows, chimneys, etc.). The net
The following do not belong to the letting area: stairs, lifts, built volume is the net floor area multiplied by the relevant clear
emergency exits, escape balconies, services rooms, shafts, ceiling height.
protection rooms, areas of columns, pillars and separate walls,
areas with a clear ceiling height of 1.50 m or less.
The relevant areas are measured at floor level between solid walls
(including skirtings and fittings built in on site (radiators etc.), and
room heights are measured between top of finished floor level and
underside of the (suspended) ceiling.

63
 DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION MANAGEMENT
Setback Areas

Setback areas are the spaces between buildings and their plot
boundaries.
1. Setback areas next to above-ground buildings have to be kept
DESIGN AND
free in front of the external walls of buildings___. 0- f). This
CONSTRUC- also applies to other facilities with effects similar to buildings,
TION MANAGE- which are opposite buildings and plot boundaries. Setback
MENT
areas are not required in front of external walls which are built
Legal basis
Work phases 0 Setback areas f) Building on the boundary on plot boundaries, if they may be or must be built on the
Measures of boundary according to planning regulations ___. f).
building use
Setback areas 2. Setback areas must be on the plot itself___. 0- f). They may
Construction also lie on public traffic, green and water areas, but only to
costs
their centre. Setback areas and spaces may wholly or partly
MBO extend onto other plots, if it is certain according to public law
LBO
that they cannot be built on, though they may not be deducted
from the other plot's setback areas.
3. Setback areas may not overlap unless:
- the external walls are at an angle of more than 75° to each
other_.e
- they are external walls facing a garden courtyard in
e
dwellings of building classes 1 and 2 ___.

e Overlapping of setback areas at

more than 75°
G Overlapping of setback areas with a
garden courtyard
- buildings and other built facilities are permissible in the
setback areas.
4. The depth of the setback area is measured according to wall
height___. 8- 0.This is measured at right angles to the wall.
Wall height means the dimension from ground level to upper
extent of the wall or to the intersection of the wall with the
Depth of setback area = Depth of setback area =
(1/3 RH + WH) x 0.4 (RH + WH) x 0.4 roof covering ___.G. The height of roofs with a pitch of ~70° is
included to one third, ~70° fully with the wall height___. 0.The
same applies to roof projections___. 0.
T
II IIIII ~.IQ:_
RH 5. The depth of setback areas differs in the various state building

WH
t regulations (LBO)). According to the model building regulations
(MBO), it is 0.4 x H, but at least 3 m (0.2 x H, min. 3 m for
I commercial and industrial areas). In front of the outside walls of
RH = roof height RH = roof height building classes 1 and 2 with not more than three overground
WH =wall height WH =wall height
storeys, 3 m depth is also sufficient. In some LBOs, there are
e Depth of the setback area Q Depth of the setback area with a
roof pitch of more than 70"
further exceptions (e.g. narrow side privilege).
6. Building elements projecting from the outside wall (cornices,
roof overhang) are not considered in the measurement of
setback areas ___.e. Projections remain unconsidered if they:
- take up altogether less than one third of the width of the
Depth of setback area = L=max.1/3BW
outside wall
(WH + RP + 1/3 RH) x 0.4 - project by a max. 1.50 m in front of the outside wall
-stay at least 2 m distant from the opposing plot boundary
7. The following are permissible inside the setback area of a
building and do not have their own setback areas (even if they
are built on the plot boundary or on the building) ___. 0 - 4Ji):
- garages and buildings without occupied rooms or fireplaces
RP = roof projection
with an average wall height of up to 3 m and a total length
WH =wall height per plot boundary of 9 m ___. 0
- solar energy systems independent of the building with a
8 Depth of the setback area with roof
projections (roof window)
e Projecting building elements height of up to 3 m and a total length per plot boundary
of9 m
- retaining walls and closed fencing in commercial and
industrial areas, outside these areas with a height of up
to 2 m ___. 4Ji). The depth of setback areas opposite plot
boundaries but not stopping building may not altogether
exceed 15 m on the plot.

f) Garages 4I!) Walls, fencing

64
 DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION MANAGEMENT

L.v
Construction Costs
······
e--·
I Influence over the building costs reduces very rapidly during

1\""'
the course of design and construction. The parties involved in
the preparation of the project have the greatest influence over
the building costs, because decisions are made at this time DESIGN AND
~
about the size, volume etc. of the project. In the further course CONSTRUC-

~ of construction, costs can be influenced only to a decreasing

degree. The flow of money behaves the other way around; it is still
TION MANAGE-
MENT

~ very small in the preparation phase and increases in steps --:> 0.

Legal basis
Work phases
!'-----1------ Efficient cost control should therefore always attempt to apply Measures of
r-----I--t------ the brakes during the work phases of a project; control as part of
building use
Setback areas
t--t-- works planning (material selection, etc.) normally has, by way of Construction
......
,-
.. contrast, no noticeable success . costs

~ ~ ~~
c
0 c §
"' ·"'.1] c
1
BS ISO 15686-5

li
e>m

Ii
• c
Ee>
E •
=ID
~~ C>C.
aJ • =.
E E
~"'
~ c E
g
HOAI requirements ASTM E917-05
DIN 276
~
"-m a_ :§ft ro E
• HOAI obliges the architect to produce four determinations of cost see also: HOAI
5. 0
p. 57
c________ l___ L ~ l___
'----
during the course of design and construction: cost estimate, cost
0 Influence on the construction costs in the course of design and construction
calculation, cost forecast, final cost statement). These cost
determinations are basic services --:> pp. 58-62. They are regarded
as basic services with a special weighting, i.e. neglecting a cost
Cost group determination can have dire legal consequences in the case of a
1st level 2nd level 3rd level Description dispute.
100 plot
Basic rules of cost determination
200 site preparation and utility connections
The basic rules of cost determination are laid down in DIN 276.
300 construction This classifies the building costs into seven cost groups and three
~ 012 ... - masonry (cost) levels--:> f). Each cost determination must be structured in
~ 012.111 - cored block internal wall the same way and consist of defined building blocks:
block type 12/1.6 1. Statements about the cost in all cost groups
mortar group: II
2. Building description
wall thickness: 11.5 em
3. Cost situation at the time of the determination
400 building services
4. Details of VAT
500 external works 5. Date of the cost determination
600 finishing and artworks 6. Reference to the relevant design work
700 ancillary costs, professional fees
Cost forecast
f) Breakdown of costs, DIN 276
The cost forecast is the most precise determination of the building
costs, taking place in work phase 7 (collaboration in tendering).
Cost estimate
The cost forecast is based on:
The cost estimate is for the approximate determination of
1. complete construction drawings, details, etc.
construction costs. It is included in work phase 2 (preliminary
2. structural verifications, thermal insulation calculations etc.
design). It is based on: 3. calculations of quantities of reference units in the cost groups
1. results of the preliminary design (if necessary as a sketch),
or bill items
2. calculation of the quantities of reference units in the cost
4. building description with explanations of construction
groups 5. listing of tenders, awards and already accrued costs
3. explanations and building description
4. details of plot, utility supply and access. As the last cost determination before the start of construction,
The cost estimate should contain the total costs according to this has particular significance. The cost forecast should include
cost groups at the 1st level of cost breakdown and thus has at the total cost according to cost groups down to the 3rd level
least seven items of cost data. The required description should of cost breakdown and contain 218 individual cost data. The
correspond to the state of information of the preliminary design building description belonging to the cost forecast corresponds
to the state of design and has the highest degree of detail in the
Cost calculation course of the design work. The purpose of the cost forecast is to
The cost calculation is defined as 'approximate determination' produce a document before the start of construction based on
of the construction costs. It is part of work phase 3 (preliminary tenders, awards, already accrued costs and, if necessary, extra
design). The basis for the cost calculation are: calculations, because this is the only possibility of cost control
1. complete design drawings and, if appropriate, details and correction.
2. calculation of the quantities of reference units in the cost
groups Final cost statement
3. descriptions relevant for the calculation. The final cost statement serves to record the actual costs accrued
The cost calculation should determine the total costs according to for purposes of comparison and documentation. The final .c.ost
cost groups down to the 2nd level of cost breakdown and contain is based on: 1. checked invoices, 2. remeasurement quantities,
40 individual items of cost data. 3. explanations. In the final cost statement, the total costs should
The building description should correspond to the differentiated be classified down to the 2nd level of cost breakdown.
state of information of the preliminary design.
(Drawings and text from: Neddermann, slightly abbreviated --:>
refs)

65
 FOUNDATIONS
Building Excavations

Setting out
Before the start of groundworks, the planned building is set out
on the plot by a publicly appointed surveyor working from the
official site plan in the building permit documents. The intended
excavation for the building (basement) is marked out with pegs
~ 0 - 0. To secure the points that have been set out, profile

FOUNDATIONS
*-·- -·
- · - . - datum point
boards ~ eare set up, set back from the planned top of the
excavation's batter (sloped bank). After the excavation, string
Building
excavations
Foundations
0 Official site plan f) Site plan with building's dimensions
lines are stretched between the profiles to mark the corners of
the building again. The intersections of the string lines are then
Tanking neighbour
plumbed down to mark the external corners of the building.
Basement
drainage
Repair The levels also have to be set out. These are based on benchmarks
peg in the surroundings. Geometric surveying measures the difference
in height of a horizontally set up level from a benchmark with a
levelling staff held vertically ~ 0. Intermediate levels can be
working obtained with a long spirit level, normally a 3 m long light metal
area rail with built-in bubble, and a measuring stick~ 0. Hydrostatic
<;50
levelling uses a water level, a flexible hose filled with water. This
has glass cylinders at each end calibrated in mm, and can be used
_.-·- road
to transfer levels between points without visual contact because
the water in the tube finds the same level at each end.
0 Building (basement) excavation e Planned house set out on the lot

level

line

··'···,;._. ~ightrail
setting board, mostly 3m long;
intermediate levels measured ···~:-~.; ~-- .------- --
with a scaled rod . :·

0 House In the excavation e Spirit level ·, ·.... :·. ~

v
embankment
profile

setting out

short building line

{string below)
survey rod
on the site

f) Profile boards e Profile boards

boundary

fi) How the profile boards are used to set out the building --> 0

levelling excavation for planned building

instrument
finished ground
floor level ±0.00

CJ) Surveying the building site

66
 FOUNDATIONS
Profile- Plumb
line
Building Excavations

Incorrect interpretation of the subsoil and groundwater conditions,

Prop and the behaviour of the planned foundations, often lead to
Formwork

Wa~
technically and economically irreparable damage. This applies
particularly to lateral displacement of the soil under foundation
loading (load-bearing failure of the ground, slope failure),
' where the foundations sink into the soil or are laterally displaced,
hso~ +~so+ or settlement, through compression of the subsoil under the
foundations due to ground pressure and/or loads applied next to FOUNDATIONS
0 Building excavation with working f) Building excavation with working
the foundations. The results can be deformation or cracking in Building
space and battered side space and support excavations
masonry. Foundations
No load Tanking

,.
surlace of terrain
Soil investigation
If there is insufficient local experience about the properties,
Basement
drainage
Repair
extent, bedding and thickness of the soil strata on the site, a soil BS 6031
investigation performed as early as possible by a geotechnical BS EN 14199
specialist is essential. The specialist can obtain information BS 22475
DIN 1054
through trial pits (excavator or hand excavation), drilling DIN 4123/4
boreholes (auger/rotary/core drilling), with extraction of samples,
and probing (number and depth depending on the topography,
structure and particular investigation). The groundwater table is
measured with gauges in boreholes and regular measurement of
variations in level.
C) Battered side to building excavation with banks to catch slipping material
Soil investigations should provide data for the design and
construction of the building without technical or economic
problems:

-Soil samples are tested for grading, water content, consistency,

density, compressibility, shear strength and permeability. -
Probing provides continuous information about strength and
density for the investigated depth. - Groundwater samples
can be investigated for aggressiveness towards concrete.- The
results of the investigations are provided to the client as a site
investigation report.
Q Shotcrete applied to slope 0 Steel beam support with concrete
filling Building excavations
Basement excavations are normally battered (with sloped banks)
--7 0. The following slope angle ~ can normally be assumed
without verification of the structural safety by calculation:

a) non-cohesive or soft, cohesive soils 13 ~450

b) stiff or semi-hard, cohesive soils 13 ~60°
c) rock 13 ~soo.

In order to provide protection against surface water, frost and

drying out, it is recommended to cover batter slopes with
protective foil, shotcrete or similar and also possibly to keep
water away from the top of the batter --7 0. If the excavation is
0 Sheet pile wall with earth anchors 0 Wall support with round timbers deep, it must be expected that parts of the slope will slide, even if
the angle is correct. Banks should therefore be provided to break
up the slope --7 8. If the ground will not stand up or the space
is limited, then the sides must be supported. This can be done
with thick, vertical planks tied with ground anchors or braced --7
0, steel profiles with a filling of round or squared timber --7 0 or
sheet steel piles --7 0. Difficult cases, where the support can
be integrated as a part of the later foundations, are constructed
with bored piles or diaphragm walls supported with bentonite. A
working space of ~50 em should be provided between the foot
of the batter or support construction --7 0 - f).

so!
e Vertical support with trench planks €) Wall support with thick vertical
boards

67
 I'/~=
FOUNDATIONS
Intended building~ ~~~o:=== Building Excavations
Ground level

Initial excavation flm/1

t
... ·-Uild9iSidB Oi fOUndation
j .

!j .
~~;~;~~
Cellar floor
level
Intended building r.' .1~=>0="' Underpinning
I.? ~round level II Existing
If a new building is to be erected directly next to an existing
~ I ',: ·
building
Excavation limit .
building with the underside of its foundations at a higher level,
Initial excavation i . Cellar floor
after completion:: fill ',, ~ then the existing foundations have to be underpinned to prevent
ll~lt 1
of underpinning .. j ~ .; U1 level
--1-- ::
lO
-rd 'l' :\U Un~rslde of 1oundab : , 'Y / damage to the existing building through settlement or ground
~roundwate( >:.~.~ :~ +~ __~.ci Groundwater failure.
All ~0.5
~0.5 All .... ~ Excavations, foundations and underpinning work next to existing
BUJ!drng excavatron 1- ; Underpinning
FOUNDATIONS according to DIN 4124 {masonry, concrete buildings should therefore be thoroughly and carefully designed,
Building or reinforced prepared, planned and constructed in accordance with DIN 4123
excavations
Foundations
Tanking
Basement
drainage
Repair
concrete)

~rf- -
~ :st c~~=~~ctloni
--7 0- f).
A competent site manager must be present on the site during
the underpinning work.
Even work undertaken with careful planning and construction in
BS EN 1997 tl ., r. accordance with this standard cannot rule out slight deformation
BS 8004 M ~.J of the existing building, according to condition and type of

1 stage I
DIN 4123 construction .
Following
. _ construction '
Fine cracking and settlement of the underpinned building by
~ \~:• up to 5 mm is generally considered unavoidable. It is therefore
~ :~·; recommended to perform a survey of the existing building before
~ } 1st
construct! on starting work, with the participation of all involved parties, to
stage
determine its condition and survey reference levels and possibly
0 Underpinning existing adjacent f) Foundations also deflection points.
structures

Groundwater
If the bottom of the excavation is below the water table, then
special measures will be required:
This can be open dewatering, with the water being continuously
pumped out of sumps in the bottom, trenches and drains --7 e.
If the quantity of water is higher, then closed dewatering is
necessary --7 0: the groundwater is lowered using underwater
pumps (with a safety distance of about 50 em) under the base of
the excavation.
If the excavation is larger or deeper, however, there is a risk that
this lowering of the water table could impair the soil conditions
0 Excavation below the water table- buoyancy of the structure near the site (settlement of neighbouring buildings!) or the use
of public surface water drains could be forbidden. In this case,
the entire area of the bottom of the excavation will have to be
waterproofed.
To achieve this, the excavation is normally supported with a
continuous back-anchored sheet pile or diaphragm wall. Then
the excavation is dug down to floor level 'under water' and an
underwater concrete base designed to be safe from floating
is laid (if necessary, from a pontoon). After the concrete has
hardened, the water can be pumped out and any leaks grouted.
Alternatively, a soft gel base can be constructed by grouting the
subsoil with sodium silicate plus a chemical hardener additive to
produce a nearly waterproof layer.
The actual structure with external walls of watertight concrete
can be built in the basin produced in this way.
e Open dewatering

Without Batter angle Trench with

side support according to partial
-dangerous soil type support

0 Groundwater control and lowering 0 Trenches for drainage

68
 FOUNDATIONS
Foundations

Foundations can be constructed as spread or shallow foundations

(pad foundations ---+ 0, strip footing ---+ f), ground-bearing
slab or raft ---+ 9) or deep foundations (piled foundations ---+ 0
---+ p. 70).
Spread foundations
0 Pad foundations for a lightweight f) Strip footings are the most Masonry foundations are technically feasible but seldom used
building without cellar commonly used
today on account of the high cost. FOUNDATIONS
Unreinforced concrete foundations are used for smaller widths Building
and relatively small buildings. excavations
Foundations
Reinforced concrete foundations are used where the ground Tanking
pressure is higher or the projection outside the wall is wider---+ 0- 0 Basement
(reinforcement to resist the tension forces ---+ 0). Reinforced drainage
Repair
concrete requires less thickness, weight and excavation depth than
unreinforced concrete. The detailing of foundations at expansion BS 8004
BS 22475
joints and next to existing buildings or boundaries is shown in ---+ Ci). DIN 1054
Raft foundations ---+ ~ are used where the load-bearing capacity
of the subsoil is low or where pad foundations or strip footings are
insufficient to bear the load.
The foundation level must be at a frost-free depth, so that the
subsoil under it cannot move due to freezing and thawing.

0 Raft foundation with steel reinforcement e Pile grillage and caisson deep
foundations
According to DIN 1054, a depth of 0.80 m (for engineered
structures 1.0-1.5 m) counts as frost-free.
Improvement in the load-bearing capacity of the subsoil
3.0m 0.5m a) Vibroflotation compaction: uses vibration to compact a
r--------1 .---.-i
radius of 2.3-3 m; spacing of the vibration cores approx.
1.5 m. Settlement is topped up. The improvement depends on
the grading of the soil and its original bedding density.
b) Vibro stone columns: columns are formed by vibration of
aggregate of various grading without binder.
c) Stabilisation and compaction of the soil: Cement grouting
cannot be used for soils which are cohesive or aggressive to
cement. Grouting with chemicals (silica solution, potassium
chloride) produces immediate and permanent petrifaction, but
can be used only with soils containing quartz (gravel, loose
Wide foundations result in greater permissible stresses than narrow foundations rock).
for the same ground pressure.

j~~
a) Foundation b) Foundation
thzzz})zzzzz9J
a) Raft of uniform depth

~~
b) Rafl reinforced wilh beams

The overlapping of areas Foundations on sandflll of Foundations

loaded by adjacent 0.80 to 1.20 m thickness, next to a slope.
foundations brings the compacted in layers of 15 em Pressure
danger of settlement or and soaked, can distribute distribution lines-
cracking, an important loading onto a wider area. angle of slope of c) Construclion d) Foundation next
wilh divided to existing
fact to remember for the subsoil. invert slab building d) Reinforcement under columns
new buildings next to
existing buildings. Q Foundation details at separation fii) Sections through raft
and expansion joints foundations

8 Simple strip footing of lean concrete e Widened, stepped foundations of

unreinforced concrete
Widening foundations of unreinforced
concrete
Still wider strip foundations
of reinforced concrete

69
 , ·r~~
FOUNDATIONS
~ -~==:> ~ Foundations

(a) ground retained in situ (b) rear anchored ln situ (c) in situ concrete or sheet Deep foundations
~~t~i~r~~ ~aireet piling ~~~~~~~~ ~ai~eet piling r~!~~t~~~~~"r~g wall built Deep foundations are used where sufficiently load-bearing strata

:T J7J:7
only occur at a great depth under the planned building and thus
cannot be reached by shallow foundations.

They are normally constructed of reinforced concrete piles, which

transfer the loading from the building through the weak ground to
(d) concrete structure {e) gravity wall (f) retaining wall with
FOUNDATIONS against a retaining heel and toe the load-bearing ground below. The design of piled foundations
wall
Building is based on the permissible loading on the ground and the type,
excavations
Foundations 0 Building elements designed to resist active ground pressure properties, extent, density and thickness of the subsoil layers,
Tanking which have to be established by investigation boreholes and
Basement
drainage
probing if local experience cannot deliver sufficient certainty.
Repair

BS EN 12794 Basic terms

DIN EN 1536 The force in the pile can be transferred to the stable ground by

~ ?:.5·8
skin friction, end-bearing or a combination of both (the type of
~6m

* determined by greatest bore depth urn load transfer depends on the ground conditions and type of pile).

Standing pile foundations: load transfer is through the end of the

pile into load-bearing ground, additionally through skin friction.

Hanging pile foundations: the pile ends do not reach load-

f) Minimum depths for structural boring
bearing ground. Weakly load-bearing layers are compacted by the
driving of the pile.

Piles are categorised according to the method of load transfer

into: friction piles, which essentially transfer load into load-
bearing layers by skin friction between the pile surface and the
- ii;3df-- ground. End-bearing piles mainly transfer load into the ground
~2d" ~1.10m through pressure under the end, with skin friction being irrelevant.
8 Bored piles (principle) The permissible force on the can be increased considerably by
making the end larger (under-reaming).

According to the location of the piles in the ground, they can be

§ ground piles, which are underground for their entire length, while
-6~ long piles (free-standing piles) are in the ground only for part of
<00>
oc their length and the upper part is free-standing, and therefore at
!';::::
""'
0 ~ risk of buckling.
c.o

·... · .·.. ·. ·.
:!]~ ::.~'
~~7;20 According to the method of installation, there are piles which
.. ·: \ :·.:·j:·.: ·:.~~;.'•:' compact, displace or loosen the ground. Driven piles (driven with
. : ··:
',.
•' . ·.·.: ... ·=2dfl
>. ·.... .:. ~·. a pile hammer), pressed piles (pressed in), bored piles (installed
".
e ·~· ·;; .· .... ·.·.. ·. . . '•. in a bored hole), screwed piles (turned into the ground) and jetted
e;;:;';d~tm+d piles Qetted into the ground).
G Driven plies (principle)
According to the type of loading, they can be: axially loaded
piles, tension piles (which are loaded in tension and transfer
the force in the pile into the ground through skin friction),
compression piles (which are loaded in compression and
transfer load through end pressure and skin friction) and piles
. . . . .0 . . · . subject to bending (for example horizontally loaded large-
. ·.· .· ·.. ~·.· diameter bored piles).
:: '... : ·.. *:,' .:
According to the method of production and installation, piles
0 Required depth of load-bearing subsoil under bored plies (guideline values)
can be:

- precast piles, in prefabricated lengths or complete, which are

delivered to the site and driven into the ground, jetted, vibrated,
pressed, screwed or inserted into prepared holes.
- in-situ piles, which are concreted in a hole prepared in the
ground by boring, driving, pressing or vibrating.
- mixed foundation piles, which consist of a combination of
locally produced and prefabricated components.
In-situ piles have the advantage that their length can be determined

e Pressed concrete bored pile (Brechtel system)

during construction, from the data recorded during driving or from
the inspection of the spoil from boring.

70
 - - - - - - - - Vertical timber boarding (2.5 em) FOUNDATIONS
Battens and counterbattens (5 em)
- - - - - - - - Wind proofing Tanking, Basement Drainage
- - - - - - - - Timber stud construction
with thermal insulation (12 em)

Waterproofing
External walls and slabs in contact with the ground must be
Floor construction (approx 20 em) waterproofed against damp under external pressure. External
and internal walls in cellars and ground floors without cellars also
~~~~~~-- Horizontal waterproofing have to be protected with horizontal waterproofing against rising
Reinforced concrete floor slab (20 em)
damp.
Lean concrete (5 em)

Coarse gravel (30 em) This occurs as ground moisture (capillary, suction and residual FOUNDATIONS
Geotextile water in the ground, which can be carried against gravity by Building
excavations
Seepage board capillary action) or seepage water, from precipitation and non-
Reinforced concrete frost apron Foundations
standing, which is not under pressure (e.g. earth-covered cellar Tanking
117'~'74----+------- Vertical waterproofing Basement
roofs under courtyards), as well as water under pressure from drainage
L•. UG'L:~:;L.::+------- Foundation trench
the outside or occasionally standing water (groundwater and Repair
floodwater).
0 Plinth detail of a timber-framed building without cellar with open ground BS 8000-4
BS 8102
transition in strongly permeable soil
Waterproofing materials can be sheet material from the roll based BS EN 13967/9
DIN 4095
on bitumen, plastic or elastomer, metal bands, mastic asphalt or DIN 18195
thick plastic-modified bitumen coatings.
1 1 1 - - - + - - - - - - 2-layer external render (2 ern)
- - + - - - - - - H i g h l y insulating masonry (36.5 em) Vertical and horizontal waterproofing layers are to be brought
together and sealed so that no moisture bridges remain. They
must generally be continued 30 em above ground level. Protective
layers should also be provided in order to protect the waterproofing
until the assignment of the various types of waterproofing to the
.,ii~~;--- Floor construction (approx 15 em) various actions of water is shown in -+ 0.
Reinforced concrete floor slab (20 em)
~J:::=:=:=:=-- Insulation insert Type of building Nature of water Installation Type of water
element situation action
H!'==-:=t------- Locating block
11---+------ Seepage board walls and slabs in capillary water very permeable soil ground
contact with the residual water >10-"' m/s dampness and
ground above seepage water non-standing
the estimated low permeability seepage water
water table soil ,;10" m/s with
drainage

:c;;:4LJ...,.Jiii~-- Floor construction (approx. 20 em) low permeability

soil ,;10" m/s
standing
seepage water
Reinforced concrete base slab (20 em) without drainage
_____j~z:'Z~~~~~~~~= r:~~~~~g!~~ (5 em) (up to foundation
depth of 3 m below
ground level)
f) Plinth detail of a building with masonry cellar walls in weakly permeable or
cohesive soil horizontal and precipitation used roof areas water without
sloping surfaces water (e.g. covered cellar pressure, high
in the ground seepage water roof) loading

walls and slabs in groundwater any type of soil, water under

contact with the flood water building and pressure from
ground below construction outside
the estimated
1~+11-1-+------- Air gap (min. 3 em) water table

Precast concrete element (4- 6 em),

4
'0ir~~-~-~-~-~-~-~-~-i----_-_-_ not water-absorbing, salt-resistant Building elements In contact with the ground: water action, installation situation
1l Floor construction (15 em) and type of waterproofing

~~~~~,2--- Reinforced concrete floor slab (20 em)

~:t-------- Reinforced concrete external wall (20 em)
(waterproof concrete)
1 - - - - - - - - Internal plaster (1.5 em)
~14-7""',__ _______ External insulation (10 em)

Floor construction (approx. 20 em)

Reinforced concrete base slab (20 em)

Separating foil
Lean concrete (5 em)

0 Plinth detail of a building with cellar, ground floor at street level, construction as
a waterproof basin

71
 FOUNDATIONS
Tanking, Basement Drainage
Basement drainage
The ground can be drained through a drainage layer and
drainage pipes in order to prevent the occurrence of water
under pressure against an external wall. The entire procedure
consists of drainage, inspection and flushing shaft and drainage
pipes -7 e.
Drainage pipe, ON 100, fall 0.5. Flushing and control pipe,
concrete bed
ON 300. Flushing, control and collector shaft, ON 1000. The
required nominal diameter for round drainage pipes and operating
FOUNDATIONS 0 Building walls built against a slope must be well drained
roughness kb = 2 mm can be determined from -7 e. The flow
Building
excavations speed in the drainage pipe when full should not be less than
Foundations
Tanking
v = 0.25 m/s. For areas over 2000 m2 , full-area drainage should
Basement be provided, through drainage pipes. The spacing of the individual
drainage drainage pipes should be calculated, and if necessary inspection
Repair

BS 8000-4
BS 8102
1 shafts should also be provided -7 f).
The precondition for effective drainage is that the water runs away
BS EN 13967/9 into a sewer or stream even at the highest water level in the main
DIN 4095 drainage channel. The best arrangement is a connection with free
DIN 18195 fall;:;o.s%
fall into an open stream or rainwater sewer, to avoid the need for
pumping. If a pump is necessary, it must be protected against
water coming back from the sewer or stream by a suitable device
inspection l* positional plan
opening B pipe to main like a backflow preventer valve. This device must be accessible
drainage and must be maintained. Water from drainage can also be
f) Area drainage with seepage pipes and ring drainage, with a pumped sump percolated into permeable subsoil, for example in a soakaway.

3.0

2.0

1.5

1.0
0.8

t 0.6 // I
r----r--~·~·r-h/~~+k#-~~1~1-r-+~
li

c
~ 0.4 ~--~/4;-++r+++*llr-~~~~~~~~
drainpipe
dia. 150mm
existing ground
0.3 I! /I !I
C) Cross-section A-B -> f) clay, sandy
0.2

water repellent
covering
D. 1

0.05
4 5 6 7 8 910 15 20 30 40 50
sand infill
0-4mm Flow rate Q ( 1 / s ) -
--Concrete land drains - - - Corrugated plastic
coarse
drainpipe
gravel/rubble

~?~~~~~,~~~ e Design example for circular drainage pipes

~~~"~:S:.m dia.
32-63mm
sand 7
base concrete perforations base concrete inflll
Tanking
G Piped drainage with mixed filter 8 Piped drainage with staged filter
If there is water under pressure or it is not possible to divert
porous ground standing water through the provision of drainage, then the
ground level building elements must be constructed of watertight concrete,
or a continuous waterproofing layer capable of resisting water
pressure must be applied to the invert and side walls. This can
consist of bituminous sheeting, metal waterproofing or plastic
foil. It must be resistant to aggressive water and must maintain its
effectiveness despite shrinkage, settlement and temperature-related
deformation -7 p. 71. Bentonite waterproofing is also possible.
Watertight concrete is today the generally preferred method of
resisting water under pressure. If the cellar floor and walls are
separated by a construction joint, this must be waterproofed with
radius radius a suitable waterstop or raised edge. The external surface of the
0 Basement tanking against water f) Basement tanking against water
walls is also provided with a protective coating based on bitumen
pressure pressure or artificial resin as additional protection -7 f). e-

72
 FOUNDATIONS
Repair

Missing
gutter Most building defects are caused by damp. Rising damp from the
ground can be caused by missing or defective damp proofing over
the foundations or cellar, missing or silted drainage or defective
rainwater goods, resulting in surface water at the transition area
between ground and wall.
"-'~.-----.-..::::·:·:·:·:·:·: Slope
.:::;:;:;:;:;:;:;:;:;:;:;:water
.::::::::::::::::::::::::::: When a repair is undertaken, it also necessary to investigate

: ·:·:·:·water
:·:·:·:·:·:·:·: ~f t t t~ ~~1~~ing
and remedy the cause of the moisture penetration. Missing or FOUNDATIONS

0 Frequent locations of defects · :·:·:·:·:·. ·:.;::Spring damaged horizontal damp courses are laborious to replace, Building
and the work needs to be carried out very carefully because excavations
the capillary transport of moisture must be interrupted. Building Foundations
Tiles in reinforced
adhesive bed Tanking
Oil paper elements, which are impossible to waterproof, or only at excessive Basement
Thermallnslulation expense, can be coated using special plaster systems, which drainage
- rigid- 80 mm Repair
Damp proof course enable the damp to evaporate. The efflorescence of mineral salts
Natural stone slabs
resulting from evaporation can be absorbed for a long time, but
the durability of such remedial plasters is still considerably shorter
than plaster on a dry substrate.

Blinding (sand)

Old natural stone flooring of a

ground floor without cellar
Renewal of the floor with thermal
insulation and damp-proof layer on a
~ Jettiedbeam

~:~~
sub-concrete of lime mortar

J::::f/~/ ~
• with dowels

*cogged

Corner reinforcement with a metal

angle
e Corner of sill beam newly anchored
with coach bolts
Replacement of sill beam in two
stages
0 Possible corner joints for timber
frame sill beams (tension and
compressive loading)

Wind
Driving rain
Snow

Defective gutter,
Sloping ground
Surface water
. saJJn or ,, : "~
=~ drilled ::, External:-;.;·
Ro~·:::,: · · ::: sealing :::·
"' t . Breathable -.; mostly :
Work1ng": plaster or ~ sufficient ·
space ~: hacked off ~/·:·

Danger zone
foundation joint
Standing
water ~~:)·:r:::.:::::.:::.:~:·:·:::f:.:::·:-r\~~:*~~~~r
Full-area drainage

e Main sources of damage from water

without pressure
0 Main sources of damage from water
under pressure
e Supplementary horizontal isolation
and waterproofing of a darnp cellar
Injected damp-proofing

Water under
1 • .; I

--,' U ·.JI-
.,,_,.,
pressure , , 1
.-I
.-1 I -..

I, .'

JU~JH_tJ.t
' Shrinka~e of dry'
cohes1ve soli
under building

Building corner
falling out
/
..~~~~·:.. ··~~:~~~:::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::
/ /Needling
Drainage

Internal waterproofing of partially

inaccessible external walls
Repair of foundations built in contact
with the earth
Supplementary insertion of horizontal
waterproofing (wall separation)
e Needling of a subsiding house
corner

73
 WALLS
Natural Stone Masonry

Natural stone walling can be categorised into rubble, cyclopean,

coursed, ashlar and composite.
Stone, which has a natural plane of cleavage, should be split and
laid according to the cleavage, e.g. ~ 0. 0. which looks e.
better and is also structurally sounder because the loading is then
mostly at right angles to the natural bedding. ·
0 Dry stone walling I section f) Cyclopean masonry of volcanic The size of the individual blocks is of great importance. The block
stone
WALLS length should not be more than four to five times the block height
Natural stone and should not be less than the height (the stones should be
masonry
Brick and block
bonded well on all sides). Pure natural stone masonry must be
masonry bonded in the entire cross-section in accordance with good trade
Composite practice.
construction
Repair There should never be more than three joints meeting at the
front or rear surfaces of a block and no vertical joint should pass
BS EN 771-6
BS EN 1745
through more than two courses. For structural reasons, a course
BS EN 1996 should be brought flat and level every ~1.5 m (spacing of scaffold
DIN 1053
platforms).
Header and stretcher courses must alternate, or there must be
at least one header for every two stretchers in each course. The
depth (into the wall) of the headers must be at least 1% times the
course height but at least 30 em.
C) Rubble masonry G Rubble masonry squared with a
The depth (into the wall) of the stretchers must be about
hammer into courses
equal to the course height. The vertical joints must be covered
by ;;::;10 em in coursed masonry and ;;::;15 em in ashlar
masonry ~ 0 + 0, and the largest blocks should be laid at the
corners ~ 0 - 0. Face surfaces should subsequently be fully
pointed, first scratching out a depth equal to the joint width. The
joints should be about 3 em thick according to roughness and
method of working. Lime or lime-cement mortar should be used,
as cement can discolour certain types of stone. In composite
masonry, the worked stone facing can be integrated into the load-
bearing cross-section ~ 0. Non-load-bearing stone cladding of
2.5-5 em thickness is fixed to the backing wall with anchors ~ Cli).
Stone type Compressive strength
(N/mm 2)

9 Irregularly coursed masonry e Regularly coursed masonry

limestone, travertine, volcanic tuff
weak sandstone (with clay binder) and similar
20
30
dense (strong) limestone and dolomite (incl. marble). 50
basalt lava and similar
quartzitic sandstone (with siliceous binder), graywacke 80
and similar
granite, syenite, diorite, quartz porphyry, black porphyry, 120
diabase and similar

C) Minimum compressive strengths of building stone

Grade Stone strength Basic values cr0 1) for mortar group

pst (N/mm2) I(MN/m 2) II (MN/m 2) !Ia (MN/m2 ) III(MN/m2)
N1 ~20 0.2 0.5 0.8 1.2
i';50 0.3 0.6 0.9 1.4
N2 "'20 0.4 0.9 1.4 1.8
i';50 0.6 1.1 1.6 2.0

f) Ashlar masonry e Composite masonry

N3 "'20
i';50
0.5
0.7
1.5
2.0
2.0
2.5
2.5
3.5
"'100 1.0 2.5 3.0 4.0
N4 i';20 1.2 2.0 2.5 3.0
"'50 2.0 3.5 4.0 5.0
i';100 3.0 4.5 5.5 7.0
11If joints are more than 40 mm thick, then the basic values cr0 are to be reduced by 20%.

@) Basic values 0'0 of the permissible compressive stresses for natural stone
masonry with normal mortar

Grade Basic category Joint height I Slope of bed Transfer

block length joint-tan a. factorn
N1 rubble masonry <0.25 <0.30 >0.50
N3 masonry hammered into ;:§0.20 ;:§0.15 i';0,65
courses
N3 coursed masonry "'0.13 "'0.10 >0.75
N4 ashlar masonry <0.07 <0.05 >0.85
C) Composite masonry showing the Ci) Stone cladding without structural
structurally effective section contribution 48 Guideline values for the grading of natural stone masonry

74
 WALLS
Brick and Block Masonry

Building materials
Countless bricks and blocks are available for the production of
masonry walls in various forms, sizes and qualities ~ G).
The dimensions (formats) are normally multiples of the standard
format and thin format ~ 0.

Clay bricks and blocks Sand-lime blocks

0 Single-leaf plastered f) Single-leaf faced
solid brick solid and holed blocks
WALLS
Natural stone
facing solid brick facing blocks masonry
Brick and block
hard-burnt solid brick facing blocks masonry
vertically cored block Composite
cored and hollow blocks
construction
facing vertically cored block Repair
plan blocks (for thin mortar laying)
vertically cored hard-burnt block BS 8103-2
DIN 1053
ceramic solid hard-burnt block
granulated slag aggregate concrete see also:
ceramic vertically cored hard-burnt blocks Building physics
block pp. 471ft.
aerated concrete blocks solid aerated concrete blocks

lightweight hollow concrete blocks concrete masonry units

C) Single-leaf with external thermal 8 Single-leaf with thermal insulation
insulation and weather protection
CD Brick and block types

Description Length (em) Width (em) Height (em)

thin format TF 24 11.5 5.2

normal format NF 24 11.5 7.1

2 thin format 2TF 24 11.5 11.3

0 Single-leaf with internal insulation Tiled cladding on masonry with a 3 thin format 3TF 24 17.5 11.3
high thermal insulation value

4!} DIN brick formats (excerpt)

External wall construction

Single-leaf external walls ~ 0- f) are unproblematic regarding
building physics, but on account of the high thermal insulation
requirements can only be built with materials with high thermal
insulation value (e.g. aerated blocks) and special thermally
insulated mortars and plasters. If the blocks used are susceptible
to frost damage, they have to be rendered or protected in other
ways. If the masonry is externally visible, then each course must
consist of at least two rows of blocks of the same height with a

Two-leaf composite masonry with

internal plaster layer
e Faced cavity wall without air gap
continuous 20 mm thick longitudinal joint between them, and each
course staggered and mortared without voids.

Single-leaf walls with additional insulation layers ~ 8 - 0

(external, internal insulation ~ Building physics, p. 471 ff.) are
therefore a common alternative.

Cavity walls consist of an inner load-bearing wall and an outer

non-load-bearing weather protection facing (minimum thickness
90 mm). They can be built with an air gap, with air gap and thermal
insulation, with cavity-filling insulation and with intermediate
plaster layer ~ 0 - CD). The masonry leaves are connected with
ties of non-rusting steel. The width of the air gap should be min. 40
mm (max. 150 mm). Vertical expansion joints should be provided
in the external leaf and there should also be. ventilation openings
(e.g. open vertical joints) at the top and bottom, with the openings
e Faced cavity wall with air gap 4Ii) With/without air gap plastered at the bottom also serving to drain water p. 77 ~ e.

75
 WALLS
Brick and Block Masonry

Bonding of masonry
In order to evenly transfer the loads acting on masonry and
ensure crack-free wall surfaces, bricks and blocks are normally
0 English bond f) Cross bond
laid in regular courses and bonded. Masonry courses are named,
according to their method of integration into the bond, stretcher,
header or soldier courses:

WALLS Stretcher courses lie with their length along the face of the wall.
Natural stone Header courses lie with their end in the face of the wall and are
masonry bonded into the masonry by their length.
Brick and block
masonry
Masonry courses should continue horizontally through all walls
Composite
construction
0 Stretcher bond with y, brick Q Stretcher bond with V.. brick
in a building. Vertical joints in adjacent courses must always
Repair displacement displacement
be overlapped, i.e. displaced relative to the adjacent course
BS 8103-2 by a certain dimension (at least 1,4 brick). In order to reduce the
DIN 1053 ~ ~ 10 ~
~ 0:l proportion of joints, as many whole bricks as possible should be
~ 0:l used (in the currently prevalent single-leaf wall made of large-
format blocks, the joints are the thermal weak point and have to be
carried out in lightweight or thin mortar, or with the vertical joints
toothed ---) 0). The type and dimension of the displacement of the
vertical joints in adjacent courses leads to the basic pattern of the
e Flemish bond; one header, one
stretcher, alternate courses
e One header, two stretchers,
alternate courses
various masonry bonds, in addition to the sequence of stretchers
and headers.

One stretcher and one header Two stretcher and one header
course, alternating with header course, alternating with header

!
course course

Course 1 @]@][~][

! Course 2
JEJiciJEJ ,,
,
,
,''
,,,
'
'
f-...--1' Overlap
Cl) Stretcher bond with V.. brick ~ Stretcher bond with V.. brick
displacement, joints rising to the
right
displacement, joints rising to the
right and lett
& Modern masonry bonds

Modern masonry bonds are normally laid in stretcher bond ---) 8

as 'middle bond' with displacement of the vertical joint by
% brick in the next course or, alternatively, as 'English bond'
with displacement of the vertical joint by 1f3 brick in the next
course ---) 0, or with 'cross bond', alternating stretcher and
header courses ---) f).

G One header and one stretcher f) One header and one stretcher
There are many other bonds in classical bricklaying such as
alternating in courses with 1A brick alternating in courses, with Y2 'Flemish bond' ---) 0, or one header and three stretchers in each
displacement, joints rising to the brick displacement, joints rising course ---) 0 and other decorative bonds.
right and left to the lett

@) Hole coursed into the masonry for ~ as --> @) (holey, x 'A brick)
light or ventilation (hole y, x y, brick) 0 as--> @) (hole V.. x Y, brick) 0 as --> @) (hole 1 x V.. brlcl<)

76
 WALLS
Brick and Block Masonry

Load-bearing walls
Walls which have to bear more than their self-weight on one storey
are called load-bearing walls.
Bracing walls
Masonry can be secured by bracing walls and slabs below and
above (three-dimensional cell principle). Bracing walls are building
elements which work as deep beams to transfer horizontal loads WALLS
(e.g. wind loads). Natural stone
0 Two-leaf wall with air gap and f) Plinth connection Non-load-bearing walls
masonry
Brick and block
insulation
Walls which are only loaded by their self-weight and are not used masonry
Composite
Building element Conditions for bracing against buckling are called non-load-bearing. construction
Wall thickness Clear wall height Imposed load Repair
Cut-outs and chases
(<in em) (11 in em) (rrin kN/m 2 )
internal wall 5 Cut-outs and chases can either be chased out mechanically BS 8103-2
"'11 DIN 1053
;o;275 or formed in bond by the bricklayer. Their details can require
;o;24
"'24 -
~5
structural verification under certain circumstances --'> e.
solid external wall i;;175
S24
;o;275 Perimeter tie
"'24 S12 t Perimeter ties are required for the transfer of horizontal forces
load-bearing leaf ~11 5 over all external and transverse walls in buildings with more than
of a cavity external wall ~3
~17 5 two full storeys or more than 18 m length and walls with many
and cavity party wall ;o;275
;;;175 or large openings under the floor slab. These are normally made
S24 ~5
of reinforced concrete and constructed together with columns
"'24 S12 t
and massive floor slabs. A simplified verification procedure can
C) Conditions for the application of the simplified calculation procedure for building be used under certain circumstances for the design of masonry
heights ;o;20 m (DIN 1053-1 --> refs) construction --7 e.
Horizontal and inclined chases Vertical chases and cut-outs, carried out later
Vertical chases and cut-outs in bonded masonry (em)
Wall carried out later (em) (em)
thickness Chase length Distance of Residual
Chase Minimum distance of chases and cut-outs
(em) Unlimited S1.25 m Chase depth Chase width chase or cut-out wall
Width
Chase depth Chase depth from openings thickness From openings To each other
i;;11 5 - - ~1 ;o;10 - - ;;;2 x chase width i;;chase width
;;;175 - ~25 ~3 ;o;10 ~26 ~11 5 or~24

i;;24 ~15 ~25 ~3 ;o;15 5 ;o;38 5 5

"'11 "'11
i;;30 22 ~3 ~3 ;o;20 ~38 5 ;;;175

;:::;36 5 "'2 S3 S3 S20 ~38 5 "'24

G Penmissible size of chases and cut-outs In load-bearing walls (DIN 1053-1--> refs)

Crossing of reinforced aerated Q Reinforced masonry door and Glued aerated concrete blockwork, Vertically cored clay bricks and
concrete blockwork window lintels 1 mmjoints blocks laid or with poured mortar

Masonry of aerated concrete (hollow G) Masonry of hollow blocks with cast

blocks) with reinforced pumice trough lintel Blocks with 5 em insulation layer Assembly blocks with insulation
concrete lintel and mortar pockets and cavities for mortar filling

77
 WALLS
Composite Construction

Reinforced concrete walls --> 0 - f)

Reinforced concrete walls can be concreted on site or pre-cast.
Solid concrete walls can be used as external walls only with
an additional thermal insulation layer. This can be as an external
thermal insulation system --> 0 or as a multi-leaf construction
(analogous to p. 75) with core insulation and possibly back-
ventilation. Two-layer reinforced concrete walls --> 0 with
WALLS
Natural stone 0 Two-layer concrete f) Concrete with external thermal core insulation are used particularly as large-format external wall
elements.
masonry insulation system
Brick and block synthetic resin
masonry render
Composite
Timber-framed walls --> 0 - 41!)
construction The oldest form of timber walling is log cabin construction
Repair with the round logs or beams laid on top of one another and
see also: Glass cogged at the corners --> 41!). Timber-framed walling (with the
pp. 104ft. panels filled in with various materials) is economical and the
Building physics
pp.471 ff. most common method, with vertical loads being transferred
through the studs. A variant of timber framing is the erection of
framed panels, which are prefabricated with thermal insulation.
When timber-framed walls are to be used, provide sufficient
roof overhang and design cladding in the splash area to be
easily replaced.
e Two leaves of aerated concrete Q Masonry with external thermal
insulation system

Timber

Gypsum
plaster
-Plaster board

0.11-0.19
0.23
W/(m 2·K)
W/(m 2 ·K)
m Framed construction with non- 0 Curtain wall with back-ventilated

0 Low-energy wall (Heckmann Okohaus) Q Masonry with external cladding

load-bearing masonry panels fagade

Column----....,.-:~

reed Floor
insulation
board
construction
wind Concrete
barrier slab ---tt--,

Fixing
cavity
ventilation

G) CD
f) Stud framing with lightweight clay
elements
e Timber framing (insulation
between the posts)
Curtain wall of multi-layer fagade
elements
Curtain wall as double fagade

Non-load-bearing external walls

Light and often prefabricated panels are frequently used for non-
load-bearing external walls (e.g. for framed buildings) --> G». The
advantage is the low loading on the edges of the slabs, rapid
assembly and simpler replacement later.

Curtain walls --> 0 - tD can be made of light, prefabricated

metal-glass construction in the form of fat;,:ade panels of metal
or plastic, multi-layer fat;,:ade elements complete with windows
and parapets or pre-cast concrete elements. The most
common elements are fixed to the slabs (or framed columns)
C) Timber framing with lightweight clay 4Ii} Laminated timber sections for with fixing brackets or anchors and can be combined to form
blocks log house construction any size of wall.

78
 WALLS
Repair

External walls
Defects to external walls are caused by natural weathering, poor
maintenance and often also incorrectly carried out repairs and
modernisation attempts. When modernisation or conversion work
is undertaken, walls have to be upgraded to meet current energy
bad well H;;;1s and structural requirements.
Q Panel infilling (left to right) of f) Avoidance of dragged transitions
loam on stakes (wattle and daub), when repairing loam infilling Timber framing WALLS
with rubble masonry and with A main characteristic of timber-framed houses is the separation of Natural stone
hard-burnt bricks masonry
the load-bearing timber construction from the non-load-bearing Brick and block
Mineral render Silicate render 15 mm
Calcium silicate
panels between (the panels should always be fitted so they masonry
Mesh Composite
insulation board 60 mm Wood-wool board 20 mr receive no loading). Timber construction was originally carried
Adhesive
construction
Mineral fibre insulation out without metal fixings and can normally be repaired without Repair
Full brick 52 mm batt80 mm
Lime plaster Wood-wool board 25 mr
the use of steel or iron parts (water condensation on metal parts
Foam rubber strips Mesh (not metallic) can damage the timber, which in Germany is often softwood). The
Lime plaster original infilling of the panels is usually facing brick or a clay daub
--7 0 - f). The timber functions and the appearance of joints at
the contact between timber and panel is unavoidable. Triangular
strips or grooves in the timber are used to fix the panel infilling
A inside A inside and prevent draughts. Constructional timber protection (wide roof
0 New infilling of mineral Insulation
panels and brick: timber framing
e Lightweight infilling (no thermal
storage possible!): timber framing
overhang, full-surface render or ventilated cladding) can avoid
damage due to water penetrating from outside. Waterproof paints
visible on both sides visible on both sides and permanently elastic mastic also stop water from infiltrating
Wooden shingles Mineral render but are one of the main causes of damage to timber framing!
Battens 24/48 mm Wood-wool board 25 mm
Ventilation layer Mineral fibre insulation Loam panels should always be preserved and damaged ones
Thermal insulation 40 mm batts 2 x40 mm
Old lime render Battens 24/48 mm
repaired. There is still no other panel infilling material available that
Straw daub on willow Plaster board or is as good as loam --7 0 + 0 in terms of good trade practice,
Wattle with oakstakes wood-wool boards building physics and building biology. It also counters fungal and
Internal plaster (lime) Plaster on reed mats
insect attack. Brick infilling has a stiffening effect, which acts
against the structural principles of timber framing, and lightweight
infilling has no thermal storage capacity.

A inside inside Natural stone and stucco fagades

The energy performance of solid walls with structured fac;:ades of
External insulation with highly diffusible New infilling with good thermal
material behind ventilated cladding= Insulation: timber framing clad on
natural stone or stucco is often improved by internal insulation --7
constructional timber protection: timber the inside without damp barrier! p. 55 0. When natural stone cladding is replaced, insulation can
framing visible on the inside be installed behind the stone fac;:ade. The stone facing panels must
be fixed to an independent support structure while maintaining the
outline and proportions of the fac;:ade. If the expense of insulation
to EnEV standards is too high (i.e. economically unreasonable),
an exemption from certain requirements can be agreed with the
responsible authority. When installing external insulation, attention
should be paid to whether the extra projection infringes any
boundary or building line --7 0 +e.
Aim Element Measure Residential Zones of non-
according to buildings and residential
A zones in other buildings
buildings with with indoor
The original structure of natural stone tiles The design used natural stone slabs
temperatures temperatures
on a concrete base and masonry parapet on self-supporting sub-structure and
was solid. To preserve the external view and >19°C from 12to
upgraded with interjacent thermal
insert large-scale French windows affecting <19°C
insulation, without changing much the
the inside view, the windows and parapet max. of heat transmission coefficients
proportions of the profile.
were replaced with casement windows with Urn., (Wim 2 X K)
natural stone parapet elements. Arch.: Kister Scheithauer Gross, Cologne
1 external walls No.1 a tod 0.24 0.35
f---a---1 ceilings, roofs and No. 4.1 0.24 0.35
4a
roof pitches
4b flat roofs No.4.2 0.20 0.35
Sa roofs and walls No.5 a, b, d 0.30 no requirement
next to unheated and e
rooms or earth
Sb floor construction No. So 0.50 no requirement
inside
\L.____.J/ inside
So slabs with outside
air below
No.5 a toe 0.24 0.35

Existing situation: natural stone Improvement in thermal insulation

cladding to concrete structure while mostly preserving the outline Maximum heat transmission coefficients with new installation, replacement or
conversion of building elements, in existing buildings, EnEV 2009 (windows and
and proportions which determine
the fa9ade doors-> p. 99)

79
 FLOOR SLABS
Slab Construction

Floor slabs separate storeys and have to fulfil sound insulation and
fire protection requirements in addition to their structural function.
In addition to the main building materials (natural/artificial stone,
ft2; concrete, steel, timber and lightweight concrete), slabs can
be divided by their structural system into vaulted (subject to
~ compression) and flat (subject to bending).
60~1~ j_ They can be built as slab or joist/beam constructions:
FLOOR SLABS
Slabs are flat structures loaded at right angles to their plane and
Slab
construction
0 llmber joist floor f) Timber joist floor, exposed below spanning in one or two directions with linear or point loading.
Refurbishment Common forms are solid reinforced concrete slabs --7 0 - CD, as
Concrete repair in-situ, pre-cast or partially prefabricated elements; hollow pot
Floors
slabs --7 0 with structurally connected clay pots forming cavities;
BS EN 1168 pre-stressed concrete cored planks --7 0, made out of welded
BS EN 12058
DIN 1045 single elements; and composite slabs --7 m.
DIN 1055 Joist constructions consist of single beams, mostly loaded in
see also: Building
bending.
physics In addition to timber joist floors --7 0 - G, solid beam slabs --7
pp. 471 If.
Fire protection
0- e, tD, and steel joist slabs --7 0 can also be used.
pp. 511 If. For large spans and loads, there are double-T slabs --7 0 and
ribbed slabs, structurally optimised mixed constructions.

8 Timber joist floor with filling e Timber joist floor with aerated
concrete and additional insulation
(refurbishment)

Reinforcement 8 Slab with prefabricated component e Brick slab with beam elements

~~
Hollow pot slab, fully mortared 0 Pre-stressed concrete core slabs

f-..__ •
~1.20~
2.40~

C) Reinforced concrete composite 0 Aerated concrete floor slab

$ Solid reinforced concrete slab 4!} Double-T slab
floor slab

20
7-22{ ; ·

41) Reinforced concrete beam slab ~ Composite slab 0 Steel joist floor with panel filling e Old and new floor

80
 Inserted boards
FLOOR SLABS
;~~n.batle~:
. ~~
~- ~
Refurbishment

der beam [Plaster:ter

layer base Floor slabs
Floor construclion with Insulation at a limber Load-bearing floor joists in old buildings used to be designed
new inserted boards on battens floor on cellar side empirically by the carpenter. The loads were mostly carried
on transverse joists spanning one or more longitudinal support
beams. In an old building book from 1900, a ratio of joist height
to width of 5:7 is given as a guideline for the determination of joist
size. The rule: half the room depth in decimetres =the joist height
in em. Because of this sizing, old timber joist floors often sag FLOOR SLABS

Improvement of sound and thermal Sound insulation improvement considerably, though this does not compromise structural safety Slab construction
insulation with suspended ceiling of a loam floor Refurbishment
as long as the permissible stresses are not exceeded. Concrete repair
Floors
Refurbishment possibilities ---> 0. Strengthen the timber joist
by adding a second. Improve the load distribution by inserting
additional floor joists or a steel beam ---> 0. Shorten the span by
inserting one or more additional support beams or a load-bearing
cross wall. Alterations to the load-bearing structure should always
be preceded by a precise survey of load-transferring and bracing
Sound-insulating floor construction
with poured asphalt screed functions. In order to guarantee the load transfers, all connections
must be in firm contact.
,_, -~~·-·
ijr%;2¢~
~LerfL:::~onfill
Improvement in sound insulation can normally be achieved only
through an increase in the weight of the floor, so the floor will
[ Old timber beams only
carry ceiling
't Valuable
stucco ceiling probably have to be strengthened as well. Impact sound can be
straw-loam filling
Insertion of a new steel beam lloor, the old
New floor covering, carpet on timber beams are retained with valuable reduced by separating the walking surface from the structure and
stucco ceiling
boards+ impact sound insulation
by using soft floor coverings---> 0.
0 Various methods of upgrading timber joist floors
If new building standards are to be achieved, it will normally
Floor boards on sand (existing)

~ ~~~~~~~~:mber .·'· ·· · · ·
~&Yff~ ~~os:~;~ortar
....":.: .... .-.·. ·.· .... ·.·:·.. _.::;::bedding
lnsulationlayer
be necessary to change the entire floor structure ---> p. 55.
The installation of wet rooms above timber joist floors requires
particular attention because it will scarcely be possible to
Cellar vault
P
Waterprooling check for penetration of water and damp damaging the
~\...)l--'~ Cellar vault
structure---> 0-0.

f) Replacement of a boarded floor laid in sand • Wall tiles in PCI adhesive

• New wall plaster
• Timber frame wall • Masonry
• Vertical laths
at 3D em
"mf\o"'I!S!'m, '"' •d) """' rsnfts "!Ifill fuo, • Impregnated • Permanently elastic joint
·::::::::::.;.;.;.;.;.;-~·::::::::.;.;:.;.;.;.;.;.; :-:·:··::;.::.·.·:::.·::·:.;.;:;;;::.;:::·~·:::::·~··;;:~.::;:.\·: plasterboard
• Sealing filler • Floor tiles in waterproof
• Wall tiles in PC! adhesive
Section ~ adhesive • Reinforced screed 4.5 em
• Permanently
Side view elastic joints
• Floor tiles in adhesive
• Screed 4.5 em with
reinforcement
• Foil, welded and continued
tldi:fui'SJ; min 5 em above FFL

Section Side view

Floor and wall details for wet Floor and wall details for wet
C) Strengthening weak parts of joists in the span rooms in a timber-framed building rooms in a masonry building with
timber joist fioors

JJLJ~·~~~
~-l!=b=_~ Pipe installation in two-layer partition

llles Wall and floor construction

Screed/mortar bed for shower tray
Damp barrier

~
Dry screed
~:~~ed Difference beam
Waterproofing Drain pipe $ 100
~~:~ concr~te Floor fill
Under floor
Waterproofing Airspace
Under floor Under floor support -----++'
Ceiling plaster - - - - - - ' Floor junction Mineral fibre felt mat
Floor beam at door theshold Btud
Plaster Ceiling beam - - - - - - '

Conventional ways of
waterproofing timber joist floors
Distortion of drain pipe under a
new floor
e Important details In wet rooms Sound-insulating double-leaf wall
construction
in old buildings

81
 Carpet on bonded FLOOR SLABS
Floating screed Floating screed screed with voids
Concrete Repair

Requirements

/ The existing condition must be

/ surveyed and damage analysed
before starting the repair of
Shotcrete (approx. 3 em) increases the Suspended ceilings must either provide Suspended F90 ceiling between the ribsin
cover to the reinforcement and thus the entire fire rating (here F90) or they low rooms. If bonded screed is used,
concrete buildings. The following
improves fire and airborne sound insulation may not be considered. Advantage: the impact sound insulation can be improved points are particularly important:
FLOOR SLABS impact sound insulation is also improved by carpeting
Slab construction Surfaces: damage through
Refurbishment 0 Upgrading of concrete slabs In refurbishment or conversion of buildings
insufficient cover to the rein-
Concrete repair
Floors forcement. The cause may be
Evaluation criterion Testing method/equipment the low requirements of earlier
BS 12617
BS 13395 presence of voids hammering with hammer or steel guidelines and, often, inappro-
BS 14629 rod, drag chain method
priate construction. Carboni-
etc. surface tension strength Herlon device, Schenk-Trebel
DIN 1045 sation (conversion of alkaline
device etc.
concrete into acid through en-
compressive strength (non- Schmidt hammer
destructive) vironmental effects) can lead to
crack widths measuring magnifying glass,
corrosion of the reinforcement,
crack width ruler which results in spalling of the
alteration of crack widths crack marks, dial gauge, concrete surface.
inductive transducer
carbonisation phenolphthalein test on freshly Joints: elastic joints should be
exposed substrate replaced after max. 10 years.
presence of chlorides spraying of silver nitrate If this is not done, damage can
(qualitative), Quantab process
be caused to the structure by
(semi-quantitative)
penetrating water (e.g. frost
concrete cover of reinforcement electromagnetic meters
damage).
corrosion activity potential field measurement
degree of rusting of calliper
reinforcement
Building elements: if the walls
or slabs are too thin for the fire
f) Improvement of an external wall with composite 0 Methods of testing concrete quality (Kind-Barkansas -> refs) protection and sound insulation
Insulation system requirements, then additional
measures are necessary.
Environmental Example of environmental conditions Concrete reinforcement Pre-tensioning
class (mm) reinforcement (mm) Building materials for concrete
replacement:
Iii 0 Iii<!) 0
1! "'
.a ~ c "'
.a ~
<!)
"' <!)
"' cement concrete and cement
(9 ii) "
() (9 ii) "
()
mortar (CC)
1 interior of residential and office buildings (only applies
if no worse conditions were present for a significant 15 15 15 25 25 25
plastic-modified cement con-
time during construction) crete and cement mortar
22a -rooms with high humidity (e.g. laundries) (PC C)
-external building elements 20 15 15 30 25 25 reaction resin concrete and re-
-building elements in non-aggressive ground or water action resin mortar (PC). Mor-
2b -external building elements exposed to frost tar and concrete with artificial
- building elements in non-aggressive ground or water
resin additives are not suitable
with frost 25 20 20 35 30 30
- interior building elements with high humidity and for the improvement of fire
frost risk protection requirements!
3 -external building elements exposed to frost and
defrosting agents
40 35 35 50 45 45 The surfaces must be cleaned
and have the surface strength
4 also with frost - building elements in splash zone or dipping into
seawater, a part exposed to air 40 35 35
specified for the relevant treat-
50 45 45
-building elements in salty air (directly on coast) ment. Large areas of concrete
5 Sa weakly chemically aggressive environment (gaseous, surface can be removed and the
25 20 20 35 30 30
liquid, solid), aggressive industrial atmosphere reinforcement derusted by using
5b moderately chemically aggressive environment high-pressure water jetting. If it
30 25 25 40 35 35
(gaseous, liquid, solid) is possible to provide sufficient
5c strongly chemically aggressive environment (gaseous, thickness of concrete cover,
40 35 35 50 45 50
liquid, solid) then no further rust protection is

e Minimum cover to reinforcement (Association of German Cement Industry_, refs)

necessary for the reinforcement.
If only a thinner cover is possible,
then the reinforcement must
be protected against rust. In
this case, the requirements for
derusting are higher.
e New descriptions of concrete strength (Association of German Cement Industry-> refs)

82
 Bonded screed
Vapour-permeable coating 2 mm Unbonded screed FLOOR SLABS
Vapour-permeable coaling 2 mm
Floors
Cement screed 20-T55
PE foil 0.2
PE foil 0.2
Concrete slab
Floor construction
Floors are normally built up in many layers, consisting
/ //////////////////////:
// ////////j/////////////, of covering, screed (if necessary, with substructure),
separation, waterproofing and insulation layers. The nature,
arrangement and thickness of these layers is determined
by the requirements for thermal insulation, sound insulation
0 Bonded screed (for industrial
flooring), construction height
Floor construction for subsidiary
rooms in basement: construction
and waterproofing (against water penetrating from above).
Screeds can be constructed as bonded screed --7 0, FLOOR SLABS
approx. 4 em, traffic load height approx. 6 em, traffic load
unbonded screed --7 f) or floating screed --7 f). Screed Slab construction
10KN/m2 2 KN/m 2 Refurbishment
can be based on cement, anhydrite or flowing anhydrite, or Concrete repair
poured asphalt. The load-bearing capacity of screed depends Floors
on the thickness and quality of the material as well as the
BS 8204
load-bearing capacity of other layers (e.g. insulation). The BS EN 13813
Parquet 25 mm
Cement screed 20-855, reinforced requirements for expansion joints also have to be observed. DIN 18560
PEfo110.1
Mineral wool 27/25 see also: Building
PS 30, 40mm physics pp.
PEfoil0.1
PVC fall 0.5 471ft.
Concrete slab Fire protection
pp. 511ft.
Heating pp.
532 ff.

Floor construction for slabs between as -->e but as dry screed:

living rooms: construction height construction height approx. 10.5 em,
approx. 14.5 em, traffic load 2 KN/m 2 traffic load 2 KN/m'
Prefabricated parquet blocks Tongue and groove boards on
on support timbers support timbers

Floor construction (underfloor heating) as -->e but without underfloor Wood-block paving (rustle type)
laid tight with surface treatment
Wood-block paving (heavy duty) laid
light on flat-floated base concrete
for living rooms above cold areas: heating: construction height approx.
construction height approx. 19 em, 17 em, traffic load 2 KN/m 2 (living areas) (Industrial building)
traffic load 2 KN/m 2

Prefabricated screed (dry screed) is becoming more common

as construction schedules become shorter. This can be made
Floating screeds of mechanically fixed, engineered wood boards (e.g. resin-
Vapour-permeable coatlng 2 mm bonded boards), gypsum fibre board or gypsum plasterboard.
Vapour-permeable coating 2 mm
It is laid floating on insulation or dry leveller fill --7 8 or on
flooring sleepers.

Parquet and wood-block paving

Parquet is available in the form of parquet blocks, mosaic
parquet blocks, made-up panels and parquet strip --7 0- Cli).
The surface layer consists of oak, or another parquet timber,
in various grades.

Timber species for floorboards: softwood spruce/fir; for

tongued and grooved floorboards: Nordic spruce/fir, American
red pine and pitch pine.

f) Floor construction for above-

ground office space: construction height
e as--> f) but for higher loading:
construction height approx. 19 em,
Wood-block paving is also available as end-on paving (square
approx. 16 em, traffic load 5 KN/m 2 traffic load 10 KN/m 2 or round and laid on a sub-floor) --7 G) - $.

83
 FLOOR SLABS
Floors

Floor coverings
Natural stone slabs: Limestone, slate and sandstone slabs can
be laid either with the natural roughness from splitting, or half or
fully sanded --7 0 - 8. Sawn slabs such as limestone (marble),
0 Irregular laying of natural stone f) Natural stone slabs in Roman
sandstone and all volcanic stone types can have any surface
(crazy paving) bonding
treatment specified. The slabs are laid in a mortar bed or glued

II ~ II ~ tllllml ~11
to screed.

FLOOR SLABS Mosaic flooring consists of various materials such as glass,

Slab construction ceramic or natural stone and is laid in a mortar bed or glued --7
Refurbishment
Concrete repair 8 Small mosaic squares 20/20, Q Small mosaic hexagons 25/39, o-e.
Floors
33/33 mm 50/60 mm
Ceramic floor tiles: stoneware and mosaic floor tiles are made
of clay; they are sintered during the firing process so that they
absorb almost no water.
They are therefore frost-resistant, acid-resistant to a certain
degree and suffer little mechanical wear; but they are not resistant
0 Mosaic squares 50/50, 69/69, (t Small mosaic, circular cut-out to oil --7 0 - 4!).
75/75 mm 35/35, 48/48 mm
~joint

f) Small mosaic, five-sided 45/32 mm G Small mosaic in Essen pattern

57/80 mm

C) Squares with smaller inserts, Cli) Squares with smaller inserts

M3 296/296
weave pattern 100/1 00, 50/50 mm M3
M2 197/197 M2
M 1.5 147/147
M1 97 /97 M1
M0.5 48/48
i/4-1/8-1/16 divisions of a module

0 12 5 25 375 50 625 75

G) Squares with smaller inserts, @) Squares with double chessboard ~ Modular system for stoneware fl) Modular system for split tiles
displaced pattern pattern

-~~-~. ~
0 0 @) fD

11111 --~~~~~~~~~m ~ ;;;;i i

b k Herringbone Weave pattern
0

Q Open basket
A
V Herringbone pattern
~
'4:1
Herringbone with frieze ~
~
English with frieze

l::ii:[:i[:I-I!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!IIIIIRI
0 . e 0 Ladder pattern @) Burgundy pattern

I!'"T'! ! I fallll~
G) English
! !
@j) Ship deck with frieze @) Cube with strip pattern ~ Cube pattern

84
 ROOFS
Roof Shapes

Roof shape and roof pitch: the selection of roofing material and
min2%fall
the detailing of the roof edges at the verge and eaves have a
decisive influence on the appearance of buildings. 0 - show e
the basic forms of roofs and roof projections.
Roof covering Pitch range Usually
accessible paved roof 2-4" 3-4"
wood cement roof 2.5-4" 3-4"
felt roof, gravel covered ROOFS
3-30" 4-10"
felt roof, double 4-50" 6-12" Roof shapes
Pitched roofs
zinc roof, double standing seams 3-90" 5-30" Flat roofs
felt roof, single 8-15" 10-12"
0 Flatroof 8 Single-pitch (monopitch) roof steel sheeting roof 12-18" 15"
interlocking tile roof, 4 sides 18-50" 22-45"
shingle roof (canopy 90") 18-21" 19-20"
interlocking tile roof, normal 20-33" 22"
Junclion point
zinc and steel corrugated roof 18-35" 25"
Ridge
fibre cement corrugated roof 5-90" 30"
artificial slate roof 20-90" 25-45"
slate roof, double decked 25-90" 30-50"
slate roof, normal 30-90" 45"
glass roof 30-45" 33"
clay tiles, double decked 30-60" y 45"
clay tiles on battens 35-60" 45"
clay tiles, pantiled 40-60" 45"
clay tiles, split stone 45-50" 45"
thatch 45-80" 60-70"

8 Gabled roof G Hipped roof Cf) Roof pitches for various roof coverings

Q Half-hipped roof e Mansard roof f) Barrel roof e Compound roof with central gutter

Q Two single pitches «<!) Northlight or saw-tooth roof 4D Four g abies f) Square hipped roof

@) Wide dormer with sloping roof 4D Gabled dormer window 6} Roof cut-out 0 Single pitched-roof dormers

85
 ROOFS
Pitched Roofs

The roof forms the upper edge of a building and protects it

~-------L--------~ from rain and atmospheric influences (wind, cold, heat). A roof
consists of a supporting structure (roof frame, roof truss) and
0 Couple roof f) Purlin roof
roof covering. The design of the roof truss depends on material
(timber, steel, reinforced concrete), roof pitch, loading (self-
E
.5 weight, traffic load, wind and snow load), etc. Roof trusses for
-'
ffi pitched roofs are traditionally divided into purlin roofs and couple
ROOFS c.
(/) roofs. These vary according to the structural function of the
Roof shapes members --7 0- 0.
Pitched roofs 15-40 10-20
Flat roofs
Purlin roof
0 Collarroof
30--60 10-20
The purlin roof is the simplest form of roof construction. The
rafters are supported by cross-beams called purlins, which are
.c
~ 45' either mounted directly onto the masonry (monopitch principle)
c.
b0 or form load-bundling support beams as part of a roof truss,
a: supported by various arrangements of posts. Purlin trusses in
40'
relatively narrow houses mostly have a single row of posts in the
centre of the roof, but wider roofs have two rows of posts or more
--7 f).

There are various further forms of construction for wider span

roofs, like 'strutted purlin' --7 e
and 'centre hanger' ---7 0.

Span

Q Couple or collar roof: economic limits, slope vs span. R =rafter length

+

0 Strutless purlin roof with centre hanger

e Strutted purlln roof

0 Couple roof

f) Collar roof with loft conversion Cii) Collar roof with purlins

86
 ROOFS
Pitched Roofs

Couple roof
The couple roof is a structural system in which two rafters and
a ceiling joist (or the corresponding strips of a solid ceiling slab)
form a rigid triangle ---> p. 86 0.

The weight of the roof is transferred to the external walls without

loading the ceiling. This makes possible large roof spaces without
posts. The necessary joint to transfer tension at the junction of ROOFS
rafter and ceiling joist traditionally leads to the characteristic Roof shapes
Pitched roofs
change of roof pitch in couple roofs, which is constructed with
0 Couple roof with hangers and jointed rafters
a sprocket fixed at the top to the rafter and at the bottom to the
Flat roofs

projecting end of the ceiling joist ---> p. 86 0 (modern couple roofs

with upstands at the edge of the solid ceiling slab 'rafter shoes')
can be constructed without this change of pitch ---> p. 86 6). Very
wide buildings (with rafter lengths of more than 4.5 m) lead to
uneconomical rafter sections; and in these cases they are braced
with a collar ---> p. 86 f). Collar roofs are suitable for buildings
up to 12m wide (rafter length up to 8 m, collar up to 4 m). Much
larger widths are possible with modern structures (e.g. latticed
beam .... e.composite, corrugated web beam - waved web
system ---> 0) or with gang-nail trusses ---> 0.

f) Couple roof with jointed rafters, stiffened at three points

24-1.f IH
7.5-12.5

0 Mansard roof

eT Ic T- A~~+
Couple roof in timber framing with lifetime-guaranteed glued joints and 45°
inclined struts as twin supports; span ;:;:;:25 m

~~ !!3%!!

H·L
Bridle joint Ridge purlin

, ,
A 4660

A~
4350

1-1
12-14
t---1
16
Waved web system
A= Single web beam
1
B = Double web bearr
,.~~,
A ~
AT.
·~,.:·
{ftft============:::===::l~j C =Box beam

8 Butt joint with fish plate

Couple roof with composite, corrugated web beams (waved web system); ratio
~~
of profile height to span 1:15-1:20

~~
Gable roof pitches of 6", 15" and 25"
Monopitch roof pitches of 6", 10" and 15°

t ___________ --------------' L__________ ----- _________ J

(a) Falling diagonals with vertical posts (d) Rising and falling diagonals with vertical posts

~~
L_______________________ j
(b) Rising diagonals with vertical posts
[ _________________________ J
(c) Rising and falling diagonals
Euro prefabricated truss and gang-nail system: depending on octametre sizes,
for flat roof, single-pitch and two--pitch roofs e Timber truss forms and bracing

87
 ROOFS
Pitched Roofs

Roof coverings
Reed thatching ---7 0: 1.2-1.4 m long, on battens, spacing
20-30 em, fixed with ends upwards in a thickness of ii;;28 em
(better 35-40 em). Lifetime in sunny districts 60--70 years, half that
in wet districts.

Wood shingle roof ---7 8: of oak, beech, larch, pine or, unusually,
ROOFS
0 Reed thatch, load 0.70 KN/m 2 f) Wood shingle roof, load 0.25 KN/m 2
spruce. The lifetime of wooden shingles depends on the quality
Roof shapes and treatment of the material, the intensity of precipitation and
Pitched roofs
Flat roofs the pitch of the roof. Rule of thumb: degrees of roof slope= years
of lifetime. Wooden shingles are suitable for covering all sorts of
roof.

Slate ---7 f) - 0 (at pitches of 15-90°) on ii;;24 mm thick boarding

made of 12 em wide planks. Sanded roofing felt (200 gauge)
protects against dust and wind. Lap ;;;;a em (better I 0 em). Various
types of slating are used for roof and wall covering in Germany:
'exclusive', 'Old German' and 'wild', as well as 'decorative slating'
(mostly template slates such as shingle, sharp angle, fish scale,
'Old German' slate roof, load 0.45- 0 English slating with fibre cement octagonal etc.)
0.50 KN/m 2 -> 0 -0 slates, load 0.45-G.50 KN/m 2

Reasonably priced slating types: rectangular and curved-cut

template. Template slating is also suitable for artificial slate.

Old German slating, roof pitch Old German double slating, roof pitch

••
522° 1 mono-pitch: edge tile, 10 ridge and hip tile
corner tile right 11 edge tile left
Head
2 eaves tile

\~f9
12 eaves edge tile left
3 mono-pitch roof tile 13 ridge connecting edge tile,
4 wall connecting tile corner tile left
5 eaves: wall connecting, 14 ridge starting tile right
Foot corner tile right 15 ridge edge connecting tile
6 wall connecting tile right corner tile right

0 ;;;25o fish scale slating 0 ~25a curved-cut slating 7 wall connecting tile left
8 lean-to roof: wall connecting,
16 ridge connecting tile
17 edge tile right
corner tile left 18 eaves edge corner tile right
Maximum pitch of course~ 9 ridge end tile left
Obtuse cut a= 37.5°
~~F--=- Normal cut a= 37"
1 2 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 11 13 14 15 16 17 18
Sharp cut a= 32.5°
Curved cut a. = 45°
b

Sharp angle slating English slating

~30° ~22°

e
a
Roof pitch a-e, any large circle d-b,
construct a vertical d-e; connect
point a-c parallel to the eaves:
c-b gives the minimum pitch of the
slatinq courses.
f) CurVed-cut slating with solar
elements
e Minimum angle of truss, e.g. 40° CD Special tiles

Double-lap tiling ('beaver tail'), Concrete tiles, 0.60-G.80 KN/m 2 , Pantlle roof, lightweight, load Interlocking clay tile roof, load
heavy roof covering, load pitch 18° 0.50 KN/m 2 0.55 KN/m 2
0.60 KN/m 2 , 34-44 tiles/m 2

88
 ROOFS
Pitched Roofs

Roof coverings (continued)

Cement fibre roof ---7 0- 0 composed of corrugated sheets with
purl in spacing of 70-i 45 em for i .6 m sheets, of i. i 5 and i. i 75 m
for 2.50 m sheets; lapped i 50 or 200 mm.
10'

~ ~~~~7'3'
.s: 10° slope with jointing/filling material
0'
Sheet metal roof ---70-0 of zinc, titanium-zinc, copper, aluminium,
galvanised steel sheet etc. Many special shapes available for ridge,
eaves, edge etc. Copper sheeting is in commercially produced
0 Corrugated cement fibre roofing f) Minimum roof pitches-; 0 and
sizes ---7 0. Copper has the highest elongation at break of any
with shaped pieces for eaves lap lengths ROOFS
and ridge, load 0.20 kN/m 2 metal sheeting and is therefore suitable for embossing, pressing,
Roof shapes
stretching and compressing. The typical patina of copper roofing Pitched roofs
- - - - - 920 _ _ _ _ __,
is very popular. Combination with aluminium, titanium-zinc and Flat roofs

~·-----~ galvanised steel should be avoided, but with lead and high-grade
I I - - - effective width 873 --------4
steel there is no problem. Copper roofs are impermeable to water
1- r~~~~t~g _ e~~~~d -I
profile 177/51 vapour and thus particularly suitable for cold roofs ---7 p. 90.
'beaver-tail' tiles and 'beaver-tail' concrete tiles kN/m 2
with underlay incl. underlay parts ............................................................ . 0.60
1000
clay tiles, single or double lap ............................................................... . 0.80
®.~ extruded interlocking clay tiles ........................................................................... 0.60
~9o+-- effective width 910 --------4 interlocking tiles, reform pantiles, interlocking pantiles, flat tiles ...................... . 0.55
I- r~~~~~g _ e~~~~d -i interlocking tiles .......................................................................................... . 0.55
profile 130/30 Spanish tiles, concave tiles ............................................................................. 0.50
length (mm) 2500 pantiles ............................................................................................................. 0.50
large-format pantiles (up to 10 per m2) ............................................ . 0.50
width (mm) 1000
Spanish tiles without mortaring, 0. 70 with mortaring ........................................ 0.90
metal sheeting, aluminium roof (aluminium 0.7 mm thick) incl. boarding ........ .. 0.25
8 Corrugated cement fibre roofing sheets 8 Methods of fixing copper roof with double seams (copper sheet 0.6 mm thick) incl. boarding .... . 0.30
double standing seam roof of galvanised seamed sheeting (0.63 mm thick)
including underlay and boarding .............................................................. 0.30
1: Standing seam German slate roof on boarding incl. felt underlay and boarding
2: Profiled sheets, steel roof tile,
trapezoid corrugated Iron large format (360 mm x 280 mm) ...... ...................... .. ................ .. 0.50
small format (about 200 mm x 150 mm) ...... . 0.45
English slate roof incl. battens
on battens with double lap ....................................................................... 0.45
on boarding and underlay incl. boarding ................................................ .. 0.55
Old German slate roof on underlay and boarding ........................ .. 0.50
with double lap ........................................................................................ . 0.60
steel pantile roof (galvanised steel sheets)
on battens incl. battens ............................................................................ 0.15
on boarding incl. underlay and boarding .................................................. 0.30
corrugated steel roof (galvanised steel sheets) incl. fixings ............................ .. 0.25
double fold
zinc roof with cover strips of zinc sheet Incl. boarding ................................ .. 0.30
standing seam

Loads per 1 m 2 pitched roof surface (without rafters, purlins or trusses, but
including battens). If mortar-pointed, add 0.1 kN/m 2 •
Metal sheet roof with welted joint 0 Minimum roof pitch for roof covering
~
construction, load 0.25 KN/m 2 of galvanised steel sheet 1fz corrugation standard

~
!-- 7.50 -f 1 corrugation

m supplied form
length (m)
rolls
3Q-40
panels
2.0
~
11fz corrugations
length (mm) 9000 7500 4000 thickness 8,0 max. width (m) 0.6 (0.66) 1.0 roof depth profile ht
eaves/ridge 18-25mm 26-60mm
width (mm) 1000 1000 1000 weight 19kg/m thickness (mm) 0.1-2.0 0.2-2.0
up to Bm 10' (17.4%) 5' (8.7%)
specific wt {kg/dm3) 8.93 8.93 13" (22.5%) 8" (13.9%)
6-10m
1Q-15m 15' (25.9%) 10' (17.4%)
rolls panels H.OIH
over 15m 17' (29.2%) 12' (20.8%)
T I 8-10" !200mm with sealing of overlap

1 Q)
-exposed width; 1Q-15' 150mm without sealing of overlap
f - - - - - 88 --------;
_ ..-fixing ~
over 16° 100mm without sealino of overlap
_29___ ,1'------' ·~---
Corrugated sheet metal roofing,
@) Form and dimensions of rolled

f) Steel pantile roofing, load

0.15 KN/m 2
e Large elements for roof and wall
(Canaleta)
copper material for strip and
sheet roofing
minimum roof pitch, side laps

Roof area to Guideline Cut lengths Roof area to Guideline Cut lengths for
be drained size of for metal be drained size of metal pipes
roof drainage

v LJ semicircular rectangular
Zinc sheet DIN 9721
at least 0.7 mm
Gutter brackets: zinc-coated
(Zn)
with semi-
circular gutters
(m2)
gutters

(mm0) (mm)
gutters with round
downpipes
(m')
downpipe

(mm0) (mm)
strip steel (St2) up to 25 70 200 up to 20 50 167 (12-part)

~
Galvanised strip steel DIN 1541 25-40 80 200 (10-part) 20-50 60 200 ( 10-part)
leaded (St2) 40-60 90 250 (8-part) 50-90 70 250 (8-part)
Gutter bracket: galvanised 60-90 125 285 (7-part) 60-100 80 285 (7-part)

~
strip steel (St2) 90-125 150 333 (6-part) 90-120 100 333 (6-part)
Semi-hard copper sheet DIN 1787 (Cu) 125-175 400 (5-part) 400 (5-part) 100-180 125 400 (5-part)
Gutter brackets: flat copper (Cu) 175-275 200 500 (4-part) 180-250 150 500 (4-part)
hanging Aluminum sheet cut in half DIN 1725 (AI) Gutters should generally be installed 250-375 175
Gutter brackets: galvanised strip steel (St2) on a slope as greater flow speed helps 325-500 200
prevent blocking, corrosion and freezing. Fixing with pipe clips (corrosion-protected),
Specification:
Guttering supports normally consist of whose inner diameter is that of the
(example: semi-circular gutter 333 Zn
galvanised steel strips, width 20-50 mm downpipe. Minimum distance of downpipe
vertical 0.75 mm; with gutter bracket 333 St Zn)
and thickness 4-6 mm. from the wall 20 mm. Pipe clip spacing 2 m.
C) Possible shapes and locations 4Ii) Materials
CD
of gutter ~ Guideline sizes for gutters Guideline sizes for downpipes

89
 ROOFS
Pitched Roofs

Roof spaces
Spaces under pitched roofs were formerly used as naturally
ventilated 'hay lofts' for the storage of the harvest. The rooms
below were protected from cold by the stored produce -7 0.
Today, roof spaces are converted into habitable rooms. The
roof construction must comply with additional building physics

ROOFS
0 Cross-section through an Alpine f) Ice blockage problem
requirements.
farmhouse with hay loft
Roof shapes Building methods
Pitched roofs
Flat roofs Thermally insulated roofs can be divided into ventilated and
non-ventilated construction. In addition to the ventilation space
see also: Building
physics pp. 465 ff. between roof covering and underlay (or lower layer of roof),
which is required in both cases, ventilated roof construction
has an additional ventilation gap between underlay and thermal
insulation, to remove spray and condensate.

Ventilated roofs require additional rafter depth and work properly

only with a correctly installed vapour barrier and functioning roof
ventilation. Therefore the building industry commonly prefers
unventilated roof construction.

Standard build-up of layers

0 Arrangement of thermal Insulation in roof spaces (cold roofs) Roof coverings, battens -7 pp. 88-89
Underlay of plastic mesh-reinforced foil or vapour-permeable
Vapour barrier Corrugated
Eternit roofing plastic sheeting serves to carry away any spray water or snow
Underlay
penetrating under the roof covering.

Roof boarding of tongue and groove boards with applied

waterproofing (e.g. welded bitumen sheeting) is installed instead
of underlay in conditions of severe exposure.

The air gap in ventilated roof construction serves as an additional

ventilation layer (e.g. to remove condensation). The necessary
ventilation cross-sections depend on the roof pitch.

Thermal insulation is generally in the form of mineral wool roll

Q Normal warm roof 9 Concrete roof with warm roof material and is installed between and under the rafters or as
construction
prefabricated insulation elements, sometimes with interlocking,
vapour barrier on the room side and battens fixed to the
rafters -7 Cli).

The vapour barrier is under the thermal insulation to prevent

condensation inside the roof construction. When the vapour
barrier is installed, it is important that all air flow between interior
and roof construction is prevented. Any penetration points, laps
and junctions with building elements must be carefully sealed.
Inner cladding is normally plasterboard on support construction
(pay attention to the possibility of cracks!).

0 Cold roof: eaves detail, eaves soffit 8 Cold roof (monopitch): ridge detail,
with ventilation slots fascia board with ventilation slots

Ventilated ridge tile

a. Between the rafters (not ventilated)

c. Between the rafters (ventilated)

Inner cladding

Cl) Cold roof: eaves detail with 8 Cold roof: ridge detail
b. On the rafters (not ventilated) d. Between/under the rafters (ventilated)
exposed rafters 4I!) Location of thermal insulation for pitched roots converted for storage

90
 ROOFS
Flat Roofs

Flat roofs are defined as roofs with a slope of up to 5%. Flat roofs
without slope are possible as a special construction in exceptional
Boarding Roof construction
cases. Flat roofs should generally have a minimum slope of 2%.
I Cross beam
I On account of unavoidable flatness tolerances and deflection of
I I the construction, however, it is recommended to construct flat
roofs with a minimum slope of 5% (3°).
II Laminated
timber truss
II
Cross beam ROOFS
Profiled sheeting Construction
Roof shapes
There are many different structural types for flat roofs. The basic Pitched roofs
difference is between planar and linear structural systems: Flat roofs

l 1 l l Planar structures are based on flat elements spanning one or

Steel profile girder . Roof
with buckling stiffeners Remforced concrete t r two axes, with point or linear supports and loaded at right angles
to their plane (e.g. floor slabs, roof slabs, beam grillages, space

r4ts.r5l?JE21k4
frames).

Linear structures are systems compns1ng parallel-laid beam

elements (e.g. full-web steel beams, trussed beams, cable-trussed
beams) and intermediate components not laid in the direction of
0 Flat roof structures (selection): slabs, trusses, beam grillages the beam (e.g. cross-beams with boarding) to transfer the roof
loading.

Both structural types are differentiated into various degrees of

resolution of the structural elements, in addition to the material:

Slabs~o
Flat roofs are mostly constructed as flat solid reinforced concrete
slabs. These are fire-resistant, not susceptible to damp and form
a stable structural system in combination with solid walls.Their
disadvantage lies in their high dead weight, wet installation and
poor thermal and sound insulation. Movement resulting from
thermal expansion, creep or shrinkage must be compensated with
additional insulation layers and appropriately detailed bearings
and joints.
f) Guyed structure: Fleetguard factory, Quimper Arch.: Rogers & Partner
Truss structures ~ 0- 8
Trusses are linear structures. Commercially available truss beams
can be made of timber, steel or pre-cast reinforced concrete
with intermediate elements of various materials. Longer spans
may involve: truss beams of squared timber or with steel struts,
laminated timber beams, box beams of plywood or laminated
timber, specially produced full-web girders with high web plates
and bracing against buckling, and castellated or lattice beams.
Additional guying and cable trussing can reduce the cross-section
of the beams, effecting light and delicate structures.

Beam grillages ~ 0 - 8
Beam grillages are planar structures made of wide-span beams
laid in both directions and crossing in a plane. They are normally
1 Root covering 2 Insulation 3 Steel profiled sheeting 4 Raising piece composed of prefabricated components (e.g. of laminated timber
5 Centre piece 6 Wedge connection 7 Wedge 8 Purlin, rail
9 Cage ring 10 Grooved dowel pin 11 Wedge cheek 12 Horizontal tube beams with node plates or steel trusses) and are particularly
13 Diagonal tube suitable for roofing over industrial sheds etc. If there are fire
0 Upper and middle nodes of space frames (KEBA tube nodes) protection requirements, then additional measures must be
undertaken to protect the structure.

Space frames~ 0 - 8
The space frame is a further development of the beam grillage.
Steel rods are connected with spherical nodes to form stiff three-
dimensional structures which require no additional stiffening.

Ii .c
;;
z

8 Space frame with KEBA tube node connections (example), details -> 0

91
 Render-----fl I ROOFS
Cover profile~
Flat Roofs

There are two methods of building a flat roof from the building
physics perspective:

Non-ventilated, single-layer construction ('warm roof'), in which

the load-bearing structure, vapour barrier, thermal insulation and
waterproofing (including intermediate layers) form a composite
element.
Clamping rail
ROOFS
Flashing
This can either be the conventional construction --> Cli), or an
Roof shapes 'upside-down roof' --> e
(waterproofing and vapour barrier are
Pitched roofs 0 Parapet with artificial stone coping f) Wall connection
applied as one layer directly onto the load-bearing construction
Flat roofs
and the closed-cell insulation is loosely laid on top and secured
BS 8298 Gravel trap with a gravel layer), or a combination of both construction types
BS EN 12730 Outlet with Raising piece
DIN 18531 glued flange with glued flange (e.g. a 'plus roof'), or with internal insulation--> 0.

Flat Roof ......

~2%

Ventilated two-layer construction ('cold roof'), where there is a

Guidelines,
Central ventilation layer between the waterproofing (and its sub-structure)
Association of and the thermal insulation --> () - f). The advantage of this
German Roofers
arrangement (evaporation of condensation) is, however, effective
see also: Building only if the through-ventilation is fully functional and a defect-free
physics pp.
471 If. vapour barrier is installed on the inner side of the construction.
Otherwise, the waterproofing acts as a wrongly positioned
vapour barrier, which can cause the roof construction to become
damp!
8 Roof edge detail (terrace) 0 Drain detail with sealing connection
Surface protection (washed gravel15/32, d "" 50 mm
or paving slabs bedded in gravel, d = 30 mm)

~
~~~!~~!~~ Upper
Protection layer
waterproofing layer of bitumen or polymer bitumen
Pav'1ng slabs, laid
sheeting (fully glued to the lower waterproofing layer)
loose in gravel
Lower waterproofing layer of bitumen or polymer bitumen
Protection layer (held in place by loading, mechanical fixing or partial or full gluelng)

~~~~~:S~f;~~=y~
Waterproofing ~~:~ij~ij~~=i~~~~~ Vapour pressure compensation layer (continuous air layer)

Thermal insulation -------\1 Thermal Insulation (material ace. DIN V 4108-10)

Vapour barrier
Compensation layer - -======~~:t~~~~~~~~~*?
Reinforced concrete - - - - - - - - / . Structural slab or concrete forming taU
slab

0 Terrace connection with extended grating CD) Standard construction of a warm roof with heavy surface protection and
multi-layer waterproofing

Standard construction (warm roof) --> Cl!>

Surtace protection can either be heavy (gravel layer - depth
~5 em, slabs laid in a bed of stone chips, or an extensive green
roof) or lightweight (pre-applied gravel covering of bitumen
sheeting) to prevent the formation of bubbles, temperature
shocks, mechanical stress to the waterproofing or UV damage.

Protection layers (e.g. PVC protective sheeting, synthetic fleece,

rubber granulate protection mats, protection against penetrating
roots), waterproofing with many layers of bitumen sheeting and

e Cold roof above reinforced

concrete slab
8 Cold roof in timber construction
polymer-bitumen sheeting (fully glued to each other) or a single
layer of plastic or elastomer waterproofing membrane. The
waterproofing can be held in place by a superimposed load,
Thermal·lnsulation mechanical fixing, or full or partial gluing.
Gravel layer
Waterproof concrete
Vapour pressure compensation layer: ribbed felt or holed
bitumen sheeting, to prevent bubble formation resulting from
evaporated residual dampness or the construction layers above.
Insulation is provided by thermal insulation boards (cork, rigid
foam, fibre insulation or foam glass), laid without joints or with all-
round interlock edges.

Separation/compensation layer: mostly loosely laid.

Load-bearing construction on a slope --> p. 91, with sliding bearings
on account of thermal expansion (consequent formation of a sliding
e Upside-down roof C) Watertight concrete roof with
internal insulation
joint over the load-bearing walls and separation of internal wall and
slab. Glue Styrofoam strips to the underside of the slab in advance)

92
 ROOFS
Flat Roofs

Roof planting
The Babylonians were constructing roof gardens and green
roofs as long ago as the 6th century sc. In Berlin around 1890,
farmhouses were covered with a layer of soil for fire protection
purposes, causing plants to grow. In the 20th century, during the
classic modernist period and with the introduction of flat roofs, the
almost forgotten green roof was rediscovered.
0 Roof gardens on rented housing: f) Roof garden in the form of a ROOFS
'Pointer towards a new architecture' collection of plant containers on Properties of planted roofs Roof shapes
balconies and roof terraces Pitched roofs
1. Insulation, due to the air layer within the plants and the Flat roofs
growing layer (corresponding to soil) with its roots, and also
through warmth from microbial processes
2. Sound insulation and thermal storage capacity
3. Improvement of the air in built-up areas
4. Improvement of the microclimate
5. Positive effect on urban rainwater drainage and landscape
water cycle
6. Building physics advantages: UV radiation and severe
temperature variations are prevented by the protective growing

]000000 and plant layer.

7. Dust retention
8. Design element/improved quality of life
C) The Hanging Gardens of Semiramis 0 Lost green areas can be regained by
9. Reclamation of green areas
in Babylon (6th century sc) planting roofs

:~:::::.C evaporatio~~
greater ~
·Yt/'i~:'.<~~!~~·/ greater and ).~·~~t::~.;~~Jf?i!'
faster surface lower
drainage surface
drainage

a 'conventional' roof
good ground
0 Overheated, dry urban air--> 0 Cooler and moister air through
the energy consumption of plant
plant and soil
evaporation
water
replenishment

transpiration G,t Distribution of rainwater run-off- Cf) Distribution of rainwater run-off-

paving->@ unbuilt areas

a 'conventional' roof
f) Dust production and circulation Improvement of urban air through The building of every house causes 0 A large part of the lost green areas
-->9 the filtering and binding of dust and the loss of open landscape --> G) could be reclaimed by planting roofs
the oxygen production of the plants
D.:::-
1\ water cycle

a 'green' roof ground water

a 'conventional' roof
0 Sound reflections from 'hard 4Ii) Sound absorption by soft plant 0 Natural water and nutrient cycle 0 Mental and physical value of green
surfaces'~ G) surfaces areas

93
 ROOFS
Flat Roofs

Slopes for roof planting

The pitch of gabled roofs should not exceed 25° and flat roofs
should have a maximum slope of 2-3%.

Types of roof planting

Intensive: The roof becomes a residential garden with features
like pergolas and loggias. Constant care and maintenance are
0 Intensive planting f) Extensive planting
required. Plants: lawn, shrubs, bushes, trees
ROOFS
Roof shapes
Pitched roofs Extensive: The planting is onto thin soil and requires the minimum
Flat roofs
of care. Plants: moss, grass, herbs, shrubs, bushes

Mobile greening: Plants in containers can be used for the

greening of roof terraces, parapets and balconies.

Watering
Natural watering with rainwater: Water is backed up in the
drainage and growing layers.

Dammed watering: Rainwater is backed up in the drainage layer

8 Layer structure of a green roof G Plant containers form an edging for and mechanically refilled when required.
the green area

Drip irrigation: Drip irrigation hoses in the drainage or growing

layers keep the plants watered through dry periods.

Sprinkler: Sprinkler equipment above the growing layer.

Plant feeding
Fertiliser can be applied to the growing layer or as an additive to
artificial watering.

Botanical name English name Height Month of

(colour offiowers) flowering
insulating mat VI
two root protection/ Saxifrage aizoon encrusted saxifrage (white-pink) S em
thermal insulation biting stonecrop (yellow) Bern VI-VII
waterproof membranes
vapour barrier
Sedum acre
Sedumalbum white stonecrop (white) Scm VI-VII
0 Zinco Floraterra roof greening 0 Zinco Floradrain roof greening Sedum album 'Coral Carpet'
Sedum album 'Laconicum'
white variety
white variety
5 em
10cm
VI
VI
system system VI-VII
Sedum album 'Micranthum' white variety Scm
Sedum album 'Murale' white variety Bern VI-VII
Sedum album 'Cioroticum' (light green) Scm VI-VII
Sedum hybr. autumn delight (yellow) 8 em VI-VII
Sedum f/oriferum Bailey's gold (gold) 10om VIII-IX
Sedum ref/exum, 'Elegant' rock stonecrop (yellow) 12cm VI-VII
Sedum sexangulare tasteless stonecrop (yellow) 5cm VI
Sedum 'White Tatra' bright yellow variety 5cm VI
Sedum spur. 'Superbum' sed urn S em VI-VII
Sempervivum arachno/deum cobweb houseleek (pink) 6cm VI-VII

e Proven plant species and varieties for extensive roof greening (selection)

growth height> 250cm up to 250cm S-10 em 1 mulch layer

build-up height fm 35cm 19-3S em 14cm 12cm 12om to em 2 soil mixture
surface loading 3.7 kNfm2 1.9-3.7 kN/m 2 1.4 kN/m 2 1.1 kN/m 2 1.1S kN/m 2 0.9 kN/m 2 3filtermat
water supply 170 lfm2 80-170 l/m2 601/m2 4SI/m2 40Vm' 30Vm' 4 drainage layer
mulch layer- em -em -em 1 em -em 1om 5 root protection membrane
soil mixture 23cm 7-23cm Scm 4cm ?em 4cm 6 separation and protection layers
drainage layer 12cm 12cm 9cm ?em Scm Scm 7 roof sealing
watering, by hand or by hand or automatic by hand or automatic by hand by hand by hand B supporting construction
automatic

f) Various types of roof greening

94
 ROOFS
vegetation - - Flat Roofs
growing layer
filter layer ~
drainage layer ==Jl
;-\L
root
protective layer
protect~on layer
separation layer ~
=it Planted roof: construction layers
Growing layer: expanded clay and expanded slate are used.
__,-waterproof membrane~
1
Lseparation layer J These offer structural stability, soil ventilation, water storage and
-thermal insulation- soil modelling. Functions: nutrient storage, soil reaction (pH value),
- - vapour barrier - -
lcompensating layer F ventilation, water storage.
roof structure -- Filter layer: consisting of filter material, it hinders silting in the
drainage layer.
ROOFS
0 Warm roof--> f) f) Warm roof with greening
Drainage layer: prevents the plants from becoming waterlogged.
Material: woven mats, plastic boards, protective building materials. Roof shapes
Pitched roofs
Protection layer: protects during the building phase and against Flat roofs
vegetation - - point loading.
growing layer I
filter layer
drainage layer ~~
=I Root protection layer: the roots are retained in PVC/ECB and
EPDM sheeting.
protective layer ~l:: Separation layer: separates the load-bearing construction from
root protection layer ~
separation layer -ill=: the roof greening.
===c':~~~~;fp7:~~~~·.s ~ Examples -70 - Ci) show common layer structures for roof
-supporting structureJ greening. Before planting, check that the roof is in perfect
air gap
condition and that each layer can fulfil its function. Carefully
W.~2~)(22~(2W -thermal insulation- WJ:}S\()fll{)j~ inspect the technical condition of the roof surface. Pitched roofs
can also be greened -7 0 - @, but this demands yet more
l~~]ij\jW\j\tll\jfi§1l1~~!ii~J roof structure - - \ilil\l@Ul~tii~@II~jii~ extensive constructional preparations to prevent slippage and soil
drying out.
8 Gold roof--> 8 Q Gold roof with greening
strip turf (expanded clay/soil
mixture underneath)

filter material
vegetation--

growing layer--
filter layer--,_
drainage layer--
protective layer--
thermal insulation -
root protectlon layer~

Lwate~~~oa:t~~~~~::; =J
roof structure - -

0 Upside-down roof--> 0 0 Upside-down roof with greening

G Eaves detail of a greened pitched @) Eaves detail-> $
roof

flagstones on sand bed

filter material
drainage element
root protecting film
t-- 32 __,
sealing r- 25 --1
plants vegetation - -
(scree flora,
growing layer--
filter layer - -
drainage layer--
- root protection layer - -
ll slip/protective layer Jr
L waterproof membrane ..J

Greening of existing roof (if

least expense constructionally and structurally
possible) 41) Drainage inspection shaft 0 Wall connection with shingle safety
strip

grass roof
(meadow grass)

beam~
additional Insulation
panelling Transition from roadway to Transition from pathway to intensive
Greening on a sloping roof Greening of a steeply pitched roof intensive roof greening or extensive roof greening

95
 WINDOW ARRANGEMENT AND INTERIOR WINDOWS
Arrangement

f',r ------------ --,,"'1

WINDOWS
Arrangement
Requirements
0 Vertical window, floor-level
underfloor heating or radiators at
f) Horizontal window with single
opening light at the side, enclosed
8 Window composition: upper
window brings light deep into the
0 Rooflight for scattered light on
a wall
Design types the side window sill for heating/media duct room, small window provides view
Thermal
out and ventilation
insulation
Sound insulation
Cleaning
buildings
Roof windows
Rooflights

BS 8206-2
DIN 5034

e Bay window, plastic projection

0 Full-length fixed glazing with parapet
handrail and ventilation flaps with
8 Double glazing with accessible
space between (fagade as second
e Plastically modulated wall with
window flush with outer or
sound insulation boxes skin; conservatory glazing) inner face
ELEVATION

T
T
1.00
75
..l 1
C) A scenic view and projecting Gi) Room with a view 0 Normal window height (table height) @) Office
building elements

T T
1.25

1 T
@) Kitchen 0 Office (filing cabinet) fj Coatrack e Rooflight, e.g. drawing office

VISUAL PROTECTION
a/3

4f)
u 4Il)
Sufficient space in the corners for
curtains
Vertically hung panel blinds ~ Sliding cloth panels fJD Venetian blinds of cloth or
plastic (darken the interior)

96
SUN PROTECTION WINDOWS
Requirements

The window, as an element built into the wall, has essential

functions apart from just closing the opening. It controls the level
of natural lighting, the supply and extraction of air to and from
the room, and the view out for connection with the world. These
functions can also be fulfilled by separate elements: overhead
lights, ventilation flaps and shop windows, respectively.
The size and location of windows in rooms, in addition to the
requirements under building regulations and the rules for daylight WINDOWS
in interiors (see Daylight --t pp. 488 ff.), are determined above Arrangement

0 Internal venetian blind, heat builds f) External louvred blind all by architectural considerations. Their external impact has a Requirements
Design types
up behind the window (only glare
protection)
decisive influence on the appearance of the fagade. Important Thermal
factors are: the location in the wall, with internal windows insulation
Sound insulation
emphasising the wall depth and external windows allowing the Cleaning
wall to present as a surface; the proportions of width to height; buildings
Roof windows
the ratio of construction thickness to glass area (visible frame, Rooflights
Impact pane, casements and possibly glazing bar widths); and the relationship
back-ventilated see also: Daylight
to other fagade elements (which is often neglected when pp. 488 ff.
replacing windows). (Directing
sunlight p. 499,
In the interior, windows are responsible for light direction, which
Sun shading
is essential for the architectural effect of a room. Most decisive p. 500)
is the location on plan, which may have to be supplemented
by sun shading equipment or light directing glass. The type of
opening determines the functional quality as a ventilation element.
External louvred blind with impact pane (shields external sun protection)
How far do the casements open into the room? Is the window
sill still usable when the window is open? (Tilted windows are
not sufficient for through ventilation! They ensure only the slow
cooling of a room.) There may also be specific requirements for fire
protection or for resistance against break-in or damage. Resistance
classes --t pp. 107, 118. If the window serves as an escape route,
it must have a clear opening of at least 0.9 x 1.2 m and a sill height
of max. 1.2 m above floor level.
In the Netherlands, regulations stipulate the sizes of windows in
relation to the angle of incidence of the light.
Refurbishment
Awnings stop sunshine and Markisolette- partly angled sun If windows are replaced by those with better thermal insulation,
warmth. Distance from wall blind then the installation demands particular attention. There is a
prevents heat build-up danger with improved windows that condensation may occur
at other less well-insulated locations (window reveals, outside
WINDOW SIZES corners of rooms), which can lead to mould formation! In order not
to impair the appearance of the fagade and the entrance of light,
DD

ornrnm
the dimensions of the panes should not be altered (pay attention
DD to frames, casements and glazing bar width --t 0).

DO Residential construction

DO The minimum requirement for structural window apertures in

occupied rooms is specified in the state building regulations and is
Fora 1.5m Fora 1.5 m Fora 1.5m Fora 1.5m Fora 1.5 m 1/8 or 1/10 ofthe plan area of the room. Further design constraints
wall opening, wall opening, wall opening, wall opening, wall opening, are the distance from buildings opposite (shadow formation) and
2
2
1 m glass
2
0.92 m glass
2
0.89 m glass 0.87 m glass 0.84 m2 glass
the requirements of the energy saving regulation EnEV. In order
area remains area remains opening remains area remains area remains
=66% ~61% =59% =58% =56% to optimise the energy balance, the criteria for workrooms can be

e Example of reduction in glass area with glazing bars

applied.
Workrooms
The required window area can be roughly worked out using
the following rules. The total width of all visual connections
to the outside must be at least 1/1 0 of the total width of all
walls, according to workplace guidelines --t 0. Possible visual
connection to the outside should be at eye level (window sill
heights of 0.85 -1.25 m) --t p. 96 0 - 0. For workrooms more
than 3.5 m high, the glass area of the window must be at least
30% of the outside wall area --t e. For rooms with dimensions
corresponding to those of residential rooms, the minimum height
Glass area~ 1/10 of the floor area
of the glass area is 1.3 m.
Window width~ 1/10 (M + N + 0 + P) With the increasing use of existing sources of energy, the
f) Window sizes in industrial building e Window sizes for rooms over
3.5 m high
optimisation of thermal losses and gains and the control of light
through windows merit a separate design prepared by experts.

97
 OPENING TYPES WINDOWS
Design Types

WINDOWS
Arrangement
Requirements
Design types
0 Casement (outward and inward) f) Centre pivot-hung casement
0 Vertically sliding window Q Sliding window
Thermal
insulation REBATE TYPES
Sound insulation
Cleaning
buildings
Roof windows
Rooflights

Opening inward with frame behind Opening outward with frame Plain jamb with rebated frame Plain jamb with wrap-
recessed jamb behind recessed jamb around window frame

«>-~~
two sash windows three sash windows four sash windows

single sash windows

?O l21 75C ,875 100( 1125 '1250 1375 1500 1625 1750 1875 2000 2125 2250
outside "'~u Inside
~" 5X1 jsx3 j7x3 J I I I I
~X 5x<. l•x4 17x4 ! Bx4 The numbers above the images are Identification
numbers for the size. -
They are composed of multiples of unit.
-
l7x5 Bx5 125 mm for width and height: -
S\1 e.g.: Windowopening9x 11 ~(9x 125)x (11 x 125)
-
-1125 X 1375
SX< jsx6 j7x6 'BXB
-~ v
5xl jsx7 7X7 ,Bx7 9x7 12x7 13X7 RR
~ lt:
7xB ! BxB 9xB j10xB 12XB 13XB 14xB 16xB fii) Meeting type 1 (rebated inward
opening). RR ~structure
~ jo:
lL

0~~ ~~c ~,~.,

7X9 I Bx9 9X9 j10x9 12x9 13X9 14x9 16x9 17x9

~ lo
lL
iX1• 7x1< jBx10 j9x10 j10x10 12X10 13x10 14x10 16x1o 17x1o

~ lo
~ lWHHH
5X1 jax11 9X11 lwx11 13x11 14x11 17X11

~JMM!
~
~ jo
~

0
0
~ ~
9x12 l1ox12

lf&Wij ""
"'
lli Declarations: CD Meeting type 2 (rebated outward
opening)
l 9X16
~ Preferred sizes
lwx16
0
0
D Sizes
"';01fiiiliH1
g
El Sizes, preferably ribbon windows

9x17 l1ox11
@I Sizes, preferably for door windows
Ill=- ·-·

"'Oj"'
181 Sizes, preferably for basement windows nmm~~
8
lla Sizes, preferably for laundry window

! 9x18 10x1B

"'~ 8
II
5
RR

C) Guideline sizes for structural window openings @) Meeting type 3 (no rebate)

98
 ~ WINDOWS
Thermal Insulation
rm m
1

I ~ w Various forms of window according to type of casement --7

Single window Double window as

k!71
Double window as
0 and type of frame --7 0 are shown opposite. The stringent
requirements for windows (thermal and sound insulation) result in
combined window box window a multitude of window types and constructions. The location of
0 Window forms according to type of casement

.. ....
the window in the wall is a significant design feature of the fa9ade.
The arrangement of the insulation and any sun protection are also
important --7 0. An impact pane (external, no closing function)
serves, like double fa9ade systems, as wind protection for the
WINDOWS

M
Arrangement
sun protection system and enables natural ventilation in strong Requirements
Design types
wind and rain. A staggered layout of window and insulation planes Thermal
should be avoided if possible, because it leads to expensive and insulation

urrrrn
defect-prone insulation and weatherproofing construction. The
permissible dimensional tolerances for window and door openings
up to 3m long are max. 12 mm and, for elements up to 6 m, max.
16mm.
Sound insulation
Cleaning
buildings
Roof windows
Rooflights

EnEV2009
Window frame in Window frame in Window frame in
recessed jamb plain jamb all-round jamb External windows and French windows of heated rooms must see also: Glass
be constructed with at least insulating or double glazing. The pp. 107 ff.,
f) Window forms according to type of frame (left: outside, right: inside)
thermal transmittance (U-value) of windows in new buildings Building physics
pp. 471 ff.,
must, according to EnEV 2009, be determined together with Daylight
a survey of the whole building. Solar gains are included in the pp. 488 ff.

calculation --7 p. 474 ff. For new installations, replacement and

renewal in existing buildings, the values according to --7 9 are
to be observed. In addition, windows, French windows and roof
windows have to comply with requirements for airtightness and
minimum air change --7 0.

Row Building element Residential buildings Zones of non-

outside
and zones of residential buildings
-

11:
non-residential with interior
:::::::::::: - buildings with interior temperatures
.......
' ...
. '''.'' temperatures >19°C 12-19°C
-
·.·.·.·.·.·.
inside
:::::::::::: __ Highest value of thermal transmittance Urn,1)
in W/(m 2 x K)
The best layout In Windows finish with Outside finish
massive walls inside face of wall with insulation
2a external windows, 1.30 2) 1.90 2)
French windows

2b roof windows 1.40 2) 1.90 2)

2c glazing 1.10 3) no req'ment

2d curtain walls 1.40 41 1.90 4)

With sunshade
equipment and
impact pane 2e curtain walls 1.90 4) no req'ment

2f glass roofs 2.00 3) 2.70 3 )

3a external windows, 2.00 2) 2.80 2)

French windows, roof
outside

E
windows with special
-- glazing
--
3b special glazing 1.60 31 no req'ment

inside
3c curtain walls with special 2.3 4) 3.0 41
With central insulation, in External, outside the With sun protection glazing
the plane of the insulation plane of insulation with equipment In the
surrounding frame fixed outer leaf
to load-bearing wall 1l Thermal transmittance of the building element, taking into account the new and existing
e Location of window in the wall (left: outside, right: inside) building layers.
2l Design value of the thermal transmittance of the window; this is to be taken from the technical

product specification or according to the known energy characteristics of the product

according to building regulations. This applies particularly to energy characteristics from
European technical approvals and from the regulations according to the building rules and
Row No. full storeys in building Joint permeability class
based on decisions contained in general approvals under the building regulations.
1 up to 2 2 3 ) As 2) but regarding the glazing.
4l Thermal transmittance of the curtain walling; this is to be determined in accordance with the
2 more than 2 3
generally recognised data relating to the technology.

e Joint permeability classes in external windows, French windows and roof

windows
0 The maximum values approach for single building elements is applicable only to
new buildings, and replacement or renewal in existing buildings, EnEV 2009

99
 WINDOWS
Sound Insulation

In order to improve the sound insulation of windows, a number of

glass layers are installed behind each other. To reduce the reciprocal
effect of resonance, different glass thicknesses are combined (e.g.
4/8 mm; 6/12 mm). The greater the distance between the panes,
the better is the sound insulation. Further improvements can be
gained from the separation of the frame and the sound-absorbing
construction of the resulting wrap-around window surround. Box-
type windows, even with only single glazing, have better sound
insulation values than double-glazed windows.
WINDOWS
Arrangement
0 Aluminium window with flush Aluminium window with thermally
casements separated profiles, up to 37 dB
Requirements If the requirements for sound insulation are very high, then suitably
Design types
Thermal sound-insulated ventilation equipment must also be provided,
insulation because the sound insulation is only effective with the windows
Sound
insulation
closed.
Cleaning
buildings
Roof windows ~'5 .£:5 -
~..aU)<£: Qi
Rooflights "a.
.?;- ~~EE
cS:c--
_Qilf§~
>
.!1

~ ~ ~~ tfJ~~~ ""
"0
BS EN ISO 140
"'
0 "' "'
~.{g~! ~~
o.._._,_
BS 8233 0::
BS EN ISO residential road 0
<10
15186
DIN 4109 residential road <35 0
26-35 10-50 I
see also: Glass
p. 107 Universal aluminium window, sun
protection possible between panes,
e Aluminium combined window,
thermally insulated, up to 47 dB
(2-lane)

residential feeder >100

~10 Ill
0
upto47dB road
36-100 I
(2-lane) 26-35 50-200 II
11-25 Ill
~10 IV
rural road 101-300
in village1> 101-300 I
(2-lane) 36-100 II
residential feeder 11-35 200-1000 Ill
road
"'10 IV
(2-lane) 0 ~50 25 (30)
urban road 101-300 Ill 51-55 25 (30)

e Aluminium sliding window,

thermally insulated, up to 35 dB
0 Aluminium/wood window with
composite construction, up to 40 dB
main road
industrial areas
4- to 6-lane main
36-100
>35
101-300
1000-3000 IV
v
IV
Ill
56-<30
61-<35
30 (35)
35 (40)
IV 66-70 40 (45)
roads v 45 (50)
>70
motorway slip ~100 3000-5000 v 1l Values in brackets apply for
roads and external walls and must also
mot01ways be used for windows if they
1) Outside built-up areas and for roads in industrial and comprise more than 60% of
commercial areas, the next noise level range applies external wall area.

G} How loud is it? 4!) Selection of the correct

sound insulation

Sound Sound Orientation notes on construction features of windows and

insulation insulation ventilation systems
class value (dB)

f) Aluminium window with thermally

separated profiles; narrow casement
e Wooden box-type window with
sound-absorbing surround, up to
6 50 box-type window with separated frames in reveals and
special sealing, wide spacing of panes and thick glazing
5 45-49 box-type window with special sealing, wide spacing of
is covered by frame, up to 40 dB 45 dB
panes and thick glazing; combined window with decoupled
casement frames, special sealing, spacing of panes over
about 100 mm and thick glazing
4 40-44 box-type windows with additional sealing and centre-seal
glazing; combined window with special sealing, spacing of
panes over about 60 mm and thick glazing
3 35-39 box-type window without additional sealing and with centre-
seal glass; combined window with additional sealing, normal
spacing of panes and thick glazing; double-glazed unit in
heavy multi-pane construction; 12 mm glass, non-opening or
in sealed window.
2 30-34 combined window with additional sealing and centre-seal
glazing; thick double-glazed unit, non-opening or in sealed
window; 6 mm glass, non-opening or in sealed window
1 25-29 combined window with additional sealing and centre-seal
glazing; thin double-glazed unit in window with additional sealing
C) Plastic window with aluminium Cii) Plastic combined window, sun
0 20-24 unsealed single- or double-glazed window
frame facing, up to 42 dB protection possible between panes,
upto45 dB G) Sound insulation classes of windows (excerpt from VOl guideline 2719)

100
 WINDOWS
Cleaning Buildings

Fac;:ade hoists and mobile equipment

Safety belts with straps, safety cables or safety equipment
for working at height should be used as a protection against
falls---> 0

Fac;:ade hoists and mobile equipment (allowing access to fixed

glazing) for cleaning windows and fagades---> 0- G) are available
Q Mobile safety cradle and safety belt f) Parallel travel safety ladders (for
to carry out maintenance and repair work (thus saving the cost
three or four storeys)
of scaffolding). If fitted at the right time, they can also be used WINDOWS

to carry out minor building work (such as fixing blinds, installing Arrangement
Requirements
windows etc.). With slight modifications, fac;:ade hoists and access Opening types
equipment can be used as rescue apparatus in the event of a fire. Thermal
protection
The options available include mobile suspended ladders mounted Noise protection
on rails, trackless roof gantry equipment with a cradle, and a rail- Cleaning
buildings
mounted roof gantry with a cradle and attached to the roof deck Loft windows
or the balustrade, with curves and points. Rooflights

Suspended light metal ladder equipment (for fagade access) ---> f)

consists of a suspended mobile ladder on rails. The width of the
ladder is 724 mm or 840 mm, and the total overall length is 25 m
:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·: maximum, depending on the shape of the building. The maximum
e Cleaning of adjacent windows 0 Shading shows acceptable cleaning
surface area
safe working load (S.W.L.) is 200 kg (i.e. two men and the
apparatus itself). Alternatives are available, such as maintenance
gangways---> 0 and cleaning balconies---> e.
Type of building External windows Roof windows
offices every 3 months• every 12 months
l' public offices 2weeks 3 months
I
shops outside, weekly 6 months
inside, every 2 weeks
shops (high street) outside, daily 3 months
inside, every week
hospitals 3 months 6 months
schools 3-4 months 12 months
hotels (first class) 2 weeks 3 months
factories (precision work) 4weeks 3 months
I I
II factories (heavy industry) 2 months 6 months
I I
I! private houses 4-6 weeks

0 Maintenance gangway e Cleaning platform

" ground floor windows must be cleaned more frequently

8 Intervals of time for window cleaning

m
60

55

50

45

e Ci)
40
One-person fagade cable lift Parallelogram jib action With two independently
operated jibs I 35

30m I 30

25 L 25

20
' • ( I 20

15 I l 1 I 15

I
I J
I .. I l 10

I
G Work platform hoists
I J
' .cl.l. _oil •
Gardemann system
5

101
 WINDOWS
/E:JJ Loft Windows

1!!;;;;;1' The required quality of living is decisive for the determination of

window size in inhabited loft spaces. Building regulations require
a minimum window area of Va of the floor area for living rooms

WINDOWS
Arrangement
Requirements
Opening types
D
0 Pivoting window f) Top-hung window, sliding
--7 ((). Large windows make these rooms more comfortable. The
window widths in secondary rooms can be chosen according to
the distance between the rafters.

Generously wide windows in living rooms can be achieved

through the installation of rafter trimmers and additional rafters.
Steeper roofs need shorter windows, while flatter roofs require
longer windows.
Thermal
protection
Noise protection Loft windows can be joined using flashing --7 G and can be
Cleaning
buildings
arranged horizontally or vertically in rows or window groups.
Loft windows
Rooflights

see also: Dormer

~ ~
windows p. 85 1s4cm 1 174cm 1 94cm
1
134cm 1

pivoting
window

e Sliding window, casement

door
C) Top-hung window with vertical
unit

pivoting
window

2.05
1u85- plastiC frame

90- double top-

110 hung/pivoting
window

Q Installation heights for loft windows

escape window

vertical
window unit

2.30
_ --2u00
r"l·E-'---,..,..-Itr- 4®
~­
~-
fii) Window sizes
90
window size 54/83 54/103 64/103 74/103 74/123 74/144 144/123 114/144 134/144
~~~~ surface 0.21 0.28 0.36 0.44 0.55 0.66 0.93 1.12 1.36
area of light
admitted (m ) 2

e With additional vertical window Q As dormer window; see p. 85 floor area (m2) 2 2-3 3-4 4-5 6-7 9 11 13m2

$ Calculation of window size, in relation to floor area

e Installation variant, vertical

section
0 Horizontal section @) Glass faQade with integrated loft windows and external perforated
metal screen Arch.: Kister Schelthauer Gross

102
 WINDOWS
~ ~T
d- with solid or ventilated curb
~30 J fan tb Skylights and Dome Rooflights

Domes, skylights, coffers, smoke vents and louvres, as fixed or

60x60 1.20 X 2.40 1.80 X 2.40 50 X 1.00 1.00 X 1.00 1.20 X 1.50 movable units, can be used for lighting and ventilation, and for
80x80 1.25 X 2.50 1.80 X 2.70 clearing smoke from rooms, halls, stair wells etc.
90 x90 1.50 X 1.50 1,80 X 3.00 50 X 1.50 1.00 X 1.50 1,20 X 2.40
1.00 X 1.00 1.50 X 1.80 2.20 X 2.20 By positioning dome rooflights facing north sunshine and glare are
1.00 X 2.00 1.50 X 2.40 2.50 X 2.50 1.00 X 2.00 1.50 1.50
1.20x 1.20 1.80 X 1.80
60x60 X
avoided -7 0. Glare from low sun can be avoided by the use of a
1.20 X 1.80 50 X 90 1.00 X 2.50 1.50 X 3.00 high curb -7 0 Dome rooflights used for ventilation should face
round domes: 60, 90, 100, 120, 150, 180
220, 250cm dia. 90x90 1.00 X 3.00 1.80x 2.70 into the prevailing wind in order to utilise the extraction capacity of
the wind. The inlet aperture should be 20% smaller than the outlet WINDOWS
0 'Normal' dome rooflight f) Dome rooflight with high curb
aperture. Forced ventilation, with an air flow of 150-1000 m3/h, can Arrangement
be achieved by fitting a fan into the curb of a skylight -7 f). Dome Requirements
Opening types
rooflights can also be used for access to the roof. Thermal
Attention should be given to the aerodynamic extraction surfaces protection
Noise protection
of smoke exhaust systems. Orientating each extraction unit at an Cleaning
angle of 90° from the adjacent one will allow for wind coming from buildings
all directions. Position to leeward/windward if pairs of extraction Loft windows
Rooflighls
]11':....___ _ _~ fans are to be mounted in line with or against the direction of the see also: Daylight
prevailing wind. pp. 488ff.
B
Smoke extraction vents are required for stairwells more than four
A B A B A= B= complete storeys high. Variable skylight aperture widths up to
rooflight area roof opening
40 60x60 1.6 1.80 X 1.80
5.50 m are available, as is a special version up to 7.50 m wide
70 90 x90 1.7 2,00 X 2.00 72x 1.20 x 1.08 1.25 X 1.25 which does not need extra support,
80 1.00 X 1.00 2.20 2.00 X 2.20 72 X 2.45 X 2.30 1.25 X 2.50
1.00 1.20 X 1.20 2.30 2.50 X 2.50 Skylight systems offer diffused room lighting which is free from
1.30 1.50 X 1.50 2.40 2,70 X 2.70 75x1.16x76 1.50 X 1.50
glare -7 G). North-facing saw-tooth skylights with spun glass fibre
C) Pyramid rooflight Q North light dome
inlays guarantee all the climatically important advantages of a full
workshop space -7 @).

j-1.50-6.50 --1 f----1.0-6.50----l f---- 5.0 ---1 1 - - - 5.0 ------1

Q Continuous multiple barrel Q Continuous barrel skylight Continuous double-pitched skylight e Continuous single-pitched skylight
skylights

1 - - - - 2.00-4.00------j 1-----5.00-

0 Monitor rooflight with inclined 0 Monitor rooflight with vertical G 60° saw-tooth north light 0 90° vertical saw-tooth north light
panes panes

angle of incidence
of sun's rays

1--- :!;;; 1.50 ----1 25 mm

t-- up to 1.50 ~25mm 96%-+ 4%-i ,___._ 1.51-3,00 --i30mm
r----1.51-2.50 -----!30mm heat insulation in area of >------ 3.01-4.00 40 mm
1 - - - - - - - 2.51-3.60 ~~~=;~4~0~m~m~::"!sh~a~do~w~of~s:pun glass inlay J--------- 4.01-5.50-----170mm
3.61-4.50 70 mm 1 - - - - - - - - - - - - - 5.51-7.50 90mm
4.51-6.50 90 mm
unit unit

41) Saw-tooth glass fibre-reinforced polyester skylight 0 Double-skinned rooflight units

103
 + GLASS
+ + Basics

Transparent, translucent building materials

For the determination of size, colour, window dimensions
and lighting of rooms, knowledge of the visual transmittance,
dispersion and reflection characteristics of glass materials are
0 Directional f) Dispersed C) Mixed transmittance important for their artistic and economic effect.
transmittance of transmittance of of ornamental
clear glasses with the opal milk glasses, glasses, silk, light Light-reflecting materials are able to demonstrate directional,
refraction of slanting alabaster etc. opal glasses etc.
GLASS
rays
completely dispersed or incompletely dispersed reflection and
Basics transparent materials directional -+ 0, dispersed -+ f) and mixed
Insulated glazing
Security and
transmittance -+ e.
noise control Material Dispersion Thick- Reflec- Transmit- Absorb-
glass Note that frosted glasses, which are internally opaque (which is
ness tion lance(%) ance
Optically variable
glass (mm) (%) (%) preferable because they become less dirty), absorb less light than
Cast glass externally opaque glasses.
clear glass none 2-4 6-8 90-92 2-4
Profiled glass
mirror glass none 6-8 8 88 4
Glass blocks
Fire protection wire glass none 6-8 9 74 17
glass raw glass none 4--0 8 88 4 Manufacture
Curtain walling ornamental glass slight 3.2-5.9 7-24 57-90 3-21 Glass is drawn in a mechanical process and leaves the drawing
clear glass, externally opaque slight 1.75-3.1 7-20 63-87 4-17
BS EN 410 machine in a condition ready for use without further processing.
clear glass, internally opaque slight 1.76-3.1 6-16 77--09 3-11
BS 6262
porcelain good 3.0 72-77 2--0 20-21 The glass is clear and translucent, colourless and of uniform
DIN EN 410
marble, polished good 7.3-10 30-71 3--0 24-65 thickness. The surface is flat on both sides and fire-polished. The
marble, soaked good 3-5 27-54 12-40 11-49 basic composition of float glasses varies slightly due to the origin
alabaster good 11.2- 49--07 17-30 14-21
of the raw materials used. This has practically no effect on the
cardboard, lightly soaked good 13.4 69 8 23
parchment, undyed good 48 42 10 physical properties. Colour values and visual and energy (heat)
parchment, light yellow soaked good 37 41 22 transmittance can be exceptions. Tinted glasses are made with
parchment, dark yellow good 36 14 50 the addition of various metallic oxides. The possible spectrum of
silk, white nearly good 28-38 61-71 1
13-54 27-80
colours is very limited. A greater variety of colours and patterns
silk, coloured nearly good 1.1-2.8 6-24
laminate, tinted good 32-39 20-36 26-48 can be produced by enamel, which is applied to the surface
using a screen-printing process. These can only be applied to
Light properties of transparent materials toughened safety glass.
Reflectivities-> p. 498 f), p. 507 0
Glass panes which are inclined at more than 1oo from the vertical
The overall energy transmittance g refers to the wave length are considered as roofing glass on account of the additional
100%~ g, range from 300 mm to 2500 mm. It is the sum of the radiation loadings (self-weight, snow, wind and climatic loads) and are
allowed to pass directly through and the inward secondary heat subject to the 'Technical regulations for the use of glazing
output (radiation and convection).
r, The statement of the light transmittance r, refers to the
with linear support' (TRLV) of the DIBt (German Institute for
100o/~ r, wavelength range of visible light from 380 mm to 780 mm and is
weighted with the brightness sensitivity of the human eye.
Construction Technology).
r,
ruv The UV transmittance ruv for ultraviolet radiation is given for the
wavelength range from 280 mm to 380 mm. Properties

~
u, The thermal transmittance U9 (DIN EN 673) of glazing is a Glass is physically a super-cooled liquid. It is a brittle material,
u, measure of how much energy is lost per second and per m with 2
which can bear high compression stresses, but the tension
a temperature difference of 1 kelvin. The lower this value is, the
less heat is lost. Coatings, gas filling and the width of the space strength is only about 1/10 of the compressive strength. If the
between the panes decisively influence the thermal transmittance limits of elasticity are exceeded by mechanical or thermal stresses,
of glazing. it breaks. Normal glass then breaks into jagged pieces of various
R, The colour rendering index Ra describes the colour rendering of
glazing. An Ra value of more than 90 denotes very good colour
sizes, which can be dangerous.
rendering.
Different processes can be used to adapt the properties of glass
9 Technical data relating to light and energy for the most varied requirements.

Tempering of the sheets produces a basic stress in the glass,

Compression zone which increases its tension and bending strength -+ 0. If the glass
breaks, this pre-stress causes it to shatter into blunt fragments
Tension zone (toughened safety glass). Coatings can be applied to change
the transmittance or the reflection of defined wavelengths (e.g.
Compression zone
thermally insulated glazing).

Tension +----j--+ Compression Two or more panes can be combined with an intermediate layer
The pane is heated to about 680°C, If bending forces now act on the pane,
to fulfil the most varied functions. Tear-resistant foils can prevent
Blowing with cold air cools the outer this first has to relieve the existing glass splinters falling out (laminated glass-+ p. 106 0), and many
layers more quickly so they harden. compression stresses before the material layers make glazing resistant to breaking. Printed intermediate
Under further cooling, the hardened has to accept tension stresses. This
layers offer a range of colourful and graphic design possibilities.
edge zones prevent the core zone measure can increase the bending
from contracting. The outer zones are strength from about 24 N/mm2 of normal
Special fillings can hinder the transmittance of unwanted thermal
compressed while a tension stress is float glass to 120 N/mm2 . radiation (fire protection glazing-+ p. 111).
caused in the middle.

0 Properties of pre-stressed panes of toughened or partially toughened glass

104
 GLASS

ItA
~j j~
Simple double glazing
Insulated Glazing

Double-glazed units normally consist of two panes. These are

connected at the edge with an air-tight and gas-tight spacer.
A considerable improvement in the coefficient of thermal
iI conductivity (U-value) has been achieved through special
coating of the panes. Such thermally insulating and solar control
0 Insulated glazing can consist of two or three panes. The specific properties glazing has, since the introduction in Germany of the Insulation
GLASS
can be Influenced by a multitude of combinations of coatings and composite Regulations in 1995 and the Energy Saving Regulations (EnEV)
glasses. Basics
in 2002, replaced uncoated glazing on account of its improved Insulated
(j)@ (j)@@@®® coefficients of thermal conductivity. Only in isolated cases does glazing
the calculation according to EnEV permit the use of normal Security and
Outside Inside Outside Inside Outside Inside
noise control
double-glazed units. glass
Optically variable

I
Current types of glass with their optical features and the current glass
construction physics properties and maximum sizes can be Cast glass
Coating Profiled glass
(unfavourable on taken from the information provided by the glass industry. The Glass blocks
side 2 or3)
combination with any kind of wire glass or tinted cast glass causes Fire protection
glass
stress in the glass in direct sunshine and can lead to breakages, Curtain walling
Space
and so should be avoided. In addition, the glass dimensions and
EnEV2009
between panes the selection of the construction of the double glazing should take
f) Description of the pane surfaces for the numbering of the position of coatings into account all current standards, the technical regulations for the
use of glazing with linear support and secured against falling out,
glazing guidelines and workplace regulations. Only products with
Type of glass Glass Visual Light reflection Overall
thickness, transmittance to the outside energy (heat)
general technical approval should be used.
outer(mm) Tc(%) RlA(%) transmittance (%)

float glass 4 80 13 61 Thermally insulating double-glazed units

outer 6 79 13 59 Thermally insulating double-glazed units are neutral in appear-
THERMOPLUS--7S3 8 78 12 57
ance and transparency, so that they look similar to simple dou-
at pos. 3 10 77 12 56
ble-glazed units. The low coefficients of thermal conductivity
0 Light and energy values of insulated glazing with various thicknesses of the (U 9 -value) are achieved through a coating of precious metal in
external pane and coating of the inner pane (position 3) position 3. Because the coatings applied to thermal insulation
Inner pane: clear float glass pane with a thickness of 4 mm. (EnEV --7 refs) glass show low emissivity, this is often described as low-E glaz-
ing. Filling with inert gas can produce a further improvement of
Type of glass Glass Visual Light reflection Overall the coefficient of thermal conductivity. These units have high
thickness, transmittance to the outside energy (heat)
outer(mm) Tc(%) transmittance(%)
visual and overall energy (heat) transmittance in order to make
RlA(%)
the greatest possible part of the solar radiation available for pas-
float glass® 4 80 14 59 sive energy gain. If the thermal insulation coating is applied to
outer 6 79 14 57
position 2, then the overall energy passing through is reduced.
THERMOPLUS® S3 8 78 14 56
at pos. 2 10 78 14 55 The visual impression can show slight differences, particularly if
units are directly next to each other.
9 Light and energy values of insulated glazing with various thicknesses of the
coated outer pane (pos. 2)
Inner pane- clear float glass pane with a thickness of 4 mm. (EnEV --7 refs) Solar control glass
Solar control glass is characterised by high visual transmittance
Q)
at the same time as low overall energy transmittance. The passive
~sz~(") g
»
~NE~~
c: 5 energy gain from incoming solar radiation is low. This is made
Q)
u
c:
~~
Q) c:
~tn~~m
0
1JQ) "'
±!
E c:
0
0
u possible by a wafer-thin coating based on precious metal, which
:!)] c:"'
11 ~
-C:
Glass type "'E ""'
lij'E' ""~ g ~.Q
(1):!:::::
is applied in the protection of the space between the panes. In
"''" ~'" 0 c:'O
Q) c: Space between -<= addition to its good solar control properties, solar control glass
~~ -<'"
0g panes
Ol
:::; >
::J
-" Q) c:
(9 ~
fulfils all current requirements for high-quality insulated glazing.
T,(%) g(%) 12mm 14mm 16mm outside inside Tuv(%) AEa(%) RA Solar control units are normally labelled with a pair of values,
which show firstly the visual transmittance and secondly the
blue 50127 50 28 1.2 1.1 1.1 19 19 6 39 95
overall energy transmittance as percentages. Solar control units
70/35 70 37 1.2 1.1 1.1 16 17 11 29 97 can be delivered with various grades of colour and reflection as
66133 66 36 1.2 1.1 1.1 16 18 11 32 94
seen from outside.

brilliant 50/25 50 1.2 1.1 1.1 19 20 7 42 92

In order to select the optimal coloration of glass, sample panes
27
should be requested from the manufacturer of the solar control
40122 40 23 1.2 1.1 1.1 20 22 7 44 91 glass. Absolute conformity of colour in the external elevation is not
30/17 30 19 1.2 1.1 1.1 26 17 6 47 88 practically possible to produce, particularly when replacements
are ordered. The mirror image of highly reflecting glazing can be
neutral 70/40 71 43 1.3 1.2 1.1 10 11 18 31 95
distorted by imperfections in flatness.
silver 50/30 50 32 1.2 1.1 1.1 39 33 17 28 94
The view of colour from inside to outside is insignificantly falsified.
If the view is compared directly with the view through an open
lnfrastop®- solar control insulating glass with argon filling. Construction
layers 6 (16) 4 mm. Technical and physical data under vertical radiation.
window, a slight toning will be recognised. This toning can be
(EnEV --7 refs) more apparent for some types of solar control glass.

105
 GLASS

'I~HB BH0!" Insulated Glazing

~ A A C ~ Model panes are described with sketches and dimensioned

one slanting edge trapezium parallelogram polygon according to the system in -7 0. For acute angles of less than
30°, at the top a blunt edge of at least 10 mm is required. Smaller

:!G!,,l~,I ,r~r ~,I

panes (:;;;60 em edge length) should be avoided because these
have a higher risk of breakage and the edge seal can tend to leak
due to the reduced elasticity of the panes.

GLASS Thermally improved spacers

A A A f-------p;----i
Basics polygon polygon polygon triangle The Energy Saving Regulations (EnEV) and more stringent
Insulated
standards and guidelines have resulted in the increased

J~
glazing
significance of thermally improved spacers. The thermal properties
Security and
noise control
Jr;l!IB of the spacers may be taken into account in the new verification
glass
Optically variable
glass
10 10
f-----L-..-;
right~angled triangle
~
segmental arch
process under EnEV. This improvement is, however, not reflected
in the U9-value, but 1Jf is additionally applied as lengthwise heat
Cast glass
Profiled glass transmittance and is thus reflected in the official verification.
Glass blocks
Fire protection
glass This improved thermal insulation in the critical transition from
Curtain walling glass to window frame results in higher surface temperatures
on the room side than with the use of conventional aluminium
spacers. This results in less or even no condensation, which

I
segment of a circle circle
always forms at the coldest point under unfavourable conditions,
like for example high air humidity -7 f). For windows with wooden
cjGro--rE-t rmin.
10 em
frames, the harmful effects of damp and the danger of mould are
B ® @) B reduced.
90" 90" IF 90" 90'
Light deflection and solar control in the space between the
1----A-----1 1---A----l
polygon rounded corners rounded corners panes
0 Delivery shapes of model panes (examples) Various light deflection systems can be installed in the space
between the panes of insulated glazing -7 0. Rigid light control
elements use reflection and dispersion to allow diffused light into
the room and shield direct sunlight according to the position of the
sun, or direct it deep into the room. Sunshading blinds, which can
The illustration shows schematically
the isotherms, that is lines of equal either be rotated or completely raised, are protected from dirt by
temperature, for thermal insulation glass the location between the panes. They can be operated manually or
with thermally optimised edge bonding in electrically. The panes of glass at each side must be of toughened
comparison to a conventional spacer of
glass, because increased stresses could be caused by the heat.
aluminium or steel.
\ The width of the space between the panes varies from 20 to
It can be clearly seen that the isotherms 27 mm according to construction.
with the improved spacers lie closer to the
bottom of the glass, which shows that the
Thermal insulation between the panes
glass is warmer on the room side so that
less condensation will be created at the Transparent thermal insulation -7 0 enables high thermal
edge of the double-glazed unit, or none insulation values at the same time as high heat transmission
at all. (heat trap). These systems diffuse the light passing through to
varying extents. Glass or plastic tubes can be used, installed at
f) Heat fiow at the glass-frame transition for highly insulated right angles to the glass surface. They reflect the light further into
windows (EnEV--> refs)
the inside of the room and hinder air movement when the gap
between the panes is large. Units with more panes, or filled with
foam particles, reflect more light externally. Transparent thermal
insulation elements need effective shading in summer. They are
mostly used for heat-storage walls.

\ \ Self-cleaning coating on the weather side

Various glass manufacturers offer self-cleaning coatings in position

\
1 (-7 p. 105) of insulated glazing. This coating results in a slight
alteration of the colour and also a slight influence on the visual and
energy values compared to standard. The coatings can be applied
to thermal insulation and solar control glazing and also on fagade
panels; it will be necessary to request further information from the
manufacturer. The manufacturer's cleaning instructions are to be
Grid, fabric, spotted With transparent, Capillary system observed absolutely.
foils, blinds Glazing translucent, tinted between panes,
units with inserts foils; stuck onto glass diffusing, low U9 -
Laminated safety values Transparent
glass thermal insulation

106
1. Weight of glass: the heavier the Asymmetric glass build-up
glass pane, normally the higher GLASS
the acoustic insulation
2. The more elastic the pane (e.g.
Security and Noise Control Glass
resin~filled cast-in-place), norm-
ally the higher the acoustic
Cast-in-place
insulation
(CIP)
3. The thicknesses of the inner and laminated Noise reduction
outer panes must be different; glass Inside
the greater the difference, All thermal insulation and solar control units can also fulfil noise
normally the higher the acoustic Outside
insulation
control functions, but need additional measures. These additional
measures can influence the visual transmittance, the g-value and
Gas filling the Ug-value. These altered values have to be taken into account
in the verification under EnEV.

0 Improvement of the sound reduction properties of insulated glazing As examples, these additional measures are possible, according
to the required level of noise reduction: poured resin or heavy
GLASS
Basics
c - motorway traffic glass fillings, composite glass with noise reduction foil etc. The Insulated glazing
-rail traffic with medium or high speed noise reduction values or sound transmission class for all glass Security and
noise control
-jet aircraft, short distance away combinations are listed in the individual manufacturers' handbooks glass
-factories emitting mostly medium or high frequency noise Optically variable
and should be taken into account in the design. Only products
c,, -urban road traffic glass
with the required test certificates should be used. For sound Cast glass
- rail traffic at low speed
reduction classes of windows ____. p. 100 0 and p. 386. In addition Profiled glass
-propeller aircraft Glass blocks
-jet aircraft, far away to the evaluated sound reduction value Rw, spectrum adaptation Fire protection
-disco music terms can be given, which are used to modify the Rw-value to the glass
-factories emitting mostly low and medium frequency noise subjective response of the ear to certain noise types____. f). Curtain walling

f) Adaptation terms C and C1r for the sound reduction value Rw for particular noise Security glazing BS EN 356
BS EN 1063
types. C 100-5000 or c,, 100-5000 describe an extended frequency spectrum. These requirements on glazing units lead to thick glass, which BS EN 1279
causes a green coloration. This can be reduced by white glass. BS EN 12758
Rw c Cu Configuration Thickness Weight DIN EN 356
Type (dB) c c,, 100-5000 100-5000 (mm) (mm) (kg/m2) Combination with thermal insulation and solar control glazing is DIN EN ISO 717
37 8(16)4 also possible. DIN EN 1063
28/37 -2 -5 -1 -5 28 30 DIN EN 13123
30/38 38 -2 -6 -1 -6 10(16)4 30 35 Break-in resistance (private areas)
28/38 v 38 -2 -6 -1 -6 4(16)8VSG 28 30
This is security glass for private clients, intended to dissuade an
30/38X 38 -2 -6 -1 -6 4(16)10VSG 30 35
opportunist criminal, through to high-quality break-in resistant
30/38 v 38 -3 -7 -2 -7 6(16)8 VSG 30 35
glazing according to the security guidelines of VdS Loss
29/39 L 39 -1 -5 0 -5 4(16)8,8 L 29 30
Prevention. These requirements can be met by a composite
32/40V 40 -2 -6 -1 -6 6(16)10VSG 32 40
secure glazing unit consisting of at least two panes with a high-
31/41 L 41 -3 -7 -2 -7 6(16)8,8 L 31 35
strength plastic foil.
33/42 L 42 -3 -7 -2 -1 6(16)8,8 L 33 40
33/43 L 43 -3 -7 -2 -7 8(16)9,1 L 33 40 Resistance against manual attack (commercial use)
In these cases, the security effect can be provided only by a multi-
Sound reduction and adaptation terms for Phonstop® glasses. U9-values of
Phonstop® TH-SN 1.2 W/m2 K and Phonstop® TH S3 1.1 W/m 2k (EnEV-> refs) layer configuration with the use of various glass thicknesses and
plastic foil inserts.
If the security glazing is to be used and recognised by insurance
companies, VdS Loss Prevention's guidelines are to be complied
with, the break-in resistance classes being categorised as EH1,
EH2 or EH3.
Bullet-proof glass
The following 'BR' resistance classes are defined according to
European standards:
Class BR 1: .22 rifle
56 ···Note: The given thickness is the Class BR 2 (C1): 9 mm pistol
:: nominal thickness of the armoured Class BR 3 (C2}: .357 Magnum pistol
:: ::.~~~~~-~~:.~~!~~~~~-!~-~- ~~~:~:-~t~~e-~- :::: :::: Class BR 4 (C3): .44 Magnum pistol
W M • ~ ~ ® " a ~ ~ 00 M M n M & Class BR 5: 5.56 x 45 rifle
Pane thickness in mm
Class BR 6 (C4}: 7.62 rifle x 51 standard ammunition
8 Comparison of light transmittance values of armoured glass with and without
Class BR 7 (C5): 7.62 rifle x 51 hard-core ammunition
white glass -> (EnEV-> refs)
Class SG 1: shotgun calibre 12/70 (1 hit)
Attack-resistant According to the Class SG 2: shotgun calibre 12/70 (3 hits)
glazing, Break-in-resistant security guidelines
DIN 52290-3, DIN windows, doors, ofVdS Loss Health and safety These glasses can be produced with the grading 'splinter-free' (on
DIN 52290-4 EN 356 DIN V ENV 1627 Prevention regulations the inside).
A1 P2A - - -
P3A P3A Glazing for counters in banks etc. should comply with the regulations
A2 - -
A3 P4A WK2 EH01 - of Accident Insurance for Administration. The technical solutions
- P5A WK3 EH02 - from Accident Insurance Information (BGI} do not exclude other
B1 P6B WK3-4 EH1* - solutions, which are just as safe.
B2 P7B WK5 EH2• P7B Explosion resistance
83 P8B WK6 EH3* - Glazing was tested with maximum dimensions of 900 x 1100 mm
*Certification by VdS is required. and fixed all round in a retaining construction. This must be
Comparison table of security classes according to insurance regulations. This installed in accordance with the test certificate or the window unit
table is only an overview: it must be possible to fulfil and verify the required should be tested.
values.

107
 GLASS

\ \ \ OPTICALLY VARIABLE GLASS

Double-glazed units whose transmission properties can be

altered are differentiated into switching and switchable units.
Switching units are conditioned during production so that they
react automatically to certain influences (e.g. thermotropic units).
~ ® ® The visual transmittance of switchable layers can be altered at
~ Cast glass ornamental surtace etc. any time by changing the gas layer in between the panes or by
® Cast glass profile applying a voltage.
GLASS
@ Cast glass with amorphous structures,
Basics rough surtace, transparent, translucent Thermotropic units
Insulated glazing
Security and 0 Light dispersion and light modifying effects of cast glasses These composite units react with alterations of temperature
noise control by changing from clear (transparent) to opaque (diffuse). This
glass is achieved with a mixture of two components with different
Optically
variable glass refraction properties, which align their structures differently
Cast glass according to temperature, altering the refraction of the layer. The
Profiled glass
Glass blocks alteration is reversible.
Fire protection
glass
Curtain walling
Electrochromatic units
The transmittance of these units can be altered by applying a
voltage to the reactive layer. For internal use, this can be achieved
with the use of liquid crystals in the space between the panes
(LC foils function reliably only between -40°C and +40°C). Other
systems make use of the property of some materials to alter their
visual transmittance and coloration with the absorption or release
of ions (by applying a voltage). These units are suitable for external
glazing.
CAST GLASS

Properties
Cast glass is produced mechanically by rolling certain surface
structures. It is not clear to look through. Cast glass is used for
applications where obscure glass is required (bathroom, WC) and
as a design element. Ornamental glass is available as white and
tinted, raw white glass, and white and tinted ornamental wired
glass. Wired glasses are no longer classified as safety glass, with
exceptions when used in overhead glazing.

Most cast glasses can be further processed to make toughened

glass, laminated safety glass and thermally insulated glazing
units. The structure is normally faced to the outside in order to
f) Single leaf Double door elements ensure a proper edge joint. If the glass is only lightly structured,
the structured side can be faced inwards in order to simplify
cleaning. Tinted cast glass cannot be used in combination with
tinted classes like float glass, toughened glass or laminated safety
DELODUR® Glass thickness Maximum size Thickness
glass, nor with coated glass with thermal insulation or solar control
(mm) (cmxcm) tolerance (mm)
functions.
blank, grey, bronze, optiwhite 10 244x 510 0.3
12 244 X 510 0.3 GLASS DOORS
green 8 244x 510 0.3
10 244 x510 0.3 Whole glass doors
structure 200 master glasses 8 194x425 0.5 The dimensions of doors correspond to the dimensions of metal
10 194 X 425 0.5 door linings ~ 0. They can be installed in all the metal door
bamboo, chinchilla blank/bronze 8 175 X 425 0.5 linings produced to DIN 18111 standard. The doors are made of
toughened glass panes. If violently smashed, the glass crumbles
C) Whole glass door elements (fanlights and side elements)- maximum sizes of into a network of small fragments, which more or less stay
toughened panes that can be produced (EnEV--> refs) loosely together. The normal glass thicknesses of 10 or 12 mm
comply with the structural requirements. Structured cast glass
and printable toughened float glass panes are available. Printable
Size in 1/1 G Size in 2/2 G Size in 3/3 G
laminated safety glass panes can also be supplied (the composite
(mmxmm) (mmxmm) (mmxmm) glass foil is printed).
outside door size 709 X 1972 834 X 1972 959 X 1972
standard 709 x2097 834x2097 959 X 2097 Whole glass door elements consist of one or more glass doors,
lining rebate size 716 X 1983 841 X 1983 966 X 1983 the side elements and the fanlight. Further possibilities are sliding,
716 X 2108 841x2108 966x2108 folding, segmented arch, and round arch door elements. Various
structural size 750 x2000 875x 2000 1000 X 2000 tints and glass structures are available, and standard or special
750 X 2125 875x2125 1000 X 2125 sizes.
G Glass doors: dimensions (EnEV--> refs)

108
 220
611 116 GLASS
INP2 I I41 K22/41/6 711
218
117 Profiled Glass
232

6
250
6
lsr2 I I6o K22/60/7
232
Profiled glass is a cast glass produced with a U-shaped profile.
INP26 !I41 K 25/41/6 248
262 711 117 It is translucent with an ornamentation on the outside surface of
319 lsr26 I I6o K25/60/7 the profile, and conforms to the properties of cast glass. It has
6 6 262 low maintenance requirements. It is suitable for lift shafts and
INP3 II41 K32/41/6
7
317
7
roof glazing. Rooms using this glass for fenestration are rendered
331
glare free. Heat-absorbing glasses Reglit and Profilit 'Plus 1.7' are
486
K 50/416 I I6o K32/60/7
coated with metallic oxides and attain aUg-value of 1.8 W/m 2 K.
6 6 331
INP5 II41 Solar control glass (Type R, "Bernstein'; Type P, 'Antisol'), which GLASS
NP/SP~ Reglit
498 Basics
K ~Profilit reflects and/or absorbs ultra-violet and infra-red radiation, can be
Insulated glazing
used to protect delicate goods from UV radiation. The transmission
0 Profiled glass - cross-sections
of radiant energy into the room is reduced, as is the convection
Security and
noise control
L___L_j glass
,------'l--, H ] 11
from the glazing, whilst the light transmission is maintained. Optically variable
Height above I II Ill glass
For glazing subject to impacts, e.g. in of sports halls (ball throwing Cast glass
ground level up to up to up to up to up to up to up to up to up to
clear opening Bm 20m 100m Bm 20m 100m am 20m 100m
safety), Reglit SP2 or Profilit K22/60/7 without wire reinforcement Profiled glass
Glass blocks
should be used.
glass type -> 0 L' L' L' L' L' L' L' L' L' Fire protection
NP2 2.67 2.11 1.80 3.19 2.52 2.15 3.77 2.98 2.55 glass
Regulit and Profilit are allowed as fire-glass with a fire resistance Curtain walling
K 22/41/6
NP 26 2.53 2.00 1.70 3.02 2.39 2.03 3.57 2.82 2.41
class of G30. Normal and special profiles are also available with
K 25/41/6 longitudinal wires.
NP 3 2.27 1.80 1.53 2.72 2.15 1.83 3.21 2.54 2.17
K 32/41/6
NP 5 1.88 1.49 1.27 2.25 1.78 1.52 2.66 2.11 1.80
K 50/41/6
SP 2 4.22 3.33 2.84 5.04 3.98 3.40 5.96 4.71 4.02
K22/60/7
SP26 3.99 3.16 2.69 4.77 3.77 3.22 5.65 4.46 3.81
K 25/60/7
K 32/60/7 3.59 2.84 2.42 4.29 3.39 2.89 5.08 4.02 3.43

f)
J~ A~n~minaldimension+
Sheltered buildings (0.8-1.25 x g)

h/a- 0.25; - (1.5 x q) H/a~0.5; -(1.7 x q)

0; nu dl
N tO JOint

I A!\ B = external dimension

tj II l
Height above ,-Y-, double~glazed
,-Y-, '---'-- c:b '-'1-1 c:b H L offrame
ground up to up to up to up to up to up to up to up to up to up to up to up to H = external dimension
level
clear openinQ
glass type-'> 0
8m 20m 100m 8m 20m 100m 8m 20m 100m 8m 20m 100m

L' L' L' L' L' L' L' L' L' L' L' L' [] u .l~I
I of frame (height)
L ~ glass length
~multiple of 25 mm
NP2 2.18 1.72 1.47 3.08 2.44 2.08 2.05 1.62 1.38 2.90 2.29 1.95 single-glazed ~-- J"~ n=numberofwidths
K 22/41/6
~ 2.5 determination of width
2.74 2.17 1.85 65(85) and height: overall
NP26 2.06 1.63 1.39 2.92 2.31 1.97 1.94 1.53 1.31
K25/41/6 C) Installation dimensions width B=nxA+5cm
height H ~ L+ 4 em
NP3 1.85 1.47 1.25 2.62 2.07 1.77 1.74 1.38 1.17 2.46 1.95 1.66
K 32/41/6
NP5 1.54 1.22 1.04 2.17 1.72 1.47 1.44 1.14 0.97 2.04 1.61 1.38 a) circular cutves with and

{\)
K 50/41/6 without straight extensions
SP2 3.44 2.72 2.32 4.87 3.85 3.28 3.23 2.56 2.18 4.57 3.62 3.08 b) double~sided cuJVes with
K 22/60/7 regular or variable curvature
SP26 3.26 2.58 2.20 4.61 3.64 3.11 3.06 2.42 2.06 4.33 3.42 2.92 a diameter
K 25/60/7 c) conical curves
K 32/60/7 2.93 2.32 1.98 4.15 3.28 2.80 2.76 2.18 1.86 3.90 3.08 2.63 d) s-shaped curves
e) U~shaped or similar curves with
8 Exposed buildings
L' o= length of glass sheets m metres
and without straight extensions

light transmittance: single skin up to 86%

double skin up to 75%
noise reduction single skin 2 up to 29 dB
double skin upto41 dB
triple skin up to 55 dB
thermal insulation single skin k~5.6W/m2K
double skin NP U9 ~ 2.8 W/m 2 K
SP U9 ~ 2.7 W/m 2K
0 Cwved forms
G Physical data

MMM Filii!I
n rnn..-----:o~n
A~ single skin, flanges external

'~~
B = single skin, flanges internal

n 1 111--
c =single skin, flanges inward and outward
1160~340 I I I
r rnr
D ~single skin, flanges alternating
n H rL-- :::!!.u
11
llj'L 1 J

Q~I
20.:;00
Unfolded
126 501

w -w 'IF 11 lln 1MM

E-1 ~ double skin, alternating fonms
e
s
Sample configurations of the possibilities of bending ornamental glass
0 Installation possibilities (dimensions in mm)

109
 GLASS
Glass Blocks

Glass blocks are hollow units which consist of two sections

melted and pressed together, thereby creating a sealed air cavity.
A=n1·b+n2·a n1 = number of blocks (b) Both surfaces can be made smooth and transparent, or very
n2 = number of joints (a)
B=A+2·C
c = 8.5cm
ornamental and almost opaque. Glass blocks can be obtained in
H=A+C+d d = 6.5cm different sizes, coated on the inside or outside, uncoated, or made
formula to calculate the minimum structural opening of coloured glass. They can be used internally and externally, e.g.
transparent screen walls and room dividers (also in gymnastic or
GLASS sports halls), windows, lighting strips, balcony parapets and terrace
Basics 0 Standard dimensions for glass block walls walls. Glass blocks are fire-resistant up to G60, G120 or F60 when
Insulated glazing
Security and
used as a cavity wall with a maximum uninterrupted area of 3.5 m2 ,
noise control and can be built either vertically or horizontally. They are used as
glass
Optically variable
building elements, but cannot be load-bearing. Their properties:
glass good sound and thermal insulation; high light transmittance (up to
Cast glass 82%); transparent, translucent, diffusing and low-glare according
Profiled glass
Glass blocks to decor; increased impact resistance. The thermal insulation
Fire protection of a glass block wall: with cement mortar U9 -value = 3.2 W/m 2 K,
glass
Curtain walling
with lightweight mortar U9 = 2.9 W/m 2 K, with special bricks up to
U9 = 1.5 W/m 2 K.
BS EN 1051
ISO 21690
1 slip joint
DIN EN 1051 2 expansion joint, smallest radius R with glass thickness Scm
DIN 4102-3, e.g. rigid foam joints must be < 1.0 em wide
DIN 4242 3 flexible sealing
4 plaster glass block
5 aluminium nominal size 11.5cm 19.0cm 24.0cm
windowsill _..,?
6 L section 105cm min. radius joint width
7 anchor or peg 19cm nominal c"' 1.5cm 200.0cm 295.0cm 370.0cm
\-t block size

~ joint width
C>= 1.Bcm 95.0cm 180.0cm 215.0cm
~ ~~5_.c_~_~i~_J;dJUs joint width
c,. 1.5 emU 24.0cm nominal
block size c=2.3cm 65.0cm 105.0cm 135,0cm

e
-
Minimum radii of glass block walls

Dimensions mm Weight Stock Stock Stock

built onto a fayade with angle anchoring kg mz carton range
plan
4 ~ 115 X 115 X 60 1.0 64 10 1.000
section
146 X 146 X 98 1.8 42 8 512
f) Examples of glass block wall construction E!ffi!m 6"x6"x8"

190 X 190 X 50 2.0 25 14 504

EHfim3
1 slip joint
190 X 190 X 80 2.3 25 10 360
2 expansion joint,
e.g. rigid foam
§lllml
3 flexible sealing
190 X 190 X 100 2.8 25 8 288
4 plaster
5 aluminium
windowsill
tmm±l
3.0 25 8 288
6 U section
7 L section
8 anchor or peg
Eimml 197x197x98
8"x8"x4"
plan of corner detail
2.1 500
IIHI 240x 115x80 32 10

m 240 x240x 80 3.9 16 5 250

300 X 300 X 100 7.0 10 128

0
section
Installation with U-profiles and external thermal insulation
fBim 4

Q Dimensions of glass blocks

1 slip joint
2 expansion joint, Unreinforced glass block walls
e.g. rigid foam Glass block walls that meet the requirements of ---7 f) may be built
3 flexible sealing
4 plaster without reinforcement and without specific structural verification.
5 U section
6 anchor or peg Take note of DIN 4242 with regard to the structural reinforcement
of the edge strip.

Arrangement of joints Thickness (mm) Wall dimensions

plan
Shorter Longer Wind load
side (m) side (m) (kN/m2)
Continuous ~80 "'1.5 ~1.5 "'0.8
Overlapped (bonded) "'6.0
section

e Interior wall junction using U-profiles f) Permissible limits for unreinforoed glass block walls

110
Glass brick Airborne sound Weighted Sound Rw Achievable with glass GLASS
format(mm) insulation sound insulation brick windows with wall
margin reduction R'w class structure:
190x190x80 -12dB 40 dB 6 50 dB double sk!n
45-49 dB single skin
GLASS BLOCKS
240 X 240 X 80 -10 dB 42 dB 5
4 40-44 dB single skin
Sound reduction
240x115x80 -7 dB 45dB
300 X 300 X 100 -11 dB 41 dB 3 35-39 dB single skin Because of its weight, a glass block wall has particularly good
double-glazed -2 dB SO dB 2 30-34 dB single skln sound insulation properties:
wall, 1 25-29 dB single skin 1.00 kN/m2 for 80 mm glass blocks
240 X 240 X 80 0 25 dB single skin 1.25 kN/m 2 for 100 mm glass blocks
1.42 kN/m 2 for special BSH glass blocks.
0 Sound insulation of glass block f) Sound insulation classes, VDI
To be effective, the surrounding building elements must have
walls guideline 2719 for windows
at least the same sound reduction characteristics. Glass block GLASS
construction is the ideal solution in all cases where good reduction Basics
Room type Guideline values for permissible external noise is required. In areas where a high level of sound reduction is Insulated glazing
Security and
level necessary, economical solutions can be achieved by using glass noise control
Average noise level~ Average maximum level block walls to provide the daylight, while keeping ventilation glass
openings and windows. These can serve as secondary escape Optically variable
1. domestic living rooms, guest daytime 30-40 dB (A) daytime 40-50 dB (A)
glass
rooms in hotels, wards in night time 2Q-30 dB (A) night time 30-40 dB (A) routes if they conform to the minimum allowable size. Cast glass
hospitals and sanatoria Profiled glass
2. school rooms, single private 30-40 dB (A) 4D-50 dB (A) Glass blocks
DIN 4109 should be complied with. The weighted sound reduction Fire protection
offiCes, scientific work rooms,
measurement R'w is determined according to DIN 52210--+ 0: glass
libraries, conference and lecture Curtain walling
rooms, doctors' surgeries and Rw = airborne sound insulation margin +52 dB
operating theatres, churches, Single-skin glass block construction fulfils the requirements of PD 6512
auditoriums sound insulation class 5--+ 0. BS EN 15254
DIN 4102
3. multiple-use offices 35-45 dB (A) 45-55 dB (A)
5Q-60 dB (A)
Glass blocks with steel reinforcement
4. open-plan offices, inns and 40-50 dB (A)
restaurants, shops, halls The fire-resistant glazing of glass blocks can, like all other glass
5. entrance, waiting and departure 45-55 dB (A) 55-55 dB (A) block walls, be built with and without U-profiles, and all the
halls possible connections are in principle identical. Because of the
6. opera houses, theatres, cinemas 25 dB (A) 35 dB (A) strong linear expansion in case of fire and the release of smoke,
7. recording studios observe special requirements glass block walls are bedded all round with mineral fibre. --+ 0.
'eqUivalent maximum permitted constant level Fire resistance classes up to G 120 or F 60 can be achieved,

e Permitted maximum sound levels for different categories of room, VDI guideline
2719
depending on the construction and the manufacturer.
FIRE PROTECTION GLASS
Normal glass is of limited suitability for fire protection. In case of
fire, the action of heat on one side can cause float glass panes to
burst very quickly and large broken pieces to fall out, which can
result in the fire spreading. The required fire resistance classes for
exposed glazing will be laid down in the building permission. The
following fire resistance classes are defined:
G30,G60,G90,G120,G180
F30, F60, F90, F120, F180
~ glass block
T30,T60, T90, T120, T180

Fire resistance classes 'G' and 'F'

'G glasses' must prevent flames or combustion gases passing
through for a certain duration of fire (e.g. G30 = 30 minutes). There
must be an official technical approval for all 'G glazing', including
the installation details. Heat radiation may, however, be transmitted
by this glazing, which restricts the possible applications. Such
glazing is not permissible for emergency exits.
angle steel, 50 x 55 mm
length >100 mm, at least four per glazed area
2 allowable fire-resistant pegs and steel screws M 10
There are three possibilities for construction of G glazing:
3 flat steel strips to fix the glass block wall (welded) Wired glass with spot-welded mesh
C) Installation details: fire-resistant glazing with glass blocks
Elaborate special toughened glass combinations in composite
isolated glazing
Pre-stressed borosilicate glass, like Pyran.
4 15 6.5 4 15 6.5
II-+! 11------H
G30 G60
F glazing has to prevent the transmission of heat radiation, in
sealing addition to stopping smoke and fire. This is achieved by using
special composite glass panes with a gel layer, which foam or can
absorb energy through evaporation effects and can thus prevent
radiated heat passing through the pane. The pane and also its
connection to the framed construction and adjacent construction
elements all have to possess technical approval valid under
building regulations.

Construction fire protection can be evaluated only in combination

with the adjacent building elements (Fire Protection chapter --+
Q Glazing with fire resistance class 'G' p. 511 ff.)

111
 GLASS
Curtain Walling

Cold fa9ades
A cold fagade is a single skin curtain walling construction with a
ventilated cavity at the rear, width approx. 40 em, and single- or
double-glazed external cladding panels. Sufficient and controlled
heat dissipation must be guaranteed. The fagade panels can be
fixed all round, on two sides or at points according to official
standards and guidelines. Technical approval is required for panels
GLASS fixed at points, or a special-case approval has to be applied for.
Basics
Insulated glazing
Security and The fa<;:ade panels can be fully colour-coated on the back or
noise control partially printed by the screen-printing process. Special coatings
glass
Optically variable
are available from the various manufacturers in order to achieve
glass colour matching with solar control glass. Samples are necessary
Cast glass to ensure a correct colour match. All visible edges must be finely
Profiled glass /
Glass blocks ground and polished and non-visible edges must be ground.
Fire protection
glass
Curtain walling Warm fa9ade without ventilation at rear
The warm fa<;:ade can consist of post and rail curtain walling or
0 Cold fagade with rear ventilation f) Warm fagade without ventilation storey-height curtain walling elements. In both cases, the non-
and glass parapet cladding but with glass parapet cladding transparent parts or parapets have a glass panel. The construction
(EnEV-> refs) (EnEV-> refs)
of the external panel can be, for example, an external fagade
panel with the necessary thermal insulation behind it, thickness
in accordance with EnEV, and an internal layer, which is sealed
against diffusion of water vapour, e.g. aluminium sheet.

Mixed forms can be constructed, if an additional glass layer is

set in front of the warm curtain wall in order to create a two-
dimensional appearance (see below). If the panel remains the layer
that drains water, then this is still a warm fagade.

Flush glass curtain wall

This structural glazing fagade is characterised by a uniform flat
appearance. A full-surface glass appearance is possible only if the
panes are glued to metal frames. The system used must possess
technical approval or special case approval. The structural sealing
must be carried out with a material (e.g. Dow Corning GmbH
Technical Approval No. Z-70. '1-75) that possesses general
8 Curtain wall construction with G Flush glass curtain wall technical approval valid under building regulations.
glass held In place by cover strip

In Germany, all fagades over 8 min height must have an additional

mechanical fixing of the panes. All insulated glazing must have a
Radar damping
UV-resistant edge seal.
Radar reflection damping is a requirement of German Air Traffic
Control (DFS), applying to the fa<;:ades of all larger buildings in
Curtain walling with fire-resistant glass
the vicinity of airports. The purpose is to suppress the reflection
F fire-resistant glazing has only limited practicality for external
of radar signals, which can occur from large fa<;:ade surfaces,
use, because the foaming fire-protection layer cannot be heated
because these reflected signals can lead to false information on
over 50-60°C. This is only possible to guarantee for fagades
the radar screens of air traffic controllers and thus endanger air
traffic. subject to direct sunshine if effective sun shading is provided and
guaranteed.
Special coatings can be used to achieve high damping through
Sun screens
absorption and phase-delayed overlaying (interference) of the
Sun screens are normally used as additional external transparent
radar signal hitting and being reflected from the insulated glazing.
sun shading layers. They consist of metallic oxide-coated
Because of the particular requirements for insulated glazing,
toughened glass panes. When installing sun screens, the coating
the glass structure must be specifically calculated for every
should always be on the weather side. Sun screens can, according
application. Light and energy values are determined in each
to official standards and guidelines, be fixed all round, on two
case by the glass structure. The level of radar damping required
sides or at points. Technical approval is required for panels fixed
depends on many factors, including the size of the building and its
distance from and orientation to the radar equipment. at points, or a special-case approval must be applied for.

A radar report is generally to be commissioned for each building

from an accredited institute in order to determine the required radar
damping. The glass manufacturers develop a glass structure and
this is then discussed with the institute. All other fa<;:ade surfaces
have to be investigated for this report as well, in order to take the
necessary measures into account for construction.

112
 DOORS

;J \
Arrangement

::: Doors must be sensibly arranged

::: inside a building, because un-
..... :::............. c:::z::.:z:::: favourably distributed or un-
necessary doors impair the use
0 Generally appropriate arrangement f) Good door arrangement for use of 0 Arrangement of two corner
of rooms, or cause difficulties,
room doors, opening into the same room
and can lead to the loss of stor-
Right lock
age places~ 0 +f).

Y~
Left lock ·. DOORS
......
RC :;:
:: Categories: Inward-opening Arrangement

l,.................
Right door
;.
Left door (
...;.................. ]
doors, which open into the
Construction
details
Special doors
double door, left-hand room; outward-opening doors,
Garage/industrial
which open out of the room; doors
t:;:j
[6 RO~
Right door Left door
~
J::;j
........
doors normally open into the
room. Description of types of
Locking systems
Security of
buildings
\~ '"""'""'"'
door according to location and and grounds
purpose: opening direction, style BS 6375
Right lock Left lock
LO/RO = left/right opening LC/RC = left/right closing
detail, door lining, construction of DIN 107

G Door descriptions according to occupation of room and hinge direction. If the

door is looked at from the hinge side, the direction of the hinges determines the
e Double swing door, single or
double leaf; walk through on the
door, type of rotation and opening.
see also:
Construction
right
Internal doors: Room doors, drawing symbols
descriptions of hinge and lock. p. 10
entry doors of flats, cellar doors,
doors for bathroom, we and
subsidiary rooms.

External doors: House front

~--y-1 door, back door or yard door,

~
balcony and patio doors.
F balanced door
Special types like centre-hung
mI~,
~~.........;.;.;.;.;.; doors and balanced doors ~
I 0 require very little strength
I
~T sliding door with side-hung leaf to open, but the ironmongery

~ Jr. . . . . . . . . ~Y'--E is elaborate and the danger of

accident at the hinge side has
four-leaf sliding door with
to be taken into account. These
space-saving door two side-hung leafs are suitable for through-doors in
corridors, entrance lobbies, etc.
)~\..;...;..;.;.;.;.;.;.;.
;.;.;.;.;;.;.;.;.;.;.;.. '\~wing
...;........] - - [ ...;.;.;....;.:.:.:.:.;... The width of a door depends on
the intended use and the type of

~,~b
sliding door closing into a wall cavity room to be accessed. Minimum
,........ ;.;.;.;.;.;.;.;. clear width for walking through is

Minimum dimensions for disability-

friendly building and marked heights for
f) Centre-hung doors- single-leaf,
eccentrically hung (bottom); centrally
e Sliding door, sliding in front of wall
55 em. In residential buildings, the
clear opening width of doors is:
glass doors hung 'butterfly' door, for passing on
the right (top). single-leaf doors
room doors approx. 80 em
bath, we approx. 70 em

I I I I J_;,
entrance doors
to flats min. 90 em
front doors up to 115 em

double doors
Storey-height Door without floor (with all-round room doors approx 170 em
door without threshold and Door with rebate Door with threshold frame in flat jamb) front doors 140-225 em
threshold or lintel with lintel in floor and lintel and lintel and lintel

clear opening height of internal

doors
minimum 210 em
better 210-225 em

Sliding doors and revolving doors

are not permissible at emergency
exits, which they can block in
Depiction of lintel and threshold on plan (in this case at 1:1 00). Height differences in the floor are shown by a continuous circumstances of danger.
line and lintels with a dashed line.

113
 DOORS
62 750 875 1000 1125 1250 1750 2000 2500 Construction Details
1
11! Standard dimensions
~ Dimensions of wall openings for doors~ 0 are standard modular
dimensions. If, in exceptional cases, different dimensions
2 3 4 5 I I are required then their modular dimensions should be whole
I I 0
I
I
I 0
0 multiples of 125 mm (1 00 mm according to British Standards). A
I
"' wall opening with 875 mm width and 2000 mm height (modular
6 7 8 9
dimensions) can be described as: wall opening DIN 18100- 875 x
2000. In order to determine the door width, the frame detail has to
"'"'c;; be taken into account in the calculation of the structural opening,
DOORS
because some variants offer interesting creative possibilities of
Arrangement
Coristruction reducing the clear opening width by more than standard cased
details
\.. 0
doors on account of the thickness of their construction ~ () - G.
Special doors w 0
Garage/industrial
~
~"0
~-
0
"'"'"' Frame construction
doors ~E In the specification of a classic frame construction, in addition to the
Locking systems
Security of
·e.::
:=0 consideration of the differing constructional thicknesses (difference
buildings between structural opening and clear pass-through dimension), the
and grounds g
II tfor use different variants of rebated frame (UK) or rebated door and frame
oft rm 'door' "'"'
BS 4787 (German) have to be taken into account, together with the location of
BS 6375
BS 8213
BS EN 14220/1
0 Preferred sizes shown in thick outline [j The standards give the exact
measurements concerning
frames and door panels for
the door in the wall. For plain doors in rebated frames ~ €!), the quality
of construction is important, because inaccuracies in the frame or in
BS EN 14351 rn
W
Structural openings for
these preferred sizes are,
those sizes which are indicated
with a number -~o ® hanging the door will immediately be clearly visible. The joint between
DIN 4172
DIN 18100 as a rule, for double doors frame and wall surface can only remain in order in the long term if a
DIN 18111
0 Modular wall openings--> 0 shadow joint is specified, because otherwise the transition from wall to
door frame will become disarranged with the first redecoration at the
Var. Standard Door dimensions Lining dimensions latest. Architraves can only solve this problem until the first redecoration.
modular building
soo

""ill
600 700 800
dimensions
~"'"'1"'11"'1
Wall
openings for
door
Outside
door panel
width
±1
Door panel
rebate width,
tolerance
Clear opening Clear opening

±1
width,
tolerance
height,
tolerance
0
H flu H
'O"'(I)NNNtul
«iaiS
ol
I o o·" 1:::1m
Dlll~ co-ord dimensions
leaf dfmensfons (;nlemel doors)
+2
0 -2 ~~~ '"' dlmonslori• (o>lemo( doors)
~§e
1 875 1875 860 1860 834 1847 841 1858
2 625 2000 610 1985 584 1972 591 1983
3
4
5
750
875
1000
2000
2000
2000
735
860
985
1985
1985
1985
709
834
959
1972
1972
1972
716
841
966
1983
1983
1983
IIL1r
6
7
750
875
2125
2125
735
860
2110
2110
709
834
2097
2097
716
841
2108
2108
0 Sizes of internal and external doors, UK, BS 4787-1
8 1000 2125 985 2110 959 2097 966 2108
9 1125 2125 1110 2110 1084 2097 1091 2108

f) Rebated doors and rebated linings

I' door panel size

nominal standard
building size

·!J f;amerebatesize
0 Width of a door with lining and f) Height of a door with lining and
I. I door panel size architraves architraves

I nominal standard building size

8 One-piece steel rebated door linings

lfi@.~l·~ :~l ~·:lze

.................
..................
I:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:· I'
e Doorllning 0 Door with recessed frame

ttitl1·~"""'""'
!
!·frame rebate size
j doorpanelslze ,IJIframe rebate size
doorpanelsize
i
·~
Jl·trame rebate size
doorpanelsize
nominal standard
building size
I nominal standard
1 buildingsize
nominal standard
building size

Q Architrave frame One-piece lining Shadow joint lining

4D) Jamb-mounted frame with plain door
panel
m Steel door lining with integrated
plaster beads

114
 ~min 11.80
~';fmin
DOORS
I1.50
normal 2.10
~normal 2.40 Special Doors
~ax ~max 2.60
2.20
..........__.,. Revolving doors are made in
several different designs ""' 0
0 Two-panel revolving door f) Three panels e Four panels - (). Some are adjustable, e.g.

~min )1.80 ~min~1.80

when the number of users is
sliding .: large, particularly in the summer,
=="":=~normal max
2.40
door or :'
roller : t normal 2.40
the panels can be folded into the
1 2.60 lattice ·. max 2.60 middle to allow people to go in
' shutter :===-===:;:
':__·
~ -~ on one side and out on the other
simultaneously. Some designs
e Four panels, folded flat e Door assembly pushed to side 0 Revolving door with additional
emergency exits
have panels which can be pushed
DOORS
Arrangement
Construction
to the side if traffic is only in one
details
direction (e.g. when business Special doors
closes for the day) -7 e - e. Garage/industrial
doors
Actuating devices for automatic Locking systems
doors can be controlled by Security of
buildings
radar control, electric contact and grounds
mats ""' 0 - e or pneumatic
floor contacts. Unidirectional
or reflecting light barriers
controlling automatic sliding
doors, with six panels up to
8 m wide, are ideal for installa-
tion on emergency exits in office
f) Automatic hinged doors e Automatic sliding doors C!) Drop gate installation -->~
blocks, public buildings, and
supermarkets. Air curtain doors
------~
flat folding door ------M11 _____ jiJl -7 ~ can be shut off at night by
a raised door -7 Ci).
with pendulum arm roN~ Folding doors can act as room
dividers, guided from the side
--- ""' ~. Concertina doors are
.;t: centrally hung ""' $ for closing
off wide openings. A revolving
movement can be combined
with a sliding movement.
Harmonica doors can be made
~8.0
of plywood, artificial leather or
fabric -7 @. Telescopic doors
G) Folding door with side guides $ Folding door with central guides
(harmonica door)
m Accordion door made of wooden
panels or flexible material
have several panels joined by
engagers. Externally guided

,'\\"&
length
rubber
telescopic doors with external
guides are single-skinned""' @);
~ those with internal guides are
double-skinned -7 e.
Sliding partitions -7 0 + 0
?o9.0 make good room dividers
(sound insulation) but cannot be
installed without tools. Provide
;:ii5.40
room for the relatively bulky
A-B
1:3.5
/ partition package in the design!
Folding partitions folded from
above ""' 4D or horizontally
upwards -7 0 enable large
e Telescopic door 0 Roller partition rooms to be partitioned.

~1 . -- .,, • ~·~.
~::.,~lP
IIm[J ___ _

~
Tension between
-----. elements of the
~~~~i;~sion floor+ ceiling

~~~~~----- _W_
$ Corner sliding door, articulated
sliding gate
e Variable sliding doors 4D Air curtain system --> Ci)

115
 DOORS
Garage/Industrial Doors
Up and over doors ---7 0 can be
used for garages and similar:
sliding and/or folding doors,
with a spring counterbalance or
a counterbalance weight. They
may be single skin, double skin,
2.50
3.00 ~:~~5 320 m2 jlOj
·
;.;.;.;.;.;.;.;.;.;.;.;.;.;.;.;.;.;.;.;.;.,...........................
solid, partially glazed, fully glazed,
constructed of wood, plastic,
DOORS
3.37 2.25
5
2.37 standard door
81=
§
a) lifting and folding
door
b) up and over door with c) up and over door with
spring balance mechanism counterweight
aluminium, or galvanised steel. The
fi.OO 2.75-3.00 without roof Quide rails largest drive-though dimensions
Arrangement
Construction
details
0 Up and over door f) Variants -. 0 are 4.82 x 1.96 m. Max. panel
size is approx. 10 m2 . Installation
Special doors
Garage/ is possible under a round or
industrial doors segmental arch. Operation is
Locking systems
Security of
by door gear with radio control.
buildings Also available are doors folding
and grounds upwards ---7 e,
sectional doors
see also: ---7 0, telescopic lifting doors ---7 e
Fire protection
pp. 511 ff.
and roller doors ---7 e
made of

~"'""""'""'""'"''''"'""'"'"'
aluminium, plus large single and
multi-skin doors for use in industrial
H buildings, transport and workshops:

5.00
8.00 :~·:::~
·::::::.
max. 18 m wide and 6 m high.
Doors can be operated by: pull
C) Upward-folding door 8 Sectional door 0 Telescopic lifting door
switches, light beams, induction
or wireless remote control contact
pads. There are rapid-opening
drive-through doors, flexible PVC
doors ---7 Q), with single layer, wear-
and impact-resistant clear PVC;
PVC is also used as strip curtain ---7
4D. Single and double panel T30-
T90 fire doors ---7 0 and sliding fire-
protection doors ---7 ~ can be fitted.
Movable fire-resistant wall closures
such as sliding, lifting or hinged
doors must function independently
Jl~
:::::~ of the electricity network and close
A x 8 max. 8.00 x 6.00

e
·.
automatically in the case of fire
(t Roller door, shutter (steel and aluminium) f) Drop door Sliding door
(Fischer-Riegel mechanism).
steel sliding doorT30-T90
T30: 5.00 X 4.00; T90: 8.50 X 3.50
~-~1:-:·:·:·:-:·:·:·:·:1 h~12.00-l 35- 401-l-6.00-j

Do
~1.20-2.401

~>~ ~ l
f--1.80- 3.60 -i

~~-'-.....t·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:J
J--1.8o-3.60-j

8 Folding door-; 4li>

~-~-/'-...._

«<!)
l-----2.40- 4 . 8 0 -

~~-'-.....
f-----3.00- 6.00------j

Folding doors -; 0
~
'-......~
4D Sideways-opening sectional door
single leaf
tJO
4!} Possible building layout-; CD
A B concealed counterbalance
75 1.75 weight A B
75 1.875
75 2.00 1.00 2.00
B 80 1.80 1.00 2.125
80 1.875 1.25 2.00
80 2.00 1.25 2.125
--
...' ......
~
875
875
1.00
1.875
2.00
1.875
1.50
1.50
1.75
2.00
2.125
2.00
''t).,..: ... 1.00 2.00 1.75 2.125
1.00 2.125 2.50 2.50

double leaf

~
1.50 2.00
~:~ I z::::::::J_ double
__ leaf _ ~
2.25 2.125

G) Flexible rubber door (D Strip curtain e Fire doors T30-T90 0 Sliding fire doors T30-T90

116
 DOORS
Locking Systems

Mechanical locking systems

for high security requirements,
sensor and control must be Cylinder locks offer great security, because unlocking using tools
separated (control unit in is almost impossible. Cylinders can be supplied as required with
secure area). It must not be extensions by multiples of 5 mm on either side to match the
possible to operate the control
particular door thickness.
by manipulating the sensor
(e.g. short circuit).
Locking systems
When a locking system is designed and ordered, a diagram is
when the access control DOORS
produced with the associated security certificate. Replacement
is situated in a supervised Arrangement
area, sensor and control can keys can be delivered only on production of this certificate. Construction
be located in one building details
element. Central locking systems Special doors
Garage/industrial
One key locks the entrance door to a flat and all general and also doors
central doors, e.g. yard, cellar, or front door. Suitable for blocks of Locking
flats or houses on estates. systems
Security of
buildings
mechatronic lock cylinders Hierarchical master key locking system and grounds
contain sensor and control
Master keys can lock many cylinders across the entire system.
Electronic control unil decision unit, with the task of the PAS 3621
actuator being undertaken The system can reflect the structure of access rights in a company. PAS 10621
Door actuator by the mechanical key or a Each cylinder has its own key pattern and can be locked only by BS EN 12209
turning knob. DIN 18252
its own key and by any master keys also intended to open it. For
possible connection to sensitive locations which should be considered in the building
central monitoring system design see ---7 e
0 Arrangement of the components of electronic locking systems, depending on
Electronic access control systems
the security requirements. The systems can be operated either Independently
(offline) or In connection with a central monitoring system (online). The main disadvantages of mechanical locking systems are the
impossibility of altering the lock hierarchy and the inconvenience
means of identification
which results if a master key is lost (replacement of cylinders
electronic identification
is expensive). With electronic access systems, right of access
Identification information is read by a sensor from the memory of the identification
medium and evaluated by a control system. The following systems vary according
can be assigned or deleted at short notice without having
to the type of transfer: to replace building components. Mechatronic cylinders also
permit the upgrading of an existing locking systems without
with contact
wiring it. Elaborate electronic access control systems can
Passive magnetic strips
- cheap, but can be copied easily make possible the networking of personal identification, access
(small storage capacity, unencrypted data) rights according to area and time, and also the recording of
chip cards working time ---7 0 + 0.
+ encryption of the data is possible
larger storage capacity than with magnetic Code locks are also used in private buildings to permit access
cards
to anyone who knows the number combination. ·Entitled people
Active chip with battery in the key. Data are transmitted
like postmen, tradesmen, suppliers etc. can obtain access without
on contact
+ mechatronic cylinder locks can operate without problems.
their own battery
Emergency exits and panic doors
without contact
Since 2004, there have been various requirements for the
Passive identification medium uses the transmission
construction of ironmongery for emergency exits and panic
energy of the querying transmitter for the answer doors. These doors must be tested, approved and labelled as a
(e.g. RFID chips) complete system.
+ no independent power supply necessary
- results in a small range of max. 1 m Emergency exits are provided in buildings and areas which are
Active infrawred and radio transmitters not open to the public and where people familiar with the location
- independent power supply necessary
understand the function of the escape doors.
+range >1m

biometric identification
Panic doors are used in buildings and areas which are open to
Individual characteristics of each person are recorded by a sensor for the public and in which people familiar with the location do not
identification and compared with a database. On account of the complexity of the understand the function of the escape doors.
recognition system, real identification and verification are differentiated.

Identification the user is recognised through stored biometric filing cabinets, bath cubicles, letter boxes, access doors, at risk
data emergency exits, wardrobes, cool rooms, furniture doors, tube
- high computing time, because all reference frame doors, roller doors, cupboard doors, desks, drawers,
data have to be compared changing cubicles

tift machinery rooms, lift switches, electrical rooms, garage at great risk
Verification user identifies themselves through a password access doors, up and over garage doors, lattice grille gates,
or an identification medium. The identity of the heating room doors, fire-resistant cellar doors, fire-retarding
person is checked against biometric data stored cellar doors, oil filling connections, distribution cabinets
in a database
+double system offers high security office access doors, roof windows, turn and tilt windows, IT at very great risk
rapid access to comparative biometric data rooms, entrance doors, shutters, front doors, lifting doors, cellar
windows, fanlights, counters, entrance doors to flats
Keys are increasingly being supplemented or replaced by electronic and
biometric identification methods 0 Risk of break-in according to use

117
 DOORS
Security of Buildings and Grounds

section monitoring
The term 'security technology' covers all devices used for defence
monitoring by fields against criminal danger to the body, life, or valuables. In reality, all
opening contact JD»)
ultrasonic
n::::n
ultrasonic
~
capacitor
parts of a building can be penetrated, even those made of steel
I • I doppler barrier field chang and reinforced concrete. The need for security should be identified
magnetic contact ~-~ •C;o. alarm by an in-depth study of vulnerable areas, with an estimate of costs
high-frequency
'lock c;ntam I dopp<}.o;o_o:: I and benefits.

DOORS pendulum contact infra-red alarm The police will advise on on the choice of security and monitoring
(also for
Arrangement area monitoring) system equipment.
Construction
details
Special doors Mechanical protection devices are construction measures
~ attack alarm
Garage/industrial which provide mechanical resistance to an intruder. These can
doors
Locking systems only be overcome by the use of force, which will leave physical
Security of electrical supply
traces behind.
buildings and
grounds
rn-gy el~~~~~=l
PAS24
E8 e~~~gp~~cy An important consideration is the effectiveness of this resistance.
BS 8220
Such measurements are necessary in blocks of flats at the
DIN 57100 entrance doors, windows and cellar entrances; and in business
DIN 57800
DIN 57804 acoustic alarm premises the display windows, entrances, other windows and
skylights. Mechanical protection devices include steel grilles,
c(j mains powe.r
alarm either fixed or as roller grilles over the building's apertures and
rn1 elec;tronic
"'"'l s1ren ventilation openings, secure roller shutters, secure locks, chains
and light shafts. Wire and steel thread inserts in glass can retard
breaking in and acrylic and polycarbonate window panes offer
enhanced protection.

Electrical security devices will automatically set off an alarm if

0 Burglar alarm systems- components and function any unauthorised entry to the protected premises or access to
monitored rooms is attempted. An important consideration is the
time taken from when the alarm is triggered until the arrival of
security staff or the police.

1. Burglar and attack alarm systems help to monitor and protect

RC1 offers basic protection against casual offenders, who only attempt to
break in with physical strength- walking in, causing damage etc. people and property.

RC2 resists attempts to break in with simple tools (screwdriver, pliers, They cannot prevent intruders entering premises, but should
wedges etc.). Doors of this class defeat 80% of all attempts to break in.
give the earliest possible warning of such an attempt. Optimum
RC3 also resists criminals, who use crowbar or professional-quality security can therefore only be achieved by mechanical protection
screwdriver. and the sensible installation of burglar alarm systems. Surveillance
measures include surveillance of external envelope, of each
RC4 also resists attempts even if the criminal uses hammer, axe, nail bar room, and of individual objects, plus case by case security and
and cordless drill.
emergency calls.
RC5-6 security doors of classes RC 5 and 6 resist attack using heavy drills,
angle grinders and jig saws for a long period. Fire alarm systems give an early warning of danger, and enable
direct calls for help in case of fire and/or recognise and report fire
f) Resistance classes (RC) of building components, at an early stage. Fire alarms serve to protect life and property.

2. Open-air surveillance systems monitor areas outside enclosed

rooms. They serve to protect a building against events in the
vicinity or in the surrounding open area, which normally extends
Resistance Windows External doors Roller shutters
to cover the property boundary. They consist of mechanical and
class construction, electronic detection and/or organisational/personnel
measures. Their purpose is legal definition, deterrence, prevention,
RC 1 - - ER 1 delay, early warning, detection of persons, vehicles, observation,
RC2 EF0/1 ET1 ER2
identification, sabotage attempts, spying.

RC 3 EF2 ET2 ER 3 Construction measures may feature building work, fences, ditches,
walls, barriers, gates, access control, lighting. Electrical work
RC4 EF 3 ET3 ER4
may includes control centre, detectors, sensors, video/television,
RC 5 - - ER5
access control systems, alarming of next level PO/telemetry
exchange/telephone dialler/radio. Organisational measures may
RC6 - - ER6 concern personnel, observation, supervision, security, security
guards, technical personnel, guard dogs, emergency call action
8 Correlation table for the old and new security classes. The assignment of plan.
building components, which were evaluated according to old resistance classes,
to new resistance classes is not permissible.

118
Parts of building and
I • • • P- JlfU' miill ~
""c:
~
+ + [!1 ~
"'"c.
DOORS
Security of Buildings
E ~
equipment to be )g g> Q; 0> 1il E ~ and Grounds
"c:ro
ilo "' 0
"0> ·c c: c. .£0 E
·~~ "
oo-a.!9 ,.,., -~N ~E·~
protected tl :N
.."<.l!l :mhl
c:~
"'tl
·~ 19 "'
~~~
~
c: "' ""' ~E
""c.
~.~~
0>~
uc: "O.!Q c.E c:~

58 ~~~
.cC:
oo
..Ju
ro"
28 ~8 "'"
~o
1--u C5Ero 2.2
o=
C)~,£!
oo
lllc: ~ ·c: 0
1--u
W_!Y
o..ro (/)
Security systems
front doors, external
doors
.2)
• 0 (continued)
internal security doors .2)
• • 0 .4)
Symbols ~ p. 17
room doors 12) e'l • • 0 o'l 3. Goods security
internal sliding doors 121 o'l 0 • • 0 o'l systems, also called shop-
up and over garage doors
• 0 e'l lifting prevention systems,
windows with casements
• 0
• 0
• 07) are electronic systems that DOORS
glass doors, lifting doors
• 0 0
• 0
• 07) o'l serve to prevent theft and

..
Arrangement
external glass sliding
doors
0
• • 0
• o71 o'l the unauthorised and illegal
removal of goods from a
Construction
details
rooflight dorne 0
• 0 )
controlled room or area in
Special doors
Garage/industrial
loft windows
• • o'l dl normal daily use. doors
glass block walls 0
• Locking systems
Security of
display windows, large
fixed !ilazinq • • • 07)
4. Access control systems:
electronic access control
buildings
and grounds
heavy walls and ceilings
• • 0
works together with mech-
light walls and ceilings
• anical elements to permit
PAS24
BS 8220
loft ladder- retractable 0 0
• o'l
• 0
or refuse access to a DIN 57100
individual objects 121
-sculptures paintings • .10)
building, room or zone
DIN 57800
DIN 57804
internal floor surfaces 12)
• through an identity check .
safes 12l • o'l .11) This is done by electroni-
cally testing the personal
cupboards for
aoParatus 12> • • o'l
identity or by checking
conduits, ventilation shafts,
service installations • • the authorisation on site.
burglar alarm e very suitable 1) vanous alarms to be used only With reservations (e.g. not on wired, laminated or toughened glass) Combination of an access
0 still suitable 2) principally as a security device
control with a time recor-
3) If there Is rapid switching on this door
4) if only the internal security door is to be protected {see also door interlock with alarm) ding system is technically
5) designed for security traps
6) magnetic contact- special type for floor mounting possible. ~ p. 117
7) not to be used where it can be touched by hand, if panels are unstable or there are vibration sources nearby
8) there are rooflight domes with built-in alarm protection
9) note reservations concerning the weight of glass 5. Remote control systems
10) individual protection Is recommended for very valuable furnishings or those with very valuable contents
11) capacitative fleld alarms are the recommended protection enable data transmission/
12) and/or included in the room surveillance
exchange between two
remote locations over
Q Contact and area surveillance- appropriate use of burglar alarms
public telephone, mobile
phone or Internet. They are
used for remote monito-
ring, measurement, control,
Feature
~~) diagnosis, regulation and
Ultrasound room High-frequency doppler Infra-red detector
Ultrasound doppler
remote querying of infor-

•
protection
mation, data and condition
surveillance characteristics
preferred, direction of movement
~ of one object in relation to
covered ~ another.
surveillance range per unit- ceiling mounted 90-110 according to device 30--50 m2 according to device 150-200 according to device 60-80 m2
guidelines for range m2, wall mounted approx. up to 14m m2 up to 25m rooms up to 12m 6. Surveillance systems:
40m2 upto9 m corridors up to 60 m observation, control, recor-
surveillance of entire room guaranteed not guaranteed not guaranteed guaranteed ding of occurrences and
(over 80% of the room monitored)
events using camera and
typical application - small to large rooms - small to large rooms -long, large rooms -small to large rooms
-corridors - parts of rooms - parts of rooms -surveillance of whole rooms
monitor, manually and/or
-surveillance of whole - motion detection - motion detection in large or parts of rooms automatically, inside and
and parts of rooms rooms - motion detectors
-also fire alarm
outside buildings, any time
permissible
of day or night and 365
underooc permissible in some cases permissible in some cases permissible
pennissible days of the year.
ambient from oo to 50°C permissible permissible permissible permissible
temperature not permissible permissible not permissible
over 50°C not permissible
7. Lift emergency system
are many sensors in one room no problem with care with care no problem
possible?
can be used in passenger
effects from neighbouring rooms no problem no problem not recommended no problem lifts and goods lifts. Lift
or adjacent road traffic emergency systems ensure
-loud noises at -loud noises at ultrasound - ray deflection through - heat sources with rapid the safety of the users of
ultrasound frequency frequency reflection from metallic temperature alterations, e.g.
objects light bulbs, electric healing,
lifts and are mainly intended
-air heating near sensor -air heating
- strong air turbulence - air turbulence - ray passes through walls open fires in working area to enable the rescue of
and windows -direct, strong and changeable
possible causes of false alarms -unstable walls -unstable walls trapped people, who have
-moving objects, e.g. -moving objects, e.g. small -unstable walls or actions on the sensor
small animals animals -moving objects, e.g. small -moving objects, e.g. small direct voice communication
-disturbing influences near animals, fans animals with a constantly manned
sensor {increased sensitivity) -electromagnetic effects
emergency centre, respon-
f) Room surveillance- the most important comparative features sible for rescue.

119
 STAIRS
2.00 Principles

Various calculations and dimen-

sional requirements for the con-
struction of stairs appear in national
building regulations and stan-
dards. In the UK, British Stand-
ards and the building regulations
~ ~1 :8 should be consulted (see Approved
0 Standard stride of an adult on a f) On a slope the stride is reduced: 0 Good standard riser to tread ratio Document K). For workplaces, the
STAIRS horizontal surface a comfortable slope is 1:1Q-1:8 17/29, stride 2 risers + 1 tread ~ regulations of the relevant health
Principles
approx. 62.5 em and safety body are to be observed.
Regulations According to German standards,
Construction
Ramps residential buildings with no more
Spiral stairs than two flats must have a usable
Access and
escape ladders
·:····:······· stair width min. 0.80 m, 17/28 riser
Escalators to tread ratio, stairs not deemed by
Moving walkways building regulations to be legally
BS 5395 essential (as fire escape routes)
BS 5578 ships' stairs 0.50 m, 21/21 but legally essential
DIN 18065 (engine room stairs)
stairs 1.00 m, 17/28, high-rise flats
1.25 m width. Stair width in public
e Ladder-type stairs with handrail 8 Normal stairs 17/29, landing after
max. 18 steps for legally essential
0 Stairs without a handrail
buildings is calculated according
to the required evacuation time ---7
stairs. Prestigious-style stairs can p. 318 (Stadiums).
climb up to a 4 m storey height
Length of runs on legally essential
without a landing.
stairs is ~3 steps up to ~18
steps ---7 0, landing length = n
times length of stride + 1 depth of
tread (e.g. riser to tread 17/29 =
1 x 63 + 29 = 92 em or 2 x 63 +
29 = 1.55 m). Doors opening into
the stairwell must not obstruct
the stair width. The 18-step rule
is a 'should' regulation. For stairs
intended to be prestigious the
requirement to provide landings is

0 Correctly superimposed stairs

save space
e If ratters and beams are arranged
in the direction of the stairs,
0 Covered entrances to cellars necks
and trapdoors are to be avoided;
mitigated.

this saves space and expensive but the arrangement shown here Storey Two flight One, two and
trimmers has advantages and is safe height stairs three flight
plus building
125 1.875 stairs
~
H Flat (good) Flat (good)

lt- - '1:'" ~- -!H

~35-40cm ::: pitch pitch
:: No. No.
steps Riser steps Riser

a::~/·.
a b c f g
,..-'-
2250 - - 13 173.0

if
f-
'---
ARt .f-
I-
2500
2625
14
-
178.5 15
- 15
166.6
175.0
2750 16 171.8 - -
..................................·.·.·:
: 3000 18 166.6 17 176.4

For winding stairs, the (D For straight stairs, the @) Stairs on which two "width for three people ~ Storey height and stair risers
distance of the walking distance of the walking people can pass
line to the inner cheek is line to the handrail is 55 em
35--40 em

effective flight width measured

!: from wall surface to inside edge ~SO em 6aocm
!! of handrail
II stairs in a family house
or inside flats: to loft II
:·
in up to two-storey
dwellings
and basement

H ~ 1.25 m /150 people 61.0m

:~ ... or between the handrails

l1
·:
in high-rise flats II:: dwellings with more than
two storeys and other

~
buildings

'.~i.:l- :-la-rg_e_r-:f: -lig: ,:=o;.:cw-,-id-:-t,- hs-:-fo_r

stairs must have a fixed handrail;
if stair width is greater than 4 m,
there must also be a central _ _ _-Q
handrail; spiral staircases must buildings containing more than
have a handrail on the outside 150 people

fl' Stairs: minimum width ~ Measurement of usable passing width-; p. 121 f)- 8 4f) Handrail heights, hand heights,
avoid ladder effect

120
 STAIRS
Regulations

The experience of using

stairs and access routes is
very varied: from the creative
possibilities of the most
diverse residential stairs to an
elaborate outside staircase,
which one can stride up and
down. Climbing stairs takes STAIRS
on average seven times the Principles
Regulations
energy input as walking on the Construction
flat. From the physiological Ramps
Spiral stairs
1 Stairs 1 Without limitation of the clear 4 e.g. through the inner edge of
point of view, the best use Access and
2 Cellar and attic stairs, which do not lead to occupied opening section, e.g. the a balustrade or handrail on the of 'climbing effort' is at a escape ladders
rooms, and stairs which are not required under underside of the stair flight above balustrade side stair pitch of 30° and a ratio Escalators
building regulations (additional stairs) according to 2 Limitation of the clear opening 5 lower edge of the clear opening Moving walkways
Table 3, lines 2, 3 and 5. section at the side, e.g. through section of riser (r) to tread (t) of 17I
3 Stairs required under building regulations, which the surface of the finished wall 6 Upper edge of the clear opening 29. The pitch is determined BS 5395
lead to occupied rooms, for residential buildings (cladding) section, e.g. to a ceiling slope BS 5578
with not more than two flats, according to Table 3, 3 .... e.g. to the inner edge of a 7 Lower edge (limitation) of the by the stride length of an DIN 18065
line 1. handrail on the wall side; side clear opening section e.g. adult (approx. 59-65 em). In
4 Stairs required under building regulations in other mounted handrail spaced min. through stair string or continuous
buildings according to Table 3, line 4. 5 em from the wall skirting at stair pitch
order to determine a suitable
pitch with the lowest energy
0 Incline for ramps, stairs and ladders f) Stairs: clearance profile
requirement, this formula
Row Type of building Type of stairs Usable Stair Stair Max. applies: 2 r + t = 59-65 em.
stair width riser tread Type of building distance
llmin) IIRl' IIT) 3 -high-rise buildings 25m
For determining the dimen-
80 20 23 -schools
r-J-
2
residential
buildings with
stairs leadino to habitable rooms
cellar stairs, which do not lead to habitable 80 21 21 -shoos sions and form of stairs,
not more than rooms - enclosed and 30m their overall functional and
~ two storeys 1 50
loft stairs, which do not lead to habitable rooms 21 21 underground garages design purpose is just as
4 other buildinos leoallv essential stairs 100 19 26 -buildings where
people congregate
important as the relation-
5 all buildings non-essential (additional) stairs 50 21 21
1. also excludes maisonette flats in buildings with more than two storeys (from exit to stairwell) ships described above. Not
2. but not <14 em - hosoitals just changing level is impor-
3. but not >37 em= stipulation of the pitch riser/tread -buildings without 35m tant, but how the level is
4. for stairs with a tread <26 em, the overhang (o) must be at least so large that a total tread of special status,
according to LBO
changed. For outside stairs,
26 em (I+ o) is given
5. for stairs with a tread <24 em, the overhang must be at least so large that a total tread of - restaurants and low steps are preferable, with
24 em (I+ o) is oiven hotels dimensions of 12 x 41 to 16
8 Stairs in buildings -limits of dimensions G Maximum distance of any
x 30 em. Stairs in offices or
emergency stairs should, in
(finished dimensions) location in an Inhabitable
room from a stairwell deemed contrast, make it possible to
legally essential by MBO (and
change level quickly. All main
observe LBOI)
staircases must be enclosed
in a continuous stairwell,
which is designed and ar-

~.,.. f:J>- ~L. ~--

ranged so that, including its
access routes and exit to the
open air, it can safely be used
for escape. Exit width should
be ~ stair width.
,1 : : image 0: 16 pitches 17/29, high
I L--~ level2.75 m; maximum width 1.0 m Every location in inhabited
L ___:
rooms and basements must
All stairs without landings, whatever the type, cover practically the same surface area; curving of the steps only varies the
be ~35 m from the stairwell of
distance between the bottom and top of the stairs. From the architectural point of view, therefore, only straight or curving stairs
should be used. The latter have the advantage that the bottom and top stairs at storey levels lie above one another at least one legally essential
stairway or exit. If a number
of stairways are necessary,

~r r~
then they should be arranged

r
~~] so that the escape route is
as short as possible. Any
5.4m2 openings from stairwells
into cellars, uninhabited roof
spaces, workshops, shops,
storerooms, and similar must
I' '
I
I I
Lo--..J
be fitted with self-closing
doors with a fire resistance
Stairs with landings cover the surface area fj Minimum space For the carrying of For a spiral
rating of 30 minutes.
of single flight stairs+ the landing. Stairs required for furniture stretchers staircase
with landings are required in legally essential transport
stairways with a storey height of ;;;;2.75 m.
Landing width ;;;; stair width.

121
 b b STAIRS
>~..I·fml
~·:"~''' ~30
~I)illi. $260 Construction
>--< h Overhang - >--~:;: h
1
.J ··: Overhan~ (nosing) :;: Step profile

:~ ~: ''''·::"ii'iii~'ir~~Ci'(f,) is
[.,.,.,.,.,.,.,.,.,.,.,.,.,.,.,.,..,.,.,.,.,.,.,.l Steps without solid
For stairs in buildings subject to
........................ riser should have ·: less than 260 mm, the
disability-friendly building rules,
.................. :. better an overhang 6: 30 mm step should overhang i';30 mm
steps may have no nosing! In
0 Step profile of a steep flight of stairs. Nosings are not allowed in publicly accessible buildings
order to avoid ugly streaks of
rubbed-off shoe polish on the
risers of vertical stairs --7 0,

=1~~~ ~~~I~~ct! ~~
profiles with an undercut riser
STAIRS are better, and this produces

~ ~II II 11 II ""'"'"""" .~,~ .,,,...

Principles more tread surface. For a
Regulations
Construction tread width <260 mm --7 0
Ramps (b), the step is to be undercut
Spiral stairs
Access and
f) Handrail profiles Timber or steel profiles for steel balustrades balustrades with sections of clamps ~30 mm; this also applies to
escape ladders open stairs without risers. A
Escalators
human being requires the most
Moving walkways
space at handrail height, and
BS 5395 considerably less at foot height.
BS 5578
DIN 18065 The stair width here can be
Handrail at
the landing made narrower in favour of a
see also: Fire
protection pp. larger stairwell.
511 ff.
Galleries, mezzanines, balco-
nies and circle seating in
theatres must have a protective
guard rail (height h), compulsory
from 1 m height difference:
I l! I
\ [\ \ drop <12m, h = 0.90 m
drop <12 m, h = 1.00 m for
workplaces and if the stairwell
\ \ \ is at least 20 em wide, also for
I I I over 12m h.

Effect of construction principles (steps sit on or are housed in the strings) on the staircase geometry in achieving uniform
handrail heights
drop >12m, h = 1.10 m

Loft ladders have a pitch of 45-

Clear room Loft ladder
height size (em)
750. If, however, stairs of such a
220-280 100 X 60 (70) pitch are required for operational
220-300 120 X 60 (70) purposes, for example because
loft 220-300 130 X 60 (70 + 80) there is not enough space for a

r_t
240-300 140 X 60 (70 + 80) normal flight, then alternating
width of frame:
tread (staggered or samba)
W=59; 69; 79 em
length of frame:
stairs may be chosen --7 + ~. e
L= 120; 130; 140 em
The risers in an alternating tread
trap-door,
should be staircase should be a few as
height of frame:
·::............:::.................... ......................:::......::: fireproof
H=25 em possible, the riser height anyway

If there is too little space, an aluminium or

timber folding loft ladder may suffice
9 Flat roof access with folding steps e Telescopic loft ladders
::;;20 em. The treads in this case
are measured (staggered) for the
tread axes a + b --7 ~ of the left
and right feet.
~;••,.,.,.,..,.}s.a::··:·.·:::.·::·::::··:::::
I Opening in floor I
~-_-_.:-_-_-_-_-_-- 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 11213

220
::::::::::.·:::::::::::::: :
190
.. ....
198
176 4!) Normal stairs (tread too short)
1~
132
110

f--- Tread ----j

4) Tolerances in the positions
of the steps' leading edges.
0 Alternating tread, staggered or Tolerances must, however,
f) Space-saving stairs with
strings
samba stairs of wood: section
through centre
0 Plan of treads with a and still comply with the required
b "'20 em dimension limits

122
 STAIRS
Ramps, Spiral Stairs

Pedestrians, wheelchair users

and people with prams or push-
chairs should be able to move
easily from one level to another.

10 :c~. ;•:::::::o-:::!!J Ramps 4 0 stepped ramp 4 f)

section
can be easily
managed stair with ramp 4 e
0 Ramp with handrail and edge kerb f) Stepped ramp 8 Stair with ramp
gradient 4 0. STAIRS
Principles
Regulations
Winding and spiral staircases Construction
These are permissible for a few Ramps
Spiral stairs
family houses as the 'staircase
Access and
required by building regulations escape ladders
DIN i 8065' when there is Escalators
Moving walkways
an approx. 210 em diameter
aperture in the floor (min. 80 em BS 5395-2
DIN 18065
flight width); for other buildings
from approx. 260 em (min. i .00 m
flight width). Spiral staircases
with less then 80 em of usable
by setting the front edge of the
step at a tangent to the newel flight width are permitted only
post, the tread width is increased
as 'legally non-essential stairs'.
G Treads of winding stairs e Spiral staircase 0 Steps In timber, steel, artificial
stone and natural stone
They are suitable for cellars, lofts,
subsidiary rooms or if a primary

.~J1~: .
ailing

steel sheet
escape route is already provided.
Spiral staircases save space
and can be constructed with
adequate strength with a newel
post in the central axis 4 0- 0 .

insulating material The central axis can also be

8 Formation of step e Solid timber step Q PVC on cement screed cleared, which leads to an open
spiral staircase with a stairwell
4 4Ji) - 40- For spiral staircases,

i
the curve can be chosen freely
within the range laid down
by regulations. The tread is
measured at the walking line. In
the curved part of the walking
Stair suitable as access to line, the tread is equal to the chord
non-occupied rooms instead resulting from the intersection of
of ladder, if the stair has to
be designed with 180° turn
the curved walking line with the
due to restricted space leading edge of the step_
(!) Elevation of winding staircase 4D Planof4Ji) Cf) Space-saving spiral staircase
with staggered steps
use Wlo-way traffic impossible wo-way traffic possible W/o-way traffic easy
still passable easy to pass easy to pass Ipassable with comfort
small furniture I
dismantled furniture furniture can Jor heavy traffic
can pass through can pass through pass through
secondary rooms
'--
basements, lofts
home bar, hobby room
-
bedrooms, sauna r----
swimming pool, laboratory r--
workshop, garden r----
gallery, small store r--
sales room r----
maisonette, boutique
41} Free-standing spiral staircase

office rooms, large storeroom r--

consulting/shop room r----
guest bedrooms r----
emergency stairs r--
main/' essential' domestic stairs r----
stairs dia. 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
r--
0
0
~ "'~ 0
~
0
~ "'~ 0
~ "'~ 0
~ "'~ 0
~ "'~ "'
0
0
"';::; "'
;::;
0 0

~
(nominal dimension)
flight width (mm)
~ :;: 0 "'
0
"'
0

"' "'r-- "'"' "'"'m

<0 <0 <0 <0
<0 "'"'
r-- 0
r-- r-- "' "' "'"'r-- r--
r-- "'"' "' <0 r--
r-- 0
<0 <0
"' "' "' <0 <0
beween the newel post and handrail
<0
from 10 em depth of tread

0) Determination of the minimum dimensions of spiral staircases of all types according to application 6} Wall-supported spiral staircase

123
 2.00 2.00 2.00 STAIRS
Spiral Stairs

Although spiral staircases appear

generous, they should not be
installed where every last centimetre
2.00 2.00 of tread is important. Compare ---7 0
+ f), staircases in a 2 x 2 m niche.
Spiral staircases work best if they
lead to galleries or parapets ---7 0 -
0. The construction is really shown
to its full advantage in an open space.
90 90
Principles
II 80
II
80 8o I I 8o I
Regulations 20 20 Access width
Entrance landings have an angle of at
20
Construction least 60° ---7 G. Starting the handrail
Ramps
Spiral stairs 0 Semi-winding staircase. Usable f) Round spiral staircase. Usable t) Square shaped spiral staircase between the first and second steps
Access and width 90 em/tread 26.5 em width 80 em/tread 24 em works more generously ---7 9 - e.
escape ladders Spiral staircases are permissible
Escalators
from 190 em in diameter as the sole
Moving walkways
connecting stairs inside houses with
BS 5395-2 80 em usable walking width ---7 f) -

_..
DIN 18056 0. Uniform curving of winding steps
A
can be produced by geometrical
I Access construction. In order to achieve
a regular curve of the steps, the
Elevation
tolerances can be larger here.

Arc division method ---7 ~

1. Decide the walking line
Plan 2. Plot the steps onto the walking
line, starting with the corner tread
3. Plot the smallest width of the

e Spiral staircase landing types.

Landing access as wide as the
Handrail starts between first
and second steps. Comfortable
0 Handrail starts at the leading
edge of the first step. Handrail
corner tread and the edges of
the tread
4. Intersection B of the last straight
steps. Min. landing angle 60-72° access to the stairs from the side appears optically lower than
step with the staircase's axis
in->9
is the middle point of a circle
tangential to the convexity at A
.·.·.·.·.·.·.·...........................·.·.·,;•,·,·.·.•:.·.·:.•:.·.·.-.............•.·.·.·...·.·:.·;.·.·.·, Gallery
Gallery Gallery
5. Determine intersection 0' on the
circle and point 0
6. Divide the arc between 0 and the
last straight step into as many
equal lengths as there are steps
between these points
7. The division points on the inner
cheek provide the connection
points of the steps

f) Spiral staircase with ;;;so• landing e Spiral staircase with obliquely

angled landing
0 Spiral staircase standing free in
the room with extended landing
Proportional division method ---7 4D
1. Decide the walking line
2. Plot the steps onto the walking line
3. With an even number of steps
and the upper and lower flights
of equal lengths: first plot the
middle tread symmetrically on
the axis of the staircase (in the
diagram, treads 8-9). If there
is an odd number of steps: first
place the middle step on the axis
of the stairs
4. Mark the narrowest width of
the narrowest step on the inner
cheek. Plot from the resulting
points from the steps' edge
through the walking line point.
5. Extend the edges of the steps to
their intersection A
6. Extend the last even step to the
axis of the staircase (point B)
8 7. Divide the line AB in the ratio
1:2:3:4 ... (as many divisions as
curved steps). This line division
can be applied to any axis
41!) Arc division method for the construction of 4D Proportional division method for the construction of angled
8. Leading edges of the curved
steps go through the points on
angled steps, in this case for a 90° turning steps, in this case for a 180° turning staircase. Also applicable
staircase. Also applicable for a 180• turning for a 90° turning staircase. the walking line and the division
staircase points on the axis of the staircase

124
 STAIRS
Access and Escape Ladders

room
Ladder access points must
be located so that those in
danger can attract the attention
of people on public roads.

I
;;;8.0
Emergency ladders are items
of building equipment which
can be used for the rescue
of occupants -> 0 - + @. e Principles
Regulations
Access ladders, also described
I as vertical fixed ladders, are
Construction
Ramps
0 Escape routes f) Roof window as escape route required for climbing onto roofs, Spiral stairs
Access and
chimneys, silos, containers, escape ladders
tanks, machines, plant etc. Escalators
Moving walkways
For buildings over 5 m high,
access ladders are required B84211
B8 5395
to have back protection. Each A8TM F21755
ladder run has a maximum DIN 14094
DIN 18065
climbing height of i 0 m -> 0 - DIN 18799
CD. Hoop diameter 0.70 m. DIN 24532

Dimensions~ 0
Building Back Pairs
height (m) protection of wall
from/to (bp) fixings
3.0-4.0 - 3
0 Escape route with external platform 0 Escape balcony/platform 0 Retractable access 4.0-5.0 - 3

T I 5.0-6.0 BP 4

r
6.0-7.0 BP 4
1.10 7.0-8.0 BP 5

l 8.0-9.0
9.0-10.0
BP
BP
5
6

stepped construction -> Cli) + 0

1o.o-11.o I BP 8
jumps of 1 m each up to
19.a-2o.o 1 BP 13

Q Escape with gangway f) Escape ladder extension e Platform with handrail

T T
1.10 1.10

.; .... 1
;;;10.0

;;;10.0

E
:3:1
VII
:E

~
Cl

·a;
:§
r '_
Changover
landing c •
>4.0 m
'5 2.0 with back

1~:: IR~In§l~~~~"d
;;;10.o

t
II

~
~
·a;
~
.0
c
:0
.s
0 .~·
;,;2.20~
, ;;;8.0
;;;3.001-
. t-
.t-
' 1 ·.. 1- .. ,,,,,,,,,,,,,,;,,,,·,,,,;,,,,,,',,;;;,i:;:;,,;,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,J,,,,,,,,1
:;:::::::::;:;:;:;:;:;:;:::::::::::::::::::::
Single-run access ladder Cii) Stepped access ladder Fixed access @) Access ladder with transfer @) Emergency ladder
ladder platforms

125
 opening in floor 6.20 m ESCALATORS
For Shops and Offices

~opening
1ftl step width

I emergency stop button

FFL

Escalators 1.1
possible provision for drain
Moving
Walkways -r"65 r
,--------1

J
32 emergency stop button
BS EN 115 1\'''"'" .... ., ............ .
BS 7801 opening
DIN EN 115 1!!::· ~I
ZH 1/484
foundation
32 L: .:J
drawing 3oll-Jao
0 Section through escalator I foundation plan 0 Width of steps

transportation capacity step width 800 1000 In the UK, construction and operation of escalators is regulated by BS
EN 115: 'Safety rules for the construction and installation of escalators
Q = 3600 x T
G XV
x f (people/h) A 8Q-820 1005-1020
and passenger conveyors'. In Germany, construction and operation
where B 1320-1420 1570-1620
Gp =people per step (1, 1.5, 2) of escalators follow the 'Guidelines for escalators and moving
V= conveyor speed (mls)
c 1480 1680
walkways', ZHI/484, issued by the Association of Commercial
l=tread (m) capacity/h 7000-8000 8000-10000 Accident Insurers. (The German situation is described below.)
f= 0.5-0.8 escalator utilisation factor people people

0 General calculation formula for C) Dimensions and capacities of Escalators are utilised for the continuous transport of large
transport capacity escalators with 30" and 35" (27"; numbers of people (they do not count as stairs for the purposes of
18") pttch. Step width --> f) building regulations) and, for example in department stores, have
a pitch of 30 or 35°. The 35° escalator is more economical because
it requires less space. For travel heights E:;6 m, the 30° escalator is
speed travel time for one with a width sufficient for required . The transportation capacity is about the same for both
person 1 person 2 people next to pitches. When installed as part of transport facilities, a pitch of
each other
27-28° should be used if possible. The pitch is derived from a
0.5 m/sec -18 sec 4000 8000
gradient relationship of 16 x 30 em, a comfortable size for a step.
0.65 m/sec -14 sec 5000 1000
people/h transported
For the width of steps, there is a worldwide standard of 60 em
e Capacity data (I person without hand luggage, no longer permissible in Europe),
80 em (1-2 people) and 100 em (2 people) ~ 8 - 0. With a
I 00 em step width, people carrying loads have sufficient room for
movement. Provide sufficient queuing room at the bottom and top
~~~~~~~~~~4
~~~~~~~~~~7--~ of the escalator, E:;2.50 m deep.
...-"""' I
rr I
I
rr
In department stores, offices and administration buildings, trade
--- I
I
fair halls and airports, escalator speed is normally no higher than

~
0.5 m/s. In underground railway stations and public transport
facilities, 0.65 m/s is preferred.

The average distribution of upward traffic in department stores is:

fixed stairs 2%, passenger lifts 8%, escalators 90%. Approx. three
c--c--------, I]~
,_,., 111111111111 H
L____________________ J
I quarters of downward traffic uses the escalators. Although the
average shopping area for each escalator is 1500 m2 at present,
e Side guard detail f) Single flights parallel this should be lowered to an optimum of 500-700 m2 •

Escalators in transport facilities. According to Bostrab

('Regulations on the construction and operation of trams'), there
are stringent requirements (function, construction, safety) for
pitches 27, 18 and 30°. Dimensions and capacities~ 0- f), 0

Length on plan ~ 0
For 30° pitch= 1.732 x storey height
For 35° pitch = 1.428 x storey height

Example: storey height 4.50 m and 30° pitch (35° is sometimes not
[ =rrJJ::WH±f±FB
111111111111 H
J permissible abroad), length on plan: 1.732 x 4.5 =7.794. With the level
access and exit areas, this gives a length of approx. 9 m, therefore
e Single flights end-to-end C) Double flights crossing about 20 people can stand on the escalator at the same time.

126
 MOVING WALKWAYS

L---------------1
~

ESCALATORS
MOVING
f) 0

-
i1;650 Cross-section --> WALKWAYS
~
BS EN 115

IE~-£ ·3-·t--·-· -3-

type 80 100 BS 7801

foundation drawing
--
11
Tca1o

±310
A
B
c
800
1420
1500
1000
1620
1700
DIN EN 115

0 Section through moving walkway with foundation plan 0 Dimensions --> 0- 0

• MOVING WALKWAYS FOR SHOPS AND OFFICES

~~'""'"~"'"
(ACCORDING TO THE GUIDELINES FOR ESCALATORS
AND MOVING WALKWAYS)
Bostrab guidelines, DIN EN 115
one way

9 One person with shopping trolley

Moving walkways, also called conveyors or travelators, are a
means of transporting pedestrians on the level or at a slight
80 em wide
gradient. The advantage of a moving walkway is that it can also
carry prams, wheelchairs, shopping trolleys, bicycles and bulky
luggage with little danger. At the design stage, the expected traffic
double
must be established carefully, so that the equipment can provide
optimal capacity. The transport capacity depends on the clear

e Two people, 1 m wide

width, travel speed and occupation density.
Capacities of 6000-12000 pers/h are possible. Maximum gradient
The hourly capacity of a moving of moving walkways is 12o = 21%. Normal travel speeds are 0.5-
walkway is calculated according
scissors arrangement
to the formula:
0.6 m/s horizontal; installations with gradients up to 4° are slightly
faster at 0.75 m/s. Short moving walkways are about 30 m long.
K X WX V X 3600
Q pers./h Long moving walkways can be built up to a length of 250 m. To
0.25
where enable entry and access at the right time, it is good to design a
crossover arrangement w =transportation width (m) number of short moving walkways.
v =velocity (m/s) The advantage of two-directional moving walkways is that the
K = load factor horizontal return route of the walking surface, -" 0- 4I!), requires a lower
the load factor varies between 0.5 and
0.9 (average 0. 7) according to the use.
construction height of 180 mm, in contrast to -'t 0 - 0. This makes
converging arrangement
The 0.25 in the denominator represents two-way walkways more suitable for installation in existing buildings.
8 Arrangement 10f moving walkways a step area of 0.25 m 2/person.
Values for the cotangent of the moving walkway gradient:
formula= cot x B x transport height
gradient in o 1oo 11 o 12°
cot B 5.6713 5.1446 4.7046
e.g. transport height 5 m, gradient 12°
with cleated belt average length= 4.7046 x 5 rn =(rounded) 23.52 rn
f) Section through moving walkway with rubber conveyor belt with cleated belt

gradient 10° 11° 12°

rubber conveyor belt with cleated belt d S X 5.6713 + 15480 Sx5.1446+14100 S X 4.7046 + 12950

e Plan-->0
g
i
6400
H x 5.6713 + 3340
5900
Hx5.1145+3150
5450
H x 4.7046 + 2990

4D Moving walkway with transition curve at top --> 0

horizontal moving with with conveyor two-way
Cl) Diagrammatical section of a two-way moving walkway --> 4I!) walkway cleated belt belt (rubber belt) moving walkway
usable width SW 800 + 1000 750 + 950 2x800+2x 1000
tensioning pulley drive
external width B 1370 + 1570 1370 + 1570 3700 +4200
construction flat construction e:;4o gradient
length of a section 12-16m -10m
support spacing according to structural requirements
possible practical 225m E:;300 m
length L
transport capacity 40 m/min 11000 people/h

([!) Plan of a two-way moving walkway with horizontal turnaround --> 0 @) Dimensions and capacities of horizontal moving walkways --> 0 -9

127
 LIFTS
Principles

For all buildings, lifts should

normally be positioned at the
source of traffic flow. Provide
sufficient space for waiting and
queuing --+ p. 130 which must
not infringe on stairs. Carefully
plan the connection to the traffic
routes. There are two different
LIFTS drive systems for lifts:
Principles I. Traction sheave drive (for
Control Drive at top 2:1 Top 1:1 Top adjacent 1.1 Bottom adjacent 1 :1
Residential cable lifts)--+ 0
buildings 0 Traction lifts 2. Hydraulic lifts --+ f) - 0
Public buildings
Small goods lifts
Hydraulic lifts Traction lifts: ideally have their
Special lifts drives above the shaft. The
BS EN 81 empty weight of the car and half
BS ISO 4190 the live load are balanced by the
DD CEN/TS 81
DIN EN 81 counterweight. Placing the drive
DIN 15306 at the top or at the bottom next
DIN 15309
to the shaft makes necessary
(In the US additional pulleys, resulting in
lifts are called
elevators.)
higher operating costs. The
D machinery and control system
can be accommodated in a
separate machine room or, in the
Direct drive Direct central Direct adjacent Indirect adjacent case of lifts without a machine
central 1-stage 1-stage telescopic 1-stage 2:1 room, placed in the shaft --+
f) Hydraulic lifts p. 134.

With hydraulic lifts, a push

cylinder is mostly used --+ f) -
0. The lifting cylinder can be
arranged directly or indirectly.
The arrangement of a direct
cylinder inside a protective
tube under the ground is no
longer suitable because of the
requirements for the protection
A B c D of groundwater. The use of a
Push piston Pull piston Pull piston Indirect pull piston pull cylinder --+ 0 B-D can be
hanging 2:1 hanging 1:1 indirect 2:1 with additional weight appropriate in some cases. A
pull cylinder in its basic form
C) Hydraulic lifts, special versions --;0 -f) balances a part of the weight
of the car. This has even more
effect with additional weights --+
0 D, because the pump motor
runs only when the load is lifted
by the cylinder, while downward

telescopic sliding
door
centrally opening
sliding door: shaft
width = 2 x clear
~~~~
six-part telescopic sliding
travel is enabled simply by
opening the valve, which requires
no energy and almost halves the
opening to one side: passage width + 20 em four-part telescopic door: suitable for cars consumption.
shaft width = 1.5 x "'1.80 m suitable for sliding door: shaft with wide openings e.g. in
clear passage width cars, which should be width depends on the hospitals and commercial
+27 em "'1.60 m emptied quickly type of drive buildings

C) Relationship of door-opening type to shaft width

1-ao-1
l-1.10-l
l--90-l
f-1.10--l
[], Hi i-B0-1
l-1.1 0 -1
,_
lflL]m
f--
1- 80-j
l--1.10-j
Shaft
f-S0-1
l-1.10-j
-t+- Shaft --1
I-BO-{
l--1.10-l
1-BO-j
l--1.10-j
1-- Shaft -it- Shaft --It- Shaft -I
f-80-j
l-1.10-j
f-- Shaft -i 1--Shaft -i 1-- Shaft -j width 14 width width 12 width 12 width
width 1.60 width 1.67 width 1.60 1.60 1.60 1.60 1.60 1.60
0 Plans of lifts --; Wheelchair-suitable Through-loading Double Triple
p.130ff.

128
 LIFTS
Control Equipment

Single-button collective control

0 Disability-friendly control panel at a height of 85-100 em above floor level or car floor
level in the central area of the lift car--> f). Ideally horizontal panels with buttons
This control system saves calls and destination
instructions, but travels according to a car call to the
about 3 x 3 em, with contrasting and raised labelling and acoustic signals
highest or lowest destination. Landing calls, however,
are taken into account only during downward travel, in
order to transport users to the main stop. This simple
form of control is mainly suitable for buildings with low lift
frequency and one main stop, like residential buildings or LIFTS
multi-storey car parks. Principles
Control
Residential
Two-button collective control buildings
This control system, dependent on direction and landing Public buildings
Small goods lifts
calls, can also give the intended direction. The lift primarily Hydraulic lifts
serves car calls, but stops in order to collect further Special lifts

passengers in the travel direction. Two-button collective BS EN 81

control systems are particularly suitable where there is DO CEN/TS 81
BS ISO 4190
frequent traffic at intermediate storeys, as in department DIN 15306
stores and office buildings. When there is a group of lifts, DIN 15309

f) Disability-friendly control panel e Sensible transport of

passengers with a group of
the calls and destination instructions of all lifts can be
taken into account.
see also: Lifts in
high-rise
buildings p. 246
three lifts with destination
selection control Destination floor control system
With a destination floor control system, the user has
to indicate the intended destination at a terminal, and
is then allotted a lift by the control system. The car will
normally have no selection buttons. For groups of lifts,
a destination floor control system enables significant
optimisation of the transport capacity. The user does not
have to differentiate between express and local lifts, and
not all lift access points have to be visible from the waiting
Time to reach the destination Time to reach the destination area. Special lifts, like double-decker and multi-car lifts,
CD 5 shafts with conventional control CD 4 shafts with conventional control can be integrated into groups of lifts. This control system
@ 5 shafts with destination selection control @ 2 shafts with twin lifts is suitable above all for high-rise buildings and those
@ 4 shafts with twin lifts @ 2 shafts with double-decker cars where there are different security levels and passenger
0 Efficiency of multi-car lifts for the same number Efficiency of multi-car lifts
selection is required, because the control system can
also provide access control through identification (card
of shafts with a reduced number
of shafts reader, PIN code, etc.), for example among hotel guests,
personal areas and areas let to third parties -7 e.

Double-decker lifts
Two cars are fixed one above the other and thus always
serve different floors. This increases the transport capacity,
particularly of express lifts, for the same shaft size. The
access level and the sky lobby have to be constructed
at two levels. If individual floors are to be visited, then
escalators can be provided at the access level to separate
the flow of users into odd and even numbered storey
destinations. Double-decker lifts are suitable for transport
to panorama and restaurant levels, or as express lifts to a
sky lobby in very high buildings -7 e.

Multi-car lifts
Two or more lifts travel - each equipped with their
own traction sheave drive and counterweight - above
and below each other in the same guide rails -7 f). A
destination selection control system records the intended
direction and destination of the user before they enter the
lift, and it then assigns the call to one of the cars and
ensures that the two cars do not obstruct each other -->
e. This system can achieve 30% more transport capacity
for the same number of shafts. Because the cars cannot
overtake in one shaft, travel from the lowest to the highest
stop is not possible without changing cars. Therefore,
Double-decker cars with a mechanism to Multi-car system: two multi-car systems should have at least one conventional
compensate for different storey heights cars in one shaft (Thyssen
Krupp TWIN system)
express lift -7e- 0.

129
 LIFTS
A Passenger Lifts for Residential Buildings

LUJI
I >-800--; !
I r------1100--l !
Vertical transport in newbuild multi-storey buildings is mostly provided
by lifts. The guidelines given here are based on German standards.
t-SB 1600--1 In the UK, lift installation is covered by BS 5655, which includes
I I
I I recommendations from CEN and ISO.
I--C2---;

0 Plan of lift shaft---> 0 f) Waiting area in front of lift The architect normally appoints a specialist engineer for the design of
lifts. In larger multi-storey buildings, it is usual to locate the lifts at a
LIFTS central pedestrian circulation point. Goods lifts should be arranged with
Principles 1----- R ----;
visible separation from passenger lifts, though their design should take
Control
Residential into account that they can also be used by passengers at peak times.
buildings
Public buildings
Small goods lifts
The following load capacities are laid down for passenger lifts in
Hydraulic lifts residential buildings:
Special lifts
400 kg (small lift) for passengers, who may be carrying loads
BS EN 81
. BS 5655 630 kg (medium lift) for passengers with prams or wheelchairs
DIN EN 81 1000 kg (large lift) suitable for the transport of stretchers,
DIN 15306
DIN 15309 coffins, furniture and wheelchairs ~ 0
access in this area The waiting area (lobby) in front of the lift shaft must be laid out and
0 Machine room e Machine room: set of lifts designed so that:
- lift users entering and leaving the lift do not obstruct each other more
than necessary, even if carrying luggage
- the largest items to be transported by the lift (e.g. prams, wheelchairs,
stretchers, coffins, furniture) can be loaded and unloaded without risk
of injury to people or damage to the building or the lift, and causing
T
0
,.;

[fl]J .......
the least possible obstruction to other users.
Waiting area in front of a single lift:
- minimum usable depth between shaft door wall and opposing wall,
measured in the direction of the depth of the car, should equal the
car depth ~ f).

I - minimum usable area should equal the product of lift car depth and
shaft width.
Waiting area in front of adjacent lifts:

lr I - minimum usable depth between shaft door wall and opposing wall,
measured in the direction of the depth of the car, should equal the
depth of the deepest car.

1 ~ I I

[ill ·[~
ffi load
capacity Kg 400 630 1000
I 0.6311.00 1.60 0.63 1.00 1.60 2.50 0.63 1.0011.60 2.50
~ .................\ ~=:T
nominal ~m/s
speed
shaft min. shaft width c mm
1600 + 1800 __, 0
a.
.····· min. shaft depth d mm 1600 2100 2600
J. min. pit depth p mm 140011500 1700 1400 1500 1700 2800 14oo 1 15oo 111oo 28oo
min. shaft head mm 3700 13800 4000 3700 3800 4000 5000 3700 3800 14000 5000
height q
door clear shaft door mm 800; min. 900

9 Shaft and machine room e Shaft for hydraulic lift

width c,
clear shaft door
height s2
mm 2000

machine min. area of m2 8 10 10 12 14 12 14 15

room machinery
min. width of mm 2400 2400 2700 2700 3000 2700 2700 3000
machinery r
min. depth of s 3200 3200 3700 3700 3700 4208 4200 4200
machinery s mm
min. height of mm 2000 2200 2000 2200 2600 2000 2200 2600
machinery h
car clear car width a mm 1100
<.D 1 x400kg
® 1x630kg
i.Om/s
1.0m/s
clear car depth b mm 950 1400 2100 I
1.0mls
clear car height k mm 2200
® 1x1DOOkg
@) 1x400kg+1x1oookg 1.0m/s clear car access mm 800; min. 900
1.0m/s
® 1x630kg+1X1000kg i.Ornls width c2
® 1x630kg+1x1000kg 1.6m/s
(f) 2x630kg+1 x1000kg 1.6m/s clear car access mm 2000
@ 2X1000kg 2.5rnfs heightf2
® 3x1000kg 2.5rnfs
permissible no. 5 8 13
passengers
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 I
f) Requirements for transport in normal residential buildings e Structural, car and door dimensions---> 0 -8

130
 1400
LIFTS
Passenger Lifts for Offices, Banks,
Hotels, Hospitals

The building and its function dictate the basic type of lifts which
need to be provided. They serve as a means of vertical transport

[§11{~ 1 2400 I
for passengers and patients. Lifts are mechanical installations
which are required to have a long service life (anything from 25
to 40 years). They should therefore be planned in such a way that
even after 10 years they are still capable of meeting increased
demand. Alterations to installations that have been badly or too
cheaply planned can be expensive or even completely impossible. LIFTS
0 Section of lift shaft f) Bed lift During the planning stage the likely usage should be closely Principles
Control
A examined. Lift sets normally form part of the main stairwell. Residential
buildings
,•••••••,••:::••:,•::••:ouoouHo0o Analysis of use: types and definitions Public buildings

~~ ll
Turnaround time is a calculated value indicating the time which a Small goods lifts

II
"1 lift requires to complete a cycle with a given type of traffic.
Average waiting time is the time between the button being pressed
Hydraulic lifts
Special lilts

=~

ll
II BS EN 81

~~J~t: l
and the arrival of the lift car:
DIN EN 81
DIN 15306
cycle time (s) DIN 15309
r---, number of lifts/set
I
... ___ .J I

L:: _____ ~ Transportation capacity is the maximum achievable carrying

access to power lift capacity (in passengers) within a five minute (300 s) period:
motor room ln this area

8 Machine room 0 Common machine room for set = 300 (s) x car load (passengers)
of lifts
cycle time (s) x no. of lifts

Transportation capacity expressed as per cent:

= 100 x transportation capacity

no. occupants in building
load capacity kg BOO 1000 1250 1600
nominal speed m/s 0.63 1.0 1.6 2.5 0.63 1.0 1.6 2.5 0.63 1.0 1.6 2.5
min. shaft width c 1900 2400 (2600) 2600
min. shaft depth d 2300 2300 (2600) 2600
min. shaft pit depth p 1400 1500 1700 2800 1400 1700 2800 1400 1900 2800
min. shaft head q 3800 14000 5000 4200 15200 4400 15400
height
suitable for 1600kg shaft door width c 800; min. 900 1100 1100
the disabled shaft door height f 2000 2100 2100

finished
min. area of machine
room
m' 15 18 20 25
floor level min. width of r 2500 2800 3200 3200
FFL
machine room
................
~
~~ min. depth of s 3700 4900 4900 5500
machine room

::[....
min. height of h 2200 2800 2400 12800 2800
FFL t-; "k ..L . . . . .- ... machine room
....................

i{dA
car width a 1350 1500 1950

. ~. . .'t.8TI
car depth b 1400 1400 1750
car height k 2200 2300 2300

I
car door width e 800; min. 900 1100 1100
car door height f 2000 2100 2100
permissible no. 10 13 (16) 21
I passengers

~~ e Passenger lifts are preferable for more than residential buildings (offices, banks,

·1 . . . . . . . . r·· u~~
hotels); lifts enable use with wheelchair
load capacity
nominal speed
kg
m/s 0.63
1600
1.0 1.6 2.5 0.63
2000 2500
1.o 1 1.6 1 2.5 1o.63l 1.o 1.6 2.5
0 Shaft for single lift 0 Overview of lifts --t 8- 0 min. shaft width
min. shaft depth
c
d 3000
2400
3300
2700

min. shaft pit depth p 1BOOl1700I1900 2800 1600 1700 1900 2800 1800 1900 2100 3000
min. shaft head height q 4400 5400 4400 5400 4800 15600
shaft door width c, 1300 1300 (1400)
shaft door height f 2100
min. area of machine m' 26 27 29
room
min. width of machine r 3200
I I 3500
room
min. depth of machine s 5500
I
5800
room
min. height of machine h
I 2800
room
car width a 1400 1500 1800
car depth b 2400 2700
car height k 2300
car door width e,' 1300 1300 (1400)
® 2 ll 1000 ltg 2.5 mit
(}) 3M 1000kg 2,5rNS car door height t, 2100
permissible 21 26 33

0 100 200 300 400 500 800

no.passengers I I
Transport capacity requirements for comfortable residential buildings with and
Dimensions in mm --) 0 -0
without office floors Q Structural dimensions for bed lifts --7 0 -0

131
 LIFTS

mmmH~
Small Goods Lifts

Small goods lifts (also called dumb

CW·DW I cw.oW I 1 CW-DW I waiters): payload ~300 kg; car
sw I sw 1
sw floor area ~1.0 m 2 ; intended for
transporting light goods, documents,
0 Small goods lift with f) With doors both 0 Corner doors
food etc.; not for use by passengers.
door only on one side sides (pass-through)
The shaft framework is normally
.... .1.. ... .1. .... J. made of steel sections set in the
LIFTS shaft pit or on the floor, and clad on
Principles all sides by non-flammable building
Control
Residential materials. ~ 0 - Q. Calculation of
buildings the transport capacity of goods lifts
Public buildings ~ 0. The following formula is used
Small goods ~~~

~~:__
lifts to estimate the time, in seconds, of
Hydraulic lifts one transport cycle:
Special lifts
BS EN 81
DIN EN 81
I
' I . I shaft
DIN 15306 I I shaft
DIN 15309 I I I pit I 1 l pit
L----.. _L _____ j ~~ -~~1----J
8 Small goods lift with floor- 9 Small goods lift with floor- 0 Small goods lift with parapet and 2 =constant factor for round trip
h = height of the lift, v = operating
level sliding doors level hinged door vertical sliding door
Loading arrangement One side access and loading from both sides Corner access and corner access speed (m/s), Lr = loading and
with loadinQ from both sides unloading time (s), H = number of
payload Q kg 100 300 100
stops
speed vm/s 0.45 0.3 0.45
car width =door width W=DW 400 500 600 700 800 800 800 500 600 700 800 800 t 1 = time for acceleration and
car depth CD 400 500 600 700 800 1000 1000 500 600 700 800 1000 deceleration (s)
car height= door height CH=DH 800 1200 1200 800 1200
t 2 = time for closing and opening the
door width of the corner DW - - - - - - 350 450 550 650 850
doors shaft doors: single doors 6 s, double
shaft width sw 720 820 920 1020 1120 1120 820 920 1020 1120 1120 doors 10 s, vertical sliding doors in
shaft depth SD 5BO 6BO 7BO BBO 9BO 11BO 1180 6BO 7BO 880 9BO 11BO
small goods lifts about 3 s.
shaft head height min. SHH 1990 2590 2590 2145 2745
machine room door width 500 500 600 700 BOO BOO 800 500 600 700 800 800
machine room door height 600 600 The transportation capacity C can
min. distance between 1.) 1930 2730 2730 1930 2730
be calculated from the time for one
loading points
min. distance between 2.) 700 450 700 transport cycle, T, according to the
loading points formula:
parapet height min., B 600 800 800 600 BOO
lowest stop only
c = _ _ _6:.. .:0_ __
f) Structural dimensions of time for a cycle (s)
small goods lifts __, 0 - e
60 . I .
=-= ... Journeys mm.
T

nrn+I
IUl
___
Structural requirements:
machine room must be lockable,
have sufficient illumination and be
of a size to prevent accidents. Area
for the machinery must be G1.8 m
The

high. Food lifts in hospitals: lift shafts

must have washable smooth internal
Goods lift with loading from 0
Goods lift with loading only one walls. External press-button control
must be provided for calling and
both sides (pass-through doors) side, and machine room
load capacity kg 630 1000 1600 2000 2500 3200 despatching the lift to/from each
nominal speed m/s <-- 0.40 -- 0.63 -- 1.00 __, stopping point.
car dimensions mm
cw 1100 1300 1500 1500 1800 2000
CD 1570 1870 2470 2870 2B70 3070 Goods lifts
CH 2200 2200 2200 2200 2200 2200 Goods lifts are those intended
door dimensions mm
a) to transport goods or
DW 1100 1300 1500 1500 1BOO 2000
DH 2200 2200 2200 2200 2200 2200 b) passengers who are employed by
shaft dimensions mm the operator of the lift.
sw 1BOO 2000 2200 2300 2600 2900
SD 1700 2000 2600 3000 3000 3200
SPH 0.4 and. 0.63 m/s 1200 1300 1300 1300 1300 1400 Stopping precision
1.0 m/s 1300 1300 1600 1600 1800 1900 Goods lifts without travel delay ± 20-
SHH 0.4 and 0.63 m/s 3700 3800 3900 4000 4100 4200 40mm
1.0 m/s 3BOO 3900 4200 4200 4400 4400 so
PHH Passenger and goods lifts with travel
1900 1900 1900 2100 1900 1900
$ Cross-section delay ± 1 0-30 mm
4I!) Structural dimensions of traction sheave goods lifts --> 0 -0 -->0-0 Speed: 0.25-0.4 up to 0.63-1.0 m/s.

132
 : :l
2000
LIFTS
. :::· ···::: Hydraulic Lifts

111 ~J
. ::: 8 J ·:·
7kN Xlifting :.:,; . ~J~~ ~.:;~. 5J Hydraulic lifts meet the demand
for transporting heavy loads
ring above •:

~1-~.---J
~~-- m~W
economically up and down shorter
lift heights and are best used for
~
rr'"· opening yv
~I SW I
up to 12 m lift height. The machine
I sw I 2000 room can be located remotely
0 Shaftplan f) Shaft plan with machine room for from the shaft itself.
hydraulic lift LIFTS
Standardised direct-acting push Principles
Control
piston lifts can be used to lift Residential
payloads of as much as 20 t up buildings
to a max. height of 17 m -> 0 Public buildings
Small goods lifts
10 )= '00
- 0, while indirect-acting push Hydraulic lifts
9000 Special lifts
_g:; )= H+ttOOmr piston lifts in standard operation

lillllmll"
8000 can lift max. 7 t to a max. 34 m. BS EN 81
:!: @i(l); I= ::;:;: The operating speed of hydraulic BS 5655-10
7000 -~ ill g )= l+ : ., BS 8486-2
lifts is between 0.2 and 0.8 m/s PAS 32-2
:
6000 (considerably slower than traction DIN EN 81
I ill I= mn sheave lifts!). A roof-mounted DIN 15306
5000 D= DIN 15309
machine room is not required.

Several variations in hydraulics

can be found-> 0- 0. The most
commonly used is the centrally
mounted ram -> 0 - 0. This
requires a bored hole. The ram
2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 H retraction control, regardless of
height of lift lml load, must be kept within ± 3 mm.
Diagram to determine the shaft head height SHH; shaft pit depth SPD; cylinder
shaft depth CSD; cylinders shaft diameter 0 Height clearance of the lift doors is
Vertical section of shaft min. 50-100 mm greater than for
other doors, so that a completely
Payload Q;< 5000 kg Q * 10000 kq
shaft width sw - CW+500 CW+550 level entry into the lift car is obtained.
shaft depth so = CD+ 150 loading from one side Double swing doors, or hinged
CD+ 100 loading from both sides
sliding doors, can be fitted - either
machine room dimensions approx. width = 2000 2200
(other locations of the machine room at depth = 2600 2800 hand-operated or fully automatic,
up to max. 5 m distance from the shaft are with a central or side opening.
possible, greater distance on request)
height - 2200 2700

0 Technical data--> 0 -0 load capacity kg 1600 2000 2500 3200

speed m/s 0.15 0.18 0.24 0.20
load capacity kg 630 1000 1600 0.24 0.30 0.38 0.30
•,:•oooonno••~•uo speed m/s 0.30 0.18 0.23 lift height max. m 6.0 7.0 7.0 7.0
0.47 0.28 0.39 car w 1500 1500 1800 2000
lift height max. m 6.0 7.0 7.0 dimensions mm 0 2200 2700 2700 3500
car dimensions mm w 1100 1300 1500
H 2200 2200 2200 2200
D 1500 1700 2200
door w 1500 1500 1800 2000
H 2200 2200 2200
dimensions mm H 2200 2200 2200 2200
door dimensions mm w 1100 1300 1500
H 2200 2200 2200
shaft w 2200 2200 2600 2800
shaft dimensions mm w 1650 1900 2150
D 1600 1800 2300 l'llllll::ll dimensions mm 0 2300 2800 2800 3600
'Iiiii
lit ill SPH min. 1200 1400 1600
ti ,,1111,: d SPHmin. 1300 1300 1300 1300
ti~_JII iJjj IIL!Jt.!
1L--~ __ ..J
I SHHmin. 3450 3450 3450 3450
L~--~Jj SHH min. 3200 3200 3200

0 Rucksack arrangement 1:1 dimensions-> 0 f) Tandem arrangement 1:1 dimensions -> f)

load capacity kg 1600 2000 2500 3000
load capacity kg 630 1000 1600 speed mis 0.23 0.19 0.25 0.21
speed m/s 0.28 0.30 0.24 0.39 0.32 0.39 0.31
0.46 0.50 0.42 0.61 0.50 0.64 0.51
0.78 0.80 0.62 lift height max. m 13.0 14.0 16.0 18.0
lift height max. m 13.0 16.0 18.0 car w 1500 1500 1800 2000
car w 1100 1300 1500 dimensions mm 0 2200 2700 2700 3500
dimensions mm 0 1500 1900 2200
H 2200 2200 2200 2200
H 2200 2200 2200
door w 1500 1500 1800 2000
door w 1100 1300 1500
dimensions mm H 2200 2200 2200 2200
dimensions mm H 2200 2200 2200
shaft w 2300 2300 2600 2900
shaft w 1650 1900 2150
2000 2300 dimensions mm 0 2300 2800 2800 3600
dimensions mm 0 1600
SPH min. 1200 1400 1600 SPH min. 1300 1300 1300 1300
SHH 3200 3200 3200 SPP 3400 3550 3650 3650

fl) Rucksack arrangement 2:1 dimensions-> 0 Cl) Tandem arrangement 2:1 dimensions -> 0

133
 LIFTS
- Special Lifts
I I

Balustrade
Glazed lifts
Glazed lifts offer a view and improve the users' feeling of safety.
1st floor They can be constructed either with glazed shafts (observing
fire resistance requirements) or as shaftless lifts (panoramic
lifts) --7 0. These can only be installed near buildings in which,
I I to prevent the spread of fire, no lift shafts are permitted. This
makes the inclusion of panoramic lifts into traffic calculations
LIFTS difficult. The glazing must prevent the users touching moving
Principles parts with the hand or with objects held in the hand. Glazed lifts
Control
Residential
are non-standard constructions and require a special prototype
buildings
_J.---'---'-.LL.LL-'----'- Ground floor
approval.
Public buildings
Small goods lifts Glazing
Hydraulic lifts Goods and underfloor lifts (without passenger transport)
;:;:;::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::·;1:(:::::::::::::;:::
Special lifts

tDJ
Lifts only intended for loads like rubbish bins or goods deliveries
BS EN 81 can be installed inside a building or in front of it --7 f). Passenger
DIN EN 81 transport is not permissible with this type of lift. A machine room
DIN 15306
DIN 15309 is not normally necessary.

Ground floor Underfloor lifts are controlled from the uppermost station. The
0 Contact with moving parts must be prevented in glazed lifts: safety barrier cover of the lift must be in the field of view of the operator.
around shaft doors min. up to 3.5 m high and on the other sides min. 2.5 m,
with the distance to moving parts at least 0.5 m; with greater distances, the
Lifts with reduced shaft dimensions
height can be reduced.
In refurbishment projects, it is often a major inconvenience to
construct the parts of the shaft above and below the working
range. For such projects, there are special lifts, which require
less pit depth (min. approx. 80 mm) and shaft head heights (min.
I II ll approx. 2500 mm above the highest stop) --7 8 - 0. When lifts
are installed without machine rooms, special requirements have
to be considered for the shaft (ventilation, possible condensation
on the ceiling and fire protection measures). These requirements
can be taken from the information provided by the particular
manufacturer, because such lifts have to undergo a special
prototype approval.

Such special constructions also include lifts for disabled

people --7 0, which may be used only by the specified group.
Dead man's controls and similar measures make simple, space-
saving installations without pit and car doors permissible. Home
stairlifts enable those with impaired mobility to move easily
between floors (on straight or curved stairways) and across
landings. The requirements for such installations are provided
in BS 5776.

f) Load and goods lifts. Because passengers are not allowed to travel, the car
does not require doors. This results in a good relationship between shaft cross-
section and usable car area.

r
;;;; 2.00+

l
i
3.65-3.85
2.45

J
i ········
1m .;y~·"'
~ 6;1.40 0 Special construction without
machine room and with
0 Lift for disabled people
These lifts are approved solely
C) Traction lift with machine room G Special construction without reduced pit depth for use by those with impaired
and pit machine room mobility.

134
 BASICS
Design Basics

06 Living in houses, originally the spatial realisation of basic

human needs, has developed in modern society into a complex
interaction of a multitude of influences subject to the most varied
requirements and individual quality standards.

The lifestyle, principles and pretensions of the (potential)

00
inhabitants come up against building regulations, political
12
subsidy ideas and their consequences for town planning and
also (underlying ideological) architectural predispositions about
location, type of building, development and ground plan.
BASICS
Historical development Design basics
In the course of industrialisation and the movement of House-building
policy
18 population to urban areas, residential building developed into
0 Functional diagram dependent on dally routines (UN Studio --> refs)
a central task of the construction industry in the 19th century,
and on account of the world wars this was still the case during
the last century.

The planning preoccupations with privacy and prestige, which

II Living room (Bed) room I L(Bed) room J I (Bed) room I I (Bed) room I originated in the feudal system and still apply as models and
/ Workroom~ (Bed) room (Bed) room Guest room I cliches, have entered the awareness of a wide public. Prosperous
urban society expressed this by building villas and impressive
I (Bed) room J
I J mansions. In parallel, much Victorian accommodation was built as
dense blocks in rental districts as a result of the massive (working

·~
Q;
~ ~ Guest bathroom class) housing shortage and with the aim of maximising land use
~
t> :2
B
~ Single-roan
flat
1- s0 .c
~
e
.c and profit. ·
s &iH
Wind lobby) Bathroom J
The architects of the modernist movement (and their successors)
jJ
,-----

w~~~
Living room/Kitchen Living room } ,----- ,----- c developed opposing concepts to those of the 'stone' city. They
0
~ ~ § -~g "iii E investigated the individual home, its lighting and orientation --+
Jl Box room J- c
~
~
0
~ --{ Conservatory }- ::J
.0 ~0
._
~e e, the optimal (minimum) room size and functional layout--+ f)
~
1!

w ~ ~ and also rational and standardised methods of construction. The

'--
j( Uttllty area } ~ \_\_

Garden
results ranged from ambitious private houses to new 'fresh from
Jl Larder )- ' - ) the drawing board' housing developments.

Traditional spatial layout of room division 'from the single-room flat to the The present day: community and individual
palace'. Read backwards, a programme for the spatial expression of uses and
flexible uses of living space
Modern housing requires the separation in space and time of
individual and community interests within the house as well as
meeting the demand for privacy and publicity (or anonymity) in the
urban context--+ 0.

The increasing relaxation of traditional family lifestyles and, as a

main occupation time result of the information age, the approaching end of the separation
room type
sunlight desirable of housing and workplace mean that the classic functional and
utilitarian procedures inside houses --+ f) have to be re-examined.
The established terms like living room or children's room often
have little validity.
living room mid-day to evening
The place of residence is understood to be a private space with
controlled and graduated access from the outside world. The

-.--
classic common and individual areas within a house are becoming

dining corner/room morning to evening .~ less significant in terms of area, and the 'multi-purpose room'
(living-working room, shared living space as in a flat etc.), which
occurs in both private and public housing, is developing into a
significant room type.

~ Room division and functional neutrality

children's room mid-day to evening

w The consequence of the individualisation of lifestyles could be

customised layouts with differentiated and often luxurious room
division, but it could also be a functionally neutral division of
space with qualitatively similar rooms suitable for flexible use by
night families, flat sharers, 'multi-generation living' groups or living-and-
bedroom
early sunshine is desirable working models.
These considerations result in increased significance for the
C) Periods of occupation and desirable sunlight in residential rooms neutrality of the developing decor.

135
 BASICS
House-building Policy

The task of a century Housing area regulation

Among the changes in society caused by industrialisation, The 'Regulation for the calculation of the housing area' of
since the middle of the 19th century house building has 25/11/2003 is used to work out the area of houses and flats for
developed into a central activity of the construction industry. the purpose of the Law to Subsidise House Building. The area of
Housing shortage and mass poverty became a decisive political a house or flat includes the floor area of all rooms which belong
dimension, which still continued into the 20th century due to exclusively to the house or, in the case of a residential home the
the World Wars. areas intended for the sole use of the owner --1 f).

The regulation and encouragement of house building is The floor area of a room is determined from the clearance space
therefore an essential aspect of national construction policy. between building components and starts from the face of the cladding
Political instruments have been developed in the form of of the building component --1 0. The floor area is measured in the
BASICS completed room, or can be calculated from a suitable construction
planning laws and building regulations --1 p. 56, intended to
Design basics
set minimum standards to protect privacy, avoid danger and drawing. Floor areas are calculated according to --1 0.
House-building
policy protect health.
Living area includes: Living area does not include:
Laws to subsidise housing construction and a repeatedly
all rooms which belong solely to subsidiary rooms (cellars, store rooms,
modified system of financial grants and tax exemptions have
the house, or are intended for the cellar replacement rooms, wash houses,
been set up to support private investment in rented and owner- sole use of the occupants, including attic rooms, drying rooms, heating
occupied housing (property incentives). In consideration of the conservatories, swimming pools, etc. rooms, garages), rooms which do not
current over-supply of housing and increasing demands in the (if enclosed on all sides), balconies, correspond to the requirements of
loggias and terraces planning law for the relevant use, offices
market regarding area and quality, the subsidy laws have been
amended in recent years. f) Rooms included in living area (housing area regulation, excerpt)

The essential subsidy instruments in Germany are: the Law

floor area of a room includes: floor area of a room does not include:
to Subsidise House Building; the state subsidy for house
clear area (from face of cladding) chimneys, masonry cladding,
building, laid down in the Law to Subsidise Social Housing
between building components, including claddings, pillars (from 1.5 m height and
of 13/09/2001. The subsidising of house building includes the area of door and window frames, 0.1 m2 floor area), stairs and landings
the new construction of flats with subsidised rents, the new skirtings, pennanently installed (from 3 steps). door niches, window
construction of owner-occupied housing, the purchase and objects, free-standing installations, and wall niches (which do not reach to
built-in furniture, movable room dividers the floor or are at least 0.13 em deep),
refurbishment of existing houses and the purchase of rights
of occupancy. 8 Floor area of a room included in living area (housing area regulation, excerpt)

Housing subsidy is carried out at the state level: the extent of

complete rooms and parts of rooms with a clear
grants, the size details of subsidised houses and application height of at least 2 m
conditions can therefore differ from state to state and are laid
half rooms and parts of rooms with a clear
down in the relevant housing subsidy regulations --1 0. The height of at least 1 m and less than
target housing subsidy group are households whose income 2 m, unheated and fully enclosed
does not exceed the level stipulated in the laws and regulations, conservatories, swimming pools etc.
and also households with two or more children and households normally a quarter. at the highest a half balconies, loggias, roof gardens and
with disabled members. The subsidy is in the form of loans at terraces
preferential rates, grants, guarantees, housing entitlement
certificates and the provision of cheap building land. e Inclusion of floor areas in the calculation

KfW Subsidy Bank

Household size Maximum living area The KfW Subsidy Bank is a public body with its capital provided
1 person 50m 2 for each further person by the Federal Republic of Germany and the states. The main
2 persons 60m 2
belonging to the household, the emphasis of its activity is the provision of favourable loans for the
living area can be exceeded by encouragement of house building. The subsidies are in the form of
3 persons 75m 2 max. 10m2 .
a subsidy programme with fixed aims. Currently (autumn 2008) the
4 persons 85m2 following programmes are active:
0 Limits on the living area in subsidised housing (example)
KfW property programme
for the building or purchase of owner-occupied houses and flats.
Owner-occupied House Allowance Law
This legislation provides for a limited period a subsidy from Ecological building
taxation via a fixed annual allowance for the purchase of for the construction of passive houses, KfW energy-saving
owner-occupied flats and houses. The target group for this houses and the installation of renewable energy heating systems
allowance is households whose income does not exceed the
Housing modernisation
limits laid down in the law. On account of the current over-
for the modernisation and repair of residential buildings with
supply of housing, the political justification for this law is often
questioned. emphasis on the reduction of energy consumption

C02 building refurbishment plan

for single measures intended to reduce the energy consumption
of old buildings

Solar electricity production

to finance photovoltaic systems on residential buildings

136
 HOUSING DENSITY
J.,J.,J.I ~-~~ Parameters

J•J•J•J ~-~-r-r The extent of residential development (urban housing density)

is an important measure in public land-use planning. The urban
DETACHED HOUSE (ESTATE) TERRACED BUILDING housing density is laid down in the development (zoning) plans
plot 350-450 m' plot ~625m
2
of cities and councils and is the indirect result of the provisions
storeys 1-2 (+attic) storeys 2-4 (+attic) of planning law regarding the permissibility of building projects in
gross floor area 150-160 gross floor area E;500 unplanned inner areas and in outer areas --7 p. 56. The essential
floor-area ratio 0.3-0.5 floor-area ratio ~0.8
inhabitants/ha 70-90 inhabitants/ha ;§400 statutory parameters describing urban housing density are the
plot coverage ratio (the built area related to the plot area), and the
floor-area ratio (the total area of all floors related to the plot area),
as well as provisions regarding the number of full storeys and the
height of buildings --7 p. 63. HOUSING
DENSITY
Parameters
Urban housing density and house type
The urban housing density has a considerable influence on
the selection of house type, determines the type and extent of
SEMI-DETACHED HOUSE BLOCK DEVELOPMENT development and specifies the land use of a housing development.
plot 250-300 m' plot ;§1550 m' The urban housing densities of various types of housing (housing
storeys 1-2 (+attic) storeys 5 (+attic) density) are shown in --7 0, as described by the statutory
gross floor area 150--160 gross floor area 1250 parameters. The average population density (inhabitants/m 2) is
floor-area ratio 0.5-0.6 floor-area ratio E;0,8
also shown for clarification. The density increases in a range from
inhabitants/ha 115-135 inhabitants/ha 400-450
free-standing detached houses, semi-detached houses, linked
and terraced houses to multi-storey residential buildings, block
developments and stand-alone blocks. Based on the required
plot area, dense terraced and block development achieves similar
densities to multi-storey stand-alone blocks.

Housing density and housing quality

The qualitative evaluation of housing density is complex and
depends on a multitude of factors. It cannot be estimated solely
from a plot or group of houses, but is also influenced by the
LINKED/COURTYARD-GARDEN HOUSE NARROW HIGH-RISE larger scale urban development conditions. The term quarter has
plot :1:;5000 m'
become established to describe an urban planning unit with its
plot 200-250 m'
storeys 1-2 (+attic) storeys 10 own infrastructure (shopping, recreational provision, schools,
gross floor area 150-160 gross floor area 600/storey kindergartens and connections to local transport).
floor-area ratio 0.6-0.8 floor-area ratio 1.2
inhabitants/ha 150-180 inhabitants/ha approx. 450
Further points of interest are the number of inhabitants for whom
the infrastructure is adequate and the accessibility (transport
provision and times). These parameters interact with the
requirement for housing space per inhabitant and other spatial
aspects concerning privacy and individuality as well as the long-
distance connections, distance from and relation to city centres,
plot prices, accessibility of workplaces etc.

TERRACED HOUSE SQUARE HIGH-RISE Model calculations demonstrate that with a floor-area ratio of 0.8
plot 150-200m' plot e;1875 m' (related to net building land) and development with, for example,
storeys 2-3 (+attic) storeys 10 multi-storey blocks in rows, the result is quarters where 6500
gross floor area 130-150 gross floor area 225/storey inhabitants can live on a gross area of 75 ha (900 x 900 m). This
floor-area ratio 0.6-0.9 floor-area ratio 1.2 results in distances from supply facilities of not more than 500 m,
inhabitants/ha 200-250 inhabitants/ha approx. 450
which can be reached on foot or by bicycle.

In contrast, with a floor-area ratio of 0.4 and development of

detached houses, 6500 inhabitants will live in a quarter with an
area of 235 ha (1500 x 1500 m), which is too far on foot (particularly
for elderly people) and too small for public transport, so that a car
has to be used for daily shopping. In terms of the supply of energy
in pipes or cables, it can be stated as a simplification that the cost
for a floor-area ratio of 0.4 is nearly double that for 0.8.
STEPPED HOUSE
storeys These considerations should make clear that the apparent
gross floor area 130 - 150/terrace advantages of living in a green belt mean that large parts of our
floor-area ratio 1.5-2.0 country are scarcely habitable without using a car, which offers no
inhabitants/ha 300-350
perspective for a sustainable use of land and energy (Bott, Haas
0 Town planning parameters of various house types (indicative) --7 refs)

137
 N ORIENTATION
utility room entrance Layout of Buildings
cool room cloakroom
larder toilet ~
wine cellar studio stables
~~riQ~;~~m kitchen laundry
staircase heating pantry ironing room Detached housing ---> 8 (detached and semi-detached houses
entrance hall, corridor garage washing up domestic work room with boundary walls) offers the opportunity to orientate a building
storage room shady place ~~~~~ig;ees in four (three) directions of the compass ---> 0 (although at the
expense of high development costs and low urban planning
off1ce and workshop ~
cloakroom for tradesmen density ---> p. 137).
drying room changing room
W (with ventilation) North solarium E
The plots are mostly narrow and long, in order to reduce the road
community r o o m s / : I ~portsroom, bath frontage as much as possible. In this case, plots to the south
music room of the road are more favourable. This enables a north-facing
entrance hall, hall gr bedroom for professionals
ladies' room pia; rooo~m sick room arrangement of the rooms next to the entrance to the road and
smoking room livin room guest room the arrangement of the living rooms and bedrooms away from the
ORIENTATION library, playroom coniervatory breakfast room
terrace road, with tranquillity and sunshine (east - south - west) and an
Layout of
buildings veranda, loggia exit to and view of the garden.
garden
If the plot is north of the road, then the house should be sited at
the back of the plot, despite the extra expense of a driveway, in
s order to exploit the sunny front garden. Plots to the west and east
0 Optimal orientation of rooms of a (north-south) road should place garden and living rooms on
the wind-protected east side (arrangement of the house to the
north of the plot), so that no neighbouring buildings shadow the
low east sun, as with an east-west road.

-r~- Expansiveness,

Village environment
••••
Group of houses

Exposure
closeness

· Shape ot'. ·
· the plot
Shadowing

Access

Topography, vegetation

Estate BuildinQ in the landscape

0 Detached housing

..II I L.
JCJ[
,, ar
Relation of house to plot

Block

---
Courtyard

---
For housing in blocks---> 0 (built in blocks and rows), most of the
houses or flats will be orientated in two opposing directions with
l/1111111111
---
different qualities (view, lighting, noise).

---
Traditional block development, with varied layouts and
orientations of the flats, the planning of the layout of each
111111111111 flat should attempt to compensate for unfavourable lighting

-
Cells Rows
conditions. In addition to the traditional functionally neutral
corridor floor plans, open, flowing and flexible floor plans can also

I I be used for such situations. The quality of life in block structures

results from the multitude of views out and through the street and

I I the inner courtyard, which can be emphasised in the design.

·-..! • ·-
Naturally developed town

8 Housing in blocks
Planned town
Compass direction is a central consideration of modern town
planning. An east-west orientated arrangement of rows with
green areas in between can achieve (at the cost of public space
and the risk of a certain monotony of appearance) uniform lighting
and orientation of as many flats as possible --->e.

138
 ACCESS
Detached and Terraced Development

The selection of a house type includes decisions about

development, access and utilities. This has an important effect
on the proportions and organisation of the plan and is also an
important cost factor.
11/2+ D II+D
Access is also the subject of a multitude of building regulations
because of its function as escape route ~ p. 511. The route to
the house or flat and the connection of the houses to each other
represent an important location for social interaction as an
immediate part of the surroundings of the inhabitants.
Access principles ACCESS
The following forms of access can be differentiated according to Detached and
I +D 11/2+ D the principle of adding houses: terraced access
Passage access
0 Detached/semi-detached houses
-detached house
- (horizontal) row: terraced house, passage access
Stepped houses
Vertical access
- (vertical) stacking: access with lifts and stairs
MBO

see also: Fire

protection p. 511

1~1 lifl
11/2FD 11/2PD

f) Linked houses

Detached house Semi-detached house

Stepped houses Houses with courtyard garden

I FD

8 Houses with courtyard garden

V Frontdoor

. , _ Main orientation

<1-- Subsidiary orientation

0 Access to single and rows of houses

Detached house and row access

Q Terraced houses The individually accessed, detached house standing on its own
plot is the prototype for the 'owner-occupied' house. It has a
prestigious level access from the road, which is reached through
an area at the front ('front garden'). It has direct access from each
storey to further private or semi-public open spaces (e.g. garden.
terrace, inner courtyard or roof garden) ~ f).

With row access, as with individual access, each residential unit,

as its 'own' terraced, linked or courtyard-garden house, is
accessed on the level from the road and has a direct exit into the
open air~ f)- 8. There is a direct relation between private and
public space. A sensible height is 2-3 storeys.

IIISD Ill FD Town houses~ 0 also use this access principle for an upper floor
flat, which in this case has its own front door and stairs. Terraced
A- main residence B- granny houses with good residential value offer the most economic form
e Town houses of house with garden ~ p. 144.

139
 Section Plan ACCESS
Passage Access

I :i: I i I Deck access means that the individual storeys of a block of flats
are accessed along horizontal passages, which are connected to
a Central access
each other and to the entrance by one or more internal, projecting
or free-standing fixed vertical structures (stair shafts, lifts). The
ltltltltltltltl flats are organised along the passages singly, on two sides or on
three sides (with an internal function zone). The passages can be

b as maisonette
-tltltltltltl arranged internally (internal passage ---1 0) or along an external
surface (external deck ---7 f)).
They have (with corresponding detailing) the appearance of a

~tlt~tlt~
semi-public street ---1 p. 139. The route of this 'street' directly in
ACCESS front of a (for internal passages unlit) wall of the flat produces a
Detached and tendency to a one-sided orientation of the flat.
terraced access
Passage access
Stepped houses
Vertical access
c as split-level
:t:•:i: The variety of possibilities with this access type therefore results
from the layering of multi-storey and mezzanine residential units,
MBO
0 Internal passage access which offer the possibility, by building over the access passages,
of double-aspect living on two sides of the flat.

41---::--2
a External deck
--1 -~1~1!1~1
.........

b as maisonette
.JIW.- j-10.0 ----1 ..
I~ n I

._~--!>
._~--!>
rmKDD
1
.o D
00~
..
section
I

c as split-level
0 Gallery access house, split-level flats Arch.: Hirsch

f) External passage access

f--4.00-1 Internal passage

If the access passage is inside the building, this is called an
internal passage block ---1 0. With this solution, living on one level

I
leads to single-sided orientation. It is therefore better to divide
residential units over two or more storeys ---7 0 (b+c)
0
0 External passage
0
In an external passage building, the horizontal access is along one

I long side of the structure ---1 f). The open passage is not without
problems under the climatic conditions in Central Europe, and in
addition it is normally practical to place only subsidiary rooms next
to the external passage ---1 0 (a).
lower level upper level Living spaces on only one level are therefore particularly
C) Maisonette with external passage access suitable for flats and studios --1 G. It is better if the residential
unit extends over two or more storeys ---7 8. If the floor levels
l-8.00----j are staggered by just half a storey in height, this produces
favourable preconditions for the overlapping of functionality
and stratification ---1 0 (c). The range of possible variations is

I
g
therefore considerably extended if the residential units are not
the same width for the entire depth of the building, but rather
overlapped with the neighbouring unit.
Horizontal access to every second storey ---7 0 (b) permits

1 desirable arrangements of larger residential units on different

levels, combined with small units at the entrance level. Good
solutions also result from the alternating arrangement of the
external passage zones. Symmetrical stacking of maisonettes or
a corresponding arrangement of split-level flats makes it possible
0 External passage access, living area as~ 0 Arch.: Kahn (Schneider --7 refs) to limit the number of horizontal access points.

140
 ACCESS
Stepped Houses

Steeply sloping sites encourage the construction of stepped

buildings. These can be stepped on one or two sides ---7 0 + 0.
The terracing can be produced by setting back residential units of
b similar depth or through the arrangement of varying depths of unit,
decreasing towards the top. The stacking angle (storey height to
terrace depth) mostly corresponds to an average slope of 8-40°.
This results in generous terraces as space for relaxing, working
or for children to play, like a ground-floor flat with garden, usually
facing south, protected from the inward look of strangers but with
an unobstructed view out. Planting the parapets enhances the
residential quality. ACCESS
d Detached and
The advantages of large open-air terraces has and does also lead
terraced access
0 Possible one- and two-storey arrangements of stepped flats with the open-air
terraces wholly or partially recessed into the body of the building
to the construction of stepped houses on level sites, sometimes Passage access
Stepped houses
built over large spaces. The resulting unlit rooms on the lower
Vertical access
floors are not, however, without problems.
MBO
Trough depths
If an open view of the downhill terrace is to be prevented, then
the necessary trough depth depends on the storey height and the
horizontal repeating dimension ---7 0. More favourable conditions
regarding the possible view are produced if the terrace is recessed
~J~"\.
',, into the body of the building ---7 0.

' ,,,',,,',,,_..._............_..,....._...,..L__-,-J
', ', ',,L--lJ~--~l.--~~==~7 a-x a x
'•

f) Section -> 0 a= step

ha = eye height
he = storey height
(ha- ht) ht = trough height
Trough depth x = step a~
x = trough depth
t =terrace depth

0 Relationship of the horizontal repeating dimension a and trough depth x

0 Section --> 0
0 Stepped terrace house, floor plan Arch.: Schmidt + Knecht

<D Living room

® Dining area
@ Kitchen
@) Children's room
@ Bedroom
® Kitchen
(J) Terrace
® Stairs

e Stepped terrace house Arch.: stucky + Menli 0 'WohnhOgel' (Hill House), ground floor Arch.: Frey, Schroder, Schmidt

141
 ACCESS
Vertical Access

CDLiving space
Identical and similar flats are 'stacked' one above the other over
®Dining a number of storeys and accessed via a common stairway. One
@Kitchen or more flats can be connected at each floor. According to the
@Bedroom
@Bath f---8--+
number of flats, this is called one, two, up to four (or multiple)
flats per floor access. The stairway in this case becomes a semi-
0 One flat per floor (town villa)
public part of the building ---+ p. 139.

One flat per floor ---+ 0

There is access to only one flat on each floor. This is relatively
uneconomic due to the high proportion of the total floor area taken
ACCESS up for access, but can often give the feeling of living in a 'stacked
Detached and terrace'. The flats are also marketed as town villas. There is a
terraced access
Passage access
general limitation to four floors without a lift.
Stepped houses
Vertical access
Two to four flats per floor ---+ f) - 0
MBO
Two flats per floor is the most common access method, with
balanced advantages of residential quality and value for money.
The arrangement allows various (and flexible) floor plan solutions
1--10-12----1 f---10-12-------l ---7 eand offers good possibilities for adaptation in every compass
f) Two flats per floor with plan variants (key-> 0) direction.

Three flats per floor offers a favourable combination of residential

quality and value for money. This layout is also suitable for corner
buildings ---+ 8. Flats with differing numbers of rooms can be
arranged on each floor (e.g. 2-, 3- and 4-room flats). Four flats
per floor offers an adequate combination of residential quality
and value for money if the floor plans are designed appropriately.
In particular the so-called point houses ---+ 0 + 0 enable
differentiated orientation of flats on each floor.

Lifts are required for residential buildings of more than five full
floors---+ p. 128. If a residential building is more than 22m above
ground level, then the provisions for high-rise buildings apply ---+
p. 244.

1-flightstalr Corner solutions

0 Three flats per floor

l-12-154

!
i
8
I
Four flats per floor 0
2 flats
per floor

Plan variants for vertical access

3flats
per floor
4flats
per floor

e Multiple flats per floor (point houses) f) Free-standing building with four flats per floor (point house)

142
 FLOOR PLANS
Houses

The plan of a house is the result of a multitude of influential factors.

In addition to the local conditions like plot layout and orientation,
the current building regulations and decisions made about access,
the design of many plans is determined by spatial ideas (in their
combined effects):
-the prestigious, extroverted idea of publicity~ e
- and the introverted idea of privacy~ 0

0 The 18th-century house

Ir FLOOR PLANS

I
Houses
kitchen Flats
room

I
;: .... ____.. r-··············1
j
i
l
i
:................:
- - 0 Publicity 0 Privacy

l :I room

20
&
room

8 The atrium house

~---------------20--------------~

....

L
Entrance
kitchen
f)
10001 0 Overlapping Arch.: Ungers

10° 1
The '18th-century house'~ 0
1 0 0
oo
The house was formerly developed as an axially laid out one- or

y two-storey plan based on feudal precedents. The free-standing

building is lit on all sides and has an architecturally prestigious
entrance and garden side; the living rooms and bedrooms (and
to some extent service areas) have mostly similar floor areas and
are distributed around and connected to a hallway arranged along
the building axis.

C) The open plan

The atrium house ~ f)
The atrium house is one of the classic urban house types. All the
r----.~---------15------------__, rooms of the one- or partially two-storey building are arranged
round a private atrium, which also provides access and light.
Contact with the outside world is entirely on the street side. The
atrium plan is not fully practical for houses in Northern Europe
(access from the open air or many entrances) but is an extremely
popular model concept ~ f).

The open plan ~ 0

The open plan attempts to meld together the inside and outside
spaces as far as possible through an almost complete lack of solid
(unglazed) external walls. The aspects of privacy and publicity are
(supposedly) neutralised. Minimalist and often subtly adapted
fittings increase the contrast to a total view.

The flowing floor plan ~ 0

The flowing (also: organic) floor plan is developed from an analysis
of the functional relationships between the individual areas of the
plan and is often customised for a particular user group. This leads
to differentiated zones running into each other, with interesting
e The flowing floor plan views without obstruction by neutral intermediate zones.

143
 ·r························································ FLOOR PLANS
Houses
.c:
'
Detached, one-family house ~ 0
The detached, one-family house is the adaptation of the 'middle
class house' ~ p. 143 for private house building on new estates.
Plot sizes, infrastructure and setback rules are often intended for
this type.
Because of the limited road frontage of the plot, the original plan
--~--r is mostly rotated so that the entrance is at the side. The driveway
; becomes a (garage) access. The building has light on all sides, and
the architectural pretensions of the original are often preserved
only as cliches. The division of the floor plan is simple and rational.
FLOOR PLANS
The common area with kitchen can extend over the entire depth of
Houses
Flats the building and receive light on three sides. The central hallway
arrangement leads to an economic division of the first floor with
little area wasted for access.
f) Detached, one-family house, ground and first floor plans (mirrored)
The lack of semi-public external areas due to the proximity of
neighbouring houses is often seen as a fault with this house type
and is remedied by the users with improvised offsetting measures
ist Ground ist Ground (fences, pergolas, awnings, carports etc.).
floor floor floor floor

I
1
"'
l._

l------6 -------1 I-----4---J

f) Gallery access house, terraced house (minimum dimensions) e Detached and non-detached house types

1----·7 -----j Terraced house and gallery access ~ 0

t----7-----j Terraced houses often give the feeling of living in one's own
house. Attempts are therefore often made to produce the spatial

I
repertoire of a detached house ~ 0.
Building in a row restricts the possibilities for direct lighting to
two fagades so that, with economic building depths of up to
12 m and widths between 4 and 8 m, the existence of a badly
lit or dark middle zone containing the stairs, subsidiary rooms
and often also the dining area becomes unavoidable. This can
be countered with intruding communal areas receiving daylight

1 0
N ,
from both fagades, which enables the different qualities of the
two sides of the house (environment, compass point etc.) to be
experienced together.
The access gallery, if it is appropriately generous, produces

0 ...J
8[] a transfer of the terraced house idea into blocks of flats. The
passage projecting on one side results in reduced lighting

I BW
there and makes less depth possible for the flats. It is therefore
common to provide transverse stairs when two-storey plans are

Rr
used.
Half-open external area ~ 8 - G
When angled and staggered terraces are built on rather more
generous plots, simple alterations of the floor plan geometry
can result in various protected private and semi-public external

} areas for the same or similar plan area (and room layout).
This is often achieved by moving floor plan areas together~ 8
or by moving them apart and creating external areas ~ ().
Internal rooms can be oriented toward these external patio
Staggered and angled terraced houses 8 Patio house areas.

144
 FLOOR PLANS
Flats

Central corridor plan ---7 0

The central corridor plan is the classic floor plan of late 19th-
century urban apartment blocks. The rooms are arranged along
the two fac;:ades and are separated by the (load-bearing) middle
wall and the central corridor parallel to it. All rooms can be
accessed and used separately. Common and individual areas can
be arranged on opposing sides of the fac;:ade and related to the
r----------------1~19--------------~ particular qualities of the specific side of the building.
0 Classic plan with two flats per floor and central corridor
There is natural lighting to all living areas and, when the building is
deeper, the unlit central corridor can be widened into a central hall.
FLOOR PLANS
The central corridor style flat is accessed either axially or sideways
Houses
through a front zone. In the age of functionally neutral flats, the Flats
central corridor plan is still a popular and functional type.

"'
~i!~-n

1 ~

r----------------1~19--------------~

f) Grouped room floor plan

9 Typological development from central corridor to all-purpose room

Grouped room floor plan ---7 0

The idea of the grouped room floor plan developed at the start of
the 20th century and is based on the separation of areas inside
the apartment into two 'room groups': the living areas (living room,
kitchen and dining area) and the sleeping area (bedrooms and
"' bathrooms).

l r--------------1~19--------------~
The characteristic feature of this type of grouped room layout
is the so-called 'slipper corridor', a minimised corridor which
combines the two bedrooms and the bathroom into one spatial
unit and is separated from the living areas by a door. The spatial
separation of the two room groups is intended to produce less
disturbance within the flat with its small floor area and minimal use
of space for access.
0 Central function zone
Central function zone ---7 f)
In buildings of greater depth, the central area of the flat can be
widened to form a zone of subsidiary space and the fac;:ades can be
completely used for living areas. Bathrooms with artificial lighting
(or lit indirectly from other areas of the flat), kitchens, cupboard

l l and storage areas can be placed here, and appropriate passages

I

I~
Room
0 ~J
D
Entrance '"

~' I and spaces provide the connection to the outside rooms.

Widened central corridor ---7 8
As an alternative to ---7 f) in free-standing point houses ---7 p. 142
Kite-
G. the central area of the flat can be usefully widened to form an
Room All-purpose room hen (all-purpose) living room as the centre of the flat. The resulting

~t
space serves both as living room and access and is lit indirectly
through the other rooms or directly through appropriate recesses
in the fac;:ade (e.g. recessed balconies).

ll
0

Balcony ggg I The all-purpose room is typologically comparable to the atrium,

and ideally forms a functionally neutral communication (and play)
area. A definite functional (use) description is, however, often
r----------12----------~ difficult.
G Centre as all-purpose room

145
 Canopy ROOMS
'' ' 0 Access
Lighting House
number

0
I Entrance
~ .• Light switch
The entrance is the face of a house, where visitors gain their
All : Bell button
_j Name plate t-- first impression. A multitude of functions have to be practically
Letter box
=
t-- arranged and appropriately designed -7 0. If the entrance is

1 Doormat

l---i'::90--t
into the open air, it should be protected from the prevailing wind
direction if possible. If weather conditions are unfavourable, a
lobby is also recommended to prevent wind blowing through -7
p. i 36 (if the entrance is into a stair shaft, then this can provide
clearance 1---- ;;; 1 .25 --1 wind protection).
0 Entrance door, minimum f) Entrance area, minimum
According to the MBO, front doors of flats which are accessed
dimensions dimensions
ROOMS
by lifts must have a clear opening width of 90 em (for wheelchair
Access
Kitchens
access). The door height in this case should be at least 2. i 0 m.
Living areas Door thresholds are to be avoided. The entrance door must also
Bathrooms comply with acoustic and fire protection requirements.
Subsidiary rooms
Garages
Entrance recesses should be at least 1.25 m (better 1.50 m) wide
BS EN 81 and approx. 1.00 m deep, so that two people can wait comfortably
BS EN 15644
and protected in front of the door -7 e.
DIN 4109
DIN 18025
MBO
For typical entrance arrangements for single- and multi-family
houses and flat entrances see -7 0 - e.
An important element of the entrance to a block of flats is the stair
shaft with staircase and lift -7 p. 128. The layout and size of the
lifts determine the dimensions of the waiting area, which should
1 - - - i'::1.50 -------1
offer enough space for a number of people, wheelchair users or

e Section through entrance with roof G Seating, shelf lor shopping bags etc.
stretcher bearers -7 0 - 0.

0
0
.,;
II
n
B=>l I=
r-
II Waiting
area
I=
,-

--
+=
t-
+=
±--

t1J81
------------
i-1 i
I
I
It-- D
1----- ;;; 1.25 - - - - j 1---- ;;; 1.50 -----1 J .L
1----- ;;;4.25-----l
0 Roofed entrance 0 Recessed entrance Q Staircase with two-flight stairs; Cil) Parallel arrangement of stairs and
three flats per floor lift; three flats per floor

T
Kj
"'
1.
1 - - - - - - - - >4.00---------j

8 Two entrances under a common projecting roof CD Opposed arrangement of stairs and lift; two flats per floor

1----->6.00 - - - - - - j

1 - - - - - ;;;s.oo------l

e Semi-detached houses with common entrance area 4l} Single-flight stairs, displaced arrangement of stairs and lift

146
 ROOMS
Access

Entrance hall
The entrance hall should be enclosed where the entrance leads
directly to the open air with an inner door (wind lobby function).
It should also offer sufficient room for a lot of moving around ~
0. This is where reception, greeting, taking off and putting
on coats, and taking leave all take place, but also offers the
f-55 ---1-----E; 1.25 ----1 f-E; 1.15 ---t-E; 1.00--l
first orientation for the visitor ~ 0 - 0. Countless objects
0 Space requirement in the entrance f) For easy removal of coats therefore have to be arranged practically yet tidily in this limited
hall for comfortable greeting
space ~ 0, 0. The most important communal areas like the
kitchen, WC and staircase should be directly accessible from
the entrance hall. ROOMS
Access
f-E; 1.00 ---l Kitchens
Living areas
Bathrooms
Subsidiary rooms
Garages

1---E; 1.30 ----1 1 - - - - > 2.15 - - - - 1

0 Relationship between entrance hall and other areas of the house

8 Greeting 0 Floor plan with movements

I I I~ l~
1,35 1.40
l ~ 1~
l f--65----j
l f-38--j
f--53---j l--30--1

e In relation to wind lobby In relation to kitchen 1 WC 1 cellar

stairs and bedroom

1
86

j
0 Dimensions of coats and jackets, umbrellas, hats, briefcases and shoes
4D
4D} Side entrance In relation to cellar stairs

I
1.80

e
1
Umbrella stand with watertight base, coat rack (six hooks across 1 m) C!) Entrance hall of a maisonette @) Lobby in relation to office

147
 ROOMS
Access

Corridors
Corridors form the neutral connection between the rooms in a
house. Although they do not actually belong to the living area,
they should be laid out generously and be as spatially varied as
possible. Partial opening to living areas and natural lighting is
desirable. Adjacent rooms often seem roomier next to a more
f----5;0.90 -----1 f---5; 1.30----1 f--------5; 1.80---j generous corridor, because of the better arrangement of doors to
0 Corridor widths bedrooms and cupboards --7 0.

Corridor widths
ROOMS The width of a corridor depends on its location, the number and
Access Corridor type Little Heavy arrangement of the doors opening off it (doors one side, both
Kitchens traffic traffic
sides) and the number of people using it --7 f), The greatest
Living areas doors one side, opening into the rooms 0.90 m 1.30 m
Bathrooms accessibility offered by various sizes and layouts of corridors to
Subsidiary rooms doors both sides, opening into the rooms 1.60m
rooms more than 2 m wide is shown in --7 8- CD. The examples
Garages doors one side, opening into the corridor 1.40 m 1.80m assume a minimum corridor width of 1 m, which allows two
doors both sides, opening into the corridor 2.20 m people to pass. This width does not, however, permit the siting
doors both sides and opposite each other, opening into the corridor 2.40m 2.60 m of cupboards, which would be better built-in --7 0 + C!). When
f) Minimum corridor widths depending on door arrangement (separate, opposing), arranging the doors, the location of beds and built-in cupboards
opening direction and traffic volume needs to be taken into account (see above).

Children's

Kitchen

I m2 corridor as the node 2 m2 corridor: four rooms, 2 m2 corridor: four rooms with «<!) 3 m2 corridor: six rooms
between four rooms otherwise as e built-in cupboards and beds

e 4 m2 corridor: five rooms and

built-in cupboards
0 5.2 m2 corridor: six rooms with some
built-in cupboards and beds
G 1 m2 corridor: three large rooms at
the end of a flight of stairs
@) 5 m2 corridor: four large and two small
rooms (bathroom, changing room)

f) 5 m2 corridor: five rooms and

one bathroom
e 4 m2 corridor: four rooms, one
bathroom and one dressing room
m 7 m2 corridor: eight rooms with
single-flight stairs
e 4 m2 corridor: eight rooms with
floors on different levels

148
 ROOMS

...........1 IV\ f---;;i 40 -l

:------:
Kitchens

v \
''' ''
'
The kitchen is a workplace inside the home and at the same time
an important living room and meeting point for the occupants and
their guests, with various relationships to other areas of the house.
I/
\1 /vj According to the building regulations, every house or flat must
have at least one kitchen or kitchenette for cooking.

I I I I I I I J I lt!ll I IAI I Kitchens and kitchenettes without windows are generally

1~1 I
I I I I I I I ,I, I VI I I undesirable and only permissible if effective ventilation is
guaranteed. As a habitable room, the kitchen must have a clear
0 0 0
00
0 1 ceiling height of at least 2.40 m and a window area (structural
dimensions) of at least 1/s of the net floor area. ROOMS
IS Access
T Location
The location of the kitchen is ideally on the northeast or northwest,
Kitchens
Living areas

til;
Bathrooms
in the immediate vicinity of the entrance area (short distances for Subsidiary rooms
shopping, rubbish etc.), to the (vegetable) garden and the cellar. Garages
3 60-+----1.20/1.50

2.46/2.76
There should be sensible internal room relationships with the BS EN 1116
dining room, utility room and larder. It should ideally be possible BS 6222
0 Dimensional requirements for kitchens to see the front door, children's play area and terrace from the
BS EN 60335
BS EN 14749
kitchen~ e. DIN EN 1116

MBO

see also:
Accessible
building p. 21

visible from the kitchen

routes
usual only in larger houses

f) Practical arrangement of working areas in the kitchen 8 Room relationships of a larger kitchen

Unit or appliance Space required

Coordinated dimensions for kitchen furniture are provided in
~ 0. The dimensions given here do not take into account the
Width (em) Depth (em)
movement areas of the elderly or disabled so are to be considered
Cupboards for crockery/cutlery, foodstuffs etc. absolute minimum values. In general, the design of kitchens
1 base unit cupboard 30-150 60 should be based on movement areas for accessible housing
2 broom cupboard 60 60
~ p. 21 ff.
3 wall cupboard 30-150 ;340

Cooling and freezing appliances The· planning of a kitchen should make possible a flowing work
4 refrigerator 60 60
sequence with sufficient space for movement, while avoiding
5 freezer 60 60
6 chest freezer ;,;go ace. to maker unnecessarily long distances. A movement area of 1.50 m (min.
1.20 m) is therefore required between the stretches of worktop.
Worktops With most kitchen units having a depth of 60 em on each side
7 small worktop between cooker and sink ;,;so 60
8 large worktop ;,;120 60 of the movement area, this results in a minimum kitchen width
9 surface to set down appliances ;,;eo 60 of 2.70 m (min 2.40 m) (plus approx. 6 em spacing up to the
1 0 worktop next to cooker ;,;30 60 wall).
11 worktop next to sink ;,;60 60

Cooking appliances The height of the worktops should if possible be adapted to suit
12 cooker with oven and extractor hood 60 60 the height of the user and can vary between 85 and 95 em ~ 0.
13 built-in cooker with base unit 60-90 60 Working while standing should be minimised through the provision
14 built-in oven with base unit 60 60
60 60
of (slide-out) worktops.
15 microwave oven

Washing-up equipment Good posture while working in the kitchen and good lighting in the
16 single-basin sink with draining board ;,;90 60
work area are general requirements ~ p. 154. In order to make
17 double-basin sink with draining board ;,;120 60
18 dishwasher 60 60 the work in the kitchen easier, a practical arrangement of work
19 washing-up unit (single-basin sink with draining "'90 60 areas is desirable ~ f).
board, base unit and dishwasher

8 Dimensions of kitchen units and appliances

149
 ROOMS
Kitchens

I0 Kitchen types
[ ---, 0 The kitchen types shown here are produced from the requisite
T ~~:~------- 0 kitchen arrangements and their floor areas. The basic types are:

~11H-H-:~~,
0
"'~ Compact kitchens or kitchenettes: These are only adequate for

l- -f----1.87 5 --!
housekeeping requirements to a limited extent (scarcely any shelf
or cupboard space) and are really only suitable for holiday flats
and (student) apartments. Kitchenettes do not normally require
0 One-unit ('cupboard') kitchen f) Very small kitchen with internal
their own room and can be sited in passages or corridors --+
0-0.
(Fa. Haas und Sohn) ventilation and extraction Arch.: Neuter!

ROOMS
Kitchen as working room: The kitchen equipment is functionally
Access
arranged in the smallest possible area as a one-row, two-
Kitchens row or U-shaped configuration, normally as a fitted kitchen.
Living areas The location of the appliances and worktops are optimised for
Bathrooms
Subsidiary rooms rational working --+ f). This results in practical working spaces
Garages on a floor area of between 5.5 m2 and 9.5 m2 (though not suitable
BS EN 1116 for purposes other than kitchen work)--+ 0- f). The connection
BS 6222 to the dining area is via the corridor or hall and can be supported
BS EN 60335
BS EN 14749 with hatches etc.
DIN EN 1116

MBO

see also:
Accessible e Perspective view--> 0 G Perspective view--> f)
building p. 21

G frequency of using
work area

I
0
v
~ main interrelationships
with other areas

frequency of use of
routes between areas

l
e Galley (single-row) kitchen 0 Galley (two-row) kitchen
4Ii) Practical arrangement of working space in the kitchen

II II
..-----.o Kitchen with dining area
@ The kitchen with dining area offers, in addition to the actual
kitchen fittings, space for a table with chairs or benches, to
be used as an additional dining area (breakfast area). The
kitchen thus becomes a lived-in room, providing improved
opportunities for conversation. Kitchens with dining areas can
be planned from approx. 10 m2 • A good arrangement is an L
shape with doors connecting to the living room and corridor:
area approx. 14 m2 --+ e.
f) U-shaped kitchen e L-shaped kitchen with dining area A parallel development to the kitchen with dining area is the
'open' kitchen, where the kitchen area is open to the living
room and dining area. This can be designed as an 'American
fitted kitchen', a functional area connected to the living room,
with for example a kitchen breakfast/snack bar as divider --+
p. 154 e.
DDD Modem kitchen designs are moving away from the fitted
kitchen. The kitchen area is seen as an ensemble of
I I independent objects developed in each case from formal and
functional conditions, which are grouped like pieces of furniture
ODD in an (ideally generous) residential room. Open kitchens require
good ventilation and extraction in order not to impair the living
and dining room areas with cooking smalls. In many cases,
1----4.00-----j
a mobile divider is to be recommended, for example using a
C) Open kitchen continuous with the room curtain --+ f).

150
H(cm) x W(cm) x D(cm) H(cm) x W(cm) x D(cm) ROOMS
85 20-60 60 85 70-150 60
Kitchens

Kitchen fittings
Numerous modular systems with fixed functions and dimensions
are available for fitting kitchens, mostly arranged along continuous
worktops. Types of kitchen unit and appliances:
- base unit with large drawers or cupboards for provisions, large
pots and pans and as shell for built-in appliances -7 0- f).
- wall cupboards for provisions and equipment or for lightweight
0 Single base unit f) Double base unit
appliances (e.g. microwave) -7 e-o.
- tall cupboards with a height of approx. 2 m, to store provisions, as
H(cm) x W(cm) x D(cml a broom cupboard or as a shell for the installation of fridge, oven etc.
H(cm) x W(cm) x D(cm)
35 20-120 35 50 70-150 35 - cooker with extractor hood with 2-4 rings, electric or gas, ROOMS
65 65
100 100 often split into an oven built into a tall unit and a hob built into Access
the worktop -7 0-0. Kitchens
Living areas
- sinks, normally built into the worktop with 1-2 sinks and an Bathrooms
integrated draining board -7 CD - Cf) Subsidiary rooms
Garages
- the base unit under the sink generally houses a dishwasher
-7 0 and also a waste bin BS EN 1116
- the refrigerator is housed under the worktop (in smaller BS 6222
BS EN 60335
kitchens) or integrated into a tall cupboard at standing height, BS EN 14749
with freezer compartment, separate freezer or in combination DIN EN 1116
with a chest freezer -7 0 - e.
C) Single wall unit 8 Double wall unit

86 1.24

IOr:JI 86
4
{ I~ c:Jr:JI
1.24
25/34

1.10 1.24

0 Built-in oven 0 Hobs 4D Sizes of built-in sinks m Built-in sinks

f) Extractor hood e Electric waste compactor @) Small appliance and drying cupboard e Kitchen: central elements

Refrigerators
vol. (I) w(cm) d (em) h (em)
50 55 55--BO 8Q.-85
75 55 60--65 85
100 55--BO 60--65 85
125 55--BO 65-70 90-100
150 60-65 65-70 12Q.-130
200 65-75 7!J.-75 13Q.-140
250 70-80 70-75 140-150
Built in refrigerators
vol. (I) w(cm) d(cm) h (em)
50 55 50-55 80--65
75 55 55--60 85-90
100 55 60--65 90

t) Dishwasher Cll) Pots and pans cupboard ~ Refrigerators 0 Dimensions -> 0

151
 ROOMS

! !! Kitchens

~~~~ fl~~~1
Q Place setting for meal: soup,
meat dish, dessert, drink
f) Place setting for meal: soup, fish
and meat dishes, dessert, white and
red wine
f) Coffee machine

ROOMS
Access
Kitchens 12 piece
T
~
Living areas
Bathrooms
Subsidiary rooms
Garages
l f---36--1

DIN EN 1116

(
e Plates f) Multipurpose slicer; kneading, rolling
and slicing boards
Place setting for meal: soup, Place setting for meal: starter, fish
fish and meat dishes, ice cream, and meat dishes, dessert, sparkling,
sparkling, white and red wine white and red wine

Roasting pan round, high Soup pot ~

~
014-16-20-24cm 024-28cm

~T
.: : ·:- : : '.: : . ~ -!~1~;
;~~i::
Domed lid
c:==:::> Vegetable pot

Meat pot
12
_L
::::: ·:-::-:-:::::::
;.;.,.;.:-:-:-
Pasta asparagus pot
A~~ l .t·: : ;: :·~:i: ;r
0 16-20-24 em Soup pot
014-16-20-24cm 016-18-20cm 0 24-28 em
Q Stackable pans
4If) Tea and coffee set G Dishes

~
~ peeling knife 16 em
vegetabteknlfe19cm
(\)==- ladle
~ pointed knife 9 em ((>=- sauce ladle
~ po!ntedknife12cm
f>=-

li!!~~!i!I~!!ffi~~li~!
~ boning knife 27 em skimmer
~ ham knife 15 em ~spatula
~ cooking knife 15 em
~meatfork
~meat knife 1Bcm
~ hamknlfe20cm ~whisk
~ cooking knife20cm !111>-- mixer Bordeaux Burgundy Chianti Bordeaux, Burgundy Beaujolais Champagne
~ bread knlfe20cm grand cru grand cru classico red Montrachet nouveau
li€0"'~--"

I~~ If~ I~!!~! !Hit~Iff!

~ meatchopper balloon whisk

~ meatfork27 em ~'11~--- spoon whisk

===='!!>--• sharpening steel29 em
~ cheese knife 29 em
Qd ladle =<P truffle cutter
~ gateau server SO em Q..d pouring spoon ~ cheese plane Sparkling Moscato Rose Riesling Bordeaux, Rheingau Burgundy
white wine grand cru Burgundy, Gorton-
Qd flat spoon ~ oyster cracker white Charlemagne
~ potato masher
~ d skimmer ~ pizza cutter
~
~ soupspoon
tablefork
0 ..d vegetable spoon

~~~J[~!Jl!f3[~!j(!!Jr~!~!~1l
= : : , table knife '!!Y ___.r pan spatula
0=<=:> menu spoon @I herringbone spatula
___.r
~ menufork
~ menuknife GJ .Lf' fried potato spatula
tea spoon Alsace Sherry Apentlf Vl~~~r• T~~~Y Martini Water ISi~~le malt whisky
<f,)

!~~!'.!;~~~r~·~ df~Hdll~!i¥ ~~a:{\ ~~~::i ~~

gateau fork ~ spaghetti spoon

0
vegetable/serving spoon

sauce spoon Cf;J

~ risotto spoon

=;:/" wok spoon

..-..-
!I II
•• ..-,.....
U II
C\1..-
!Ill
C\J.,....
U II
C\1.,.-
II II
C\1..-
U ll
C\1..-
II II
C\1.-
II U
~!
C\IW
lllt
serving fork I> :X:> I> I> I> J:> I> J:> I>
meat fork ~.._/ fish and asparagus Cognac Cognac Aquavit Berry Gin/ Herb Slone Stone Underberg
steak knife 225 em spoon Xo V.S.O.P fruit grappa liqueurs fruit fruit

(t Kitchen utensils 4f) Wine and spirit glasses

152
 ROOMS
Kitchens

Working processes
The layout of a kitchen should enable rational and time-saving
working. In addition to a suitable arrangement of appliances, shelves
and worktops ---7 p. 149, working processes can also be optimised
and accelerated with opposing worktops ---7 0. The kitchen can
1-45-HO+B0/1.1 O-t-6H
also be used by two people at the same time in the same area if the
0 Section through kitchen with two f) Section through kitchen with room
worktops and appliances are appropriately arranged ---7 f).
workplaces for two people
High cupboards and shelves should be suitably positioned relative
to the working areas and should be comfortable to reach ---7 0 -
0. Worktops placed at the correct height for the relevant activity
ROOMS
can make kitchen work considerably easier ---7 0.
Access
Kitchens are frequently used areas of the house and should be Kitchens
Living areas
comfortable and easy to clean ---7 (D. It is a good idea to set window Bathrooms
sills at a suitable height above the worktop so that windows can Subsidiary rooms
be opened without having to clear the worktop ---7 e. Garages

BS EN 1116
The lighting should include lights fixed under the wall cupboards BS 6222
---7 f). The arrangement of switches and sockets and the additional BS EN 60335
BS EN 14749
r-oo-t-1.20/1.50 +ao-i space required for installations built into cladding, radiators and
1-1.20/1.50-l DIN EN 1116
C) Low-level ovens require appropriate
room for movement; provide an
e Worktops 60 em deep
their pipework should be taken into account in the planning and
spacing of the worktops.
extractor fan above the cooker

................................................. . . . . . . . . . . . . .a-.. . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1--60+ 1.20/1.50 +60-l

Normal height for bucket sinks and

the maximum height for sinks with
Q Reach-through hatch between
kitchen and dining area with
m Adjacent working 4!} The best height for a metal plate to
enable a doorto be kicked open
usable high-level shelf shelves for crockery at higher level; between pantry and dining room
can be opened from either side

::·:·::::::::::::.·:.:::. ............................................ :·:·····:·····················::::::.•::::::::::. . ............................

f) Correct and incorrect kitchen

lighting
e Normal table height of 85 em
lies between the best height for
G) Pull-out worktop intended for
seated working
0 Correct installation of cupboard
base for comfortable cleaning and
bread making and the sink working ~1 0 em

· : : : : : : :•• ......... • : : 0 • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . .: : : : : : : : :

Q Artificial ventilation with a fan (D) Extractor fan above cooker

e Slide-out, swivelling table 0 At the breakfast/snack bar

(A) or extractor hood (B)

153
 ROOMS
Living Areas

Dining rooms
Dining rooms fulfil communication, social and prestige functions.
They form a central part of the (communal) life within a home.
The spectrum ranges from a breakfast/snack bar in the kitchen
to the occupants of the house taking meals together to dining
with guests (in a separate dining room). The requirements for the
design and spatial layout of the dining areas are correspondingly
varied. The dining table may well be considered the central point
of organisation in the home --7 p. 150 e.
0 Place setting for: soup, fish dish, f) Place setting for: soup, fish and
dessert, drink meat dish, ice cream, sparkling,
ROOMS white and red wine Minimum requirements
Access The dining area should be laid out to accommodate the anticipated
Kitchens size of the household. It should always offer space for at least
Living areas
Bathrooms 4 people.
Subsidiary rooms 1-60 +50-1.1 0 -tt-45 +40 +-80 ---! f-60-l- 40+35+-50-1
Garages
Spatial layout
Dining areas are normally oriented to the south or west. A direct
connection to the kitchen (or pantry) is practical. It is good to
provide for extension (with sliding partitions etc.) for special
events. Dining areas should have access to the balcony or terrace
if possible.

8 Pull-out table and kitchen bar with 0 Space for drawers and doors
If a separate breakfast area is desired, this is best placed to the
south or east of the house. If it is sited in the kitchen, it will require
bar stools
additional storage and movement areas.

Equipment and space requirements

1-60-+-35-f-60--145-60 1--80-145-601-35-1 I-55-I 45-50 1---90-110---1 45-50 1-90-110---1
In order to be able to eat comfortably, a person needs a table area
of approx. 60 x 40 em --7 0. This results in sufficient distance
from a neighbour and room for a complete place setting. The
centre of the table should have a 20 em strip for plates, pots
and bowls.
A snack area can be formed from a pull-out table with a height
of 70-75 em --7 0. If there is room, a folding table fixed to a free-
e Space between sideboards and
tables
0 Minimum distance of table from
wall
standing cupboard is a good solution. A movement area of 80 em
is required to the left and right of the table.
A space-saving kitchen bar also has a depth of 40 em, but needs
less space because of the projection of 15 em. Special bar stools
or chairs are needed in this case --7 0 + 0. A dining area in the
1-60 +-1.2 -t--85 -t-80 -j kitchen needs an amount of space according to the layout, but
can often replace a dining room.

~--~~-o-1 A comfortable round dining table has a diameter of min. 0.90 m,

~ul§l
though 1.10-1.25 m would be preferable.
A corner bench with table takes up less space than any other dining
area layout. If more than three people are to be accommodated,

f) Kitchen bar, plan -> 0 e Round table, 4-6 people

the movement area increases by 80 em per seating place. Dining
table lighting should avoid glare.

l------2.0-----...j
10 f+5o-+-8o--t-so-H1o

:!0

o
181!111!:1
•t D ·I
± L____________________
B1III
J 11
large dining room for
width of table
width of places
additional for head of
table places
6-24 people
55-110 em
55-70 em
10--20 em

place width x no. people

Tables and
chairs for

4 people
5 people
6 people
w1
Width
(em)

130 -
w2
Depth
(em)
d1 d2 A1
Area
(m2)

180 200 2.34 2.6

180 190 180 200 3.24 3.8
195 - 180 200 3.51 3.9
A2

;;; round table 7 people 245 255 180 200 4.41 5.1
3.14
8 people 260 - 180 200 4.68 5.2
e.g. for 60 em place width and 6 people
f-45--j f--- 11 =1.8---j ~ 60 x 6 = 1.04 m w1, d1, A 1 without space for pulling out chair
f----1.8--.j 3.14 w2, d2, A2 with space for pulling out chair
f--- t2 =2.0-------l
C) Minimum space required for snack
and dining areas (five people)
([!) Minimum space required for snack
and dining areas (nine people)
m Minimum space required for snack
and dining areas (4-8 people)
f) Minimum table sizes according to
number of people

154
 ROOMS
Living Areas

Open-air areas
The attractiveness of housing can be considerably enhanced
through open-air areas (balconies, loggias and terraces) adjoining
0 Reclining chair f) Garden table the rooms. In the summer these offer a desirable extension of living
space for relaxing, lounging, sleeping, reading and eating, and can
also offer an extended working area or an easily supervised open-
air play area for children. Balconies, loggias and terraces are a
part of the living areas, for which they are normally calculated as
25-50% ~housing area regulation, p. 136.
They generally have a spatial relationship to living and working
ROOMS
areas and dining rooms (with more than one open area, this can
Access
also include bedrooms, kitchens etc.). Good orientation (compass Kitchens
direction, view), sufficient size and protection from overlooking, Living areas
noise and weather (wind, rain, strong sunshine) are decisive for Bathrooms
Subsidiary rooms
>-----;;; 2.80 - - - - - - < ,___;:; 1.80 - - - - l the quality of open areas. Garages

e Corner balcony 0 Open balcony The space required for the parapet (and its planting) has to be
included in the functionally required depth.
Corner balconies ~ 8 offer privacy and wind protection, and
are more comfortable than open balconies ~ 0. Open balconies
should therefore be protected on the weather side. Recessed
balconies (loggias) ~ 0 enlarge the external wall area of the
adjoining rooms (causing heat loss) but offer the nearest to an
'open-air room'. From plan stage, offset balconies provide
excellent protection against overlooking and wind~ 0- f) .

,
..........

:
r----5; 3.50----1----"= 3.50-------l >-~•
c:

~
Living
(:) Recessed balcony (loggia) area
en
ll
-·-····-·j
4) Possible relationships of rooms to open areas

e Balconies offset by stepping f) Balconies with angular offset

l---1.80--j

=:::::::J/Ic::::;:::: ' 0
I
"'
+
I
I
o:
;;i4 ~12
H
o: ..l

1 C!) G)
lllllllllllllf
Pram, reclining chairs Sitting group with table
;;;
0
I'JI

1 :512
i/11

~aiEl
1 - - 3.50 -----11-1.50 -1

e Dimensions of railings f) Balcony adjacent to interior dining area 0

"" II IC I D
DOD
I~l
1
A f---4.20-l
A
.,/"\ I/'II

BO BIB 1 ~~BflBif 0
I
.,;

B 1----4.20-----1 B 4.80
Glazed loggia as Reinforced concrete precast elerr Steel balcony with wooden pavin!
th~:~rm.::ol c::tnr;::onA thArm::.llv ~An~u::.tArl with rmttAr frnnt mnnnlt>rl n::.r:mpf
. , A= 7.0 m2
balcony for 3-4 people 4D A= 6.0 m2 balcony for 1-2 people
4li) Possible structural details for balconies B = 9.0 m2 balcony for 5-6 people B = 10 m2 balcony for 3-4 people

155
 ROOMS
Living Areas

Conservatories
Conservatories project from living rooms with their large glazing
areas. Originally they were heated by sunshine, naturally ventilated
---> 'ii) - G) and served as climatic buffer zones and to preserve
plants in the cold part of the year.
Nowadays conservatories are mostly seen as an extension of living
space, and used particularly in the spring and autumn. If equipped
with appropriate additional heating and automatic ventilation, they
can accommodate sub-tropical plants. In many cases they are part
of the heated building volume with corresponding requirements
ROOMS for their outer envelope.
Access
Kitchens
Living areas
Bathrooms
Subsidiary rooms
0 Solar town house, conservatory on two storeys --> 0 + 0
Garages Arch.: Planungsteam LOG

t) Natural shade

f) Projecting conservatory 8 Corner conservatory

CD) Ventilation and extraction 4D External sun shades

Q External corner conservatory e Conservatory covering entire
building width
Plans
<D Corridor
® Wind lobby
® Hall
@ Living room
® Dining room
® Double garage
(f) Kitchen
® Utility room
® Children's room
® Energy greenhouse
® Storage surface
@ Bedroom
@ Balcony

Cf) Ground floor of solar town house--. 0 + 0

0 Recessed conservatory f) Transverse projecting conservatory

Plan

(j) Conservatory
@Gallery
®Swimming pool
@Terrace
@Kitchen
® Dining room
(f) Living room

e Plan--.0 Arch.: Helm+ Muller Architektur GmbH @ First floor--> 0 +0 Arch.: Planungsteam LOG

156
 I
ROOMS
Living Areas

---~
Living areas are categorised into those with shared rooms (living
and dining rooms, kitchens) and individual (private) rooms for one
or two people (parents' (bed)room, children's room, guest room).
This differentiation leads to the conventional room layouts,
0 particularly in commercial house building.
But the way living areas are actually used is much more complex
1---- ;;;3.60 - - - - - - i and varied. Bedrooms today are often used for work, play and
relaxation and thus have some of the functions of shared rooms.
0 Flexibly functional individual room (movement area suitable for a wheelchair)
This makes the fitting out of an individual room within a house as
a small apartment worth considering.
Morning sun ROOMS
I
---7 0: an individual room which can be used for a flexible range Access
of functions. It has an area of approx. 13m2 , including movement Kitchens
Living areas
areas suitable for a wheelchair and possible extension onto an Bathrooms
open balcony. Subsidiary rooms
Garages
8: bedrooms with minimal space of approx. 13 m2 (as
---7 f) -
BS 8300
parents' room or twin bedroom) and approx. 8 m2 (single room). DD 266
These would normally be aligned to east or southeast (parents) DIN 18025
or south to west (children) and separated from the living room in
MBO
another part of the home.
see also: Design
---7 0: the options for a generous twin bedroom of 16.5 m2 , which basics p.135
could be partitioned (for example, for children as they grow up).
f) (Parents') bedroom with walk-in cupboard extension
0: a small, independent individual area with shower room and
---7
separate cupboard zone.
The conventional living room as a shared residential room and
prestigious face of the house for visitors is increasingly developing
into a multi-functional communications zone, which has to serve
0 the needs of residents, but also guests and visitors ---7 e-o.
.,;
/Ill

1 n_ _ _ ~_g_~_ _ _ _ u
8 Small bedroom and small twin bedroom

I
ODD
ODD
I I
e
1--------a.oo,---------t
I
8 Twin bedroom (can be partitioned) All-purpose room with cloakroom, kitchen. and eating and living areas

I - - ;;; 2.00 ----j 1----- ;;; 3.30 - - - - 1 ...

I
CJ I I
DLlD itJ!
I I 0 0

9 Small individual area with shower room and cupboard zone 8

ODD
IXIXIXI
8.00

Classic living room with dining area

i.,+-:~~~--+-1

IL//:::rl
I I
157
 ROOMS
Living Areas

T
1

ROOMS
Access
0 Sheepskin roll-up futon, the
Japanese form of bed
f) Camp bed with canvas cover, can
be folded up and used as a bench
Low-level steel tubular bed
with quilt or woollen blankets
e Classic wooden bed with footboard
and headboard
Kitchens
Living areas
Bathrooms
Subsidiary rooms
Garages

9 Sofa bed: duvet and pillows can be

rolled up during the daytime and
0 As before, but with compartment
under the mattress to store the
0 Sofa with divan behind the
inclined backrests
e Sofa bed with pull-out
mattress unit
zipped into the covers bedding during the day

8 High bed with deep drawers and (!) Cupboard-bed with low cupboard for 4D Three-level bunks for dormobiles, @) Pullman bed for sitting and sleeping
slide-out board on top, with covers clothes, suitable for very small rooms, weekend houses and children's rooms, in vehicle; backrest folds up to form
ship's cabins, studio rooms etc. space required 0.338 rn" per bed second bed

1.90---j

G) Armchair bed (fold-out); separate

container required for bedding
0 Sofa bed (fold-out) 4) Frankfurt bed (folds away
sideways)
e Frankiurt bed (folds away vertically),
two adjacent or as double bed

f- 72 -+-- 68 -----1
,. . . . . ,. . . . . ' ls}
(IBIIII)
J
I
~
~ I

.,------2.10------i<
:
,

T ' i;'' !' 21.00 ''

I'

Fold-up bed on rollers for one or

two people, can be rolled into a
73
1
4li) Wall cupboard for roller
bed with narrow door
::
I'

~--·--- -~ ~-------j
:
'

~ Roller beds can stand in

front of closed cupboard
'
.''' ___________ ....'
fll)
1
With swivelling and folding
beds, the wall cupboard stays open
cupboard during the daytime opening door at night

158
 ROOMS
Living Areas

Wardrobes and linen cupboards

Contents (example):

For men For women

8 suits 6 suits
6 coats 10 coats
8 jackets 5 jackets
12 pairs trousers 20 dresses
20 shirts 15 skirts
15 T-shirts 15 blouses
12 jumpers 20 tops ROOMS
4 pairs pyjamas 15 jumpers Access
8 pairs shoes 15 pairs trousers/leggings Kitchens

/
/ 9-10
I 1 2 hats 6 pyjamas/nightdresses
10 pairs shoes
4 hats
Living areas
Bathrooms
Subsidiary rooms
Garages

l?="'==tt::--"
.,/ suits
+
g Sundry items
see also: Store
rooms p. 162
~,,
1 6 sheets
33 \ underwear
internal finish: 6 duvet covers
wallpaper or painted
12 pillows and cases
0 Free-standing wardrobe and linen f) Built-in wardrobe and 8 bath towels
cupboard: plan, sections linen cupboard with upper
8 hand towels
compartment

Details and fitting out

Wardrobes and linen cupboards are an essential part of fitting out
a home. They serve to store (larger) items of clothing, linen, shoes
and suitcases, and are normally situated in the bedroom.
The essential elements of a wardrobe are a drawer unit, a
hanging rail and additional shelves. It can be a free-standing
wardrobe -7 0. a built-in wardrobe (wall cupboard, single or
double wardrobe constructions) -7 f)- 0 or in the form of a walk-
in wardrobe or dressing room -7 0 -e.
Built-in wardrobe wall units -7 0 are useful as partitions between
bedrooms. In small rooms space can be optimally used with
cupboards built into wall niches -7 0 with continuous flooring
(and sliding doors).

>--1.00 _____, f--1.50- When determining a house's layout, appropriate space should be
f-35-1-65--1 t--55--+-65-+-30-l planned for. Free-standing (movable) wardrobes are suitable for
fitting out rented flats, and built-in wardrobes are often desired in
owner-occupied houses and flats.

I
0
When wardrobes are sited along external walls, care should be
taken that the thermal insulation is adequate and that ventilation
is provided. Walk-in wardrobes also require appropriate

Built-in double wardrobe,

I Movable wardrobe between two
ventilation -7 0.

saving cost and space rooms

2.00

e Built-in wall units, with wardrobes

both sides
0 Wardrobe/dressing room 0 Built-in cupboard and walk-in
wardrobe
e Practical heights for free-standing
cupboards

159
 ~]
ROOMS
Bathrooms

A bathroom is defined as an independent room with bath/shower

and toilet and, according to building regulations, belongs to the
minimum equipment of a flat or house. In larger houses, bath
1.04
and we should be in separate rooms, or an additional we (guest
We) should be provided. The bathroom should be oriented to
the north, and if possible have natural ventilation and lighting
(otherwise provide effective mechanical ventilation according to
DIN 18017-3). The bathroom is normally next to the bedroom --7
e- 0. e- ([!), although it is also often convenient for technical
1.87' reasons to place bath and kitchen (or we and kitchen) on a
ROOMS Warm water Warm water Warm water Duration of use
common installation shaft --7 e - o.
Access required for: quantity (I) temperature ("C) (approx. min)

.fJ
Kitchens
full bath 140-160 40 15
Living areas
l!l---·1 I· --...
,./lJ
Bathrooms sitting bath 40 40 5 ljl!l!"'
l!J
gents' room
Subsidiary rooms

l1J'·,,,jr-la-d-ie-s'_r_o-om--,~
Garages footbath 25 40 5
shower 40-75 40 6
MBO

0
~~,~~~~~~if(
Bathtubs and warm water requirement. Shorter tubs reduce the quantities
see also: Sound
insulation p. 477 (guideline values)

Equipment Area required

Width(cm) Depth (em) stairs

Washbasins, hand basins and bidets

1. single washbasin ""60 g55
G Relationships of rooms to the bathroom

2. double washbasin ""120 "'55

3. built-in vanity unit with one washbasin and cupboard ""70 ~60
underneath
4. built-in vanity unit with two washbasins and cupboard ""140 ""60
underneath
5. hand basin ""45 ""35
6. bidet, floor-standing or wall-hanging 40 60
Tubs
7. bathtub ""170 ""75
B. shower tray$ ~80 "'so·
WCs and urinals
9. we with wall installation or pressure flush 40 75
10. we without cistern (with cistern installed in wall) 40 60
11. urinal 40 40
Laundry equipment
0 Bathroom between the bedrooms, Bathroom on corridor between living
we accessible from corridor room and the three bedrooms
12. washing machine 40-60 60
13. washer/dryer 60 60
Bathroom furniture according to ""40
14. low cupboards, wall cupboards, high cupboards manufacturer

• for shower trays, width= 90 also 75 em

f) Space required for items in bathroom and WC

6T1'
Arrangement

~M,---4
lr ·lim
f-----.-Ma-------1

Dim
Measurements
M,
M,
M,
MD'
1200
2100
1350
MiU·
1050
1900
1200

MM 1 M 450 400 0 Kitchen, bathroom and WC e Kitchen, bathroom and WC

lm_
~MM!
~M, MM 675 600 on one installation wall on one Installation wall
m I MM 1
MM 2
750
675
575
500
M1 MM 1 M 450 400
1M; IMMI

L@L Jll@L GJL MM

M,
MM 1
675
450
600
600
400
525

I[ 1--M3--+Mtl M 450 400

~
MM 675 600
M
~ ~2 ~1
M,
M,
450
550
400
500
M, 1100 1000
*MD =Average, recommended dimension M, 750 700
**Mi =Absolute minimum dimension M, 950 900

e Centre-line and wall spacing for sanitary fittings 0 Bathroom off an internal corridor 4Ii} Typical bathroom in terraced house

160
 ROOMS
Bathrooms

Details and fitting out

The former standard valid for movement areas in bathrooms was
withdrawn without replacement in 2007, because it inadequately
considered the requirements of disabled people. The dimensions
given here should therefore be considered as absolute minimums.
j---;;, 90--!15!--1,00 - j f--1.10--1 The movement areas in bathrooms should generally be based
0 Space requirements in bathroom Room between bath and wall on the 'Accessible building' standard --> 4D --> p. 21 ff.
(guideline values).
The basic bathroom categories are: (guest) WCs with we and
washbasin --> 0 - 0, shower rooms with shower and basin -->
0- 0, bathrooms with bath, washbasin and we --j 0- e. full
bathrooms with bath, shower, washbasin and we --j (!!). ROOMS
Access

T Because of the high humidity and resulting condensation, the Kitchens

Living areas
"' surfaces must be easy to clean. Wall and ceiling plaster sh.ould
1
;;:;
be able to absorb and release enough moisture. Floor coverings
should be sufficiently slip-resistant. If there is no laundry room,
Bathrooms
Subsidiary rooms
Garages
....
..L
the bathroom must be designed with space and connections for a see also:
I washing machine, washer/dryer and laundry basket. Accessible
building p. 21
"'
1"'
Sound insulation
One earthed socket is to be provided (next to the mirror). p. 477
In addition, the following should be included in the design of
f-3Q-1--105 ---1 f---50 - j ~1.70 ---t-30--1 bathrooms and wes: cupboards for towels and cleaning materials,
f) In the shower At the washbasin Bathing and sitting lockable medicine cabinet, towel rail (perhaps with additional
heating), hand grips above the bath.

f-i'; 1.00-l
f--i'; 1.15---1
c::::J 0

D l. l
0

OCD
0
~g c::::J 0

C) we with washbasin e we with handbasin C) Functional split of the bathroom Into separate rooms

! - - - - - - - > 3.15-------j
20 20 20
f-----i'; 1.60--j f---80 ---1-if-40 -H-60-+t---75-j
20 20
f-----i'; 1.60--l 1-+-40-f-t-80---!
20 20
f-+-40 -f-t-80 -----1

4I!) Full bathroom with space for washing machine

0 Space required for shower 0 Shower room with washing machine

~1.50 --t-90--f-55--rr

"OJo gi
l - - i ' ; 2.35------l
20 20 20
f---75 ---t+-£0-t-+40-H ~1.70
> 2.70
20 20
60---f-1 ID
.,."'
_____ : ,------- ----------::;- +
: I 0

oo6 l
N

I T
~II

l 1.50x1.50 !OJ
J[· ]Jo 1 .....-~------~---------------!
! .
~±
g

c
0
": "'"l

1 1 oco
"''
j---------~)3~-+-1~
8 Space required for bathtub e Full bath G Accessible bathroom with showering space

161
 ROOMS
Subsidiary Rooms

Storerooms
Storerooms are used for keeping and storing cleaning equipment,
tools, cleaning agents, shopping baskets, and bulky items like
bags, suitcases, washing baskets and stepladders. Sufficiently
large storerooms, particularly in flats, make a considerable
contribution to comfort. The building regulations require that
0 Storeroom on Internal corridor f) Storage spaces in the corridor
every flat or house be provided with a sufficiently large
storeroom.
and bedrooms

In addition to cellar and attic areas in a property, storage space

should therefore be provided within a flat of E;;1 m2 with a clear
ROOMS width of 75 em. In larger flats, 2% of the floor area should be
shoe
Access ~--~cupboard provided as storage space (split into many small areas is also
Kitchens
Living areas acceptable). It is practical to locate a part of this storage area near
Bathrooms the kitchen.
Subsidiary
rooms Storage rooms can be in the form of niches (for built-in cupboards)
Garages
or box rooms ~ 0 - (). Doors to storerooms should open
MBO outward for reasons of space. The light inside the room should be
operated by a contact switch by the door. Good ventilation should
be provided.
Larder, pantry
When designing a flat or house, a larder (or pantry) should be
e Storage and cupboard spaces e Storeroom and shoe cupboard
in the entrance area
installed in addition to the general provision of storage space,
despite the additional space required, with shelves to the ceiling.
This is for the storage of supplies of food and drink, as well as
fresh foodstuffs which keep relatively well; space can thus be
- saved space in the refrigerator. Basic layouts of larders~ 8. It

~
is most practical when the larder is next to the kitchen. It should
be cool, ventilated and protected from direct sunlight~()- G). If
required, a socket for a freezer should be provided, and possibly
also a wine cooler.

so so ,so, ,so so 1 75-

I s~.2s
75 7S
1 1 1 1
1.7S 1.75 1.2s
I
single sided double sided U shape Lshape

9 Larders -> () - @)

dining
area
..::::::::!1,---=--..Y
0 Larder next to cupboard Q Corner larder 4li> Larder next to eating area 4D Larder with high-level window

e Spacious larder 0 Larder using space next to bath 0 As before, next to WC G Larder in lobby to kitchen

162
 1--45---t ROOMS
Subsidiary Rooms
t------- 1.00-----;

Laundry/utility rooms
Laundry/utility rooms are used to carry out domestic work like
washing and drying clothes, ironing and sewing. They can also be
storage rooms for small items of equipment, detergents, cleaning
agents and polishes, buckets and vacuum cleaners, tools and
ladders. The provision of a laundry/utility room is particularly
useful in flats, despite the additional space required.
0 Space required for ironing while f) Built-In cupboard for ironing
seated board
These rooms are best placed to the northeast, next to or easily
accessible from the kitchen ~ 8 - 61. In this way, tasks can be
combined and carried out by one person. In detached houses,

rr~
ROOMS
direct access should be provided to the garden (for drying laundry). Access
Kitchens
Living areas
In the design of utility rooms, a comfortable and healthy Bathrooms
arrangement of appliances is important: An ironing board used Subsidiary
in the standing position requires a different height to one that is rooms
I
~'- ~ ~-~
Garages
used seated ~ 0 - 0. A fully adjustable ironing board is ideal.
95
A worktop of 1.20 m width should be provided to deal with the
'<
~·) washing. Good uniform lighting is required in the working area of
the laundry/utility room (average light intensity~ 350 lx).
t) Ironing machine G Sewing machine

0 Space required for clothes horse 0 Scheme of relationships of 4D) Next to the kitchen, accessible CD Accessible from the kitchen
rooms to the laundry/utility room from the corridor

T <D Dirty washing

(chute)

t
"!
@Washbasin
®Washing machine
®Washer/dryer
@ Ironing machine
@Work top
(j) Wall cupboard
@Tall cupboard

+
0

I
f) U-shaped laundry/utility room 4!} Kitchen-eating area-laundry/utility G) Next to eating area
room

Equipment and Width (em) Better

appliances
automatic washing 60 60
machine and washer/
dryer above each other
f-60--/--6o-+-6o--/--69?! washbasin with water 60 60
@ r----l ~ heater

~
laundry basket 50 60
washing worktop 60 120
ironing machine approx. 100 100
cupboard space for 50 60
minor equipment
total approx. 380 460
at (E)
e Two-lane laundry/utility room f) Equipment and space required
Kitchen-eating area-laundry/utility
room
One-room kitchen and laundry/
utility room

163
 "'c
·:;;;
ROOMS
'" ·:;;;"'
c Subsidiary Rooms
·:;;;"'
CJ)
'iii c c CJ)
0
"' 2
'5'
"""' -o ~a. -"
X
.~

""'
.c 0 .c
lD :;::: a:" (/) lD :;:::

I I
Wine cellars

IR.
"' "'"' "'"'
T
(;j
I "'"'
Wine cellars should if possible be below ground on all sides. The
location should be next to the house; the north side is recommended.
Ideal conditions are 70% humidity, 10-12 ac. Wines age quicker
with every degree above 12 °C. (Temperatures of 1-1 0 oc do not
damage wine.) Such requirements can be met through the use

f-75 -1 f-75 -1
1 1 1 1 1- 87-l 1-- w---1 l--9--j
of air conditioning, or an air-conditioned cupboard or door ---1 $.
When air conditioning is used, the ceiling and walls should be
insulated. A sealed door (2.01 x 0.63 m) of coated and insulated
steel plate should be installed. A porous, breathing floor, like sand
0 Bottles
or unglazed bricks, and brick walls provide natural humidity.
ROOMS
Access
Kitchens
Living areas
T 50
The room ventilation has to be regulated flexibly according to
climate and time of year.
Lighting in a wine cellar should be as low as possible and only
Bathrooms
Subsidiary
rooms
1 switched on when required. Storage shelves should be of porous,
breathing materials, e.g. breeze block, quarried natural stone,
Garages ~
~ sand-lime blocks or Hydroton expanded clay elements. This
~ regulates the humidity and stabilises the temperature. A natural
microclimate is created in the room ---j f). e-
On account of the temperature graduation, sparkling wines should
97 l--97-----1 be stored near the floor, white wines in the middle and red wines
f) Example of stacking in storage f) Wine rack/breeze block as high as possible ---1 0 +G).
units--.0
6 litre bottles per stone

I"'"l

54
T
1
1 1--- 1.095 -------1
l---50---j f-50-1 l - 3 65-----1

G Wine rack of quanied natural stone 9 Rack heights --> e e Sand-lime rack blocks 8 Inspection rack--> 0
~30
'y I-- 1.0 ----1
12 1-- 80 --4
)-1m2 Best red wines,
18 particularly Burgundy
64 bottles 16'-18'C Room temperature
Red wine Red Burgundy 16 Chianti, Zinfade!,
10'-13'C
White wine
8'-10'C
Rose or
dessert wine
r
1.48
~hJ~eJauJ~~~dy
~h~~~lemperature iO

Dry while wines

14
C5tes du RhOne
Ordinaires
12 Lighter red wines
e. g, Beaujolais
RosS, dessert wines

1
Champagne Lambrusco
6'C
Sparkling Fridge temperature 6 Sweet white wines
wine VIew Open door Sparkling wines general

Ground plan

0 Clay tubes and ornamental blocks 0 Air-conditioned cupboard for wine 4Ii} Air-conditioned door for wine G Storage temperatures for wines

165 ~~ . .
'.' '

1
19
21 5
Cellar
24

Length
25om
GF grid
Length=
25 em gird

Cellar

165 H---- 1.80- -----+1165

5.50 ....., Supply
1
4!} Vaulted cellar @) Plan---1$ e Installed in a cellar ~ Plan---1Q)

164
 ROOMS
Subsidiary Rooms

Communal storerooms
In addition to the storerooms or storage spaces in each flat,
for residential buildings in building classes 3-5, the building
regulations require an easily accessible (communal) storeroom
for prams, pushchairs and bicycles. Corresponding areas should
also be provided in other residential buildings and detached
houses.

For the design of these rooms, it can be assumed that at

least one vehicle per occupant (including children) has to be
accommodated. In addition to bicycles, prams and pushchairs, ROOMS
it is also necessary to consider mopeds, tricycles, trailers etc. Access
-->0. Kitchens
Living areas
The rooms should if possible be located at street level, be lockable Bathrooms
Subsidiary
and equipped with hooks and bicycle stands to secure the stored rooms
vehicles. They can be laid out as storerooms inside the building (with Garages
access to the entrance) or as separate bicycle sheds --> f) - 8. MBO
A sufficient number of additional bicycle stands should be provided
in the open air, particularly if the storeroom has been situated in the see also:
Storerooms
cellar. p.162

Cellar
The storage space provided for each flat normally consists of
0 Space required for bicycles, prams, pushchairs, bicycle trailers, tricycles,
a storeroom inside the flat --> p. 162, and an additional space
mopeds etc.
outside the flat. This is normally provided as a cellar compartment
--> 0- e, but can also be provided inexpensively as a parking shed
Lattice girder in the grounds. Cellar storerooms should be dry and well ventilated.
J Natural lighting is to be recommended. Appropriate detailing of the
. . .T '-
window opening can optimise the light entering --> 0.

I"'N
0 Bicycle
stands
;--.. ''- ~

l
7" Light shaft Light entry
(precast)
IF
~ It
jiiF
II'- 1-- r--

f---1.20--l

f) Section -> 0
0
"i
"'

I
Cladding plates

Steel tubular construction

e Section -> 4:}

I I I I I
I I I I I I
}___ t________ l_ ______ j _______ t______ T _______ t __ System construction of
0 ~ Bicycle stands § galvanised metal mesh
"'
.,;
f---r"--------r------,-------r------...AJt... ______ T __
: : : : l j_ :
: : : : : :
T
0
"l

I
Arrangement
at alternative
1-----3.501-------j
1-l__!!!heilli9ruht!;,s_ _ _ _ _ _ 6 . 0 0 - - - - - - - - - - - l

e Bicycle/pram room for about 20 vehicles (example) 0 Cellar compartment in a residential building (example)

165
 ...... ~-~~ .... ROOMS
/' '\) Garages and Carports

..-.,:..-·/
According to the building regulations, the necessary parking spaces
must be provided in the grounds of the residential building itself or
Residential in other suitable grounds at a reasonable distance where it is legal
building
to park. The parking spaces are often provided as single or double
garages or car parks, free-standing or attached to the building.

Office/ Space requirement ~ 0 - 0. A reduction in the parking area is

library possible for private houses. The tendency of modern cars to get
(_ .... ·· .. larger (including in height} should be taken into account.

ROOMS .......... _ ,.<~" /

In addition to garages, roofed-over parking places (carports)
Access
represent a cheaper, more beneficial in terms of building physics
Kitchens (no condensation in cold cars in the winter!) and space-saving
Living areas Garden
Bathrooms
possibility for protecting cars adequately from the weather (a close
Subsidiary rooms wall on the weather side is a good idea). A combination with enclosed
Garages .

Garage/
\ ,.···-. storerooms (for bicycles etc.) is to be recommended ~ @. Carports
are particularly suitable for communal parking places ~ 0.

~~:~:"
pavilion

Examples of the layout and design of parking places for cars in

connection with residential buildings ~ 0- f).

Q House with double garage at the front (can also be used as a garden pavilion)
Arch.: Studio Paretaia

ll::~ ~I
T
0
N
T C'i
0
All
" I

l--2.50-3.00-l l--5.00-6.00 ---!

f) Relationship between the garage and other areas of the house
0 Section-+0 e Section~ (!)

I I
~
0
0 0
0

t ~
"l
0
.,;
"'
1 f--3.80'----l *Suitable for
1
I--2.5Q-3.00-I wheel chairs l--5.00-6.00 ---!
0 Garage next to or in a detached
house
e Garages next to or in terraced
houses
0 Single garage
4D Double garage

T
0
0
<'i
Terraced houses All
_I_

I
0
0
.,;
0
0
'!i
All All
Road

1 1
'Suitable for 1--3.50'-l
1--~5.00-{
wheel chairs 1-;;; _ -+-- ;;; 2 _75 __,
2 75
Road Greened carports
Carport for two cars and possibly 4l} Carport as communal parking
0 Garage at the back of the plot 0 Communal parking spaces bicycles place

166
 STUDENT RESIDENCES
General Design Notes

Halls of residence are normally provided near colleges and

universities for students and are normally built and operated in
various architectural forms (20-30 units in courtyard layout or
groups of open structures, large buildings with 80 or more units).
They are used for the accommodation of students for the duration
of their course. The size and equipping of the rooms is often
very limited. Options such as single rooms, (double) flats and flat
sharing groups have proved successful. The arrangement and
design of the communal areas within and around the residences
are decisive for their acceptance.

Requirements
Ground floor plan Student flats are 'living places' and not considered as residential
homes in the sense of the building regulations. The general
requirements of the building regulations essentially concern STUDENT
RESIDENCES
residential rooms with minimum requirements for floor area (8 m2),
'!180
ceiling height (2.40 m), orientation, ventilation and lighting (window
area Ys of the room area), accessibility requirements (i.e. for disabled State guidelines
for student
people) and escape routes (two independent escape routes from residences
Section A-A
each floor, one of which is a legally essential stairway). The state
guidelines for student residences set recommended dimensions
0 Student residence in Halle/Saale Arch.: Gemot Schulz
for living places (approx. 12 m2 for single rooms and approx. 16
in: Hillebrand!+ Schulz, Cologne
m2 for flats). In addition to this, a certain area will be required for
communal use.

Forms of living
These can be categorised into flat sharing -> f) - 0 and
individual rooms-> 0. e-
When flats are shared, the communal area is of more importance,
similar to a home. A group of rooms (4-8) with some functions
transferred to the communal area (kitchen, bathroom) has a
linear -> f) or central -> 8 type of layout. Single rooms located
along a corridor with communal bathroom and kitchen form the
1st floor plan classic (but anonymous) form of student residence. What has
proved successful is the further development of the single room
as flat-> e(room with shower room and perhaps kitchenette) and
the double flat -> 0 - 0 (two rooms with communal kitchen and
bath). This latter form of residence can be used very flexibly by
singles and also by couples (with child).

1-1.50-lt-1.50-t-t-1 .50-tt-1.50-t 1-1.50 -tt- 2.20 --tt-1.50 -t

T
~

Section A-A

f) Student residence in Garchlng Arch.: Fink und Jocher, Munich

t
:5
oi

Communal kitchen
1 1---3.10--++--- 3.10 - - j f-- 2.60 ---tt- 2.60 - t

Bathroom G Flat 9 Double flat

Single
room 12m2

Single Single
room 12m2 room 12m2
--t-2.60--+1.90-f-2.60--f+--2.60--+1.90-f-2.60--f-
Shared flat with single rooms, communal bathrooms and central communal
kitchen 0 Double flat with communal bathroom, kitchen and cupboard zone

167
 ELDERLY PEOPLE'S ACCOMMODATION
Private
area
Retirement Flats

Accommodation for elderly people

A retirement flat 4 8 - 0 is a self-contained flat which takes
the needs of elderly people into account, so that they can live
as independently as possible and not in an old people's home.
Public 1
Such housing is usually scattered around residential areas, with
area 1

i
I
a density of 2-10%. One-person flat 25-35 m2 , two-person
I
I flat 45-55 m2 with weather-protected balconies ~3m 2 , min. depth
I
L __ - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 1.40 m, balcony door without threshold.
0 Relationship diagram Assisted flats for the elderly (~20 m2 per flat) are in a building,
supplemented by communal rooms with tea kitchen. Convenient
if sited in the vicinity of a care home for the elderly with facilities
for dining, recreation, relaxation and therapy. Features a nursing
support point with ward bath, therapeutic work room, central
ELDERLY
washing-up kitchen and cleaning room. One car parking space per
PEOPLE'S AC- 5-8 occupants. Heating 2% above normal. Support of outpatient
COMMODATION services for the elderly.
Retirement flats
Nursing and Home for the elderly with residential living and care facilities.
care homes According to the law concerning such homes, there are stringent
Examples
regulations on planning, licensing and operation. The large
ancillary areas mean that an economic size is about 120 places
with the provision of care, function and therapy rooms. There is
an integrated care department for short-term care. General fitting
out: stair steps 16/30 em without underlay, colour-highlighted
f) Functions of a centre for the elderly step edges and handrails on both sides, also in the corridors. Lifts
for moving patients on stretchers or in folding chairs. Accessible
building standard applies. Location: as near as possible to town or
village infrastructure and public transport.
Day centres for the elderly: function as meeting points and for
outpatient care for independently living elderly people. Approx.
1600 elderly citizens per day centre. With meeting room (can be
divided) up to 120m2 , service and consulting room 20m 2 , rooms
for movement and occupational therapies, changing rooms, group
rooms, WCs, tea kitchen, bowling alley.

8 One-person retirement flat, 40 m2

f---3, 75---+--3.75----l -l--2.50-f-1 ..75+-2.51---l

0 Two person retirement flat, 58 m2 0 Two-person retirement flat, 55.5 m2

f) Retirement flats e Centre for the elderly in Frauensteinmatte, Zug Arch.: Graber Pulver

168
 I [] D
0
D
0
0
ELDERLY PEOPLE'S ACCOMMODATION
Nursing and Care Homes
DO
g C2JC2]
~t
Nursing and care homes for the elderly
These provide nursing, support and care for chronically ill and
other vulnerable elderly people. Activating therapy is intended to
lO
co exercise, maintain and rehabilitate failing powers via medical and
1 care-related assistance. There is a clear separation of residential
and operational areas --'; e.
l--1.55--li--1.90--++-1.90--IH .55--j f-1.55-#--1.80--t+-1.80-H-1.5!H
10 24 10 10 24 10
Guideline dimensions: residential = 50% individual rooms = 18 m2
0 One-bed care room f) Two-bed care room
single rooms, 20 m2 double rooms --'1 0 -- 0. If the bedroom is
separate= 7m 2 single, 12m2 double room. The entrance should
if possible have a minimum size of 1.25 m x 1.25 m (suitable for
wheelchairs) and the wet cell should be fitted with WC, washbasin
and shower.

I"'
A residential group consists of approx. 8--1 0 elderly people with
communal living room and tea kitchen, in which meals are also
taken. One adapted bath is required for every two residential
ELDERLY
PEOPLE'S
ACCOMMODA-

I
TION
groups. Corridor zones and niches can be used for communication Retirement flats
and group building. Nursing and
care homes
Examples
lO
Room requirements:
<>i -- nurses' sitting and handover rooms (support points)
H .63-1\-1.50-++------3.50---1
11 24 ~± lliiiililiill.. -- we and cloakroom
-- care department incl. bathroom with acid-resistant bath (also
C) One-bed care room 8 Two-bed care room
suitable for medical baths), washbasins, WC, bidet and shower
-- cleaning room with bucket sink and sluice for human waste
--washroom
-- subsidiary room for equipment and wheelchairs
-- centralised facilities can be situated in the ground floor and
basement or distributed in the individual departments.

The short-term care department takes in those temporarily in

need of care while their relatives are on holiday, and also provides
hospital aftercare, rehabilitation etc.

Space should be provided for administration, consulting rooms,

function and common rooms, cafeteria, occupational therapy,
gymnastics, chiropody and hairdresser.

0 Section -> Q

~I
ffF------~------T------,----~=rlh=~~~;::+:=rlh=~~==ri
! Bathroom

''
'''

i=rr==,
'

L!lliving
room Air space
Entrance hall
0
0

0 'Haus Gislngen' care home for the elderly, FeldkirchNorarlberg, first floor Arch.: Noldin & Noldin

169
 ELDERLY PEOPLE'S ACCOMMODATION
Examples

ELDERLY
PEOPLE'S AC-
COMMODATION
Retirement flats
Assisted and
care hones
Examples

0 'Haus Nofels' care home for the elderly, FeldkirchNorarlberg, ground and first floors Arch.: Rainer Koberl

G) Single-bed room 16 m2
Existing building- conversion to social wing
® Double-bed room 24 m2
Delivery Disposal Existing building -conversion to bed wing
® Wheel chair room 18 m2
@ Ward care bathroom
® Lounge/group room
® Meeting point
0 Restaurant and event room
@ Kitchen
® SeiVery
@ Home manager/administration
@ Ward sister
@ Reception/kiosk
@ Visitors' WC
@ Aviary
@ Hairdresser
@

Bed block - newbuild

8 'Eibe Flaming' care home for the elderly, Dessau-Rosslau, ground floor Arch.: Kister Scheithauer Gross

170
 HOTELS
Basics
Escape route
Escape route
The hotel, formerly a business offering accommodation and
catering, often with exclusive flair, has today become a complex
Catering and efficient (mass) service provider business with a wide
spectrum of possibilities (conferences, wellness, holidays).
Block Block with foot There are hotels in various price and comfort classes, which are
classified according to five categories ---7 p. 172. A scheme of the
basic room and route relationships within a hotel is shown in ---7 e.
The essential areas are: hotel lobby and reception as the central,
well-arranged and prestigious nerve centre between the various
parts of the operation, catering area in connection with the
hotel lobby (extent of the services depend on the hotel category),
administration, a staff area, which is separately accessed and
partly in direct connection with other areas of the hotel, guest
room area with differentiated rooms and individual access areas HOTELS
arranged under the aspects of category, orientation and noise Basics
Access screening, service area with kitchens, store and associated Rooms
Block (central lobby,
Corner block Examples
multi-storey if required) rooms. The percentages of hotels' surface areas required for the
various functions are shown in ---7 0. Accommodation
Regulations
(BeVO)
Building regulations, general preconditions for the permissibility of a project; type and see also:
building law code, extent of the building use etc. -> p. 56 Catering
zoning plans, etc. pp. 174 ff.
MBO general construction requirements for buildings and building
elements, general fire protection requirements
DIN 4107 noise protection requirements, see-> p. 480
Accommodation additional construction requirements for buildings and
regulations elements for the accommodation of large numbers of people
Solitary
(constructional requirements on walls, columns, floors, doors,
(central lobby)
escape routes, legally essential corridors, alarm systems, safety
Hotel rooms equipment etc.)
Catering guidelines additional construction requirements for catering establishments
(mostly related to fire protection)
Public assembly additional construction requirements for buildings and elements
places regulations in relation to the presence of crowds (escape routes, exits,
corridors, windows, doors etc.)
Workplace additional construction requirements for buildings and elements
regulations and concerning health and safety at the workplace
guidelines
Other requirements e.g. requirements of the accident insurers, accident prevention
regulations, health inspectors, trade supervisors
Star Ensemble
Laws, guidelines, provisions and regulations for the design of businesses
0 Basic forms of hotels
offering accommodation and catering (excerpt)

1. guest rooms, bathrooms, corridors, room service 50--BO%

Stores Stores
2. public areas, lobby, reception etc. 4--7%
Laundry Cool room
Deliveries
3. catering 4-8%
4. events, ballroom, seminar rooms 4--12%

Services ,_ Staffrooms 5. wellness/ fitness area 5-10%

1-
Kitchen 6. other areas, cosmetics, hairdresser 1-2%
I Washing up 7. management, administration 1-2%
Administration 8. service area, kitchen, staff rooms, stores 9-14%
I Room
I 9. building services 5-10%

I Room
I I Reception
I Restaurant
Breakfast
Parking and garage areas and special areas (e.g. wellness and bathing area)
are also to be taken into account (and can vary widely according to the range of
I Room
I I- Lobby
services)

I Room
I Ballroom
m2/room

.
Hotel type
Bar Lounge Seminar 1. luxury 90-110
I Room
I rooms 2. first class 60-70

I I 3. comfort 5Q-60

Relaxation,Sport, 4. standard (holiday hotel, motel) 40-60

Access road
Sauna, (parking, garage) Shops 15-20
5. tourist (low-budget)
Swimming pool

f) Room and access scheme of a hotel

e Guideline values for (above) shares of hotel surface area taken by each
function and (below) gross areas per room in various categories of hotel

171
 1- 4.00 - - - 1 + - - 3.50 ---j HOTELS
Bed
Rooms
Seating

TV
T
0
0
oi
Table Hotel rooms account for the largest share of a hotel by area. The
quality of hotel rooms is an essential criterion for the evaluation of
Luggage shelf

Cupboard
+
0
"l
a hotel by a guest. Traditionally, the trend has been to standardise
and schematise floor plans and arrangements ~ 0.
Bath/WC
I
f--1.60 -!t- 2.20 --++- 2.20 -jj-1.1--l In light of the extended significance of the hotel room (living,
Double room 1 B m2 Single room 15 m2 relaxation,work and sleeping room), architects normally attempt
to answer the economic and technical requirements by reflecting
0 3-star hotel rooms showing features and main dimensions (according to
the demand for comfort through spatial division, while still meeting
DEHOGA classification, single room slightly enlarged)
concerns for individuality and identity 0- m.

HOTELS
Basics
Rooms I I
I I I
Examples I I I
I I I
German I I I I I I
Hotel and Inn :--so-i cso~ ~50ti-SO-i-1.50-i-
Association f) Bathrooms between hotel rooms Bathrooms between hotel rooms
(DEHOGA): Minimum distance between hotel beds
German hotel
classification

Hotel room features, according to DEHOGA (excerpt)

According to the classification system of the German Hotel and

Inn Association (DEHOGA), there are five categories, essentially
Lo determined by the room's size and features:
0 1 Star (Tourist): single room 8m 2 , double room 12m2 (minimum
area for 75% of the hotel rooms, without bathroom), bed, wardrobe,
[Q
seat, washbasin in the room, reception as a separate area
2 Stars (Standard): as before, but single room 12 m2 , double
room 16 m2 (minimum area for 75% of the hotel rooms, including
e Hotel room with extra WC 0 Two-room apartment bathroom and corridor), bathroom in room (for 70% of hotel
rooms), seat per bed, colour television (in 70% of the hotel rooms)
3 Stars (Comfort): as before, but single room 14 m2 , double
room 18 m2 (minimum area, see above), bathroom in room (for
all rooms in the hotel), telephone, reception area with seating for
group, independent reception
4 Stars (First Class): as before, but single room 16 m2 , double
room 22 m2 (minimum area, see above), minibar, armchair/couch
with coffee table, lobby with seating and drinks service
5 Stars (Luxury): as before, but single room 18m2 , double room
26m 2 , (minimum size, see above), 2% of the hotel rooms as suites
(at least two), each with an armchair/sofa per bed, additional
washbasin in double rooms and suites, additional colour television
e Hotel room accessible for a
disabled person with space for
8 Two-room apartment with small
kitchen
in suites, reception lobby.
accompanying person --> p. 21

ODD
D
D
D
D

-1
T
e Hotel room with cupboard zone and
balcony
C) Diagonal room arrangement
m Three-room apartment (suite) with cooking niche, two bathrooms and guest WC

172
 HOTELS
Examples

Guest house in a village environment

The 'Hof der Stille' guest house -7 0 is located in the buildings
of a converted courtyard in an agricultural village in the Havelland
near Berlin.

The individual buildings of the former farm are arranged around

an internal yard, which, in the place's new identity, serves the
role of central access and orientation in the conversion. This also
forms a spatial and visual focus point with the ambience of a
cloister. The simple guest rooms fitted out in the former stables,
the main house with dining room, lounge and seminar rooms, the
flat belonging to the owner and the former barn containing sauna,
fitness and relaxation area are all directed toward this centre.

=
o 10m The individual guest rooms have the character of apartments. HOTELS

0 Guest house, Havel land, ground floor Arch.: Subsolar

They are equipped within the least possible area with a wet
cell and mini-kitchen arranged in the back of the apartment as
Basics
Rooms
Examples
an 'installation rail' along the boundary wall to the neighbouring
property.

Luxury hotel in an urban context

The SIDE Hotel in Hamburg -7 f) - 8 is part of an urban block
and has an (obtuse) corner -7 p. 171. Its shape results from an
external angle (which fits the block structure) and a rearward
block, which is four storeys higher than the angle and surmounts
it. Between these, a 'Sky Lounge' on the eighth floor, a naturally
lit 30 m high hotel lobby, forms the central architectural element.
This mediates between the angles of the street alignments and is
also the integrating and orienting core of the ensemble.

On the standard floors -7 f), the hotel rooms (all of 5-star grade)
are mostly arranged around the open space of the lobby, with
bathrooms parallel to the corridor as a one-sided access gallery
system, In the corners and also on the first and twelfth floors are the
suites (partially built over the lobby). Restaurant and conference
rooms are situated in the corner on the ground and first floors. The
kitchens and administration are in the rear part of the ground floor
Hotel rooms
0= 10m
and the large conference rooms (with daylight entering through
a light well), spa, swimming pool and underground car park and
f) SIDE Hotel, Hamburg, standard floor Arch.: Jan Stormer Architekten services areas are in the four basements.

Basement
garage

e SIDE Hotel, Hamburg, ground floor e SIDE Hotel, Hamburg, A-A section

173
 CATERING
Restaurants

To be able to eat in comfort, one person requires a table area

around 60 em wide and 30-40 em deep -7 f) - 0. This provides
sufficient distance between adjacent diners. Although an additional
20 em space in the centre for dishes and large bowls is sometimes
desirable, an overall width of 80-85 em is suitable for a dining
table. If the food is served on plates, then 70 em is sufficient, and
for fast food 60 em table depth.
Distance between table and wall ;;;;75 em -7 0, because the chair
alone requires a space of 50 em. If the space between table and
15-20
wall is also used for access, the distance should be ;;;;1 00 em.

45-50 55-65 ao-a5 75

1 ~60 Round tables need a little more space, a difference of up to 50 em.

CATERING
Restaurants
Dining rooms
Fast food outlets
Restaurant
kitchens
Large kitchens
Examples
see also: Dining T
rooms p. 152 1
f----50-----i

I ~
ni@~·~~ I 9./10.

f) Breakfast 8 informal dinner 0 Formal dinner

0 Breakfast setting: 1 tea or coffee pot; 2 mllk jug; 3 jam or butter bowl; 4 sugar bowl; 5 dessert
fork; 6 dessert knife; 7 coffee or tea spoon; 8 dessert plate; 9 napkin; 10 saucer; 11 coffee cup
0 Informal dinner setting: 1 fork; 2 knife; 3 soup or dessert spoon; 4 spoon; 5 beer glass, 6 wine or
dessert wine glass; 7 soup bowl; 8 dinner plate; 9 napkin
() Formal dinner setting: 1 dessert fork; 2 fish fork; 3 fork, 4 soup or dessert spoon; 5 spoon;
0 Space required for waiter and diner 6 knife; 7 fish knife; 8 dessert knife; 9 soup bowl; 10 dinner plate, 11 napkin; 12 beer glass;
13 red or white wine glass; 14 11queur or dessert wine glass

1-~85-l 1--1.25--j 1-----------2.50------; ~3.75-----i

table length with
0 DO ODD T DODD 000000 head of table
mr
wT II:ttl ~ ~~~ lr:t::ltUft !: J!II ~ o!f~%/!?\: ~ ~~~· ::: ;:~g~ 1~ : ~:~~~
0 DO 'tJOo 1 D'Otftf DOD DOD

f------2.80-601

f--1.46---l >---1.96 ----4 t-------2.46-4 f----2.96-----i

l
r------3.96 _________,

9 Tables/seating

174
 CATERING

-ii
1-1.00-l-1.00-l-1.00-l-1.00---t--1.00-l
Restaurants
00 00
1rmrmm1 lto
DO 00
DO 1.oo
Before any restaurant or other catering establishment is built, the
organisational processes must be determined with the operator.

00
Htii:::i
00
4 The following have to be decided: what food will be on the menu,
what quality and quantity will be on offer? Which service system
a
will be used, whether Ia carte with fixed or changing daily menus,
plate or table service, self-service or mixed? For design purposes,
0 Closest seating layout f) In an alcove
it is important to know which target clientele is aimed for. The site
itself will help to determine the most suitable type of restaurant.
Appoint specialists in: kitchen equipment, electrical, heating,
0 ventilation and sanitary design.
o[lo The main room in a restaurant is the dining room. Its furniture
and fittings should be appropriate for the business. A number
0 of additional tables or chairs should be available, so that table
groupings are flexible. Provide special tables for regulars. Side
rooms and conference rooms should always be flexibly furnished CATERING

in order to permit variations. A food bar with fixed stools can be Restaurants
Dining rooms
arranged for customers in a hurry. Larger dining rooms should Fast food outlets
be split into zones. Kitchen, side rooms, toilets and sanitary Restaurant
kitchens
installations should be grouped around the dining room, also in Large kitchens
the basement-) e. Examples
Columns in a dining room are best located in the centre of a group
of tables or at the corners of the tables-) 8. The ceiling heights of
~50!- 85 -+--1,81l--+- 85 -t-1.35--+--85--+--1.80--+- 85-i
l-----1.75--t-90-t--1.75---f45+--1.75--+-90-t-1.75---t dining areas with a floor area ~50 m2 = 2.50 m, > 50 m2 = 2.75 m
and >100m 2 ~3.00 m; above or below galleries ~2.50 m.
C) Parallel arrangement of tables
Emergency exits 1.0 m wide per 150 people using them. Minimum
clear width of aisles in restaurants 0.80 m, doors 0.90 m -) e.
135>--1.4(1.--t60l Toilets in public houses, bars or restaurants: Stairs to toilets,
wash, staff and storage rooms, usable width ~1.1 0 m. Clear walk-
TT
1.201.40
through height ~2.10 m measured vertically. Window area ~1/10
of the floor area of a restaurant.
-1-1
5030

tT
1.201.40
il
5030

tT
1.201.40
11
15~1.20-l-1.00--t--1.20-+50+-1.20-+-1.00-i-1.20--i
1--1.40---t-BO-t-1.40--G()--1.40-+80+-1.40--i

e Diagonal arrangement of tables

t371-1.05-+55-i e Functional scheme of a small restaurant

fT
601.05
Floor area of dining
room
Usable walking width Dining WCs, WCs, Urinals, Channel

J5~
places gents ladies no. (m)

~100m2 ~1.10m
+T
601.05
;;;250m2
;asoom2
~1.30m
~1.65m
;250
;250-200
~1000 m2 ~1.80m
=200-400
~400 - decision for each case -
E;2.10 m

*+ll
>100Dm2

601.05 0 Usable width of stairs 4Ii) Toilet facilities

Seat Kitchen Dining room Furnishing No. Walter Self~service

pa-60+--1.30-+ 60+654 60+-1.30--+60-j occupancy floor area floor area places (m2/p!ace) (m2/place)
(tables)
1-1.05-1-85-l-1.05--t-+--1.05-l-85 -+-1.05 -i (m2fcover) (m 2/seat)
20 Type per meal
square 1.25 1.25
e Closest table spacing
exclusive
restaurant
restaurant
1

23
0.7

0.5-0.6
1.8-2.0

1.4-1.6
rectangular. 4
rectangular 6
1.10
1.00
1.25
1.05
with rapid rectangular 8 1.10 1.10
turnover, e.g.
department
store
@) Total space required for dining

~
rm~
0.4-0.5 1.6-1.8 room: 1.4-1.6 m2/place
standard 1.5

~-sr~!Jit
restaurant
Inn, guest 0.3-0.4 1.6-1.8
house main aisles min. 2.00 m wide
for storerooms, personnel rooms etc., add
intennedlate aisles min. 0.90 m wide
()-85-1-1.30-+ 85-+ 65+- 85-< approx. 80%
1--1.30--l-85-1-1.30---i 1-1.30-1 cover"' seat x seat turnover. side aisles min. 1.20 m wide
20

0 Tables in a cafe 8 Zuntz table (D Space requirements 41) Aisle widths

175
 Table 4 4 4-5 5 CATERING
2 places places 30 places places 30 places
40 Dining Rooms, Service
2.0-+1.0-j-1.90~1.65--j--1.04---2.15 1 1

The space required varies very widely

T 0 according to the character of a restaurant.

f Apart from fast food outlets, the least space

required is in cafes. The most is needed in
restaurants and diners. Diagonal arrangement
of the tables generally takes up less space than
an aligned pattern, with a space saving of up
to 35%. Alcoves are beneficial for use of space
because the distance between seats and wall
is no longer required. In larger restaurants,
0 Table sizes In a restaurant: with predominantly plate service the table depth can be reduced to 70 em many groups of tables (a waiter's 'territory') are
collected together to form units.
Table 4 unsuitable 6 places unsuitable
2 places places places 01.70
Basically, the design of dining rooms based
2.0-+1.0-j-1.90-+1.0-I----+1.0-j-1.90-+1.0-f--2.80---t-1.0-l----l on 'number of heads = m2 , formulas is to be
avoided, as they are not applicable to rooms
CATERING under 100 m2 and can lead to false results.
Restaurants Fixing the dimensions of rooms should in any
Dining rooms
Fast food outlets
case be done from concrete furniture layout
Restaurant plans. The functional design of dining rooms
kitchens involves determining the following:
Large kitchens
Examples 1. Entrances and traffic axes, which limit the
usable area, according to number and
required width.
Q In a self-service restaurant 2. Service points (with the exception of variable
forms of furniture): stations for 40 places
Table 4 places 2 places 3 places 4 places 3-5 place:: each with at least one service point as
2 places 100/60 060 060 060 060
centrally placed as possible.
1.85-+1.0+-1.75-+1.04--2.0--j-1.0-l-1.35+1.35-+1.0-f-1.60-j-1.60--j--1.0-l-1.25-l
3. Table sizes and shapes according
to the character of the business and
the expected guest structure. A good
procedure is to design a percentage
structure of desirable table sizes with
various combinations, starting from the
intended total capacity. Table sizes and
shapes result from the intended use. Areas
of about 20 (12-24) places are designed
C) Bistro-caf9-bar
according to the character, type of
business and intended visual organisation,
to avoid the impression of a waiting roorn.
Table 8-10
6-8 places places places
f----2.60--j--1.0+--2.90---t-1.0+---- 3.60-4.20----1

Gastronorm Tilt com- Shelf Tilt com-

compartment partment cupboard partment
open or dirty laundry rubbish
closed laundry

f40t4ot4oHso
m1n1mum1

l·v
mobile
if required )'. I
8 Banquet 0 Waiter station--> 0
90 90 15 15
-1.0 +55-l---2.40--t55t-1.0
90
t55t---s.5o--f55f 90 f--- 1.80 --1 f---1.80--l
-1.0 -1.0

1 - - - - > 5.40----l 1 - - - - - > 6.60-------j r-----;:; 5.40------j

e Corporate and seminar rooms f) Events, meetings: without eating

176
 55l-·l75t--2.30--f 75t-+-j45
CATERING
55
Fast Food Outlets

~
Flo DF]O
IZJO D[JO The heavy traffic of people
resulting from fast turnover
Flo DPJO
demands larger sales areas
[JO DL]O
to ensure smooth operation.
1--;;; 5.35------1 Tables and chairs are kept as
small as possible and tightly
f-1.30+1.20-f1.30-H 15
grouped --> 0 - The e.
customer space, 1.50-2.15 m2
Benches DO DO
• per person, features groups of
seats and the longest possible
E2TI
tid bar at which to eat --1 0 - e.
DO If the business is favourably
E2Til placed to catch street traffic,
DO a built-in kiosk will be able to
1--- ;;; 3.95 ----1 serve food on the pavement as
well as indoors --1 f) - e. CATERING
Restaurants
Dining rooms
Fast food
' ' outlets
:d
' '
Restaurant

~
CJ.· : - b<Yi~
kitchens
Large kitchens
CJO b 85 DCJII
o oEEto DCJ k><>~ l
Examples
rd0.60rr1.60@
:Ad;
oo oLJo om .k>v~:·::~
c-~~~-=D.c:__> 6.55---1
\ ,~(:):
: <01 :
f) Seating arrangements, variants e Seating arrangements, variants G Seating arrangements~ variants

f--~~~~~- ~15.0-~~~~~~-j Self-service restaurants have

three times the utilisation of

I places through shorter table

stay time. Average eating
time 20 minutes-> f)- e.

I
Two-place tables are good
with an average size of
70/50 em each, arranged in
pairs with a slight separation
-> 8 +e.if required, the
0 Space required for a horseshoe-shaped bar for eating individual groups can easily
be pushed together to seat 4
DtE.·.·.·o
....
o:-:·:·:o
- 8 people-> e.
Length of
a table unit (horseshoe): ->
0-0 ;o;10-12seats at a
spacing of 62.5 em = 7.5 m.
This length can be served
by one waiter with prepared
o.o
. --+ r:::r::::::n food. Tills on the way out,
'ODD subsidiary rooms like toilets,
ODD staff -rooms, services are
i§l§f§l situated in the basement.
DOD
60 60 1§!§1@
60H1.25H1.3&t-+1.25+-4 60

0 Space required for a horseshoe-shaped bar for eating, variant

i Trays
1 Trays
2 Fruit
2 Cold buffet
3 Juice/milk 3 Drinks
4 Salad bar
4 Hot food
5 Hot dishes
6 Snacks
DODD LIDO 5 Cheese and dessert
l·:·:·:{·:·:·:f·::}:·:·:J•t·:·:·:J-:··:}:·:·:1 6lill
7 Bread/cake
8 Tea/coffee
DODD bOD 7 Fridge
Kiosk
9 Cutlery
a Drinks cupboard
9 tee
10 Drinks/glasses
10 Wanning compartment

t 11Till
11 Street sales

Eating area Arch. Prunier

f) Example of a fast food restaurant, self-service e Fast food restaurant in Paris

177
 meals and drinks servery
dishwasher
CATERING
2a crockery returns
3 drinks bar with mixer, Restaurant Kitchens
toaster, food containers etc.
4 oven for small pastry items
5 food storage
6 rotisserie
6{1 cooker rings Snack bar ~ 0, corner pub, bistro, cafe, restaurant: capacity
7a water boiler and steam machine
8 pot and pan washer 55-60 seats (2-4 place turnover at lunchtime, 2 in evenings).
11 stores/office; catering size Between lunch and evening meals: serving coffee, cakes and
refrigerators and freezers instead
of cold store snacks. Kitchen: supplied predominantly with pre-prepared items.
19 staff toilets
G1 bar counter Storeroom need not be particularly large if deliveries are daily.
G3 customer toilets
Cafe-restaurant ~ f) with tea room. Urban business in heavy
0 Snackbar traffic location.
Cafe: alcohol-free drinks, except bottled premium beer, liqueurs
etc., patisserie and light food- cold and hot.
waiters' walkway
1a service counter and cash tills Tea room: alcohol-free drinks, patisserie, sandwiches. Capacity
2 dishwasher approx. 150 seats, continuous operation 6.30 - 24.00. Kitchen:
3 drinks bar with mixer, toaster,
ice cream freezer etc. predominantly pre-prepared items, little storage.
4 pastry preparation
4a pastry oven Large hotel restaurant kitchen ~ 8 also for large catering
CATERING 5 sandwich preparation
6 reheatiilg equipment {e.g. soup) establishments with side rooms, external deliveries or production
Restaurants 7 cooker rings for outside companies. Capacity 800-1000 people. Waiters'
Dining rooms 8 pot and pan washer
Fast food outlets 11 empties walkway: in the centre with special service in the garden or also
15 linen store
Restaurant 17 deliveries and (a) store bowling alley and direct access to the side rooms. Kitchen: cell
kitchens 19 staff tollets and cloakroom
Large kitchens G1 toilets
system fronted by the backs of the large appliances.
Examples G2 telephone cubicle Restaurant with buffet and vending machines ~ 8 for fast
BS EN 203 f) Cafe-restaurant midday meals in canteens, department stores and motorway
BS EN 631 services. Capacity 500 people/h. Kitchen: only warming of pre-
BS 6173
BS EN 12851 prepared foodstuffs, except for salads and soups.
waiters' walkway
BS EN ISO
1a garden service counter Self-service restaurant ~ 0 suitable for department stores or
22000
2 dish~washing area attached to offices. Kitchen: no in-house production. Outside
BIP 2130/2078 3 drinks counter
DIN EN 631 3a drinks cellar delivery and preparation using deep frozen process.
DIN 66075 4 pastry counter
5 cold dishes
6 hot dishes and sauces
sn table with hot store
8 pot and pan washer
9 vegetable preparation
10 meat preparation
11a deliveries, and access to stores,
offices, staff cloakrooms and
toilets
S service accessories and tills

8 Large hotel restaurant kitchen

Cold stores

1 Peeling machine
2 Drip tray
serving aisles in U~shaped 3 Cleaning surface
counters 4 Holding surface
1d vending machines 5 Universal machine
2 link between two counters with 6 Cutting board
covered dishwashers, operated 7 Sink+ Worktable
from both sides, each with two 8 Hand wash basin
rinsing basins 9 Worktable
4/5 cold meal preparation 10 Slicers
4/5a cold servery (salads, ices, 11 Freezer
desserts) 12 Bench scale
an griddle, soup heater, water boiler 13 Stir/beat machine
etc.
6[7a hot servery (bain-marie,
hotplates)
(t Separate preparation of vegetables and meat

C) Restaurant with buffet and 1. Work areas together

vending machines without physical separation

cookln~/frying
1d self-service buffet with grill and production area
chip fryer
1e sauces, condiments, cutlery 1. Work areas, production and
1f cash till manufacturing space, separately
2 dishwasher
2a crockery returns Cooking/frying
3/4 food and drinks servery
(service to street possible)
IProduction I 1.-:P':-ro-'d';-u-c""tio-n'l
5a cold meal preparation table
6/7 heating units, used from both
sides I Finishing I I Finishing I finishing area

6/7a hot meal preparation table

11a refrigerators, used from both I Servery servery
sides

E
12 sales kiosk (serving inside and to
street)
f) American hotel kitchen system: Cl) French hotel kitchen system:
deliveries boiling and roasting areas arranged boiling and roasting area arranged
E entrance
parallel to the servery perpendicular to the servery,
Self-service restaurant separation of production and
finishing zones

178
 CATERING
Restaurant Kitchens

The trend away from conventional restaurants to those offering

a wide range of food not only affects the planning and design
of dining rooms, but also of kitchens. Small and medium-sized
restaurant kitchens play a particular role here, and the following
details are primarily based on this type of business.

Gastronorm system
The dimensions of containers, tables, shelves, devices, crockery
and built-in units are all based on a 530 x 325 mm module -7
Store ~Store
p. 181 o.
supply waste
Function and organisation of the restaurant kitchen -7 0 - 0
The capacity of the kitchen is primarily dependent on the number
of customer seats, customer expectations (type, extent and quality
of the meals offered), the proportion of products freshly prepared CATERING
from raw (in contrast to ready-prepared food) and the rate of Arrangement
Restaurants
customer turnover all day or at mealtimes (consumer frequency). Dining rooms
Fast food outlets
Dishwasher

.
In fast food restaurants the rule of thumb for seat changes is Restaurant

I Ser~;:_ 1- L___--+-
,__j about 1-3 times per hour, in conventional restaurants about 2.
kitchens
Large kitchens
.,. In speciality and evening-based restaurants, the guests stay on Examples
L ____ J average for 1.3-2 hours. BS EN 203
Restaurant Cold Drinks Dirty BS EN 631
Hot palisserie serving dishes Percentage of total kitchen space requirement -7 0 BS 6173
-Goods flow BS EN 12851
• • Waste flow Food and drinks Return Differentiated according to small, medium and large kitchens, floor BSEN ISO 22000
- - Container circulation servery
--Crockery circulation Waiter passage area values for individual functions are be based on -7 0. BIP 2130/2078
DIN EN 631
0 Restaurant kitchen: functions 8 Restaurant kitchen: organisation
Aisle widths in storage, preparation and production areas differ
DIN 66075

according to whether they are purely traffic routes or also overlap

the service area. Working aisle widths should be 0.90-1.20 m,
Bistros, snack bars, small cafes - or speciality restaurants with side traffic routes with (temporary) overlapping use 1.50-1.80 m
40-60 seats- are classified as small operations. Small to medium and main traffic routes (transport and two-way through traffic)
units (70-1 00 places) require on the other hand carefully zoned and 2.10-3.30 m wide. For kitchen areas in small to medium
fully equipped kitchen facilities. Large businesses (service areas, restaurants, aisle widths of 1.00-1.50 m should be sufficient.
fast food restaurants, large hotel kitchens) achieve considerably
higher place numbers, often with an integrated eating bar or self-
service areas.
Area Proportion(%)
gooos ae 1very 1nc ua1ng 1nspec 1on ana was e s orage 10
Seats 80 120 200 storage in freezer, cold and dry rooms 20
goods inward 0.05-0.075 0.05-0.067 0.05-0.06 daily store
empties 0.05-0.075 0.05-0.067 0.05-0.06 vegetable and salad preparation area 2
waste/rubbish 0.05-0.075 0.03-0.050 0.03-0.04 cold dishes, desserts 8
patisseries/cakes 8
delivery/disposal 0.15-0.225 0.13-0.183 0.13-0.16
meat preparation 2
cold room meat 0.05-0.075 0.05-0.067 0.04-0.05 cooking area 8
cold room fruit and vegetables 0.05-0.075 0.05-0.067 0.04-0.05 washing area 10
cold room dairy products fridge 0.03-0.05 0.03-0.05 traffic area 17
cold room cold service fridge fridge 0.02-0.03 staff rooms and office 15
cool room drinks fridge fridge 0.05-0.07
Total 100
freezer room 0.05-0.075 0.05-0.067 0.06-0.08
cooled goods delivery
store dry goods
0.15-0.225
0.15-0.175
0.183-0.25
0.117-0.13
0.24-0.32
0.09-0.1
e Basis for dimensions and space requirements

store drinks 0.075-0.1 0.1-0.117 0.08-0.1

store non-food 0.075-0.1 0.067-0.083 0.07-0.08
cooled goods storage 0.3-0.375 0.283-0.33 0.24-0.28
vegetable preparation 0.075-0.1 0.067-0.083 0.04-0.05
meat preparation
fish/poultry preparation
0.075-0.1
0
0.05-0.067
0.03-0.05
0.04-0.05
0.03-0.04 empties rft
1 I deliv-
enes w"t•J staff changing room

hot kitchen 0.325-0.35 0.217-0.23 0.16-0.18 ..

washroom
cold kitchen 0 0.05-0.067 0.04-0.05 dry goods store
r~~~ It~~:; office.\ toilets
0 0.04-0.05
patisserie
pot washing
0
0.05-0.Q75 0.05-0.067 0.03-0.04
dally store ~:~. I p~:~. pp~eap~ I restroom

office kitchen manager 0 0 0.03-0.04 pot ~asher hot dishes I cold dishe~ cake shop

kitchen facilities 0.525-0.625 0.47-0.567 0.41-0.5 dish+asher servery, waiter's walkwa~ coffee room
dishwasher 0.1-0.125 0.1-0.117 0.09-0.1
service/waiter office 0.075-0.1 0.083-0.1 0.07-0.08 :............. buffet---------------------- bar 'ervery ................................... j
dishwasher/office 0.175-0.225 0.183-0.217 0.16-0.18
-Total 1.3-1.675 1.25-1.55 1.18-1.44 Kitchen areas: classification and relationships of functional areas in clean and
unclean zones (if earth-covered vegetables are prepared, this must take place in
0 2
Kitchen areas: space required (m /seat) a separate part of the unclean area!)

179
 0 6
CATERING

m
Restaurant Kitchens
1
2 Hot kitchens, corresponding to their main functions - cooking and
4 3
roasting - contain finishing zones and some or all of the following
3 equipment: cooker (two to eight rings), increasingly mobile
hotplates, extractor hood, water boiler, fast-cooking equipment,
'
---------~
automatic cooker, steamer, automatic steamer and pressure cooker,
&
1 cooker 6 cooker combination device, water bath (bain-marie), baking and roasting
2 deep fat fryer 7 double-deck oven oven, roast and grill plates, frying pans, staged roasting oven, chip
3 griddle 8 convectomat
4 water boiler 9 hand basin pan, salamander, circulation machine (for frozen goods), microwave
5 work surface 10 storage area 1. production in block
oven, continuous process automatic roaster and baker. Large
0 Basic organisation of the hot f) Kitchen for restaurant with automatic appliances are used only in very large kitchens. Storage
kitchen --> f) -8 60-1 00 places
and working surfaces should be located between appliances and at
the end of the block. In addition to the fixed arrangement in the block,
mobile appliances are increasingly being used, which can be adapted
better to production changes and are easier to clean. -7 0- e.
0 Cold kitchens should have a layout logically planned in parallel to
the hot kitchen and be convenient for the (common) servery and
Restaurants bread area. The regular equipment is a day refrigerator under/over
Dining rooms
Fast food outlets
the cold table, various cutting and slicing machines (bread, cold
Restaurant cuts, meat, cheese), mixing machine, scales, cutting boards, salad
kitchens table with lower cold cabinet, toaster or salamander, microwave
Large kitchens cooking: cooker, boiler (80 1),
Examples work surface, eight-ring hob, two oven and sufficient working and storage space -7 0.
ovens, bain-marie, hot cupboard
frying: griddle, work surface, twin Servery for restaurant kitchens with counter or self-service, ideally
BS EN 203
BS EN 631 2. production in line
deep fat fryer, frying pan, hot- situated between the preparation area and the dining room. There
air oven with table
BS 6173
BS EN 12851
BSEN ISO 22000
e Kitchen for restaurant with
60-100 places
0 Restaurant kitchen for
150-200 meals
should be sufficient shelf space, a hot cabinet with heated plates
and a cool zone for cold foods. Crockery shelves or upper fixings,
BIP 213012078 cutlery container. In large businesses, also basket, plate and soup
DIN EN 631
DIN 66075
bowl dispensers.
Crockery return: the difference between washing crockery and
pots is considerable. With waiter service, the plates are brought
back to their own area of the servery -7 0 - 0. In addition to
0 0 n one or two sinks with drainers, storage space and shelves for

~f-1
ookinf 0 0 0 0
apportioning pot washing, small kitchens naturally also require dishwashers
I cold meals I in various sizes, feed types and operational types. Dishwashers
frying
under the worktop are usual, but also tunnel and rotary batch
washers. Provide surfaces for the return (temporary storage,
worktops, sorting, soaking) and space for the crockery -7 0- tD.
Staff area: about 10-15% of the total space required in a kitchen
e Functions and organisation of
hot kitchen
0 Organisation of cold kitchen
facility should be allocated for offices and staff rooms. The kitchen
staff will need changing rooms, washing facilities and toilets.
For more than 1 0 employees, a rest/break room is necessary

:" '~Rll Jr=ll ls?L (workplace regulations). It is important that changing and social
rooms are near the kitchen, to avoid staff having to cross unclean
room areas or corridors. For changing rooms, > 6 m2 floor area,
4-6 air changes per hour and privacy. Provide each employee with
0 Servery, waiter walkway
a well-ventilated, lockable cupboard. In large operations, even
differentiate street and working clothes. Guidelines for the toilets:
kitchen
kitchen per unit ryvc and washbasin) 5-6 m2 and for the shower areas
cafeteria carousel (for more than five male or female employees) a washbasin and
server
shower, approx. 5.5 m2 per unit.

e Self-service restaurant f) Self-service restaurant

Ventilation and extraction: according to VDI guideline 2052,
large kitchens should be equipped with mechanical air supply

li&4t
kitchen
kitchen [2 LUJfillillJ--- and extraction. Extract the air at each cooker and run it through
drinks ductwork into the open air. Supply fresh air (no recirculation). Take
desserts
~~ ~+l ~+l ~ the heat production from the appliances into account (e.g. induction
bar-counter servery {section system) ovens can reduce the unused heating of the surroundings).
41!) Free-flow restaurant G Self-service restaurant

~
~
sink, mixer taps with spray hose and swivelling nozzle;
Do L IXIDO waste food cleared through hole in work surface into bin
below; splash proof wall

~
,---, r-------, r=~-rr----....--.

I' I'
I I I '
l __ .J ,_ 2 work surtace
3 automatic rinsing
1: returns, sorting table; 2: sink; 3: waste 4 automatic rinsing system
1: re*urns, sorting table; 2: sink; 3: waste (Serene)
cle~rance; 4: pre-wash; 5: dishwasher; clearance; 4: pre-wash; 5: dishwasher 5shelf
6: dtscharge.table; 7: crockery area 6: discharge table; 7: crockery area 6 holding area dirty crockery

Q) Basic solution: dishwashing area CD Basic solution: dishwashing ~ Basic solution: pot 0 Functions and components of the
area washing area dishwashing area

180
 m2/Person
0.50
CATERING
0.45 a Main kitchen f Adjoining rooms Large Kitchens
0.40 b Cold kitchen g Meat and fish
a
0.35 c Cake shop processing
0.30 d Wash cabinet h Salad kitchen
0.25
0.20

0.15
=:::.; b,c,d
"" e Vegetable
preparation
i Refrigerator
j Stocks
With communal catering for many people in offices, hospitals and
factories, a large number of meals have to be supplied in a short
period of time. Under the conventional system, 'cook and serve',
the kitchen has to be designed to cope with this peak demand,
0.10
-""<8 and the working times of the staff are also directly linked to the
Q,h
serving cycle. In order to employ staff and kitchens more regularly
0.05 - - i , k and effectively, 'cook and chill' has been developed ~ 8 - e.
0 Under this system, the meals are prepared conventionally or
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 1100 1200
purchased as convenience products, cooked in advance, quickly
Pers.
cooled and stored cool. The dishes are then completely cooked
0 Space required for kitchen and utility rooms in restaurants and hotels. a-k ~ m2 (finished) just before serving. This results in a separation of the
required per person in each room group
production time and the serving time. The possibility of storing
Food preparation and cooking (core temp. min 70'C) the prepared dishes enables the capacity of the kitchen to be
increased considerably, with up to three times as many meals CATERING
+ being produced as in a conventional large kitchen. The extra Restaurants
Portioning Dining rooms
work involved in the production phase in cooking, cooling and Fast food outlets

• Shock cooling to+ soc in max 90 min.

rewarming has to be balanced against the advantages of better
utilisation of the kitchen and service.
Restaurant
kitchens
Large kitchens
Examples
t t t The meals are prepared in a kitchen, which has a shock cooler
Storage and distribution in max 5 days at+ soc BS EN 203
in addition to the conventional cooking equipment. One of the BS EN 631

•
Cold portioning
most important factors involved with this system is the hygienic
requirements in production (similar to industrial food production).
BS 6173
BS EN 12851
BSEN ISO 22000
at max+ 10oc The design must therefore implement an absolute separation of BIP 2130/2078
DIN EN 631
clean and unclean areas~ p. 179 0. DIN 66075
t Unclean areas
Reheating (core temp. min 70'C)
These are the goods reception, storerooms, preparation rooms,
In hot steamer In transport
Jn hot steamer
washing up area, waste disposal and cleaning agent store.
on pallet trolley trolley to station
Clean areas
These are those for storage and preparation of pre-prepared

Portioning
• products, food production, shock cooling, portioning and packaging,
plus finishing cold rooms for ready-to-serve meals and the service

Serving
• counters .

When preparing the food, it is important to make sure that the

Banquet Hospitals Student refectones
Old people's homes Cafeterias core temperature is at least 70°C during cooking and that the
Care homes Canteens subsequent cooling to +3°C takes place within 90 minutes.
f) Cook chill portioning variants for various service requests
Goods and The food is also to be stored at +3°C. The cold portioning should
Delivery container return take place at a temperature of +12°C and the transport to the
RF"'=='W i consumer locations at max. +3°C. The cool chain from goods
Toilets and
changing ~
tt delivery to eating must never be interrupted. The statutory hygiene
regulations are to be observed absolutely.
rooms ~ 1
1 r·--~ Exit to th

i
~r==-~=-~~., satellite•
1

A recent innovation is the introduction of cook chill assembly

r~::~-~ ru--~--:::g--~-~1 kitchens. These are only portioning kitchens, which put together
individual parts of meals. All food is produced by an external
1 room~
'---+----~
1
I
I't 1
_j, supplier as cook chill products. This results in the saving of a
t + __ -=--=:;==:_.~ I large part of the storage rooms and the whole of the cooking and
i!l===,dj I I I I
____ . . , _____} I ~----....__) ----...-- ~- ...,. ___ J roasting kitchens.
i 1 ~ . . lshock I P~rtio· Storage
TPreparation l 1Port1onmglcoo 1e~-..i mng room +Soc
The planning should always be left to experienced designers,
t___ ~ ___ ..__j llh..?!Lt,B'C----+--- ~~!~
because additional details are important concerning hygiene for
the kitchen employees.
Schematic plan of cook chill kitchen with the product routes
Drawing: FDS Consulting H. Uelze

GN1/4 r-~
~t '~ GN 1/61 '~
GN2/1 ~ GN1/1 GN 1/3 ~----~ GN2/3
GN1/2~ 'l<l
65 325 325 325 ~----~ 325
unpertorated perforated

G Container sizes in the Gastronorm system (GN) 0 Transport and heating containers in Gastronorm sizes (GN)

181
 CATERING
Large Kitchens

Container transport ---> 0 of unit containers in Gastronorm sizes --->

p. 181 0. Automatic through-flow roasters and cookers---> 0- 9.
Mainly used in industrial food production.

Combi steamer ovens enable the most varied modes of cooking

in one appliance (hot air steaming, roasting and reheating. The
core temperature of the food can be used for computer control of
the cooking process). Heated by electricity or gas. Water supply
0 Container transport in the Contiport system needed. When cook and chill production takes place in the
immediate vicinity of the cold portioning room or shock cooler, the
cooler motor for the shock cooler should if possible be located in
a side room (to prevent noise nuisance and heat production). The
cold portioning is arranged between the shock cooling room and
the cook chill storeroom. This is useful for the checking, portioning
CATERING
and assembly of the cooled foods.

~I
Restaurants
Dining rooms
Fast food outlets In addition to the serving system with hot and cold counters---> 0,
Restaurant
kitchens
0- 0, cook and chill production is also well suited for serving in
Large kitchens front cooking systems.
Examples

BS EN 203 0 In hospitals and residential/nursing homes, the serving is done on

BS EN 631 a portioning conveyor. The finishing of cook chill foods can then
BS 6173
be carried out on special tray trolleys by induction, conduction
0~
BS EN 12851
BSEN ISO 22000
BIP 2130/2078
II nI I 0 ct)) 0 or convection. According to the system used, special crockery
may be required and/or space for the docking station in the ward.
DIN EN 631 f) Combi steamer oven: foods are cooked or finished on trays
With all systems, it is possible to equip the trolley with cooling
DIN 66075
to ensure the unbroken cool chain for the cook chill system and
also to keep cold foods like salads and desserts cool. Especially
in large kitchens with long traffic routes, these systems can keep
the food warm for a long time and avoid the core temperature
dropping under the specified value.

1 automatic crockery 6 rack trolley for 13 soup plate

dispenser and tray salads dispenser
unloader; dispensing 7 electronically controlled 14 automatic soup
from heated cabinet serving trolley for dispenser
below; punched card vegetables 15 dispenser for heat-
reading device 8 electronically controlled retaining container lids
2 meal distribution serving trolley for 16 automatic closing device
conveyor
3 electronically controlled
serving trolley for
meat
9 illuminated display for
special diets
for soup plate covers
17 control desk for diet
assistant
8 Automatic pass-through cooker e Automatic pass-through roaster

potatoes 10 supplementary conveyor 18 automatic tray stacker

4 illuminated display for for special diets 19 tray distribution
desserts and salads 11 automatic sauce trolley
5 rack trolley for dispenser G) Ventilation ceiling
desserts 12 cutlery dispenser
@ Shelves for casseroles and salamanders
8 Food serving system @ Work surtace/cooker
@ Floor unit with fridge/freezer, oven or cupboard

60'---f-- 90 --+---

®
snack-making
device or
work table

I
105
®
1
@ "'
00

e Food service, cafeteria Q Section through working area

l
182
 CATERING
Examples of Large Kitchens

Statfroom

Reheating § Reheating ~
CATERING
:g 1'
t
Tray filling ~ Restaurants
~
0
Dining rooms
J OJ
1tt
U!
Fast food outlets
Restaurant
kitchens
0 Functional scheme of a cook chill kitchen f) Large cook chill kitchen in Usbon (11 00 m') for approx. 30 000 meals Large kitchens
Examples
Designer: FDS Consulting H. Uelze

BS EN 203
Connection passage * unclean BS EN 631
BS 6173
Connection passage - BS EN 12851
BSEN ISO 22000
BIP 2130/2078
DIN EN 631
Dishwasher - clean DIN 66075
and trolley station

Tray portioning and

crockery store
+8°C

C) Cook chill kitchen in a hospital Designer: FDS Consulting H. Uelze

Tray
return

Table size Places

area per place 0.9-1.2 0.9-1.0 0.75-{).9

extra for passage 0.15 0.1 0,1
servery 0.15 0.1 0.1
walls, columns etc. 0.15 0.15 0.15
~ Total required/space 1.35--1.65 1.15--1.35 1.19-1.25

~ 0 Space (m2) required per place in canteens

/ /1 Entrance
'\]guests
0
26. Bistro

Open mixed-food kitchen with serving zone and kiosk for 0

approx. 300 meals (300 m'), in Braunschweig
Designer: FDS Consulting H. Uelze

183
 Mattress YOUTH HOSTELS
with duvet
General design notes

Traditionally, youth hostels have offered reasonably priced

accommodation for young people, youth groups and school
classes, but the range of services of a modern youth hostel also
includes meetings, courses, seminars, education of young people
and adults, leisure facilities, school trips, and walking for singles
and families. In rural areas, there are children's hostels (up to age
13) and youth hostels (13-17), and in towns there are youth guest
houses offering tourist and cultural services. The tendency among
youth hostels is towards the 3-star hotel standard --7 p. 172, with
sizes of 120-160 beds.

0 (fraditional) bedding In youth hostels Functional areas

Bedrooms in hostels consist of 4-6 (maximum 8) rooms in groups
with a leader room (one bed, one folding bed as day couch), and
YOUTH in guest houses 2-4 bedrooms, leader/teacher accommodation
HOSTELS 1-2 rooms with work area, family rooms with 4-6 beds; the trend
MBO is to separate rooms for parents and children. Boys and girls are
Guidelines
German
separated, mostly allocated rooms starting from the head of a
Youth Hostel corridor with a number of dividing doors, which can be locked
Association if required (for flexibility). Showers and washbasins connected to
the rooms, separate WC (accessible for disabled people), lockable
luggage store. Cleaning rooms on each floor and shoe store/
cleaning room.
Lounge and meeting rooms: One room per 20-25 beds. Multiple
dining rooms, multi-purpose areas with individual corners,
cafeteria, lecture room, dining room also suitable for events, same
number of places as beds, entrance hall/reception and office for
the warden. Outdoor camping area (door to sanitary facilities),
sports and games, parking for buses and cars, garden for the
warden. Inside, separated noise zones for table tennis, hobbies
and workrooms.
Utility area: kitchen serving individual portions or group meals,
serving trolleys, no self-service counter, utility room, staff lounge.
Living areas: flat for the warden, bedrooms for staff, 12-15 m2 •
UK issues: Youth hostels, for financial reasons and because
they are frequently located in sensitive surroundings, are often
conversions of existing buildings. Consequently the UK Youth
f) Youth hostel: functional scheme Hostels Association (YHA) is reluctant to impose definitive
architectural guidelines. However, some are applied, especially
regarding fire safety and space per bed.

Access
road

Accommodation wing
G) Porch @ Bread storage
® Entrance hall @ Personal residence
@ Registration @ WC-Personal
@) Cloakroom @Group room
@Telephone @Dormitory
@Office @Head
(?) Dining room @Guest
@Kitchen @J Bath
@sink @Shower
@Sideboard @ Cleaning products
@Pantry @we
8 Hitzacker youth hostel Arch.: C. Schonwald

184
 HOLIDAY/WEEKEND HOMES
General Design Notes

Holiday homes are for temporary holiday accommodation, either

for the user or for (paying) guests. They can be single buildings
on their own plot or grouped in a holiday park and are subject to
the LBO.
Weekend homes, which make use of appropriate waivers under
the LBO concerning the quality of residential rooms, thermal
0 Log cabin with sleeping loft
insulation, sound insulation and fire protection, may be erected
f----2.15-j-2.15---j only on suitable sites and are restricted to certain sizes laid down
in the States' Camping and Weekend Home Regulations (e.g.
T0

I f-------- 4.30-------j floor area max. 40 m2 (+ 10 m2 veranda), height max. 3.50 m).
"l
The features of rented holiday homes are often controlled by

"'ui t sleeping loft

T
l
0
"l
the German Tourism Association, which issues classifications.
In general, weekend homes should have a living area, a proper
kitchen (partitioned), an enclosed shower, with WC and washbasin,

l
ro
0
S3 HOLIDAY/
<:<i and at least one enclosed sleeping area. WEEKEND
ladder

1
HOMES
LBO
States'
Camping and
Weekend Home
f---4.30----j
Regulations
f) Ground floor --> 0 0 First floor--> 0 German Tourism
Association

Architect: Prof. Cosse Architect: Konstantinidis

Q 2
Weekend home for four people with 25 m living area Arch. H. Lowell 0 Holiday home in Belgium 0 Holiday cabin in Greece

Architects: lmmich/Erdenich

f) Weekend home e Balcony-->0 C) Section-->0 (!) Elevation --> 0

Architect: Hagen Architect: Solvsten Architect: Jensen

Ground floor of a holiday home First floor--> CD Weekend home Holiday home on Bornholm
in Nordseeland

185
 ~2.50--f 1-2.50---1
MOTELS
General Design Notes

Motels offer reasonably priced accommodation for travellers.

They are located at the edge of towns in places easily reachable
by motorway or arterial roads, near tourist attractions and holiday
regions. It is beneficial to have restaurants, petrol stations and
1---4.00 -+--4.00 -+-4.00--+-- 4.00 -+--4.00 ----l services for motorists in the immediate vicinity. In contrast to city
0 Room units, lit one side, with furnishing variants Arch.: Polivnick hotels, motels are mostly single-storey, widely spread facilities
~ 0. The access road normally leads to the registration (short-
term parking), then to a car park or carport as near to the room
as possible. (Departure also via registration with check-out and
return of key.)

Room sizes 4 x 4 m - 5 x 5 m, with bathroom and sometimes

kitchenette ~ 0 - 0. Furnishing is cost-saving and simple (most
of the guests stay only one night). Community rooms for guests,
MOTELS with desks and reading tables, radio, television; play area should be
situated away from the guest rooms so as not to disturb sleepers.

f---- 5.50 --+- 5,50 - - e l - - 5.50 --+- 5.50 - - j

f) Room units, exposed two sides Arch.: Roberto

restaurant

r-1.40-1
l--3.40-iJ-3.40--t--- 6.00 -------l--3.40-lt--

0 Group of six room units with covered parking places Arch.: Duncan

::J

Q Motel facility with joint car park for each building and restaurant as separate
business Arch.: Fried

accommodation
units

Q Stepped arrangement
Arch.: Thompson
e Stepped arrangement
Arch.: Hornbostel
Cl) Layout plan for--> 0 with restaurant Arch.: Hornbostel

'

r------------------
! _.J

L-~~--------~-- .. ··------·- _J

9 Stepped arrangement of room units with registration and manager's flat C) Four room units as block 4Ii) Two room units with optional
Arch.: Williams Arch.: Tibbals, Crumley, Musson additional room

186
 CAMPING
General Design Notes

~~
1.20-1.80

1.40 - 1.80 -' Camping sites -t 0 offer the cheapest legal accommodation - in
~ tents -t 0- 0, or caravans -t 8- 0 or motorhomes -t 0. The
spectrum ranges from natural camping sites in holiday areas,

I[ID
"' c::::::::::::x:
I c::::::=:JO
T
0
"':
:L: I~>
CJmJ
T
0

"'C\i
1
mostly in attractive countryside (e.g. on the coast) to motorhome
parks, as a cheap alternative to hotels and motels, in reachable
locations near towns (they are mainly for motorhomes).
f - - 2.20-----j l---2.50---j 1---------6.00
The requirements for camping sites are laid down in the states'
0 Small tent with flysheet f) Large tent with inner lining, two Camping and Weekend Parks Regulations. Camping sites
flysheets and awning
generally need to have an access road from a public road, with
access control (barrier), reception and assignment of places,
T an area for waiting vehicles, visitor's car parks and internal
0
access with roads adequate for fire service vehicles (width
~ min. 3.0 m).
CAMPING
1 Camping sites and motorhome parks should be separated. A MBO
States'
place should be provided for each caravan or motorhome. These Camping and
places are min. 75 m2 (65 m2 if car parking spaces are provided Weekend Parks
Regulations
separately) and are grouped into sections of 20 places by fire
f - - - - 6.70 -----j
roads (5 m wide). It may be necessary to provide firebreak strips
Large house tent with high side-walls, inner linings, awning, windows next to the boundaries.

Motorhome
parking

G Caravan with cooking, seating, Q Folding caravan with cooking, Tent places Internal access road
(for fire services)
sleeping and luggage seating, sleeping and luggage
compartments compartments f) Example of a camping site with tent area and places for caravans

Swivel
we Seating
=
T~
Sofa/bed
Communal facilities
Camping sites have the following communal facilities:
C\i
- drinking water taps (one tap for every 20 places supplied

1 =
from the public water main), electricity sockets (parking
places for motorhomes and larger caravans should ideally
have water supply, drains and electricity supply), fire
hydrants and fire extinguishers (one fire extinguisher per
Swivel
40 places)
- sanitary facilities with: toilet blocks (guideline: 1 block per

I~
Sofa/bed
100 places with: 4 WCs/2 urinals/1 washbasin (gents'), 6 WC/
1 washbasin (ladies'), 1 we for the disabled), washing facilities
(guideline for each 100 places: 3 showers, 5 washbasins for
gents and ladies, 1 shower and washroom for the disabled), sink

I for washing crockery and clothes, emptying facility for waste

water and toilets, sufficient and appropriately distributed
waste bins
- telephone line with emergency call function, kiosk,
supermarket, snack bar or restaurant, leisure facilities (play
e Motorhome with seating, swivelling chairs, sofa/bed and WC area, sports grounds, barbecue site, open area).

187
 CHILDREN'S DAYCARE
Access and Building Forms

The design of facilities for children should consider their needs

and size. There are no regulations or guidelines for the construc-
tion of children's daycare buildings. The regulations of the relevant
indirect assignment I_ _ _ state and the LBO are used as guidelines. Accessibility building
1
5 -m design standards are recommended.
I'()
I i/Wi@'lOl··
••
1n~o 1111
1""'0 "'D Children's daycare centre
I ~
This term includes creches, kindergartens, after-school care etc.
The daycare centre is organised so that a mixture of children with
ali-day and part-time arrangements can be looked after.

~
terrace
common room
dining
kitchen Creche, nursery
role-play Cares for small children from babies to three years old. The group
building
bonding size is generally approx. 10 children.
group room
washroom/We
Kindergarten
Typical plan of a kindergarten Looks after children from min. three years old until they go to
group Arch.: Franken/Kreft school. It may be possible for them to eat lunch and sleep. The
CHILDREN'S
DAYCARE
0 Functional arrangement of group group size is generally 20 children.
room, cloakroom and sanitary
Access and facilities Children's after-school care
building forms For the care of school-age children until 14 years old. Lunch after
Rooms
Outdoor areas
school and assistance with homework are offered. These estab-
LBO
lishments are often combined with kindergartens and the group
size is generally 20 children.

Age 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Height (em) 75 85 94 101 108.5 115 121.5 127 131.5 137 143 148
~ ~ .. ·············::·::: ....... . :::::~
Eye level (em) 64 74 83 91 96 103 108 113 117 122 127 131
Reach (em) 30 36 42 48 52 57 61 64 66 69 72 75
8 Children's daycare centres 0 In two blocks
9 Guideline sizes of children (Gralle, Port -> refs)
access types: in a single block

Bag compartment

Tf~+ 0

J! "'

IJ
Shoe compartment

e Hallaccess f) Courtyard access e Cloakroom cupboard for six

children
Cl) Cupboard for storing children's
mattresses (size: 140/70 and
120/60 em)

0 Building form: grouped pavilions f:D Building form: rows of pavilions 0} Building form: stepped (D Building form: compact

188
 CHILDREN'S DAYCARE
Rooms, Outdoor Areas

Group room Outdoor areas

Most time in the children's daycare centre is spent here. Required Outside playgrounds should be designed to be as varied as poss-
floor area approx. 2.5 m2 per child. Create zones as varied as ible. The design of external works for children's centres is regu-
possible and design a second floor level and a stage (play-stage lated by several standards. The stipulated minimum area outside
half-open, with a snug cave). Play decks up to a height of 1.50 m per child is variable between the German states.
must have a handrail at least 70 em high; play decks more than
1.50 m high must have handrails min. 1.00 m high. The group Hilly landscape Modelling the terrain by heaping and excavating
room should have as short a distance as possible to the WC the ground surface. The coarse shape is produced by a hydraulic
area. Ideally, provide direct access to the open air and align to excavator, and the fine modelling by hand. The hills can incorpor-
the south. ate plants, shrubs, hedges, flowers and clover of various heights.

Rest or sleeping rooms Compost heap as the core of an organic garden. Semi-shaded
These are not always considered necessary, as mattresses are of- location for organic waste from the centre.
ten laid out in the group room for the midday sleep (cupboard to
store the mattresses -7 p. 188 0). Trees for climbing, to provide shade, deliver fruit and be edu-
cational. Also worth considering are vegetable/herb gardens,
Kitchen sandpits, bird tables, dry stone walls, meadows etc.
The status of the kitchen in the children's centre can vary accord- CHILDREN'S
ing to the paedagogical concept, for example a central kitchen for Pond should have min. 6 m2 water surface and a depth of 80 em DAYCARE
all groups or as a series of kitchens, one in each group room. Dif- to avoid oxygen deficiency. For safety reasons, either a coarse net Access and
should be spread over the water or builder's steel mesh installed building forms
ferent floor heights are recommended so that adults and children Rooms
can cook together. 10 em under the water surface. Outdoor areas

BS EN 1176
Dining room ASTM F1487
The group room is normally used for eating. An extended corridor DIN EN 1176
DIN EN 1177
or the entrance hall are also suitable as communicative places to DIN 18034
eat.
LBO

Stairs
The risers of stairs in children's centres should not be more than
16 em, and the treads between 30 and 32 em.

Height recommendation Washing facilities we, seat height

nursery for every 10 children

potty room 1, 45-60 em 1, 20-25 em

kindergarten approx. for every 5 children

potty room 1, 45-60 em 1, 25-30 em

after-school approx. for every 10 children

girls 1-2. 1
boys 1-2 1
65-70 em 30-35 em

Q Height guidelines for washbasins and WCs

f) Pond with clay lining for outside area in children's daycare centre

189
 PLAYGROUNDS
Playground Equipment

Playgrounds must be varied in ·design, changing and changeable.

0 Tractor m Playhouse
They must meet the needs of children. Some of the requirements
for children's playgrounds are: traffic safety, no pollution by emis-
sions, sufficient sunshine, groundwater level not too high,

Play equipment in playgrounds is often made of timber (e.g. larch,

robinia) and the surface of the wood can be additionally protected
with beeswax treatment. Standing water and damp should be
avoided on all wooden surfaces, so galvanised steel is often set
f) Trailer-->0 0 House group
into the ground at the base of verticals.

~
.
1.10
T Playgrounds should be orientation points within residential dis-
tricts and connected to housing with simple networks of paths.

-------~
Do not banish playgrounds to the periphery, but design in combi-
nation with other communication systems.

8 Horse and cart

Guideline values for the design of playgrounds are built up from
individual data: age group, usable area per resident, play area
PLAYGROUNDS

~f
Playground
size, distance from home:
equipment
BS EN 1176 Age (years) m2/resident Accessibility, max. distance (min.)
ASTM F1487 from home (m)
DIN EN 1176
DIN EN 1177
DIN 18034
-~-< 0-6
6-12
0.6
0.5
up to 200 and in sight
up to 400
2
5
t) Rocking horse «<) Swings 12-18 0.9 up to 1000 15

Playgrounds for children are to be provided, as private facilities

within the building plot, with the construction of houses or flats: for
small children up to 6, for children from 6 to 12, plus leisure areas
for adults. This is a requirement for three flats or more. The uniform
basis for the provision of all public playgrounds is: 5 m2 playing
area per residential unit, minimum area of playground: 40m 2 • Out-
8 Pig 4D Slide door play areas must be fenced at least 1 m high (thick hedges,
fence or similar) to prevent access to roads, car parking, railway

~ ~
lines, deep watercourses, cliffs and similar dangers.

~
e Snail 49 Cablerun
@
Legends:
CD open octagonal house
Lilliput castle

rllJI'
@ seesaw chickens
@water toy

flTil""
@ bicycle stands
@ table tennis tables
(J)

~ ~
bench with pergola
® trampoline-like web walk
® castle with moving pans
@ Robinson Crusoe's island
@ water source
f) Swing for small child 4D Vertical bars @ revolving cross
@paved area
@ amphitheatre

~~0
~
e Snack table f) Seesaw

~~:0
G Sandpit (squared timber)

~l4o
-~.00
4Ii) Sand pit (round timber) e Slide and climbing house 4D 'Karnacksweg• playground

190
 ~60+1.20-i SCHOOLS
-ti:!J
DDT General Classrooms

uu uut
D Dj_
tIO
:.=;;q
/\1!(1')
Downstand
beam
Design parameters
The basis for the planned development of schools are the school
building guidelines of each German state (including model room
uu uu layouts), in conjunction with relevant national building standards
0 Minimum dimensions for table f) Room heights of classrooms
and health and safety regulations.
arrangement in regular classrooms General classroom area
(Saxony --> refs) This includes standard and replacement classrooms, course rooms,
rooms for languages and social studies, language laboratories,
teaching equipment and map rooms, and other subsidiary rooms.

00000

0000000
0 0
0 0
Q Q Q
D D D
0
0 0
0
0 0

~ ~
~
I1
0
The subjects taught in the general classroom area are: languages,
general studies, mathematics, religion, social studies and politics,
as well as optional subjects and remedial teaching.
Group rooms
In primary and special schools it should be arranged that these are
each accessible from two classrooms. Multi-purpose rooms can
D DD be assigned to other areas.
oo oo oo Number of floors
g0 ~
0
Q This should lie between three and four. Schools for pupils who
SCHOOLS
General
are physically disabled or have learning difficulties should have classrooms
1-2 storeys. Specialist
classrooms
C) LTR (=listen, talk, record)
0 Max. depth of classrooms with Room dimensions Information and
laboratory, SB =speaker's one-sided daylight communal area
booth, RR =recording room
The maximum number of pupils in a class is 32. Sanitary facilities
According to the school building guidelines, the design of classrooms Break and
should normally be based on tables with two workplaces --7 0. If circulation areas
Arrangement of
the windows are all on one side, the max. room depth is 7.20 m. If classrooms
possible, have windows on both sides to permit furniture to be free- Clusters
Model room
ly positioned. The distance between the blackboard and the pupil programme
workplaces at the back should not exceed 9.00 m -0 G. Guideline Examples
values: area: 21.8G--2.00 m2/pupil. Air volume: 25.00-6.00 m3/pupil. BS 4163
oooooo The ceiling height of classrooms (min. 3 m) may not be reduced by BS EN 14434
c::cr::rJ DIN 18024
0000 more than 0.30 m by individual construction elements --7 f).
DIN 58125
Language laboratory --7 0 - 0 GUV 16.3
Located within the general classroom area or near the media
centre/library. Guideline: approx. 30 language laboratory places

0 LT (= listen and talk) laboratory e Workplace with monitor

per 1000 pupils. Size: LT (listen and talk) and LTR (listen, talk,
record) laboratory size, total approx. 80 m2 , language laboratory
cabins approx. 1 x 2 m, number of places per laboratory 24-30 m2 ,
J.;.sot i.e. 40-60 m2 plus subsidiary areas. LTR laboratory --7 0: 23 work-
I 30o
places as cabins, approx. 65 m 2 (approx. 2.8 m 2/place) including
subsidiary rooms approx. 95m 2 .
LT laboratory -0 0: 33 workplaces as desks, approx. 65 m2 (ap-
prox. 2.0 m 2/place) including subsidiary rooms approx. 95 m2 •
Side rooms: studio, recording room, archive for teacher and pupil
tapes. Language laboratories are also possible in inner areas of
the building with artificial light and air conditioning.
Computer room
Should if possible face north and not be on the ground floor (Saxony
-0 refs). The IT workplaces are designed according to the guidelines
f) Seating arrangement for 80 pupils ii;1 0 years old,
for computer workplaces. The upper edge of the monitor should
for film, slides and overhead projection
be below eye level so that the pupil's head is tilted at 15-20° --7 e.

e Building form: grouping with

central access
C) Building form: grouped
pavilions
CI!) Compact building form: with
central courtyard access
CD Compact building form: with
light wells

191
 t-1.oof-- 1.60-+ f-1.00+-1.60-+ SCHOOLS

c=J1~
Specialist Classrooms

~ c=J1
u uutu uu1 Science teaching area

ct
This includes teaching, teaching/practical, practical, preparation

~ n nn 1 and meeting rooms, photo work and photo lab rooms. Teaching
rooms for biology, physics and chemistry approx. 2.50 m2/place.

uu-+-~
For lectures and demonstrations approx. 4.50 m2/place.
u C Demonstration and practical room for natural sciences, chem-
istry and biology, and physics, chemistry and biology approx.
0 Minimum dimensions for table
8 Minimum dimensions for table
70-80 m2 ~ E). Teaching room for lecturing and demonstrations
layouts in practical rooms, in layouts In practical rooms, back-
rows to-back in the subjects physics, biology and perhaps chemistry approx. 60
m2 , with permanently installed, ascending auditorium seating. A
second entrance and exit may be necessary. This room may be in
00000 000000000 an internal location with artificial lighting. Practical room for pupils,

n ommm~ collaborating groups etc. in biology and physics or also interdisci-

plinary practical area, space sub-divided by means of partitioning,

mmmo~
area per room or section approx. 80m 2 •
tJ Preparation, meeting and materials room for subject combinations
or single subjects: together approx. 30-40 m2 or approx. 70 m2 ,
according to the size of the science area. This room may be in an
SCHOOLS classroom with preparation and room for practicals,
General
48 places 80m2 library 60m2 40 places 80m2 internal location with artificial lighting.
classrooms
Specialist
C) Rooms and areas for science teaching Music and art teaching
classrooms Rooms for drawing should have uniform natural light, if possible
Information and
communal area
from the north. Music rooms should have an appropriate layout

ft ~~·~:~~rtt~t-~
Sanitary facilities and sound insulation to avoid disturbing other facilities.
Break and
circulation areas Technical teaching
Arrangement of
classrooms
Workrooms should be arranged so that teaching in other rooms
Clusters is not disturbed by the noise. The working area should be sub-
Model room divided into the various media (wood, paper, metal, plastic) and
programme
Examples I ideally be located on the ground floor.
Photo laboratory
The photo laboratory is a dark room for positive work (one enlarge-
ment table for 2-3 pupils, combined with wet working areas), for
®
negative work (film development) and a film storage room. If possible
it should be north-facing with constant room temperature. Space re-
quirement: 6-14 pupils per work group, min. 3-4m2 per work place.

0 c:=:::J c:=:::J
oc:=:::J®=
o==
0==
r-] crafts/natural science

0:0 0:0
ffi. ffi
EB ~
~ ~ rn·~ 'f~ ffi.EB ffiffi
chemistry rooms ·
-12 places

8
... 95m2

Rooms and areas for technology

-40m2 -30 places -100m2

ooooo oooooooooo

<D for pract1cals ® classroom @ extra practical roorr

@ for practicals & teaching

G
® preparation and library

Science area, approx. 400 places, approx. 1400 m 2

@ library

:o:uu::o:
o o
paper and clay work
o a·~~--~

~25 places

f) Areas for technology

art room
music room
0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 c 0 0 0
°
~~~off~o~~:fttr=-1
0 0
0 0 0
0 0 0 room
ancillary

o
0
ao
o0 o 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0
oO 0 0 0 0 0 0
oooo
teaching materials

0 -30 places ... aom2 -35m2 -35 .glaces -90m

Areas for technology/business studies, office technology, technical drawing,
subjects altogether approx. 350 places, approx. m2 1600 e Areas for music and art

192
 1 multi-purpose room
2 audio booths SCHOOLS
3 office
4 central catalogue Information and Communal Area
5 newspapers,
magazines
6 group area
7 individual places
8 typing booths Library, media centre and central facilities
9 information, Information centre for teaching, further education and leisure. The
lending desk
10 lecture room users are pupils, teachers and external participants. Library de-
11 audiovis. studio
12 racks notes a conventional school and lending library including lending,
13 free access reading and work spaces and the appropriate shelves for books
14 photocopier
15 cloakroom, lockers and magazines. Media centre describes the extension of the li-
brary to cover recording and reproduction technology (hardware)
0 Example of school library/media centre for radio, film, television, cassettes, tapes, CD, DVD, i.e. so-called
audio-visual material and a corresponding stock of software.

Guideline space requirement

Total for library and media centre 0.35-0.55 m2/pupil.

Details: Book issue and return, per work space approx. 5 m2 in-
cluding catalogue areas approx. 20-40 m2 •
Advisors (librarian, media teacher, media technician etc.), per em-
ployee approx. 10-20 m2 • Compact book storage per 1000 vol-
umes at approx. 20-30 volumes per running m of shelf, approx.
SCHOOLS
4 m2 self-service shelves incl. movement areas; reading places
General
and catalogue per 1 000 volumes of non-fiction and reference classrooms
works approx. 20-40 m2 ; general working zone per 1000 reference Specialist
classrooms
volumes approx. 25m 2 for approx. 5% of pupils/teachers but min. Information and
30 work spaces each 2 m 2, approx. 60 m 2, per carrel approx. 2.5- communal area
Sanitary facilities
3.0 m2 • Group work room, 8-10 people, approx. 20m 2 --> 0- f). Break and
circulation areas
f) Example of school library/media centre Kitchen and dining room Arrangement of
classrooms
For a dining room with more than 400 places, the places of as- Clusters

. ....
sembly regulations should be complied with. Model room
programme

D0
·-----------1 The size and equipment depends on the catering system, food
service and return of plates. For young pupils meals may be
served at table (portions possibly served by the teacher) otherwise
Examples

self-service (from conveyor, counter, cafeteria line, free-flow cafe-

00
oro Main kitchen
teria, turntable etc.). Serving capacity: from 5-15 meals/minute or
250-1 000 meals/hour with varied personnel requirement.
0~0
0"0 Space required for serving system approx. 40--60 m2 . Dining room
size depends on number of pupils and sittings, per seat min. 1.20-
00 1.40 m2 . Larger areas should be partitioned into smaller rooms. At
00 entrance, provide one washbasin per 40 seats--> 0- 0.
<J Preparation

t>
....
r-----------~ --
~
0.
Day store Vegetable
preparation ·-~-·
I Meat
preparation
~~
~~

"' v
DDDCJDDDCJ!J
II "' :
oo r:=::H:::::J oc:::J c:::Jc:::::J
0 I 0
QDDDCJDDD ~ c::::JO[::::H:::::JCJCJC::::H::::::J
0 -2500m2

.... -... - - -
<lo -... - - .... - -
..... - -...- -... - ....- 0

8 Organisation of space and functions in a school kitchen G Servery, plates return and eating area

193
 SCHOOLS
f-min.-f Sanitary Facilities I Break and Circulation Areas
1.00

.
0 Doors
(1~-----"'" f) Corridors~ min. escape route width
Circulation and escape routes
Horizontal and vertical access routes are normally also emergency
escape routes. Escape routes must have a clear width of min.
1.00 m/150 people but min. width of corridors in classroom areas
f - ;':;28 tread t - f is 2.00 m, or 1.25 m with up to 180 people. Stairs in classroom ar-

== t Handrail eas must be 1 .25 m wide, other escape routes 1 .00 m wide. Max.
length of escape routes: 25 m measured in a straight line from the

~
~17
stairwell door to the farthest work place, or 30 m in an indirect line
to the centre of the room. Capacity of stairs dependent on number
of users and average occupancy, e.g. stair width: 0.80 m for each
1111111111111 100 people (min. 1.25 m, but not wider than 2.50 m).
Handrail
e Pitch of stairs Stairs as escape route (according to
school building guidelines)
Doors -7 0
These may open inward or outward. Outward opening doors
should not endanger pupils and project max. 20 em into the es-
cape route. -7 e.
SCHOOLS
General
~
9 Lesson-time WC facilities,
Doors from rooms with more than 40 pupils or increased fire risk
(chemistry, work rooms) must open in the direction of the escape
route.
classrooms
e.g. tor approx. 1 00 boys,
Specialist
classrooms approx. 15 m2
Information and Stairs, ramps -7 0 - G
communal area The pitch of stairs is to be based on length of pace: 2 riser +
Sanitary tread= 59-65 em. Ramps ;:;;;6% gradient.
facilities
Break and
circulation Cloakrooms
areas
Arrangement of
e.g. for approx. 100 girls, f) Break-time WC facilities, e.g. single-row Cloakrooms are to be provided outside classrooms.
classrooms
approx. 15 m2 facilities tor approx. 250 girls, approx. 40 m ; 2

Clusters for approx. 250 boys, approx. 40 m2

Model room Break areas
programme The space guideline for enclosed break areas is 0.4-0.5 m 2/pupil.
Examples They are to be designed so that they can be used for school
DIN 58125 events. Dining and multi-purpose rooms may be used as break
areas. If the connection between school building and sports hall
e Teacher WC facilities,
e.g. for approx.
is roofed over, this can be designed as a break area or covered
sports area (Saxony -7 refs).
30 teachers, approx. 15 m2
Communal area
A communal area should be provided in each larger school for
events and celebrations. This can be achieved through the tem-
C) e.g. for approx. Break-time WC facilities e.g. two-row
porary connection of several rooms and circulation areas. Wheth-
20 women teachers, facilities tor approx. 500 girls, approx. 65 m2 ;
approx. 10 m2 for approx. 500 boys, approx. 40 m2 er the building of a school hall is necessary is regulated by the
relevant state school building guidelines.
No. users we Urinals
Sanitary facilities -7 0 - 0
40 boys 1 2 The necessary WCs, urinals and washbasins are provided accord-
ing to the total number of pupils (divided between boys and girls)
20 girls 1 - according to the school building guidelines -7 $. One washbasin
15 teachers 1 1 is provided for every boys' WC or for every two girls' WCs. Toilets
should be as directly lit and ventilated as possible. The accesses
10 women teachers 1 - for girls and boys are to be separate.

G) Guideline for number of sanitary facilities (Saxony--. refs)

Context Form Separation Location Use Notes

boys/girls
class we toilets with lobby no near a classroom during lesson possibly for preschool and school kindergarten, poss. 2 WCs
and lobby
lesson we toilets yes accessible from several classes each classroom without we should be max. 40 m distance
corridor or hall during lesson (incl. stairs) from lesson we
breakWC toilets yes accessible from for classes during WCs at ground level, not in centre of building, accessible from
schoolyard or hall the break break areas

teacher We toilets ladies/gents for teachers or during the break possibly linked to staff cloakroom
administration

@) Recommended WC facilities

194
 SCHOOLS
oQoQcO cO cO Do Iteaching I
Arrangement of Classrooms, Clusters

Cj
cOaOaO aD oO
cQoOnQ aQ cO
classroom
aOaOnO aD aD
cOoQ aQnQ nQ

cloakroom
I
corridor

0 Classroom lit and ventilated on both sides through cloakroom and corridor,
corridor opening up every two classrooms into teaching equipment room
Arch.: Yorke, Rosenberg, Mardall

classroom
outside
class space

oQ ~o c(} O\l
cO oQ <i1 o\l
oa 0 1 l
l-J handicrafts room
-
ao oQ <i1 aQ
cO a[) tiJ aG
aO oO cO aG
cO a[) a\} aG
1
corridor
I ITI SCHOOLS
General
classrooms
0 Cluster, bundling of several classrooms, single-sided daylighting of individual
rooms
Specialist
classrooms
f) Design proposal: combination of classroom, open-air classroom and hobby Information and
room Arch.: Neutra communal area
Sanitary facilities
o[] oo oo o[] Break and
circulation areas
lJ[]oQaQaO
Arrangement of
o[] 0 0 nO oO classroom classrooms

o[] ao ao oO Do
Clusters
Model room
o[] oO nO '{) programme
Examples
f) Multi-storey building: two classrooms to each staircase,
daylight from two sides Arch.: Schuster

corridor

e Saw-tooth plan Arch.: Carbonara

gr,::;;:,ll;:j;:jl
'Im''!TI?'afl
===
00 00 PC

~ra111fffil
o==
DO 00 00

/
classroom

corridor

Classrooms with additional daylight through high-level window, without view

in from the back. Corridor opens up at each classroom into cloakroom and
Q Four classrooms per storey with daylight from both
sides, side extension for group teaching Arch.: Haefeli, Moser, Steiger
storeroom Arch.: Carbonara

--- covered access

Hexagonal classroom without corridor, accessed

I I
1.----------------- _J

Hexagonal classrooms with enclosed triangular hobby rooms

Arch.: BrechbOhlen through cloakroom and lobby Arch.: Gottwald, Weber

195
 SCHOOLS
Model Room Programme for Primary Schools

1 cohort L conorts
4 classes 8 classes
120 pupils 240 pupils

Places m2/room No. m2 No. m2

General teaching rooms 326-490 592-748

classrooms 24-32 50-66 4 200-264 8 400-528
group rooms 12-18 36-50 2 72-100
multi-purpose rooms 32 72 1 90 1 72
side rooms 18-36 1 18 1 24
teaching equipment room 18-36 1 18 1 24

Specialist classrooms 96
work room 16 72 1 72
side room 24 1 24
music room 32 72
SCHOOLS
General School library/media centre 60 72
classrooms
Specialist
classrooms Administration 36 102
Information and
communal area head teacher's room 12-18 60
Sanitary facilities secretariat 18--24 36
Break and
circulation areas teachers' room 24-50 12
Arrangement of sick room 18 1 18
classrooms
Clusters parents' meeting room 12 1 1
Model room caretaker's room 12 1 12
programme
Examples
Communal areas 92 92
kitchen servery 24 1 24 1 24
dining/multi-purpose room 1 50 1 50
side room 18-24 1 18 1 18

Utility areas 24 66
caretaker's workshop 18 1 18
room for cleaning materials 12 1 12
storeroom 1 24 1 36

Caretaker's flat 1 80

Sports hall 1 600

Open-air sports facilities

break areas with gymnastic and 600 1200

play equipment
school garden 150 300
playing field 1 pitch 1 pitch
100m track 4 tracks
long jump facility 3 tracks
gymnastics lawn 400 400

Subtotals
general classrooms 326-390 592-748
specialist classrooms 96
school library/media centre 60 72
administration 36 102
utility areas 24 66

Total 446-510 928-1084

m 2/pupil 4.0 4.2

0 Model room programme, primary school, school building regulations (Saxony_, refs)

196
 SCHOOLS
Examples

CD Break hall @Music room

®Classroom (!)
Woodwork,
housekeeping
@Group room
@Services
@store
@ Multi-purpose
®Caretaker roam

CD Break hall
®Break yard
@Sports hall SCHOOLS
@) Physics classroom General
classrooms
® Drawing/crafts Specialist
@ Class/course rooms classrooms
Information and
0 Markt lndersdorf grammar school, first floor C) School for individual promotion of learning, Alzenau, primary and secondary communal area
Sanitary facilities
Arch.: Allmann Sattler Wappner Architekten school, ground floor Arch.: (se) arch Stefanie Eberding und Stephan Eberding
Break and
circulation areas
Arrangement of
classrooms
Clusters
Model room
programme
Examples
®

®
CD Forum
®Stage
C) Volta school house, Basel, fourth floor--> 0

--'>0-0
CD Entrance hall
®Sport hall
@ Yard light well
@Classroom
with group
@Crafts ®
@ Religion/remedial
teaching/
languages

Montessori school, Aachen, one-stage school, ground floor

Arch.: Prof. Ernst Kasper, Prof. Klaus Klever 0 Volta school house, Basel, ground floor Arch.: Miller & Maranta

197
 UNIVERSITIES AND COLLEGES
Lecture Theatres

Central university facilities include: great hall, event hall, adminis-

tration, deanery and student union. Also prominent are libraries, can-
teens, sports facilities, car parks and student residences (~ p. 167}.
Basic space requirements for all subjects
Lecture theatre for basic and special lectures, seminar and tutorial
rooms (partially with PC workplaces) for detailed instruction of the
course material, specialised libraries, rooms for scientific assis-
tants, conference and examination rooms.
Space requirements for specific subjects:
Humanities: lecture theatre with seating raked (rising) at a low pitch
~ 8. No particular requirements for blackboards or projection.
Technical and artistic subjects: e.g. architecture, art, music: draw-
ing, studio, workshop, practice and meeting rooms of all types.
Technical and natural science subjects: e.g. physics, mechan-
ical engineering, electrical engineering: drawing rooms, labora-
tories, workshops.
UNIVERSITIES Natural science and medical theory subjects: e.g. chemistry,
AND COLLEGES biology, anatomy, physiology, health care, pathology: laboratories
Lecture theatres with associated practical rooms, scientific workshops, animal keep-
Examples of
lecture theatres
ing and experiment rooms. Medical demonstration ('anatomy') the-
Faculty extension
Seating atres with steeply raked seating ~ G. Natural science lecture the-
Projection
Seminar and
0 Scheme of university facilities atres with experiment benches and steeply raked seating ~ C).
service rooms
Laboratories ceiling line

see also: Student 1

sloping ceiling I
residences,
p. 167

f) Geometrical determination of the listener curve

0 Longitudinal section through a lecture theatre

e Normal lecture theatre design (humanities)

e Steeply raked lecture theatre (natural sciences)

student seats
during operations

0 Lecture theatre for demonstrations on a bench (medicine)

f) Steps in life drawing class with seated area of 0.65 m 2 per student (technical
artistic subjects)

198
 I UNIVERSITIES AND COLLEGES

I.
f\ \
I
I
I ,I]
.l
Larger lecture theatres for central lectures are preferably accom-
modated in auditorium buildings, and smaller lecture theatres for
specialist lectures in institute or seminar buildings. Access to the
Lecture Theatres

lecture theatre is best separated from the research facilities, with

the shortest possible route from outside to the back of the lecture
theatre (in the case of raked seating, entrances behind the up-
I II I permost row, or in larger lecture theatres also at the side at middle
height -> 8). Lecturers enter the lecture theatre at the front, from
the preparation room, and experimental apparatus can be rolled
into the theatre. Common lecture theatre sizes are 100, 150, 200,
300, 400, 600, 800 seats. Lecture theatres with up to 200 seats,
ceiling height approx. 3.5 m can be integrated into an institute
~ ~ building; larger theatres should ideally have their own building.
90 90
1-t----11.40-----j-----j
Experiment benches should be easily changeable, on wheels and
0 Rectangular lecture theatre with 200 seats
suitable for laboratory work. Media connections are required.

UNIVERSITIES
AND COLLEGES
Lecture theatres
Examples of
lecture theatres
Seating
Projection
Seminar and
service rooms

-
Laboratories

f) Floor plans for light and sound booths

G) movable blackboard
® service duct in floor
@ experiment bench
@ point of reference

f) Trapezoidal lecture theatre with 400 seats

0 Longitudinal section -> 0

light and
sound lock

/
/
/
/
/
I
I
I
I
I
I
I

~oject8 roorn:Y
x,~-----j-1
30

0 Lecture theatre with 800 seats () Plan of podium area

199
 UNIVERSITIES AND COLLEGES
CD Large lecture theatre
® Seminar room Examples of Lecture Theatres
@ Server room
@)Side room
®Airspace
@we
([) Small lecture theatre

tl 0 Section -; 0
0 Bremerhaven University, third floor Arch.: Kister Scheithauer Gross

UNIVERSITIES
AND COLLEGES
Lecture theatres
Examples of
lecture theatres
Seating
Projection
Seminar and
service rooms
Laboratories

Lecture theatres, Griifin Donho!! Building, first floor, Frankfurt an der Oder
University Arch.: Yamaguchi und Essig Architekten BOA

f) Council building, Freiburg University, ground floor entrance hall and two-storey
Auditorium Maximum Arch.: O.E. Schweizer

<D main lecture

theatre
®projector
® lecture hall
@ senate room
®cloakroom

0 Student building in DOsseldorf

G) lecture theatre
® projection room
@cloakroom

0 Auditorium of the Technical University of Delft Arch.: Broek + Bakema f) Lecture theatre of the ETH Honggerberg, Zurich

200
 UNIVERSITIES AND COLLEGES

[:i:[:i
Level
Lecture theatre seating
Seating and Projection

Combined units with tip-up or slewing seat, backrest and desk (with
shelf or hook for case or bag), mostly fixed mounting ~ 0 - 0.
l - - 8 5 - l - 85--+- 85----1 Arrangement is according to subject, number of students and type
of tuition: from light (slide shows, electro-acoustic facilities) to heavy.
Some lecture theatres (surgery, internal medicine, physics) have
raked (rising) rows of seating ~ 0. The space requirement per
student depends on type of seating, desk depth and floor pitch.
Per student (including all walking areas in larger lecture theatres in
f) Seating arrangement with tip-up a cramped situation), the space requirement is 1.10 m2 , in smaller
seats and desks lecture theatres and in a normal situation 0.80-0.95 m2 •
1--85 -l-105----j Projection, boards, acoustics, lighting:
On 15 em steps Projection screens and black-/whiteboards can be designed as
segmented surfaces, or fixed to a straight back wall. Wall boards
in many sections, mostly vertically sliding, manual or mechanical,
can be dropped down below the projection area. Wheeled boards
or screens are also possible.
Speech should reach the listener as uniformly as possible, with no
disturbing echo. Suspended ceilings will aid reflection and absorp-
UNIVERSITIES
tion. Rear walls should be clad with sound-absorbing material, oth- AND COLLEGES
Sloping floor up to 12% incline er walls flat. Light intensity in windowless lecture theatres: 600 lx. Lecture theatres
0 Lecture theatre seating Arrangement with fixed desks and Examples of
lecture theatres
rotating seats (required space)
Seating
Projection

T ~
Seminar and
service rooms
Connection for Laboratories
access point
Motion detector
1 BS EN 12665
DIN 5035
Loudspeaker
-Emergency
call-listen-in
-Announcements
Wall panel
AMX
Hinged door, behind
trips/ switches

1----'9"'0'------j

8 Lecture theatre seating /desk 8 Desk ventilation I air flow

ventilation

Media column Integrated into 4li) Front view, mobile (wheeled) media
lecture theatre, exact height table
according to room height

I I Front row Rearmost row of seats

i• ---- ----
1
ProJector
-L -- I
P< -- -- -- 35J40o
0.5 h -- - ---
II -- ::::1\l
--- - - -
-" 1.5 b f- max.
I

1
60°
- -
4.
or Projec tion screen
-- -- --
0 Layout of projectors, plan
---~-l--
G Projection wall width dependent on length of lecture theatre, plan

T
J_ T ~-----------a----------r

Spectator
- - - Projection wall
in the
last row

+-----3.5 h -----+
Layout of projectors, section, showing distribution of the angle of inclined view
to places above and below the projectors @) Projection wall width dependent on length of lecture theatre, section

201
 Prof. office
2
UNIVERSITIES AND COLLEGES
18m
Seminar and Service Rooms

The design of lecture theatres and seminar rooms has to comply

with the places of assembly regulations. It should also be ensured
that wheelchair users have sufficient space in lecture theatres in
line with standards.
Service rooms for lecture theatres
Every lecture theatre should have a directly accessible side room.

Trrr)
Prof. office Director
Laboratory
200m2

Archive ~ 1
This has no fixed function and can be used as a storage room.
Sufficient preparation area should be provided next to all lecture
theatres featuring experiments, positioned at the same level and
18m2 26m2 30m
2
"'ffil with a short route to the podium. Guideline for the min. size: for
0 Plan of a university building; seminar rooms are used by many departments rectangular plan lecture theatre, approx. 0.2-0.25 m2/seat; trap-
ezoidal plan 0.15-0.18 m2/seat; natural science and pre-clinical
Corridor Corridor Seminar rooms

lofficellll I I ~~~;ri·j Project rooms I subjects 0.2-0.3 m2/seat.

Areas for storage and staff rooms are necessary for the proper
1.80 2.00 operation of a lecture theatre building: a room for technical staff

UNIVERSITIES
AND COLLEGES
t
5.oo-+i-+1.-
2 20
1-------------38.00

f) Section ~
+l-+
0:
1
- - - 1 6 . o o _ _ _ _'_s._oo_+--
__

column-free pre-stressed concrete floor boards supported on

the external walls
8_.o_o~--l
~
to maintain the facilities; for cleaning staff; storeroom for replace-
ment parts, light bulbs, fluorescent tubes, black-/whiteboard,
clothing etc. Min. size per room 15 m2 ; space required for all side
rooms min. 50-60 m2 .
Lecture theatres
Examples of Computer room

n
lecture theatres
Seating The size of the computer room is related to the number and size
Projection of the computer desks, which depends on the size of the displays.
Seminar and
service rooms
General tuition rooms
Laboratories
Seminar rooms, usual sizes: 20, 40, 50, 60 seats; mobile double
0 0

u
Places of tables, width 1.20 m, depth 0.60 m, space required per student
Assembly
Regulations 1.90-2.00 m.
Variable arrangement of the tables for tutorial and group work. If
see also:
Libraries, there is free ventilation from only one external wall, the depth of
pp. 247 If. the room should not exceed 2.5 x clear ceiling height.

0 Dimensions of a computer room

Offices for scientific personnel -7 0
professor 20-24 m2

OD
scientific assistant 15 m2

00
[=::J
0

00 00 Heightof
r
the window
0
o
o
00 00 00

o
assistant 20 m2
secretary 15 m2 (double occupation 20 m2)
Cloakroom and WC facilities

r
=a 0 0
00 00 00 Rough estimate for both together: 0.15-0.16 m2/seat
0 0
00 00 00 0 0 Faculty and open-access libraries (-7 Libraries pp. 247 ff.)
Storage for 30 000-200 000 vols on open-access shelves.
00 00 00 00 00 00

Book storage space -7 C)

-+----maximum 2.5 a 4
e Dimensions of seminar rooms with natural ventilation
Bookcases with 6-7 shelves, 2 m high (reaching height)
Distance between bookcases 1.50-1.60 m
Space required 1.0-1.2 m2/200 vols

Do r ~ ~
~
c:::o
c::=:J
DO
D D
0
g Reading places -7 0
Width 0.9-1.0 m/depth 0.8 m
ca.18-20 m 2 2
c\ris m 0 2 :----,
~m 2 """u

ill Space required 2.4-2.5 m2 per place

Prof. ca.20m
sci[j~ant
~s[jjD Entrance control, with storage for cases/bags; catalogue, copier
room

Q Basic equipment for service rooms

uuu
0
I I I I 0 c:=:J
000000 0
c:=:J
~
0
000000 0 0
Q)
'0
Q)
'0
·u;
0 c:=:J f---1.80--J
·u; 0 0 0 0 00 Books 0

===::1 c:=:J
c:::::::J I

nnu
Books
So
0
'0 00 0 0 0 0
T "
0
'0
c
0
0 0

~ ~ ~ 0 c:=:J 0 0
000000 0 0 Reading places
0 00 0 0 0 ~ l 0
0
c:=:J
0
I I I I Bookshelves 0 c:=:J
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

(lt Arrangement of reading places and bookshelves

0 Arrangement of reading places and bookshelves

202
 UNIVERSITIES AND COLLEGES
Laboratories

1- 80 -t-- 1.40 --+ 80 --j

Laboratories differ according to use and subject. According to
use:
Tuition-related practical laboratories with a large number of
workstations collected together and mostly with simple basic
equipment -7 e.
1-80 + 1.25 -; 1-80 --j
Research-related laboratories, mostly in smaller rooms with
special equipment and additional practical spaces like weighing
0 Minimum passage width at workstations
and measurement rooms, centrifuge and autoclave rooms, rinsing
kitchens, air-conditioned and cold storage rooms with constant
1 - - 3.60------i temperature, photographic/dark rooms etc. -7 e.
writing area=.c====~===='f"'-

0~~ 00~
According to subject:
Chemistry and biology laboratories have permanently installed
laboratory benches. Rooms have a high rate of air exchange and

~o 0~ 0 ~ 0
1
frequently additional fume cupboards with air extraction -7 p. 204
-7 0 for work producing gas and smoke. Fume cupboards are
often installed in their own rooms ('stink rooms'). UNIVERSITIES
AND COLLEGES
f80t-1.60 -!801 Physics laboratories mostly have mobile benches and sophisti-

-.-
Lecture theatres
corridor cated electrical equipment in cable ducts in the wall or suspended
-,-- -,-- -,-- -,- -,- from the ceiling. Low rate of air exchange -7 p. 204. There are
Examples of
lecture theatres
Seating
Function and ancillary rooms special laboratories for specific requirements, e.g. isotope lab- Projection
f) Research laboratory oratories for work on radioactive substances in various safety Seminar and
service rooms
classes. Laboratories

1-- 3.60 ---t80t-1.60 -!801 Clean room laboratories are used for work requiring especially
dust-free filtered air, e.g. in microelectronics or for particularly
dangerous substances, whose release into the surrounding rooms
0 should be prevented by special air circulation and filtering (micro-
biology, gene technology) -7 0.
"'
'E
"'c.
0
.0

aX

__
8
._-
Teaching and practical laboratory
24 seats

-
Lab safety level 3 @emergency telephone, telephone
CD warning sign @two-way intercom, electric door-opener
G) fume cupboards ® workstation for ® hand-held fire @ ventilation and
® double-door safety lobby, self-closing @Windows: gas-tight, non-combustible,
doors leaded ® workbenches chemist extinguisher environmental
® outdoor clothing @pass-door: fireproof ®reserves ®corridor @ vertical energy control system
@ protective clothing
Lab safety level 4 @ dry work places ® materials cupboards supply
® floor trough (pas. disinfectant mat) In @three-chamber safety lobby. Doors ® weighing tables ®eye douche @ overhead pipes
front of shower
® hand wash basin with disinfectant
dispenser ®~~~:~~~:~~~~~~r lL-1i~~~tem can be
9
8 Section, BASF plastics laboratory Arch.: Suter u. Suter
0 workbench (clean bench) with separate upgraded*). Collect a nO disinfect
special filter waste water
0 gas-tight, enclosed workbench,

I
extractor
autoclave (In lab or building) ~d~ft~~~eaf~;e~~fll¥n~~~ extraction,
fiat panel radiator (7.5 em from wall)
control and monitoring cupboard:
electricity box, emergency mains off-
switch, error board
@ pressure difference display readable from
inside and out with acoustic alarm
®autoclave with lockable doors on
both sides, disinfect condensation
@flood lock
@autoclavable container for used

*)
protective clothing
Only required if upgrading to L-4 lab.
:J • "il'®
rEJ 0
@
'@ I I I I CI:J
-e-®
IT

lab exchange area

:J c
c_
~ t
t§j C_
@ [coU I
~\].,..:1~~~, ~t
.....
entrance
door

e Clean room laboratory, example 0 Plan->0

203
 UNIVERSITIES AND COLLEGES
Laboratories

Cold laboratories are used for tasks requiring extreme tempera-

ture conditions, photographic work and as darkrooms. Work-
rooms without equipment installed also belong in the close lab-
oratory area:
l-3.125 --f--3.125 --+-3.125 --t---3.125 ----l Study cubicles; social/rest rooms for laboratory staff; central
0 Room dimensions derive from size of bench (workstation). Services and rooms for general storage, chemical stores and issue, with par-
cupboards are in the corridor wall. Weighing room is separate. ticular safety measures; isotope stores with decay containers etc.
Animal laboratories are a special case, with rooms for keeping the
animals, which have special equipment appropriate to the species
and require their own air circulation.
Laboratory workstations
The determining design unit for the laboratory workstation is the
laboratory bench, permanently installed or mobile, whose dimen-
sions together with the associated work and passage areas de-
fine the laboratory axis, which forms the basic spatial unit ~ 0
-e.
Standard dimensions for the normal working bench:
UNIVERSITIES 120 em width in practical laboratories, several times that in re-
AND COLLEGES
search laboratories, 80 em depth work surface including socket
Lecture theatres
Examples of strip~ 9- ().
lecture theatres f) Uniform laboratories with measurement and weighing rooms in front, University Benches and fume cupboards are mostly in the form of a building
Seating Clinic, Frankfurt am Main Arch.: Schlempp + Schwethelm
Projection block system: element widths 120 em, fume cupboards 120 and
Seminar and 180cm~o.
service rooms
Laboratories
The socket strip is an independent element with all electricity sup-
escape balcony ply systems. Benches and low-level cupboards are placed in front
escape balcony ofit~e-o.
bench

~/ ru ··m· ~ ;)
'!'Window wlndo ench
Steel tubing supports the construction of laboratory benches,
desks desks aisle

~
0

Pnl lR ~
whose work surfaces are of artificial stone panels without joints,
seldom tiled, and chemically resistant plastic panels. Low-level
cupboards are of wood or plastic-coated chipboard. Supply ser-
vices are fed from above out of the ceiling cavity or from below
through the floor structure.
*!!deep extractors :§ c-'¥ )<
~~rhch
~
racks ltiil wet~tor
Q)

l!!j l::!!:J
!~ ~
(sc~r) og~.g_
~E.§_
;x Ventilation
Of low- or high-pressure systems, the latter are particularly rec-
8 Laboratory equipment in main
scientific laboratory (Bayer AG
e Arrangement of equipment in
accessible service ducts (BAS F)
ommended for multi-storied institute buildings with large-scale air
requirements, in order to reduce the ducts' cross-section. Cool-
dye plant) ing and humidification as required. Ventilation equipment has the
highest demand for space of all services installations.
All laboratories in which work with chemicals takes place must
have artificial ventilation and extraction.
energy conduit+ adjoining bench with low cupboard
r--------, ,- .--------,
Air changes per hour: chemistry laboratories 8 times
biology laboratories 4 times
0 ODD -- r- = 0 ODQ physics laboratories 3-4 times
(in the extraction area)
T Electrical installation

I i
······ti~ed·~~~;;~~~d······················~c;································~~~b~~;;;·~~·~~;t~~~-·
Each building will need its own transformer station if the numbers
of connections are high or if special electricity supplies are speci-
fied. Electrical service rooms must be enclosed in fire-resistant
r---- 1.20 -----; f- t - 60 -j f------1.20 _____, walls and may not be crossed by other pipework or cables.
e Chemistry laboratory bench

CJ 0 DDO
energy conduit+ adjoining workbench
r-

aooooooooo
1
oooooooo

aoaooooooooooo
§
=·=·~=;=.~~:::::::::r·:·:·=·~2o,:::·~~·=.::;=·=·=·=·=·=·:·=·=·=·=·=·=·=·=·=·=·=·:·=·:·=·:·=·=·=·=·=·=·=·=
l I I
:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:•!•!•!·:-:-:·!·!•!•!•!•!•!•!•!•!•!•!·!·!·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:
1 - 1.20 -----; f - - - - 1.80 ----1 ~60 -j
e Physics laboratory bench Q Fume cupboards

204
 _Q UNIVERSITIES AND COLLEGES
Laboratories
i:
.,.
8
.0
~
0. Possible arrangements of service shafts, columns and
~ vertical circulation core {VCC)
L. :~ Services concentrated in:
stairs - joint shafts on face side of building, internal vee --7 0
- external joint shafts, external vee --7 8 - central joint shafts,
vee as leading element --7 e
- services distributed among single-shaft installations, internal
L serv. serv. vee --7 o
0 Services shafts on the f) Services shafts on the - internal installation, coupled with vee --7 e
face side, internal vee face side, external vee - external shafts, central VCC, cruciform plan --7 0
p: :cj Vertical services system --7 0
Many vertical supply lines, internally or on the fac;:ade, run the
t . . :1 media in individual shafts to the laboratories. Decentrally routed
air supply and extraction ducts to the fume cupboards, separate
ventilators on the roof.
Advantage: maximum individual supply; short horizontal connec-
tions to laboratory bench.
serv. Disadvantage: limited floor layout flexibility; greater space require- UNIVERSITIES
AND COLLEGES
serv. ment on working and services floors.
Lecture theatres
Examples of
Horizontal services system --7 Cl!>: lecture theatres
Vertical main services for all media concentrated in joint shafts Seating
Projection
Services shafts central, Q Single-shaft services,
and distributed horizontally from there into the services floors with
Seminar and
vee as leading element internal vee upper or lower connection to laboratory benches. service rooms
Advantages: less space required in the services shafts, greater Laboratories

flexibility of floor layout, simpler maintenance, central ventilation

equipment, better adaptability. High density of installation requires
large amount of space. Vertical joint shafts are simpler, more
accessible and allow revisions.
Conduits should be insulated against condensation, heat, cold
and noise transmission --7 0- e.

I I
I I I
I
I
I I I

L escape I ! ~ I I
balcony I

e Internal installation, coupled with VCC 0 External services shafts, central VCC
I

Average
I I

exhaust air
0 0 0 0
Single shaft
0 0 0 0 0 0
I Stairs
0 0 0 0 0 0

0 0 0 0

Ground plan
Q Horizontal conduits and ducts: laboratory floor. Plan -> 0
Vertical services system: single shafts for installation of building,
horizontal direct connection to laboratory benches, fume cupboards etc.;
cw cold water St steam E emptying
HW hot water Co condensate RE reserve limited flexibility of floor layout
c circulation A air LW lab water
ow distilled water G gas SAE secondary air
cws cooling water supply SM special medium extraction
CWR cooling water return SWW sanitary waste water
I 1st pressure level RWP rainwater pipe
II 2nd pressure level

f=--------5.90-------c.,l
25
2 05----+ +--1.95---l~
r +-------- · ~~~8w~

n Ill. . Averane

-------
-------
---------
---------
--------
--------- Stairs

=::i::::::i:::::
Ground plan
0400
(!) Horizontal services system: horizontal conduits and ducts in ceiling space, good
e Plan of joint shaft -> 0 flexibility of floor layout

205
 UNIVERSITIES AND COLLEGES
Laboratories

Structure and fittings grid

Good structural grids to achieve mostly column-free rooms have
([) control lobby @ autoradiography @tissue culture
®dark room @cold room @ sterile containers the following dimensions:

~ u::~h-up o ~
7.20 x 7.20 m, 7.20 x 8.40 m, 8.40 x 8.40 m, normal storey height
4.0 m, clear room height ~3.0 m.

~·~ The structural grid is a multiple of the typical planning grid of

120 x 120 em (decimetric system). Reinforced concrete frame
construction, as pre-cast elements or cast in situ, is preferred on

I.
0
o-l

Part of the floor plan of cancer research centre, Heidelberg

account of the flexibility of plan.

Following programme and layout requirements, with installation at

high and low level, plus natural and artificial lighting and ventilation
rooms, results in areas with different potential uses and techni-
Arch.: Heinie, Wischer u. Partner cal qualities. Laboratories therefore have large internal zones and
are arranged as three-block facilities ---7 0 - 0. The length of the
building is influenced by the maximum reasonable length of the
UNIVERSITIES
AND COLLEGES ...
r-------- ------,
horizontal runs of wet services .
Lecture theatres
Examples of Columns are placed on a grid offset from the structural grid to
lecture theatres
Seating increase the flexibility of servicing. Separation of areas is via a
Projection room-enclosing system consisting of partitions and suspended
Seminar and
service rooms ceilings. Movable partitions should be easily operated and have
Laboratories chemical-resistant surfaces. Ceilings should permit disassembly
and have sound insulation. Floor coverings should be resistant to
water and chemicals, without joints and with low electrical con-
ductivity. Normally, plastic roll flooring material or tiles with welded
joints should be used.

Windows in the doors or next to them are important to provide a

view into laboratories.

Isotope laboratories should have flat, non-porous ceiling and

wall surfaces, rounded corners, be surrounded by lead and
concrete, monitored waste water, and shower cubicles be-
tween laboratory and exit. Concrete containers for active resi-
f) Analytical physics laboratory building (BASF Ludwigshafen) dues or waste and concrete safes with lead doors etc. must be
provided.

0
Weighing tables are part of every laboratory, and are normally in-
~~ stalled in their own weighing room. The tables should be at the

'ii~Jl'::II!W,il'~lt,ie§I::'W!i!,llllli: t:
wall side of vibration-free walls.

Services floors for plant are normally placed in the basement or

on the top storey.

~
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~lg
ci
f3.12f3.12j f3.t2+3.12-{

e Typical floor plan of an adaptable multi-purpose Institute Arch.: W. Haake

f3o-f--a7'-f301 Ho+ts2'ft4o-j

8
horizontal services duct

Cross-section of laboratory with well-placed central corridor

0 Main pipe duct (accessible): cross-section varies according to number
of pipes

206
 Public, controlled area
MUSEUMS AND ART GALLERIES
General
Entrance Cafe, bar
Orientation Restaurant Visitors'
Cloakroom Shop entrance A museum is a public collection of objects testifying to human
Pay desk Conference rooms cultural development. It collects, documents, receives, researches,
we
interprets and communicates these through display.

The following museum types can be categorised according to the

Exhibition area Library origin and nature of the items in the collection:
Permanent exhibitio s Lecture hall
Temporary exhibition~
Art gallery: Collection of works of fine art (including craftworks
Delivery of
works of art and graphics).

Cultural history museum: Collection of devices, weapons, clothing,

Private area written documents etc. which show the cultural development of a
geographically restricted area (ethnological museum, open-air
museum, local history museum).
Administration Catalogues
Director Copy room
Ethnology museum: Works from the cultural heritage of traditional
peoples and lost cultures.

Ll-Lib_m_ry----~~ LI_Ar-ch-ive----~ Science museum: Collection of educational and display material

connected with scientific and technical themes.

MUSEUMS AND
Lighting
ART GALLERIES
There should be no direct daylight falling on museum objects as

D
General
Restoration this could cause damage. Therefore display rooms should be Display rooms
and conservation
workshops Delivery of provided with flexible lighting systems: no permanently built-in
see also:
works of art lights, no fixed wall and ceiling lights. Lighting,
pp. 501 ff.
Guidelines for lighting:

Very sensitive display objects 50-80 lx

0 Functional scheme Sensitive display objects: 100-150ix
Less sensitive display objects: 150-300 lx
''
North'-
/
/

/South UV radiation must not be exceed 25 W/m 2 •

/

It must be possible to completely darken all display rooms. In

public rooms where no items are displayed, e.g. entrance area,
Exhibition cafe, library, a greater amount of daylight is desirable.
Exhibition

The lighting calculations for museums are highly theoretical:

f) Indirect lighting filtered through 8 Lighting of display from rooflight the quality of lighting is decisive. American tests can be more
suspended glass ceiling facing north informative.

Room climate in the store and the display areas

The ideal temperatures in the store and the display areas are
_._.._ 15-18°C in the winter and 20-22°C in the summer. Except as
Exhibition short peaks, in the summer 26°C should not be exceeded. Stores
should not therefore be located in uninsulated attics, for example.
Exhibition

Because the reproduction of insects is very limited under 15°C,

above all for science and ethnography collections a temperature
e Indirect lighting filtered through
suspended glass ceiling
e Side lighting from north of 12-13°C is optimal.

Screen Photo and film material is relatively chemically unstable and the
material should therefore be stored cool and dry at temperatures
under 16°C (ideally at approx. 5°C).

The relative humidity in the store and the display areas depends
on the displayed and stored materials: the optimal values are
for wood 55-60%, canvas 50-55%, paper 45-50% and metals,
max. 40%. It is important to avoid short-term variations in relative
humidity: the variation within one hour should not exceed 2.5%,
or not more than 5% in one day. Seasonal variations should not
;------ 1 0 . 0 0 - - i f-----10.00_______, be more than +5% in summer or -5% in winter. The changing flow
0 Well-lit display room according to
0 Uniformly lit gallery with light of visitors in museums leads to continuous variation in the climatic
parameters.
Boston tests according to S. Hurst Seager

207
 MUSEUMS AND ART GALLERIES
Display Rooms

The decisive factor in the layout of display rooms is the

relationship between the collection and the way it is to be
displayed (display concept). There are the following basic types
of layout --7 0 - 0:
0 Open plan f) Main and side rooms (core and
Open plan --7 0: large and visually autonomous items on display,
satellites)
free circulation, function rooms in basement.

Core and satellite rooms --7 f): main room for orientation in the
museum or the exhibition, side rooms for autonomous displays
(themes/collections)

Linear chaining --7 0: linear sequences of rooms, controlled

circulation, clear orientation, separate entrance and exit.

Labyrinth --7 0: free circulation, guided route and direction are

variable, entrance and exit can be separate.

0 Linear chaining G Labyrinth Complex --7 0: combined groups of rooms with typical features
of --7 0 - 0, complex organisation of collection and display
concept.
MUSEUMS
AND ART
GALLERIES
General
D Round tour (loop) --7 0: similar to linear chaining-.
circulation leads back to entrance.
0, controlled
Display rooms
Display concept Spatial arrangement

oriented on display items open plan -> 0

systematically oriented main and side rooms (core and satellites)-> f)
thematically oriented linear chaining ----t 0, round tour~ 0
complex oriented labyrinth-> 0. complex-> e
The size and height of the display and store rooms depend on the
dimensions of the works and the extent of the collection, but the
minimum height is 4 m clear.
9 Complex e Round tour (loop)

2.20-2.50
Picture/ 1.00---t 1.20-1.40
I
I Through
I ~ldthage
Distance: 1 (;!!/
T
0
according to
_ siz:_ o~i~u~ ~ __ _
I
~~:
Jii
0

'"
1-,
oo
1.20-1.40
!1.
~
"'"'
.-:I
a/A
ll_
90- - l ---------
m_in. passage
Width 'tf
I
I
I
H.OO--j f-1.oo--l View to the centr~ I
f) Light and shadow in display cabinets e Distance and light G Pictures on the wall: viewing and traffic ~ Space in front of display cabinet

~30-35-j

----~Picture _ _ _ __
Words on picture~
or board \ I
max. distance
to observer \ I
1.10mreadable \ I

rjJ!J Book

15'-20'--\+ r
E 6' 27' 33' 42' \I ~
E'J-------2.oo------+so+so+so+so--!H=E•tg27'
'fitg 0.1 10.5 I 0.6 10.75
12.00 11.50 11.00 1 50 'E'
I
f-1.00--1 J; 1
CD Field of view: height, size and distance 4l) Ensure labels/commentaries readable

208
 THEATRES
Historical Review

The design of theatres requires an understanding of complex

functional interactions, of which much is explained by the history
of theatres. This is an architectural challenge, which has been
interpreted by various societies for more than 2500 years. Each
theatre building today stands in a great tradition, even if it is
marked by efforts to escape from this. A few examples should
throw light on the historical development of this type of building -'>
0 Theatre of Dionysos, Athens, f) Theatre of Marcellus, Rome,
o- 0 -" p. 21 o -" o- e.
452-330 BCE: plan 11 ,500 seats, 11 acE: plan
Ancient theatres
Theatre of Dionysos, the start of European theatre building
A, Band C:
parts ofthe
-'> 0. Greek theatres were located next to towns and
stage embedded in the landscape. Theatre of Marcellus, Rome. The
1 first gate
2 hell first theatre in Rome built completely of stone -'> f). Rows of
3 Garden of
Gethsemane 12 seating and the back wall of the stage were connected and of
4 Mount of
Ol!ves the same height.

\ Middle ages
Medieval stage theatre. Temporary stage and buildings -'> 8.
crosses Interior space of the Swan Theatre, according to a drawing
20 Christ's cross
21 Holy by van de Witt 1596. Only a curtain separated the front and
Sepulchre THEATRES
"---'-'--'--' 22 heaven
back stages and the upper stage served for balcony or siege
scenes -'> 0. Historical review
C) Plan of medieval stage facilities 0 Swan Theatre, London Typology
Auditorium
Renaissance Stage
A: changing room
Subsidiary rooms
B: higher backstage section, slope
up to 1:9
The early Italian Renaissance theatres were temporary wooden Workshops and
C: frontstagesectlon,ralsod installations in existing halls -'> 0. Vasari, for example, developed staff rooms
1.10m above floor level 0 Rehearsal and
E: orchestra a wooden, reusable system for the theatre installation in the Salone public rooms
F: seatlngareaforgovernorsand
highest dignitaries
dei Cinquecento in the Palazzo Vecchio, Florence. Teatro Olimpico, Modernisation
G: seatsfornoblo.s'wivcs Vicenza -'> e. The first permanent theatre of the Renaissance,
G-H seats for first rank nobility
which resumed the ancient tradition of theatre building. Semi-
H--Jseats forsocondranknobility
J: from hera upwards, nobility of circular and rising rows of seating for the audience and a stage
lesser standing
K: seats for tho commonars
house with fa<;:ade. Next to this were the loggia courtyards with
L: proscenium spectator boxes arranged in a horseshoe. The Teatro Farnese,
M: wall of the hous~:~ or hall onto
whlchthetheatrewasbuilt Parma -'> Cl) + 0 was the first building with movable scenery
P: final back-drop of perspective
stageset,atleast60mfromM
system in a deep stage space.
so actors can pass behind

0 Theatre layout, Sebastiana Serllo, 1545

0 Teatro Olimpico, Vicenza, 1585, section and plan Arch.: Andrea Palladia and
Vicenzo Scamozzi
e Section ofTeatro Farnese, Parma, 1618-1628 Arch.: Giovanni Battista Aleotti

f) Teatro 'San Carlo', Naples, 1737 Arch.: Antonio Medrano and Angelos Carasale Cl) Teatro Farnese, Parma, 1618-1628 Arch.: Giovanni Battista Aleotti

209
 THEATRES
Typology

Baroque
The theatre with boxes and a 'peephole' single-room stage steadily
became more prevalent. Teatro 'San Carlo', Naples, p. 209 ---7 0,
and Teatro alia Scala, Milan ---7 0 + 8 are considered the models
Q Section, Teatro alia Scala, Milan, 1779 Arch.: Piermarini for the building of opera theatres in the 18th and 19th centuries,
but also the new 'Met', in New York 1966.

19th and 20th centuries

Festival Opera House, Bayreuth ---7 8 - 0. Richard Wagner
introduced this form of theatre (auditorium in a classical semi-
circle and rising) and set a counterpoint to the Grand Opera in
Paris. Totaltheater Project (Gropius/Piscator), cf. 'The Stage in the
Bauhaus', Dessau 1924. Note: audience space can be rotated,
stage with paternoster system, surrounding projection on walls and
ceilings ---7 9 - 0. Playhouse on Lehniner Platz, Berlin, first large
new building of a flexible theatre space (rebuilding of the Mendelsohn
building, 'Universurn', of 1928) ---7 p. 213 ---7 f!)- f). Opera Bastille,
f) Teatro alia Scala, Milan, 1779 Arch.: Piermarinl Paris, the largest theatre yet, with 10 side stages on two levels.

Tendencies in current theatre building

There are two tendencies today:
THEATRES 1. Preservation, restoration and modernisation of existing theatres
Historical review from the 19th to mid-20th century ---7 p. 218
Typology
Auditorium 2. New buildings with 'experimental' open-space character, e.g.
Stage Playhouse on Lehniner Platz ---7 p. 213. A similar direction is
Subsidiary rooms
Workshops and demonstrated by the many projects to rebuild existing spaces
staff rooms into workshop theatres with a size of 80-160 seats.
Rehearsal and
public rooms
Modernisation
Different types of theatre building
1. Opera house:
This belongs to the tradition of 18-19th century Italian opera
buildings ---7 0 - f). It is characterised by a clear spatial and
architectural separation between auditorium and stage, by high
C) Section, Festival Opera House, Bayreuth, 1876 R. Wagner and Arch.
numbers of seats (1 000 to nearly 4000) and the corresponding
0. Bruckwald
system of boxes or tiers, which is necessary for so many theatre-
goers, e.g. Scala, Milan, 3600 seats; Deutsche Oper, Berlin,
1986 seats; Metropolitan Opera, New York, 3788 seats; Opera
Bastille, Paris, 2700 seats. The counterpoint to the form of opera
house as tiered/box theatre is the Festival Opera House, Bayreuth
---7 8-0. This is designed as a theatre with stalls according to the
Greek and Roman pattern, but has only 1645 seats.

2. Playhouse:
This is in the tradition of the German reform theatre of the 19th
century. It is characterised by the stalls layout (that is, the audience sit
on a large, rising and curved floor) and by a pronounced apron stage
(area in front of the proscenium), which can be used for the play as
well. The playhouse also, however, follows the tradition of the English
theatre ---7 p. 209 0. i.e. theatre in the round. The open and variable
8 Festival Opera House, Bayreuth, 1876 R. Wagner and Arch. 0. Bruckwald
layout became more intensive with the spatial experimentation of
theatres in the 1970s. Variations in layout are shown, for example, by
the Playhouse on Lehniner Platz, Berlin ---7 p. 213.

3. Multi-purpose theatre:
This mixed form of opera, theatre and ballet is a speciality in
German-speaking regions. The space is mostly characterised by
the predominant influence of the opera. The frequent changes of
scenery are enabled by the appropriate subsidiary rooms (store,
scenery store, workshops). Example: Heilbronn City Theatre,
Arch.: Biste u. Gerling 1982 ---7 p. 217 0.

4. Musical theatre:
Actually no separate type of building, but rather a theatre built,
usually, for a particular musical by an impresario. A specific
challenge for the designer is the adaptation of the building to the
0 Waiter Gropius: Design for the 0 -'> 9 Stage rotated concept of the musical without neglecting the needs of later uses
'Totaltheater', 1927 for other productions.

210
 THEATRES
Auditorium

In addition to the local building regulations, decisive for the design of

f--;;; 90 ----1 better 96--1 00 theatres are the Places of Assembly Regulations of the relevant state.
<0 T This is based on the Model Places of Assembly Regulations, which
i 5;

1
50 can vary in detail from those of a particular state! This legislation
applies from 200 spectators. It should be noted that it is not the actual
~
-" number of seating or standing places that counts: it is assumed that
there are two spectators per m 2 in the place of assembly (for rows of
0 Seating must be fixed according to f) Staggered folding seats offer
seats; two spectators per running m for standing places).
Places of Assembly Regulations. freedom for elbows Auditorium and stage/acting area
Minimum dimensions are not Size of auditorium: the number of people in the audience gives
adequate for theatres!
the required floor area. For seated spectators, assume E":0.5 m 2/
door spectator. This number results from:
................................................. .....................................r- 1.o -\ ................ ..
seat width x row spacing
1.2
----Tr-I'T'ITTaisle_______ _ E":0.45 m 2 /seat
add E":0.5 x E":0.9 =0.05 /seat
25 seat~:il l±l IJ
E":0.50 -7 0

----~-tl-ftr--------
m
25 seats
Length of the rows of seats per aisle: 10 places -7 0 +
25 places per aisle if an exit door of 1.2 m width is available at the
e,

---- ___ jill__rj__~---------- side per 3 or 4 rows -7 0

Exits, escape routes 1.2 m wide per 200 people -7 0- e.
1.0 3- 4 rows aisle THEATRES
~ ..~
..~
...~,m~m~m~~~.~ ~m~mNm,,m,m,,mo,m,~,
1% of the seats (at least two) must be accessible for wheelchair users,
:::::::::::::::::::::.·::.·:::::::.·:::::::::.·::::. ..","
Historical review
if possible in connection with a seat for an accompanying person.
8 Row width 20 places 8 Row width 25 places, door needed
Auditorium volume
Typology
Auditorium
1----- 2.0 - - - l Stage
This is determined by acoustic requirements (reverberation) -7 Subsidiary rooms
p. 221 as follows: playhouse approx. 4-5 m3/spectator; opera house Workshops and
staff rooms
approx. 6-8 m3/spectator. Air volumes must not be less for technical
---t ---1Jilllit··-- ventilation reasons, in order to avoid too rapid air changes (draughts).
Rehearsal and
public rooms
Modernisation

----1t0-s::~~U__U__U __ U_____ _
Proportions of the auditorium
These are derived from the psychological awareness and angle of
aisle view of the spectator, or the requirement for a good view from all
seats. Options are:
---- -----~----~---~----~-
::: :. . : ;: -------
10 seats . · . :_ •, 1. Good view, without moving head, but light eye movements of
J ____ -- ----
:::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::. 1---- 2.4 ---l
approx. 30°.
2. Good view with slight head movements and light eye
0 Row width max. 10
places, side 0 Boxes may have ~20 loose chairs, movements of approx. 60° 0.
aisle at left and right or fixed seating if necessary; per
person ~0.65 m2 floor area
3. Max. awareness angle without head movement approx. 110°,
i.e. all actions in the field are 'in view'. Outside this field, there
1. 2. I0-Jine (proscenium line) is uncertainty, because 'something' is out of view.
last middle
row 4. Full head and shoulder movement allows an angle of view of360°.
proscenium width Proportions of the classic auditorium
at 24m~ 13m
at 32m~ 17m Opera, multi-purpose theatre, and traditional playhouse -7 0: distance
of the furthest row from the start of the stage should not exceed:
- playhouse, max. 24 m (max. distance for the recognition of facial
expressions); opera, 32 m (large movements are still recognisable).
Auditorium width is determined by the spectators at the side being
able to see the stage adequately -7 G. The comfortable proportions
24(32)m stage and sometimes good acoustics of the classic theatres of the 18th and
auditorium
19th centuries are based on particular rules of proportion -7 0 - GD.
0 Proportions of traditional auditorium plan

--. II I 0-llne CA=4R CA = CB =radius of the semicircle AB

::: 1111 -width of auditorium j e:~d~~enium account is taken of the
AB = tangents CE =CD=2CA
E = mid-point of the arc BE'
A -last row --._BI fact 1hat the hatched D =mid-point ofthe arc AD'
8/C - proscenium width~ --J~'777.'777777l' section cannot be seen
BCDE- acting area of stage /I by the side seats

fi ·--·--·-...
A. : .
p

·-- P =point to
determine
width of
D

--·__..-·..-C. auditorium
.--· ~ 2 x proscenium width ----4
.--·-- ~ 1 x proscenium -l
I width Design of auditorium's contour, Design of the auditorium's curve,
depth of stage acting area
Teatro alia Scala, Milan.
e Auditorium width
Grand Th68.tre, Bordeaux
Arch.: Victor Louis 1778 Arch.: Piermarini

211
 0-llne,
1proscenium line THEATRES
. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.row . Seating
I
. lines of sight,
I I I
super-elevation
I I

.lo ~:~T
1
as """"• ' T -1.10 :..-- The elevation (gradient) of the seating in the auditorium is
:::}:.•.z.:J,I)):::.•::,IJ~ _L--- ~uper-el~vation
. 1
pont T -1.10 [ ----
of derived from the sight lines. The sight line construction applies
I forestage height :•:.'.:.:::::::::::. - - - eye lev~l- ~~~ ~~!'g1hi~~ery for all places in the auditorium (stalls, but also tiers) --7 0. It can
i ~~~·d.~o~.90m f~~,s~~~~g {or6_cm'perrow); be assumed that the spectators sit sensibly and so only every
j · · · ~~~~~edn\ OJ~~ not second row requires full sight super-elevation (12 em). Specialised
0pron stage above this, steps
I = 4-Sm --t--- 1.5 -1---o.a +o.a-+o.a -10.9--+-------. mathematical literature addresses problems of view in the theatre,
including, for example, the distribution of people's heights.
0 Elevation of seating (gradient) Rows of spectators should be positioned in arcs, not only for
better alignment toward the stage, but also to achieve a better
perception of each other (security effect) --7 8. The stepped side
----------------!Ideal logarithmic rise
:..._. ___________ _ _______ ....- aisle must rise 10-19 em and the tread must not be less than
26 em. The floor between the seats must be on the same level as
~0'-'0»>T~0'-'0»>T0'-'00'-'0~rn Modification as broken the adjacent aisle at the side.
:·:·: straight line

Overall layout of the auditorium

f) Gradient curve and its modification Firstly, determine the height of the proscenium. In stalls theatres,
the relationship should be:

middle seats proscenium height 1

proscenium width 1.6
THEATRES
Historical review side seats
Typology
This derives from the golden section and the physiological field of
Auditorium 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.row awareness, respectively --7 0. After determining the proscenium
Stage
Subsidiary rooms 0 Offsetting of the seats In a row is achieved through variable seat widths (0.5()-{).53-0.56)
height, the ramp height, the pitch of the stalls and the volume of
the room, this gives the room height. The ceiling is to be adapted
Workshops and
staff rooms l!!li!!l!llll!!l for acoustic requirements. It should be the case that the noise
Rehearsal and II ! I f ! ! i l ! ! i i ! ! l l
public rooms reflected from the stage and apron is distributed evenly over the
llll!!l!!l!i !!!Ill
Modernisation room --7 0.
g;,"«;llllllll!!l!l!l.':':':'l
For tiers, it is important that there is also a sufficiently deep view
feeling of integration {mutual perception)
of the stage from the uppermost level --7 8- This may render it
necessary to make the proscenium higher.

Proportions of an experimental space --7 p. 213

These are neutral or open theatre spaces, which permit different
arrangements of spectators and stage areas. This variable
arrangement is achieved through:
G Contact relationship between the audience and the stage and with each other A. Mobile stage platforms and mobile stands for the audience on
a fixed floor.
overall perception width ~
.._..______ ___. - - 3D visual field for B. Mobile sections of floor, which consist of moveable podiums .
both eyes This solution is technically more elaborate and is therefore
used only in larger spaces for min. 150-450 or more people.
The simpler option A is particularly suitable for smaller theatres
and for unused spaces, which normally do not have extensive
space underneath. Size: up to max. 199 places, because the
regulations apply from 200.
199 seats x 0.5 m2 =100 m2 (2/3) + 30 m2 (1 /3) stage area =130 m2 ,

9 Field of perception and proportions of the proscenium arch

circle 2

T stalls
Air volumes
min. 2m
............................................................. .......:.::-·
.. .......... :·:-:·:·:·
Actors
Actors 4-5 m 1>
Opera 6-8mb.
···············::~;;~;~~·~:-~;~ ..Y::t·:·.-:·:-.. . . . . .:-:-:-:-:-::::::-~::·:-:.--·- per spectator
(stage)

e Tiered theatre and view of stage

Acoustics must be adapted through appropriate measures like ceiling shape or
acoustic 1Sails' -----7 p. 220

212
 extendable
THEATRES
Stage
Tr--r-.----.----.----,
2.20
lr----L----~--~L_--~
A. extendable stand; on Size of stage
rollers or air cushions·
volume The Places of Assembly Regulations, which apply to all venues

~· .,,:..,.,.,' .:.:::·~·~· ~ .. t.~'"'"J"'*"

with audiences of more than 200, differentiate two types of stage:
large stage and open stage (single-room theatre).

Large stage
flat floor extended folded
Large stages are defined as having a stage area of more than
B. travelling folding podium,
height adjustable 200 m2 behind the stage opening and with an upper stage of
0 Experimental theatre space
2.5 m height above the stage opening or an apron. The essential
requirement is the fire-resistant separation of stage and auditorium.
This necessitates an iron protection curtain between the stage and
the auditorium in case of danger.

Open stage
Open stages are divided into those with more or less than 200 m2
and those with or without sprinkler systems. The special feature of
open stages is the regulations about curtains and scenery. These
affect above all the operation and not the design of the open stage.

Spaces for experimental forms of theatre (black box theatres)

tables and chairs all can abolish the separation of stage and audience in various ways
directed play with round, dance band at
1fa orchestra pit the back:, dancing floor In through differentiated design of the floor topography (mobile THEATRES
(234 seats) the centre (178 seats)
sections of floor or podiums) and the free distribution of audience Historical review
f) Space variants, at the MOnster City area and stage. Example: Playhouse on the Lehniner Platz, Berlin
Typology
Auditorium
Theatre, Kleines Haus
~e-o. Stage
Subsidiary rooms
Workshops and
Section of the room for single-room {black box) theatres staff rooms
Rehearsal and
Single rooms can make do without the technical ceiling ~ 0, but public rooms
manual lifting devices can be provided (battens, which are lifted Modernisation
into the ceiling with manual hoists). In large theatres, a smaller,
more variable space is often included for experimental theatre.
Examples: Podium Ulm, Arch:. Schafer, approx. 150-200 places,
1969 ~ 0 + f); Kleines Haus MOnster, Arch:. v. Hansen, Rane,
completely Ruhnau, 1971, 180-380 places, central field of the floor can be
for lectures and
free room
(for exhibitions,
varied with mobile podiums~ f)- e.
conferences the dances, etc.)
whole room iS reduced
to one level; small podium
for the directors and speakers

.-....? f) Arch.: v. Hausen, Rawe,

Ruhnau

e Ulm Theatre, section through podium Arch.: Fr. Schafer e Playhouse on the Lehniner Platz, Berlin, 1982 Arch.: J. Sawade

0 Playhouse on the Lehniner Platz, six variants for arrangement of possible open
f) Podium Ulm, six variants for arrangement of performance areas stages

213
 THEATRES
Stage

Scenery stage
The classical stage system of the 18th and 19th centuries had only
the main stage; the scenes were changed, in little space and with
uncanny speed, using sliding painted scenery. A small rear stage
had the function of providing room for deeper stage perspectives
~o.

Full stage
In order to be able to quickly change more elaborate and
sculptural scenery structures, stages were supplemented by
wings and under-stages of about the same size. Complete
+I Pullout:
scenery
l Moving:
carriage
sets of scenery were mounted on wagons, lifting platforms or
turntables and could be prepared with little effort during the
performance~ e.
t Pull
(bar/point)
......._. Carriage

For design purposes, the technical constraints must be established

Lift/lower
;) Turning: - ~f- early, e.g. whether a turntable on a wagon is sufficient or whether a
stages
(revolving stage)
turntable with single lifting elements or even a two-level turntable
;~ Turntable o&!'_:'~~
Tilting:
sloping should be used.
stages

0 Backdrop theatre: change of scene f) 'Peephole' single-room stage. Large Proportions of the stage
THEATRES by pushing the painted scenery wing and rear stage areas enable the The proportions of the stage are developed from the sight lines in
Historical review quick changing of scenery structures
the auditorium. The stage is the area for acting and also a handling
Typology
Auditorium and working area. The conventional layout of a traditional full
Stage
Subsidiary rooms
stage~ e-e.
:-:·J·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:-:-:-:-:-:-:-:·:·:·
Workshops and
staff rooms
Rehearsal and
. . :tj Roller platform t: The mobile scenery surface is formed by platforms of adjustable
height or through lifting platforms. The variability of form is
[::.·::::::::.·::::.·:.·:.:l.~~B:~.:..~..:.~~-:::.:::.....:}1
public rooms
Modernisation Upper stage fL::::::::::::.·:.·:: achieved by splitting the surface into separate flats. Basic
· Li hting e uipment : with galleries ·::;: module 1 x 2 m.
Foyer ., :1'! l: Adjustable for pridge :.~_-:.
Public or proscenium Section of stage
:-:·:·:·:-~:~-~::-~.:-:·:·:-:-:-:-:::·:·:·:·:·~.':.':
......:::::]-:_;- ! I
1
• Main stage
Understage
....................::::
:::::::::::::::::::::::.
The size of the stage space is determined by the number of
scenery sets to be kept ready, which can be moved into the
·: ::::.·:::·t'.·:.·:::.·:::::.·:'...:'·:::::::::
Orchestra pit 1 0-line level of the "iron curtain" stage quickly by lifting or pushing. At least one rear space and
one wing are usual. The height of the stage space is determined
0 System section of theatre
by the (iron) safety curtain, which must be able to close the fire
compartment between auditorium and stage within 30 s in case
of fire. It is a complete closure joined at the ends to a fire wall
(F90) and no cables or scenery are permitted in the space for the
® multi-section orchestra safety curtain.
lifting podium
® back-drop lifting stage
(J) proscenium towers Stage direction room
@stairs Control of lighting and sound on stage, with sound mixing desk, light
® stage manager's lift controls, computer connections and projection equipment~ f).

G) lifting podia, two-storey

@ lifting podia, single-storey

® scenery transporting
@ steel safety curtain
@ border curtain- side stage
@ border curtain -rear stage ® side-stage trolley with
(13 divisible main curtain compensating podia
@) rear-stage trolley with
turntable and compensating
podia
e Typical plan of opera house 0 Typical section of opera house--> 8

214
 doors for the general public, 1-5. allow THEATRES
space to compensate for height differences
3J 4 Subsidiary Rooms
doors uniformly
distributed for
2 variable room use
E
Experimental (black box) theatre
Open stages require subsidiary areas for scenery and storage
room height places for platforms and stands. The subsidiary areas should be of
connecting doors the same size as the stage. The space required for storage can be
D A-E, height of the
secondary area as calculated from the folded platforms and stands. Subsidiary areas
for the room itself
plus storage area amount to about 30% of the total area--> 0.
secondary/storage areas Considerably less scenery is used with open stages than with
normal stages, the reasons for which are:
0 Subsidiary areas/storage space for open stages
- the stage is viewed from many sides.
- regulations limit the use of scenery for safety reasons.
Large stages
Storage areas are required for:
Scenery, backdrops, furniture, props, costumes, hats, shoes, make-
up, wigs, lighting, etc. Scenery and costume stores require a great
amount of space.
Scenery store:
traditional storage of back-drops
- on edge in boxes, manual transport, modern back-drop storage Specially for heavy items. Location: at stage level and immediately
large proportion of area required, - loading of containers by hand from next to the stage. At access points and on traffic routes (particularly
height: 9-12m secondary stage, or specific storage areas
- in boxes, manual transport, large - transport of container to external store at fire exits and lifts), the height of the scenery, normally proscenium THEATRES
proportion of area required for moving - computer-controlled storage of
containers in multi-storey shelving height+ 2 m, must be taken into account. Historical review
f) Storage near the stage 0 Storage in containers A rough estimate for the size of the scenery and costume store
Typology
Auditorium
can be made from the number of productions in the repertoire and Stage
Subsidiary
the frequency with which they are played. For theatres the number rooms
of productions might be 15-20 and for multi-purpose theatres and Workshops and
staff rooms
opera up to 50 per season. About 20-25% of the stage area is Rehearsal and
required for storage per production, i.e. for theatres about 3 times public rooms
the stage area, for the opera at least 10 times. Practice shows Modernisation

that, as time passes, the store always turns out to be too small,
T and theatres, and particularly operas, have to make arrangements
outside the building.
The high cost of transport has forced the introduction of the
most modern transportation and storage technology: container
systems with computer-controlled warehouse technology (per
performance about 2-4 containers - in special cases for operas
about 12 containers).
Examples:
Deutsche Oper Berlin: the stores are in direct connection with
the stage --> 0
Nationaltheater Mannheim: storage outside the building in
containers.
The storage area required for costumes is determined by the number
of productions in the repertoire and the size of the ensemble, e.g.
for opera: the chorus and ballet in addition to the singers. Space
.l required for costumes: 1-12 em/costume or 1-15 costumes per
running m of rail --> 0- 0.

0 Deutsche Oper Berlin, plan

Main stage Bacl<sta:J Scenery store

wr ,-se-m~'> <
Store

Workshop
Wing
room

.__.___ __,LAJ L-J.

Painter's worksh;-1 Joinery ~veries
Access points from the subsidiary areas to the stage. Height and location of doors Two-level hanging and storage of
0 Single-level -> 0
and lift must be determined from max. backdrop height and fire protection measures costumes in fixed clothing storage

215
 90 -----------------------;
1---- 25 ---t-3+-6+-10+6+-12 --t--17--+3+--a-;
THEATRES
Workshops and Staff Rooms

Workshops for production of scenery

The area required for scenery workshops is 4-5 times the main
stage area for medium-sized theatres (theatres and multi-purpose
theatres); in large opera houses or double theatres (opera
and theatre), 10 times. Workshops, in or outside the building,
paint store; 30m2 should always be accommodated on one level. The Workplace
2 paint mixing; 30m2
3 sculpture store; 78m2 Regulations and their technical rules and the work protection
4 sculptors; 130m2
5 spraying room; 78m2 and accident prevention rules of insurers have to be taken into
6 loading ramp account in the design. In some cases, the company and collective
7 construction room; 144m2
8 metalworking shop; 204m2
9 supervisor; 12m2
agreements with the employees can also have an effect.
10 we Scenery workshops are categorised as follows:
11 wood store; 174m2
12 supervisor; 12m2 a) Painting room:
~6+-19 13 steel store; 96m2
1---- 25 ---1 The floor area must be designed to accommodate two large
50
backdrops or 'cycloramas' (Rundhorizonte - curved backdrops)
0 Workshop building, ground floor Arch.+ Techn.: Biste u. Gerling rolled out on the floor for painting. The average size of a cyclorama
is 10 x36 m.lt must be possible to sub-divide the room with a thick
1---- 3.0 --+- 3.0 ---1 curtain for spraying work. Also required are underfloor heating to
dry the painted backdrops; wooden floors for spreading out the
canvases; a gallery from which to check the work lying on the
floor. The painting room is located next to the sewing room (with
a size about 14 of the painting room) joining the pieces of material.
THEATRES b) Carpenter's shop:
Historical review Divided into bench and machine rooms, it has wooden floors and
Typology
Auditorium an adjoining timber store for 3-10 productions.
Stage c) Upholstery: approx. 1/10 area of painting room.
Subsidiary rooms
Workshops and d) Metalwork: as carpenter's shop, screeded floor.
staff rooms Soloist dressing room Soloist dressing room e) Sculpture workshop.
Rehearsal and S;3.8-5 m2/person ~5 m2/person
public rooms
f) Workshops should be grouped round an assembly room, which
Modernisation serves to test-assemble the scenery and has the same floor area
1-- 3.0 --+- 3.0 --j as the stage. The height should be proscenium plus 2 m, diameter
f-- 3.0 ----+- 3.0 --;
9-10m.
0 DODO g) Changing, washing, and rest (canteen) rooms are to be provided
0
0
c::o for technical staff, and offices for the technical management.
Further workshops for sound, lighting, props and costumes, size
DODO
0
c::o as required (production intensity, personal equipment).
Personnel rooms
Artistic staff, stage manager, administration. Historically, personnel
rooms were situated on both sides of the stage: left, ladies, right,
Chorus dressing room Dressing and tuning-up room for gentlemen, although this was operationally impractical. Today,
~2.75 m2/person orchestra players i=:';2 m2/person these rooms are located on one side, opposite the technical side
on several floors. This includes make-up, frequently also the
f--- 3.0 --!-- 3.0 ---1 costume workshop, administration and stage manager.
1---- 3.0 ----j
Dressing rooms: ---7 f) - 0 typical floor plans.
DO
D
DO Visitors Sanitary facilities
DO for 30-40 female visitors 1 we, 1 washbasin
D
DO
for 40-50 male visitors 1 we, 2 urinals, 1 washbasin
for 1DOD visitors 1 wheelchair we, accessible
Theatre and opera performers incl.
chorus, ballet and extras
e Dressing room for additional chorus
and/or extras ~1.65 m2/person
f) Changing and rest room for
technical staff
for 10 female performers
for 15 male performers
1WC
1 we, 2 urinals
for room for 1 soloist 1 washbasin
for dressing rooms for 2 soloists 1 washbasin, 1 shower
for the soloist dressing rooms 1) together 2 baths
for every 4 ballet, chorus memberorextra1l 2 washbasins, 1 shower
for the bailet 1l 2-4 foot washbasins
0
0 Staff of workshops etc.
0 for 15women 1WC
for20 men 1 we' 2 urinals
0 for 4 people 1l 1 washbasin
for 5 people 1l 1 shower
for 10 people 1l 1 bath

The composition of the visitors is assumed to be 3/5 women and 2/5 men.
1> The facilities are to be provided separately for women and men.
Dressing room for ballet Make-up room and work room for
group S;4 m2/person make-up artist Cil) Guidelines for sanitary facilities in theatres

216
I I":J----~~k.~~/71------- I I
THEATRES
I a.Q) I I Rehearsal and Public Rooms
~! !~~ i
c~;:;"""'-max.
~~
;:1 15: 0
~~ ·~e!" playing !:@
5:1
:
~§:/area~'~
@~ I : \] Rehearsal rooms
~~l .I C1+~ Every theatre needs at least one rehearsal stage to back up the main
All -; 1.0
_J ~ i ·-
r"AII
stage. For example, a small theatre: the main stage has the scenery
of the current play and the rehearsals take place on the rehearsal
forestage/orchestra pit
I stage. The dimensions should correspond to the main stage. Typical
production space,
--oT-· storage area - - - - floor plan of the rehearsal stage of a traditional theatre -7 0. Multi-
co; Above: lighting/sound
purpose theatres and opera houses also require: orchestra rehearsal
B recording studio ca. 1.4m2jsinger, minimum 50m2
ca. 7 m3fslnger room -7 e, chorus rehearsal room -7 e, soloist rehearsal room and
0 Large rehearsal stage, typical plan f) Chorus rehearsal room, typical plan ballet room.
Experimental theatres
These also require, in reduced form, staff and rehearsal rooms,
workshops and stores, if in continual operation.
Technical rooms
ca. 2.Q-2.4m2Jmusician
ca. 8.0-10m3fmusician Rooms for transformer, medium- and low-voltage switchgear,
emergency power supply batteries, air conditioning and ventilation
plant, water supply (rainwater system), according to local conditions
and specialist design work.

~
Public rooms
The classical Italian opera had only narrow entrances and stairs,
F-------------------------CI with no actual foyer. This makes the generous public rooms at the
Grand Opera in Paris particularly impressive. The Vienna theatre
THEATRES
Historical review
C) Orchestra rehearsal room, typical plan fire in 1881 led to extensive changes: the audience is now required Typology
to have enclosed emergency stairs for each tier. This requirement Auditorium
Stage
continues in principle today (Public Assembly Regulations). Subsidiary rooms
Workshops and
In the traditional theatre, the foyers are split into: actual foyer staff rooms
(lobby), restaurant (buffet), smoker's foyer. Area of the foyers Rehearsal and
public rooms
0.8-2.0 m2/spectator (more realistic is 0.6-0.8 m2/spectator). The Modernisation
function of the foyer has changed today: it must include provision
see also:
for exhibitions, performances and regular plays there.
Location of
Cloakrooms building -> p. 223

Per 100 visitors: 4 running m of rail. Sometimes lockers are also 8-0
provided: one locker for every four visitors. The foyer is also a
waiting and queuing room, and has the usual extent of associated
WCs: one WC/1 00 people. 1fa gents, 2fa ladies; min. one gents' and
one ladies' WC. Total number of sanitary facilities: -7 p. 216 G).
1 entrance foyer Entrance hall (lobby) with day and evening cash desks, which
2 cloakroom foyer
3 tickets
should be opposite each other.
4 ticket office
5 steps to External access, emergency exits
underground garage
6 steps
According to local conditions -7 p. 211 0 - 0 and Public
7 visitors' we Assembly Regulations.
8 studio foyer
9 studio
10 canteen
11 kitchen
12 kitchen store
13 orchestra pit 18 conductor
14 substage 19 director 23 changing rooms
16 rehearsal room 20 tuning room 24 battery room 26 medium·voltage
16 extras 21 stores 25 low-voltage switch room
17 choir 22 electrical shop switch room 27 transformer cells

e Entrance floor of Heilbronn City Theatre Arch.: Blste u. Gerling

Evacuation plan, Trier City Theatre (626 seata) Arch.: G. Graubner and
H. Schneider; stage technician: A. Zotzmann 1964
e Evacuation plan, LOnen City Theatre (765 seats) Arch.: G. Graubner;
stage technician: W. Ehle 1958

217
 THEATRES
Modernisation and Extension

Saxony State Theatre, Radebeul

The home base of a renowned travelling theatre that covers
the entire spectrum of a multi-purpose stage company (music,
dance, theatre) consisted before rebuilding of a conglomeration
of extensions and reconstructions at various times of a former
hotel hall. The intention was to relieve the resulting functional
and organisational problems and improve the external
appearance.

The entrance for the audience was extended with a new two-
storey foyer area of steel and glass, in which the cloakrooms,
lobby and a snack bar could be integrated.

An extension of the storeroom and wings was possible only on

one side because of the plot boundaries and the topographical
situation, but the mostfunctional possible connection of workshops,
rehearsal rooms and props was still the intention. Another feature
was the improvement of fire protection and workplace safety.

The existing stage equipment was only renewed and slightly

extended. No elaborate solutions like lifting platforms or turntables
THEATRES
were planned, in order that plays developed here can also be
Historical review
Typology
presented on simple stages on tour.
Auditorium
Stage The extension of the existing building with new elements will still
Subsidiary rooms
Workshops and be possible after completion.
staff rooms
Rehearsal and
public rooms
Modernisation

G) New foyer @stage

®Main foyer @wtng
@ Theatre courtyard @ Stage make-up
@ Cloakrooms, WCs @ Scenery store
® Auditorium @Store
@Canteen @ Changing/orchestra practice
(J) Changing rooms @ Small rehearsal room, ballet hall
0 Saxony State Theatre Radebeul, ground floor with new @ Orchestra pit @ External restaurant
building hatched

f) Saxony State Theatre Radebeul, sections Arch.: meyer+ bassin, Dresden

218
 Staff
entrance
Deliveries CONCERT HALLS
........ Origins, Variants

Acoustic multi-purpose rooms

Churches were the first form of
concert hall, with strong rever-
beration. The echo increases the
holiness of the place, but domes
and vaults are problematic for
sermons and orchestral music.
The first theatres and opera hous-
es were stages and auditoriums
installed into existing halls.
There was good understanding
of speech due to the open view
and short distance to the stage,
but insufficient reverberation due
to decoration with soft materials
and surfaces with little reflection
of sound.
In a tiered theatre, the stalls are
surrounded on three sides by
tiers, generally leading to short
reverberation times, as empty CoNCERT
HALLS
wall surfaces are obstructed by
Origins
boxes and galleries and are full Variants
of people. This is advantageous Requirements
Organs
for the understanding of speech Orchestra
but music sounds rather dull and Acoustics
toneless.
Concert halls
--Direct functional relationship
·········Indirect functional relationship
.........
Visitor entrance
Today four types of concert hall
are common (possibly modified):
Q Functional scheme of a concert building with one hall (Skoda --> refs) block, arena, fan and horseshoe
-> 0 - 0. The selection of hall
Concert houses type depends on the urban plan-
Intended for musical performances, but other uses are also possible (congresses, lectures etc.), ning situation, intended space and
can also if required be supplemented by chamber music hall, rehearsal hall, tuning and warming up acoustic requirements.
rooms and stores. Hall sizes of 1500 and 2000 (in isolated cases 2800) seats in the audience have
become usual, for chamber music 400 to 700 seats.

Block form Arena Horseshoe form Circle/arc form

Rectangular plan Polygonal ground plan Horseshoe-shaped plan Fan-shaped plan
Pattern: redoubt, ballroom and dance hall Pattern: amphitheatre Pattern: box theatre Good view, good direct sound transfer
View is not optimal due to flat stalls Orchestra area is completely surrounded Good view, good direct sound transfer Acoustic disadvantages due to fan-shaped
Polyfunctionally usable with level seating by audience Sufficient short reflections, few complex opening of hall
Primary structure according to conditions, Optimal viewing conditions, communicative reflections Optimal acoustics are possible,
similar to the golden section enables a very effect Little space and good sound transparency but expensive to create
good sound Good direct sound transfer
Optimal acoustics are possible,
but expensive to create

Block form: Lucerne Concert Hall,

1995-98 Arch.: Jean Nouvel
Arena form: Philharmonie Berlin,
1960-63 Arch.: Hans Scharoun
e Horseshoe fonm: Carnegie Hall, New
York, 188&-91 Arch.: W.B. Tuthill
Fan shape: Brucknerhaus Linz,
1969-73 Arch.: Heikki Siren

219
 CONCERT HALLS

fiJ ~iJ
uo
GO -o
Q)
Technical Requirements, Organ, Orchestra
. P~. 0..

D
® ® © There is little stage equipment: elements of floor structure in
IBl-CD the area for the orchestra, adjustable wall and ceiling fixtures,
80/UO transport aids, loudspeakers and lighting equipment.
Lifts to extend/reduce the stage
Large concert halls have special compartmentalised systems
in the orchestra area to make various orchestra configurations
@ ® possible, enlarge the stage area or maximise the number of seats
in the hall by placing seating units on lifts. There is also transport
of items between basement and stage, electrical spindle drive
with limited lift and low raising speed.

Key
Mobile seating units
GO great organ The lifting platforms can be lowered to allow a smaller stage and
so swell organ the positioning of additional seating, which can be in the form of
co choir organ
ChO chair organ mobile units.
®-@ uo upper organ
p positive Orchestra stage
0 Sizes and forms of organs Ped pedal organ Modular system with flexible stage options for music groups.
Transport and storage is on storage wagons in the store room.
Type Size Registers Height(m) Width(m) Depth (m) The floor covering matches the concert platform.
A chest 3-7 0.6-0.8 1.1J.-1.2 0.7-1.2
B positive 8-12 2.5-3 1.6-2.5 0.6-1.6 Choir platforms
CONCERT c small organ 12.20 4-6 3-3.5 1.2-1.8 Additional to the choir seats, when extra space is required, large
HALLS D II manuals 20-30 6-7 5.5-6.5 1.2-2
Origins E
seating platforms are rolled onto the stage and mounted in front
II manuals 25-35 6.5-9 4.5-7 1.5-2.5
Variants F-G Ill manuals 30-60 7.5-10 7-9 2-3 of the fixed choir seating; the seating in both types is identical.
Requirements
Organs
H-1 IV-V manuals 60-100 9-13 8-12 2-4 Access is via detachable balcony elements in the choir seating
Orchestra area or up temporary stairs on the choir platform.
Acoustics f) Organ types and sizes (housing)
Mixing desk
see also:
Religious Register number~ room volume in m 2/300 + number seats/50 Area consisting of three rows in the auditorium stalls; can be
buildings quickly adapted for the most varied performance and conference
pp. 285 ff.
Formula to determine the number of registers (according to Walcker) conditions.
A motorised platform under the stalls can be occupied in various
b - · - - ---1 a~ Width including filing ways: mobile seating unit, mobile mixing desk, or empty (e.g. if
b ~ Deep including bank
c ~ Height without music stand
guest musicians bring their own mixing desk).
Cyclorama scaffold
Motorised tubular scaffold, used to fix curtains and banners,
portable stage lighting and other production elements at the
rear of the stage, and can if required be partially or completely
dismantled.
Organ built into the concert hall

2 Manuals 3 Manuals 4 Manuals

00%
A \!Pill]~ 17
There is no fixed standard for the layout, with organs being
designed musically and architecturally for each individual space;
z_J<!)\lJ CD~<ib
a 180 200 220 it is an important visual eye-catcher. The location of the organ
b 150 160 170
c should be at the back of the stage, with a location in front of the
/]~
110 120 130

Free-standing console and its

c:Q back wall being ideal, free-standing and not in a niche.
c::r:::J OJ c::::::LJ The size depends on the volume of the hall, acoustics, position in the
dimensions
e German seating arrangement
room, number of seats, musical requirements (solo or accompanist
instrument). The better the acoustics and the location of the organ,
the smaller can it be -+ 0- 0.
To the depth of the organ housing should be added: 1-2 m for
the organist and min. 0.5 m for tuning access behind the organ,
min. 1.5 m free space necessary above the organ -t 0 - 0.
In concert halls, a second organ platform is necessary (electric,
mobile); this is placed near the orchestra, so the organist becomes
part of the orchestra. The dimensions depend on the size of the
organ-+ 0 + 4!). Necessary cable connections should be provided.
f) American seating arrangement Orchestra sizes and layouts
1. Conductor 1D. Bassoon The various orchestra seating layouts, formerly German and today
2.1stviolins 11. Trumpets mostly American, are important for the sound in the hall -t 0- f).
3. 2nd violins 12. Horns
4. Violas 13. Trombones The following sizes of orchestra are usual today in Europe and
5. Cellos 14. Tubas North America: large symphony orchestra with 60-150 musicians
6. Basses 15. Harps
and chamber orchestra with 25-40 musicians; this determines
7. Flutes 16. Percussion
8. Oboes 17. Kettle-drums the additional space requirement on the stage (e.g. Gewandhaus
0 Organ with IV manuals (section) 9. Clarinets Leipzig, approx. 180m 2).

220
AP.··.. CONCERT HALLS
.......... .':.;:.:::···l·························································.. ·························· .. ·························· Acoustics

,: ~:~: :r,: :;~:> \

The most important objective in designing a concert hall is a
superb sound. Acoustics result from the interaction of various
elements: size, volume and proportions of the concert space,
number and arrangement of the seats, materials used, surfaces
and finishes.
The sound properties of various instruments and the human
(singing) voice have to be taken into account, alone and together,
and also differences in pitch range and character (volume,
frequency distribution and time structure of a sound). The various
A d . ····/~. layouts of the orchestra are of significance for the sound in the
hall: the positioning of various groups of instruments (particularly

;~·~:.::.:'::-::·..1 the string section).

For the effect of the instruments in the hall, the relationship of the
sound travelling directly to the listener to the early reflection from
0 Sound waves and sources of reflected sound in an auditorium. A= sound source the sides plays a decisive role ---> 0.
A1 = source of first order reflected sound etc. (Kuttruff -> refs)
Optimal reverberation is important for the quality of hearing:
excessive reverberation reduces clarity, and too little reverberation
makes music sound dull. It is dependent on air changes/person
(older concert halls 4-5m 3 /seat, newer over 6-15m 3/seat).
The acoustics are influenced by hall size, shape and (surface) material CONCERT
HALLS
used; these can be adapted for different acoustic requirements
Origins
through the selection of various materials. The following variants are Variants
possible and usual: Requirements
Organs
Acoustic reflector Orchestra
Acoustics
Installed over the stage, this is an adjustable, wide, heavy, sound-
reflecting surface consisting of two or three independent sections;
each section must be 2-3 m above the stage and adjustable up
to 2 m under the ceiling. The height and position of reflectors is
determined by the type of concert: smaller concerts, light chamber
music and concerts with string instruments require a lower height
for the reflectors.
Sound-absorbing curtains and banners
These influence the length and strength of the reverberation
(lowered by widening the curtains). If not required, the curtains
are retracted into curtain niches (and must then be without effect).
Acoustic regulation spaces (promenades)
Volume V (m 3) Additional volume can be gained for works with long reverberation
(those for organ, large orchestras and large choirs, as well as with
f) Relationship of reverberation, hall volume and music type (Hall -> refs)
acoustic amplification) through the extension of the auditorium.
Access passages and foyer areas can be used for this. They can
be opened into the hall with movable panels using central control.

The reflection characteristics of Frequency (Hz) 125 250 500 1000 2000 4000
various materials are of great im- acoustic board, suspended hard 0.2 0.4 0.7 0.8 0.6 0.4
portance for the acoustic design. acoustic board, suspended in frame 0.5 0.7 0.6 0.7 0.7 0.5
Hard surfaces are preferable acoustic rough plaster 0.1 0.2 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.7
to achieve long reverberation. normal plaster on laths 0.2 0.15 0.1 0.05 0.04 0.05
The seats should also be pro- plasterboard 16 mm on squared timber 0.3 0.1 0.05 0.04 0.07 0.1
vided with surfaces of hard mat-
plywood 8 mm on squared timber 0.6 0.3 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1
erial. Upholstering of seats can
artificial stone, untreated surface 0.4 0.4 0.3 0.3 0.4 0.3
achieve uniformity of reverbera-
painted concrete 0.1 0.05 0.06 0.07 0.1 0.1
tion, even with different numbers
fair-faced concrete 0.01 0.01 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.03
in the audience.
brick 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.07
heavy carpet on concrete 0.02 0.06 0.15 0.4 0.6 0.6
heavy carpet with felt underlay 0.1 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7
stage flooring, wood 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.2 0.15 0.1
window glass 0.3 0.2 0.2 0.1 0.07 0.04
wall hanging, medium velour 0.07 0.3 0.5 0.7 0.7 0.6
upholstered seats, occupied 0.4 0.6 0.8 0.9 0.9 0.9
upholstered seats, unoccupied 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.7 0.6 0.6
Degree of sound absorption (alpha)
wooden or metal seats, unoccupied 0.02 0.03 0.03 0.06 0.06 0.05
of various surfaces (Hall -> refs)

221
 CINEMAS
Projection

Before embarking on the design of a cinema, ask the advice of a

cinema equipment company.
Picture projection: Fire-separation materials are no longer
required in the projection room due to the use of safety film. One
projectionist operates a number of projectors, so the projection
room is no longer considered as continuously occupied by staff.
It has 1 m spacing from the projector at the back and on the
max. outer edge of seating block
operator side, 2.80 m height, ventilation and extraction, and sound
= outside edge of picture insulation to the auditorium. The projection rooms of several
last row of seats auditoriums can be combined together.
Film widths are 16 mm, 35 mm and 70 mm. The centre of the
projection beam should not deviate more than so horizontally and
vertically from the centre of the screen or it should be redirected
by a deflection mirror -'> 0.
Conventionally, two projectors are operated with cross-blending.
Automated operation with one projector plus horizontal film tray
showing 4000 m reels without pause has become established
worldwide, in many projection rooms remotely run from projection
and control points. The film gives automatic signals for all
projection functions like lens changing, hall lighting, stage lighting,
plan view curtain and picture covering.
CINEMAS
Projection
Auditorium
0 Optimal auditorium Picture sizes: These depend on the distance of the projector
from the screen and having a height-side relationship of 1:2.34
Multiplex cinemas
Drive-in cinemas (Cinemascope) or 1:1.66 (wide screen) with a narrow auditorium
width. The angle from the centre of the back row of seating to the
outer edge of the picture should not exceed, for Cinemascope,
38° = distance of the back row : screen = 3:2 -7 f) - e.
Screen: Distance of the screen from the wall with BTX (-'> p. 223)
is min. 120 em; according to cinema size and system this can be
reduced to 50 em on the setting up of the sound system.
The screen is perforated (sound-permeable). Retracting blinds
or curtains restrict the screen at the sides with the same picture
height. Large screens are curved in a radius centred on the back
row of seats. The lower edge of the screen should be min. 1.20 m
I I wide screen 1:1.85
'Kinoton' format 1:2 above the floor -'> 0.
70mm
Cinemascope 1:2.34
I I Auditorium: This should receive no incoming light except for
emergency lighting. The walls and ceilings should be of non-
Picture formats with same picture height reflecting material in relatively dark colours. The audience should
sit within the outer edge of the screen. The viewing angle from the
first row of seats to the centre of the picture should not exceed 30°.

1JJJ
1
8 Picture formats with same picture width
Ur e
31.5 83 125 250 500 1K

Permissible reverberation time depending on frequency

2K 4K 8K 16K frequency

60
2.0

i
ro
IL
50

40
\
~ 1.0
6 '\. !
~ !./
...E 0.5
X
N 30
/
"
>
0
" .,"
0 _......v
""
-g 20 0.4
!':
~
""' '-...... -e" o:s
10
.............. ">~
0.2 ...........
/ v
F::::::
,.,.,.""
64 126 250 500 1000 2000 4000 8000 0.1 /
frequency 30 m3 300 m3 3000 m3
e Permissible disturbance level e Reverberation time relative to auditorium volume

222
 1---- 2.0 ------1
CINEMAS
Auditorium

Up to a 10% floor gradient is permissible, or else steps with max.

16 em risers and aisles of 1.20 m width~ 0. Up to 10 seats may
be arranged on each side of each aisle ~ e.
:T~ Acoustics
f--1 f--1 Adjacent auditoriums should be separated by walls of approx.
;:;;4o ;:;;4o
1-1.2 m row spacing 1 - - 2.4 ------1
85 dB 18-20 000 Hz ~ p. 222 0. The ceiling should feature
sound-directing surfaces with low acoustic delay difference
0 Spacing and rows of seats. Cinema Boxes may have ~20 loose chairs;
time.
seats are normally larger than the "'0.65 m2 floor area for each person
minimum dimensions stipulated by
The reverberation time can increase with growing auditorium
the Public Assembly Regulations.
volume and reduces from 0.8 to 0.2 s from low to high frequencies.
90 1.2 ~ p. 222. The rear wall behind the last row of seats should have
t---1 f--------1 an insulated surface to prevent echo .

. mtw~1 :m~~·m:·"··" Loudspeakers are distributed in the auditorium so that the

difference in volume between the front and back rows does not
exceed 4 dB.
Sound reproduction
In addition to mono optical sound reproduction, the Dolby
;r a~ ~~viation: stereo optical system with four channels will be required in the
A : 6 C
0 0 future, using three loudspeaker combinations behind the screen
!!!·E·o:;: .. m
...;:;:;: ...;:;:;:.r----=ro:>:J!l E!ll!!D
...:;:;, "" " " ' " ' " " " ' ''"""!'"'"''''"'' CINEMAS
f--1 f--------1 2.00 corridor and additional speakers at the sides and back. For 70 mm
90 1.2 film, 6 channel magnetic sound, there are additional speaker Projection
Auditorium
Seating -A: for auditorium "'200 people; B: "'200 people; C: 50 seats, if there
combinations behind the screen. With BTX, behind the screen Multiplex cinemas
there is a sound-absorbing wall (following the Lucas film system), Drive-in cinemas
is a door at the side for every four rows
in which the loudspeaker combinations are installed. Model Public
Assembly

~lmfn"'.'"'"'
Cash desks Regulations
Predominantly electronic booking and reservation systems: 1 cash
desk per 300-400 seats, requiring approx. 5 m2 •
Types of cinema
'Programme cinemas': As a counter-trend to multiplex

.... cinemas ~ p. 224, city centres have seen the establishment of

3.50 .

~t----~~~~~:rr:r·
'programme cinemas', which mostly show specialist films. Sizes
of 50-200 seats are usual, normally in combination with eating/
drinking facilities~ 0.

f)
Ill ~Ill wall

Access roads and through roads 9 Distance of the building from the
Circarama/Panorama cinemas: Round or spherical screens
increase the impression of being directly involved in the action.
Because special film techniques are required for these (a
plot boundaries depending on
number of visitors number of cameras have to film the same view simultaneously),
there are only a few films available, and this type of cinema
is therefore restricted to adventure parks and planetariums ~
e-e.

I
Auditorium

I
I !D
"'II
!D
VII

I
I
12'

e Auditorium for panoramic films Circarama. Picture surface spherical

(360'), on which a consolidated
Zazie 'programme cinema' with 0 Auditorium for flat films picture from 11 simultaneously
running projectors can be shown.
cafe and bar, Halle (Saale)
Arch.: Complizen.com Example: Brussels Expo

223
 CINEMAS
\ I
\ I Multiplex Cinemas

.II
0 Access to cinema auditoriums
With a number of screens of various sizes in one building, multiplex
cinemas are often combined with shopping centres, car parks etc,
which require extensive parking space ~ p. 225. The auditoriums
are reached via a common entrance and sometimes stacked. On
account of the large numbers of visitors, good orientation and
clear signing to the individual screens is important. The location of
the screens in relation to the entrance foyer should be according
to their size (large screens nearest to the foyer), or the largest
screen in a central location/on the direct route from the foyer. The
sizes of the single auditoriums depend on the requirements of the
operator, as also the spacing of the rows, foyer design etc.
The cash desk zone should be near the entrance, the number of
desks dependent on the number of seats: approx. 5 m2 floor areal
cash desk; for 2500 seats, approx. 6-8 cash desks.
f) Schematic arrangement of cinema The entrance foyer should be of generous proportions, clearly laid
auditoriums on one level
out and at a prominent location in the building; it includes the main
entrance, food/drink counters and access to the screens. Before
the access points to the individual screens on different floors,
Screen -wall distance there are normally additional foyers with bar counters, WCs etc.
The main foyer should be of adequate size for events (premieres,
CINEMAS Screen
presentations etc.).
Projection
Auditorium Because eating and drinking are normally a significant part of the
Multiplex
cinemas
cinema concept, counters should be provided in central locations
Drive~in cinemas with the necessary storage and service facilities.
Model Public Atsle wtdth mm 90 em
Assembly Cinema auditorium
Regulations
The screen should fill the entire wall; there should be no exits in
this wall or the side walls near to it. Cross-passages should be
Row of seats ·. Row of seats
provided as a connection between the doors or at a side entrance
to reach the side aisles ~ p. 235.
Projection room
·~seatrowstepB 1.20mr- .'
Minimum room size: 6.50 x 2.80 x 2.80 m 0/IJ x D x H). Projection
window size approx. 150/250 x 50 em (one or two projectors) Film
can be supplemented by video projectors, and space should also
Steps ·.. fCross-passage step B = 1.80 m Steps
~ ·..!' : ,....,.....,-,- be provided for horizontal film tray equipment and control desk.
The platform under the projectors should be vibration-free. A
noise level of approx. 75 dB must be damped to 30 dB by the
projection window. The working temperature should not exceed
22oc in order to protect film copies and equipment.
Subsidiary rooms
These are to be provided as required: offices for the manager,
secretary and employees, archive, IT room, staff rooms (changing
rooms, ladies' and gents' WCs, staff rest room).
Projector
For the foyer and food/drink area: catering stores, counter stores,
Hall proportions: 1.1.3 -1.4:0.5 (W x D x H) Screen distance A= 1.20- 1.50 m cool room, room for empties, rubbish room, cleaning equipment
Curtain storage space 8: each side approx. 1O% of the screen width
Distance C (head front row- screen): approx. 75% of the clear room height room, stores for cleaning firm and decoration.
Width of curtain pocket: approx. 40 em
Screen curvature: circular arc (centre projector), from about 500 seats
Top of screen: about 0,30 m below ceiling, bottom of screen: about 0.80 m above FFL
Height of screen: results from the values given above
Width of screen: screen height x 2.35 (largest format: Cinemascope)
Clear ceiling height above the back row: min. 2.30 m

C) Generalised ground floor plan of a larger auditorium with technical dimensions

e Wide screen projection equipment e Projection room

224
 CINEMAS
Multiplex Cinemas, Examples

The town-planning situation plays a significant role in the number

of cinema screens that can be combined into a unit. Possible forms
are layered stacking (screens stacked as a cube, access and service
functions connected in free form at the side)--> 8- 0, or a horizontal
row of screens (larger cinemas from the 1960s were extended with
further screens, sunk into the ground for conservation reasons) -->
0 - f) or combination forms. A common form is the combination
with other functions like shopping centres and car parks, with sales
areas on the ground floor, cinema screens and parking on the first
floor: a prominent urban landmark in conjunction with two high-rise
point buildings --> 0- 0.

G) Cinemas
@Foyer
®Offices
@ Parking areas
CINEMAS
Projection
0 Kosmos cinema, Berlin, plan Arch.: Rohde Kellermann Wawrowsky Auditorium
Multiplex
cinemas
Drive-in cinemas

f) Kosmos cinema, Berlin, elevation/section Arch.: Rohde Kellermann Wawrowsky Neustadt Centrum Halle, first floor plan (cinema level i)
Arch.: Hermann & Valentiny with Noack und Partner

8 Filmpalast Dresden, plan Arch.: Coop Himmelb(J)au

Neustadt Centrum Halle, ground floor plan (shopping level)

Arch.: Hermann & Valentiny with Noack und Partner

Neustadt Centrum Halle, section

C) Filmpalast Dresden, view/section Arch.: Coop Himmelb(l)au Arch.: Hermann & Valentiny with Noack und Partner

225
 CINEMAS
t--out
Drive-in Cinemas

Drive-in cinemas, where the audience do not

have to leave their cars.
The size is limited by ramps, number of cars
~1 000-1300, while still ensuring a good
view. Normal is 450-500 cars ---> 0.

Cars No. ramps Screen to back edge of

ramp(m)

500 10 155
586 11 170
670 12 180
778 13 195
886 14 210

. . . 1000 15 225

~~~{:pea~~~
.. . .. .
•('
Location: on the motorway, near petrol
stations and services, with screening so that
t--out light and sound do not distract passing traffic.
CINEMAS Ramps are curved and sloping in order
Projection 0 Drive-in cinema in a fan shape with inclined ramps and low projection cabin, to lift the front of the cars, so back seat
Auditorium which only takes up two rows
Multiplex cinemas passengers also have a good view of the
Drive"in screen---> e.
cinemas
Entrance road: with waiting area, in order to
line of sight from rear seat to lower edge of screen avoid backing up of traffic on the road. Drive-

..
·~ ~.=~~-~-~.~.----------;--~~~:~-----
I
pos= · · · · ·'· ·.·.·.· · · · 'l'... ~=-1~·············'·'·'~
past ticket counter, so that tickets from the
cars can be checked ---> 0.
Exit: ideally after leaving the ramp forwards.
and electrical heating 7.60 90+-- 3.00 ··
1--------11.50----------1
Detailing of the entire area to avoid dust and
f) Ramp arrangement and dimensions: elevations can be different according to screen picture height skidding in wet weather.
Ticket counter: one counter for 300 cars;
two for 600; three for 800; four for 1000.
Screen: depends on the number of cars: for
650 cars 14.50 x 11.30 m; for 950 cars 17.0
x 13.0 m. Ideally facing east or north, which
enables earlier performances. For the Central
European latitude, the screen is better
installed in a solid, permanent structure.
Cinema screen in the Billbrook drive-in
cinema near Hamburg: 36 m high x 15.5 m
wide. Height above ground level depends
on ramp gradient and sight angle. Screen
tilted upward avoids distortion. Scaffolding
and screen must be able to bear wind
loading.
Rows of seats should be provided, and a
play area for children is also a good idea.
Projection building: mostly central, at a
; distance of 100 m from the screen.
0

Projection room contains projectors,

generators, sound amplification system.
Sound reproduction ideally has loudspeakers
inside the cars; the loudspeakers are
attached to a post for every two cars at 5.0
m separation and are attached inside the cars
by the visitors.
entrance

f) Double cinema. One projection room for both screens, with the possibility of staggered starting times. All Heating: on loudspeaker posts, possibly
other areas (cash desks, bar, toilets etc.) are common also a connection for heating in the cars.

226
 CIRCUS
Stationary

Show theatre, permanent venue

Amphitheatre-type hall, laid out as three quarters of a circle,
offering seats for an audience of 1600. The last quarter is intended
for the stage, which consists of five stacked lifting platforms. This
enables the stage sets to be changed very quickly ~ e.
Access to the hall on the third floor+ 13.00 m above road level. A
27 m high reinforced concrete dome spans the circus arena.

Project: Berlin Leipziger Platz

Arch.: Aldo Rossi Milan
Planungs AG Neufert/Mittmann/Graf, Berlin
Sceno-Pius Experts-Conseils, Montreal

CIRCUS
Stationary

space

0 Second floor+ 9.00 m (underfloor theatre)

8 Section

Show main!.
56 m'

f) Third floor (stage area)+ 13.00 m

0 Fourth floor (audience seating level)+ 16.50 m

227
 zoos
Basics
"Asia" Elephant, temple, tigers ...
"Africa" Zebras, giraffes, rhinoceroses ...
"Pongoland" Gorillas, chimpanzees ...
"Founder's garden" Zoo history
"South America" Anteaters, spectacled bears, giant otters
"Gondwana landu Giant tropical house (planned)

zoos
Basics
Keeping animals
Enclosures

Directive
1999/22/EC
Animal Protection 0 Master plan of a modern zoo with adventure world (animal geography),
from the example of Leipzig Zoo Arch.: Rasbachr Architekten
Objectives of zoos
Law Starting with Directive 1999/22/EC, zoos are subject to the
Report, Minimum
following requirements ---> f):
Requirements
for Animal
Husbandry,
1. Involvement in research activities for species conservation
Federal Ministry 2. Zoo educational publicity work
for Consumer
3. Keeping and feeding the animals correctly for the species
Protection,
Agriculture and 4. Protection against animals escaping or pests and vermin
Forests infiltrating
5. Keeping a register of the zoo collection

Infrastructure of a modern zoo ---> 0

Access: good accessibility, clear signposting, sufficient number
of parking spaces, stops for public transport
Main entrance: distinctive entrance area, pay booths/counters,
kiosks, administration, tidy paths, welcoming seating
Further infrastructure: event and lecture room, high-class
restaurant with view of zoo facilities and separate entrance from
outside (for evening business), further restaurants according to
zoo size, self-service cafeteria, kiosks, toilets, picnic sites, zoo
shops, zoo school
Operations and staff building: separate access (out of public
Zoo view) with adequate external areas for the storage of feed and
litter, building materials, etc., staff department with washing
and changing facilities, cafeteria, training and rest rooms
(security staff), breeding of feed animals, central/dispersed feed
The modern zoo attempts to balance the interests of research, animal protection and preparation, water distribution, storage and cool rooms, rubbish
the experience of nature. removal, sheds for parking and maintenance of cleaning machines,
On one side stand the requirements for keeping the animals, feeding, cage design transport vehicles and cages, workshops, gardening, heating, air
and veterinary care in line with the needs of the species, research activities for the
conditioning, ventilation
conservation of species, participation In international breeding programmes and zoo
educational publicity work.
Medical care of animals: animal clinic, quarantine station,
On the other hand, the zoo is also a business, whose success mainly depends on
visitor numbers and is in competition with other leisure providers.
laboratories, research facilities, acclimatisation and breeding
The basis of any zoo design is therefore the orientation on the state of research Into areas, cadaver storage
the keeping of animals In a way suitable for the species, and also the consideration of
the demands of the potential visitors. The staging of exotic ("near to nature") animal Access roads and paths: wheelchair-accessible main paths
worlds and spectacular visitor facilities should therefore be evaluated against this (5-6 m wide), with weather protection, laid out as round route,
background. side paths (3-4 m wide) to each group of animals, independent
f) Tasks of the modern zoo, combining the interests of research, animal operational roads (3-4 m wide) for supply, waste disposal, animal
conservation and providing exciting experiences transport and as emergency access (fire service, ambulance).

228
 zoos
Keeping Animals

'Hands-on', the traditional principle of keeping zoo animals: it

denotes direct contact between the (tame) animals, the keepers
(feeding, care) and the zoo visitors (petting zoo) ---7 e.
Functional aspects include separation into public and private or
invisible areas, assignment of visitor areas, enclosures, keeper
access and subsidiary rooms. The most important aspects are
hygienic considerations and the presentation of the animals.
Hands-off' (protected contact) was originally developed as a
safe method of handling dangerous animals (indirect, technically
supported contact between animal and keeper), and today often
corresponds to the expectations of zoo visitors for species-
appropriate keeping of animals in zoos ---7 0: The large area
and natural character of the reproduced original habitat, with
appropriate fixed points (drinking trough, climbing rocks, etc.) and
the possibility of observing from selected and protected (secretive)
positions are also seen as desirable regarding lack of disturbance
and encouraging reproduction in human care. "Hands-off"
0 Elephant park, Cologne Zoo Arch.: Oxen und Romer, external works: facilities have excellent potential for research and breeding.
Fenner, Steinhauser, Weisser

zoos
Basics
Keeping animals
caregiver Enclosures

0 Section -7 f)

f) Great ape facility, Wuppertal Zoo Hochbauamt Wuppertal

basin

0 Section --. 8
Baltic
aquarium Examples
Animal houses and open-air enclosures are differentiated.
Combinations are possible, with and without water:
The elephant park at Cologne Zoo ---7 0 is an example of an inte-
grated 'hands-off' facility (animal house and open-air enclosure). The
partially roofed area can be divided into various sections from a control
centre by means of mechanical gates. The visitor areas are separated
from the enclosures by water-filled ditches or differences in level
The great ape house at Wuppertal Zoo ---7 8 is an animal house
(with outside enclosure built subsequently), consisting of the
internal enclosure lit from above with protected sleeping bunks,
glass partition to the visitor area, keeper access frorn behind, feed
kitchen and special cages (sick bay, baby apes).
The Ozeaneum, Stralsund ---7 8, as an example of a multifunctional
animal house/aquarium with an extensive round tour for visitors,
thematically divided aquariums (Baltic, North Sea) and central
area for keepers. The facility serves the purposes of exhibition
and research and is elaborately conceived with spectacular views
into the tanks (shoal fish tank with 15 x 5 m glass pane, tunnel
C) Ozeaneum, Stralsund Arch.: Behnisch, Behnisch und Partner aquarium, overhead aquarium, touch pools, simulation tanks).

229
 zoos
Enclosures

Design aspects
Near to nature: The enclosure should correspond to the ideas of
the visitors regarding the appropriate habitat for the animals, be
aesthetically pleasing and give a generous impression.
Physical nearness: The nearer people can come to the animals,
the greater the interest and the longer they stay.
Emotional nearness: Enclosure boundaries should scarcely be
noticed.
Observation: Animal enclosures should work secretively and be
an invitation to exploration (e.g. view into the enclosure through
a cave or a waterfall). Routes should invite lingering, not passing
an enclosure but rather leading to it. It should be possible to see
0 Concealed visitor position only one enclosure from each location; distracting views, and also
masses of people in front of the enclosure, should be avoided.
Enable comfortable observation in a relaxed position, not into
the sun or through a reflecting pane of glass; the visitor should
look into a bright, lit enclosure from shadow (this also has the
advantage that the animals do not immediately notice the visitors).
Areas where the animals like to pass the time and are active should
be clearly visible.
Basics
Keeping animals Withdrawal: It is, however, also important that the animal can
Enclosures
withdraw from view and be unobserved.
Information: Signage; sufficient information should be available
Accessibility: Access to the enclosures (only for the zoo keepers)
is provided by dedicated roads and care areas; the appropriate
animal catching and transport facilities are here.
f) Indoor enclosure with glass corridor: view from dark into light
Barriers
Ditches were originally developed as dry ditches, but are today
l-2.00-------j
generally constructed as water barriers (moats)-+ 8. A natural
appearance is advantageous, but the water becomes dirty quickly
and the animals can leave the enclosure over the ice if it freezes
over, so the water level therefore has to be lowered in winter. There
are normally fences or walls to provide additional protection.
Glass is becoming accepted by most zoos -+ 8 + 0, because it
gives the impression of direct contact with the animals and also
prevents the infection of animals by humans.
8 Water barrier: visitor and animal outdoors
Iron bars disturb the visitor and the animal. The classic method
of keeping animals in cages is therefore avoided in modern zoos.
r------3.00------1

-------------------------------)
f-------3.00------1

G Water barrier: visitor behind protective glass screen and animal outdoors

-~->~
------r--

0 Aviary 0 Terrarium 8 Water barrier: the moat should be wide enough for large animals

230
 OFFICE BUILDINGS
Structures

Office work
Task Type of work Location of work
Administrative work is the pro-
cessing of information. The empha-
routine tasks individual work single room sis of office work is changing from

project ~ routine processing of data (tradi-

><
team work group room tional card systems) to more creative

~
development
information processing and evalua-
meetings, tion on account of changes in stor-
exchange meeting room
negotiations
age and improved ways of access-
Q Relationship between duties and room type
ing information.

Employees are becoming ever

oflice area included in calculation of
rent according to GIF
more important in the organ-
isation of office work. Factors
I like the image of the company
I
main usable area subsidiary areas traffic areas
I (corporate identity), design of ar-
eas for breaks and relaxation and
offices sanitary facilities (partially proportional)
cloakrooms corridors the individual configuration of
tea kitchens lilt lobbies workplaces are all intended to in-
archives entrance hall
cleaning rooms reception area crease employees' performance.
Global networking means that
f) The GIF (Association for Property Economics Research), in collaboration with the DIN standards committee, has developed routine work can be carried out
definitions of working areas in offices ('MF-B') and commercial rooms ('MF-H'), for the purpose of comparing commercial
rents. Based on the concepts of DIN 2771973/87 ('Areas and volumes of buildings'), certain areas have been categorised
on a decentralised basis (home
into 'rented areas for office space' and 'rented areas for commercial space'. Areas with shared use are only considered working, neighbourhood and
proportionally. Application is not binding. rented offices). OFFICE
BUILDINGS

I total gross area

(external dimensions)
I The company headquarters is Structures
Tendencies
becoming an information market Typology
building-related area place, which is made use of by Until1980
I net office area
] of~~=·=~a sp~~~:iea~ea J
net special area
I many employees either tempor- Since 1980
Space
I I arily or in changing groups to requirement
I I I I I I I I I I achieve their tasks. These chang- Computer
workstations
workgroupM service horizontal Vertical technical internal external specially service horizontal es result in the very variable dem- Archives
related areas traffic areas traffic supply areas, structural structural protected, areas main traffic
office areas (proportional), (proportional), areas, slairs, air condi- areas, areas, office-related (proportional), areas (propo- ands made on the workplace in an Additional areas
cloakroom, main escalators, Honing, heat- columns, fayades, areas, e.g. cloakroom, rtional), main Room typology
break room, corridors, lifts, lift ing, electricity load-bearing parapets services for break room, corridors, office building. Grid
tea kitchen level lobbies, supply, tele- walls lloor, post, IT tea kitchen, level trans- Access
(pantry), transport pneumatic phone relay reception, IT sanitary port facilities,
rooms, cante- facilities ramps, The range of options runs from Building services
sanitary facilities, tube, post room, emerg-
facilities waiting areas chutes, ency genera- en, kitchen, wailing areas Construction
transport tor, server archive, conf-
the single workplace in a cubicle
facilities rooms erence rooms office through group rooms to
I workstations which are only used
functional workplace space usable space for workgroups
at specific times ('hot desking').
general meeting/review filing The more flexible the rooms in
traff!c office equipment
communications storage a building are, the easier it is for
computer terminals
filing presentation
drawing board
the company to adapt to ever-
changing requirements.
space special usable space for workgroups
general distance, spacing, access noise e.g. waiting area
reduction, privacy, compact furnishing, 1-------_L_________ e.g. exhibition area Design
dividers, partitions, plants, traffic in room, e.g. safes, cashiers' rooms Detailed recording of the business
extra for visitor traffic, access and side routes
and organisational structure, and
e Organisational structure of office space (Lappa!)
thus the specific functions and
working relationships in the com-
pany, enable the determination of
endogenous forces
- major increase in profitability
a schedule of requirements (needs
M centralisation requirements assessment).
of economy
- Parkinson's law
- 'phenomenon' of work flexibility In rented buildings, flexible room
I

: ~ ~~~~~~~~n l l~ ~~~~~~=tiona! 1
: - office machinery 1
1 - office furniture :
-acoustics
-lighting
I
I
I
(rationalisalion) layout is of great importance, to
achieve the most variable sizes of
~ :a~:~ation ~~~~~:tructions:
I - files, registers 1 I exogenous forces
- decoration
: : :- : - stationery : - open-plan office I -societal factors (flexitime etc.) office unit possible.
I
' training 1 I - scheduling 1 '-literature 1
- single office I - globalisation of induslry
1- 1 1 -job description 1
1 -age : - paperwork : -group room I and markets
1 1 1 I
I - health 1 1 - staff turnover 1 1 - office aids 1 - economic development
- quality of space
I
~ _________ J ~c~~~~n~c~~~J l : - dala storage
1.---------....!
I
J __________ .JI - direct or indirect office work for
statutory authorities (e.g. changes
in taxation)
- em lo ment markeVIechnolo

0 The factors determining office work (Henkel --> refs)

231
 OFFICE BUILDINGS
Tendencies/Criteria

Demand cycles for office types Influence of information technology and office automation
The developments in information and communication technologies
are leading to changed working conditions in offices.

Multifunctional terminals are replacing single components in data,

text and image processing. Individual systems are being networked
into integrated office communication systems. The ever-improving
public data networks (ISDN, DSL, 3G) make it possible to exchange
great quantities of data over long distances. Flat screens, laptops
and mobile telephones reduce the amount of space required at
each workstation. The effect of office technology on the office
layout and workstations is creating evaluation criteria like: more
emphasis on immediate workplace quality; ensuring company-
wide flexibility; ecologically sound working environment, to whose
spatial configuration older office buildings no longer measure up.
0 Development of the demand for different types of office (DEGI -> refs)
New Workplace Regulations stipulate working areas according to
demand (no more minimum areas).

'limited' The rationalisation potential of administrative activities (filing,

workstation: 65

'extended'
workstation: 10
smallroom
rmmr~
CJ/ sorting, copying, searching, acquisition of material) and
communication activities (conferences, meetings) is about 25%
of weekly working time. Routine tasks acting as active relaxation
80-85% in a row
and 15-20%
o:t
divisible
breaks would be reduced by about 50%. Increasing telecommuting
leads to a reduction in office space, because only some activities
group office -------1
OFFICE
(meetings etc.) then take place in the office building at specific
BUILDINGS workstations, which are no longer personalised and can be
Structures used by various employees as required ('hot-desking'). Personal
Tendencies
areas are reduced to office containers, which contain a post
Typology
Until1980
77-80%
and 2Q-25%
mrn
separate box and files. Mobile telephone and computer WLAN networks
Since 1980 make a change of location simple. The potential independence
Space
requirement
f) Analysis of daily use in an office, 8 Recommendation for relationship of location (decentralisation) is countered by other possible
area% of permanent and flexible room
Computer
structures in small and group room
losses (concentration of staff at central locations, headquarters
workstations
Archives offices, area % in prestigious situation, urban location as sign of continuity,
Additional areas ambience, work and leisure activities in one place), which can play
Room typology
Grid
important roles.
Access 110 ®director, assignment of staff
Building services chief departmental to working groups Changes at the workplace
100 manager, departmental {actual -+ target)
Construction
90 manager, assistant The rationalisation effect of information technology and altering
80 @ secretarial workplace requirements (procedures and organisational pattern)
department
70 are changing the structure of offices. Staff levels are falling and
@ chief group manager,
work groups are getting smaller. The former hierarchical division of
60 group manager,
50 project manager labour among staff, like manager, secretary, specialist employee
40 etc., is changing to integrated work groups and thus altering the
assignment of office space.

A more sensitive relationship to the direct working environment

is closely linked to the predominant value orientation in
the company. This is reflected in the attitude to the quality
of the workplace (daylight, environmental context, energy
consumption), and the activity (ecological viewpoints, material
use, waste disposal). The workplace is an important place
for social interaction among the users, which is increasing
in relevance due to formalised work structures (IT, work
management organisation etc.). Increased mental and physical stress leads
to a greater awareness of the working environment (sufficient
meeting space, some personal choice in furnishings, ventilation, lighting,
secretarial sufficient protection from disruptions). 75% of daily work takes
departments place at the 'close and extended workplace' --1 f). Necessary
work contacts and collectively used facilities are significant, thus
the requirement for a mixed provision of single and group rooms,
'personal' and 'collective' workplaces --1 0 - 0. In addition to
82% group office
group office small room
the refurbishment of existing office space, new spatial concepts
assignment of staff
for 5-16 people for one person involving single and group rooms are starting to appear (Fuchs,
!two people),
to types of room floor area per storey meeting, etc. Gottschalk, Henkel --1 refs).
0 Usage basics for division of rooms (all figs, Gottschalk -> refs)

232
 OFFICE BUILDINGS
Typology Until 1980

Forms of office organisation

Open-plan offices (Mies van der Rohe: ' ... clearly laid-out, undivided,
only structured .. .' --> refs) are suitable for large groups of employees
who are predominantly engaged in shared work and for routine
activities with a low concentration threshold. This is increasingly
the exception rather than the rule today. The concept appeared in
the 1960s with arguments like transparency and manageability of
0 Single-room offices, Garrick f) Single-room offices in work processes, development of community feeling, and a rationally
Building, Chicago group of three organised multifunctional area. IT machines were in separate rooms
Arch.: Dankmar Adler and
and not available in offices. The extensive room depths of 20-30 m
Louis H. Sullivan, 1892
resulted in high costs for building services, which is of limited suitability
for the conversion of buildings, and the potential flexibility has its limits
in the light of today's demands (opening windows, control of lighting,
air conditioning and electricity supply) (Henkel --> refs). The open-
plan office is attested by sociologists to be afflicted with a character
of compulsion (social controls, dependence on technical equipment,
optical and acoustic disturbance), and therefore led to a negative
reaction among its occupants.
e Reversible offices 0 Open-plan office

OFFICE
Group-room office BUILDINGS
for OVA insurance) Structures
Mannheim 1977
Arch.: Striffler
0 BIG Frankfurt 8 Cantonal building, Berne Tendencies
Typology
Arch.: Nowotny-Miihner, HPP, Arch.: Matti, Burgi, Ragaz, Liebefeld
Untii19BO
Speer und Partner Since 1980
Space
Single-room offices are suitable for independent or concentrated requirement
Computer
work, as a single-person room or for a few people in very small workstations
groups who need to exchange information constantly. This Archives
arrangement has been common in Germany since World Additional areas
Room typology
War II and still has its justification when the requirements of the Grid
workplace correspond (--> Gruner, Jahr; Steidle, Kissler; or --> new Access
Building services
offices for the Federal Environment Office, Dessau, Sauerbruch, Construction
Hutton) or in newbuild high-rise offices, where the structure of the
second phase
first phase, Architect: Kohlbecker building can be so decisive that it leads to the very standardised
office bul/ding In Bremen, 1987
character of spatial and organisational working practices.

Reversible offices constituted an attempt to improve the working

conditions in open-plan offices, which are often found to be
inadequate on many grounds (no differentiated air conditioning,
daylight, optical and acoustic disturbance). The possibility
of partitioning producing a more effective single-room office
structure (i.e. cubicles) when required for more concentrated work
considerably increased technical input to enable flexibility. However,
group offices 0 [LJ
not only the dissatisfaction of the users but also the increasing lack
a small rooms,}
fixed;
zoned
group of cost-effectiveness with increasing energy prices led to this form of
0 ~';~~~~~oms, 0 offices office being questioned. The working structure as changed by new
C:!J :~~~etarlal technologies (e.g. the use of PCs) enabled organisation into small
groups. First example: the building of the OVA, Mannheim.
Application of linked and partially zoned group rooms; these are connected
by reversible small-room zones and can be partially zoned when required for
common areas. Group rooms (smaller open-plan) are suitable for work groups
with constant information exchange. This form of office was an
Key
attempt to install room layouts with more scope for individual
• Elevator decisions (--> Changes at the workplace, p. 232 ), via the
0 Main staircase size of the workplace surroundings (max. 7.5 m to a window),
0 Side stairs
and thus improve the working conditions of an open-plan
Iii Core areas
mill Group rooms
arrangement (light, air, individuality), which were found to be
[SJ Small spaces inadequate with the increasing demands on office work. It is
possible to do without full air conditioning in favour of back-up
ventilation services, in addition to opening windows and using
State Central Bank of Hesse, Frankfurt am Main, 1988
Arch.: Jourdan, Muller et al. radiators.

233
 OFFICE BUILDINGS
Typology Since 1980

The continuing progress of information technology is resulting in

new job descriptions for employees. The requirements for office
space are also changing and often require the refurbishment of
existing office buildings. An additional factor of equal importance is
that the open-plan configuration has been found to be inadequate
(-'> Changes at the workplace, p. 232).
The means used for this reorganisation are rebuilding, provision
of daylight from inner courtyards, straightforward plan layouts,
creation of workplaces of equal rank with regard to light, air and
sound reduction, or the use of office furnishing systems, which
can increasingly undertake the function of building services like
cabling, sockets etc., and also of partitions.
The combi-office principle attempts to provide a suitable room
concept for the specific requirements of an office organisation. This
entails a room arrangement that is flexible where required, enables
0 Office in an existing building with workplaces laid out to meet needs, which can group work, provides individual rooms for concentrated work and
be occupied by employees for specific tasks. This form of organisation with a temporarily usable collective layout for particular communal
non-territorial workstations is called a 'hot desk office'.
activities. It is particularly suitable for independent, highly qualified
Arch.: Schnell und Partner, Munich
work where the workplace can change with the daily programme.
'Hot desk offices' or 'business clubs' are not spatial layouts but
denote a particularly flexible organisation of work without fixed
personal workplaces. Particular value is placed on variable room
use possibilities and differentiated room qualities. For combi-
groups and open-plan offices, efficiency is not achieved through
rebuilding of rooms but via the business organisation and a flexible
f) Scheme of a small group of three rooms (high-rise plan) with flexibly usable 'club' atmosphere conducive to wellbeing.
OFFICE zones at the ends and areas for cubicles in the core
BUILDINGS In new buildings, this experience leads to more value being
Structures placed on reversibility, in order to be able to react better to the
Tendencies ever-shorter innovation cycles of office technology. This leads to
Typology
Unti11980
buildings which can be divided into user units of varying sizes
Since 1980 without great inconvenience (rented offices) -'>8 - e, or even
Space permit a combination of production and administration (start-up
requirement
Computer centres) -'> 8. The changed values regarding the workplace, plus
workstations high energy prices, are leading to new architectural forms with
Archives
Additional areas building elements intended to provide temperature regulation and
Room typology natural ventilation (conservatories, halls, double fac;:ades).
Grid
Access Key
Building services
• Column
Construction

:::::: • Lift
8::0;!:i:t:::::::l () Main stairs
;;:,:
Q Side stairs
0 ;:::::::::
raJ core area
-
lu="''8:j:;:::::::;:::;:::;: 0 d-
:::::::::::;
[;)Group rooms

::::1 ;::::::
c=J Small rooms
::::::: ::::j
- - Partitioning
of letting units
possible

8 Scheme of a building with variable areas for rent. The external access to the rented Q Scheme of a building with variable areas for rent. The central building zone can
units along the gallery leaves the Internal access to be decided by the tenant. be opened to the various rental units as required. Kennedyhaus, Dusseldorf
The smallest possible unit is a half grid between two supply cores. Building depth Arch.: Kister Scheithauer Gross,
approx. 15 rn and spacing of the supply shafts 12.90 m, the smallest letting unit Prof. U. Coersmeier, Cologne

w
approx. 90 rn 2 • UFO, Frankfurt arn Main Arch.: Dietz Jopplen Architekten AG

Q[]! Qo 0; D
"'.,.;
________ E
E
"~'&
IJ

ld
D D

ld
[]

~
.;!==
D~D
[]

ld
[] []

ld
[]

En<>
() ()~

"l
()

= "'00
E
pg ~ ~ e~ E
N'
0

"
"
Ll Ll E
{If ffi {[lo :rn[]
"l

~D
~

E
[]0<>
<)
[] [] lJ [] [] [] " [][
Q Room depths for various types of office e Possible arrangements of various office depths in a 15 m wide plan

234
 OFFICE BUILDINGS

~
Space Requirement

~
~-o I Workplace
I I
I I According to the new Workplace
I I
L~------_j Regulations, there are no longer any
fixed minimum dimensions for work-
places. But the requirements of the
min. 3.40 accident insurers and the fact that
all workplaces today have computer
0 Example: single office f) Minimum space requirement for a screens means that the minimum
single workstation dimensions in the relevant DIN EN
standards and regulations apply.

Furniture areas
The standard no longer prescribes
fixed dimensions for workplaces,
but requires sufficient working
and movement areas for changing
positions at work and for the
individually adaptable placing of
work equipment.

min.3.40 The assignments of various areas

are differentiated by the standard;
Example: double office with
wall-oriented workstations
e Space required for meeting zone 9 Space required
for files
however, they can overlap if this
results in no limitation of the function.
OFFICE
The areas are: BUILDINGS
- work area: table Structures
- shelf area: plan area of the Tendencies
Typology
furniture Until1980
- furniture function area: space Since 1980
Space
required for doors and drawers requirement
- movement area at the workstation Computer
workstations
- traffic and through-passages Archives
Additional areas
Forms of office and work Room typology
Grid
The office's form and thus its room Access
layout are part of a system influe- Building services
nced by activity, procedural organ- Construction
4.60 isation, IT technology and company DIN 4543-1
culture. The building structure and
0 Example: office management Q Space required for single workstation design of rooms can have a signifi-
with additional shelf space
cant influence on the use. Efficiency
gains can result from factors like
reduction of the area per worksta-
f J f f f J l tion, rooms designed to support
procedures and improve motivation,
for which emotional factors above all
are decisive, like material and colour
ideas, but also the provision of quiet
and communication areas for formal
I I I I I I I - - l
and informal meetings. The analysis
of requirements can produce valu-
I~ I
able pointers to possible forms of
1~1
office.
l - -
EJ CDEJ
I I I I I I I - - l
I

~ I~ I
l~·l
~ l - -
I

e Example: workstation layout in a large group office 0 Example: workstation layout in a small
group office

235
 seated

[I
'~ J. ~F;i~~~ permissible
OFFICE BUILDINGS
Computer Workstations

' ~!!/~f. r.;;~·'": ~ . . ,::'::!:ow :~:r

&65'

Workstations are where elements such as computer screen,

alphanumeric keyboard and document or sound recording device are

I\\ \ '""" ~
decisive for dealing with the work. Computer workstations are not
based on one standard solution but according to the specific work
procedure (e.g. information point, data entry point etc.).
The regulations are laid down in ZH 1/618, 'Safety rules for visual
0 Vertical field of view f) Horizontal field of view
display workstations in office areas', issued by the Association of
Commercial Accident Insurance Companies. They include:
- Workplace Guidelines and Workplace Regulations
- more than 40 DIN regulations, particularly:
- DIN EN ISO g241 T1-T7, 'Ergonomic requirements for office work
with visual display terminals'
- ZH 1/535 'Safety rules for office workstations'
- VDI and VDE (German engineering and electrical associations) standards
for technical services (heating, ventilation, electricity). Computer
workstations should be designed to comply with these regulations and
the generaHy recognised rules of the technology or in accordance with
C) Preferred and permissible reach areas the relevant state of occupational health and ergonomic knowledge.
Workplace layout
Items which are frequently used during the working day should be
put in the preferred places where they are visible and reachable ---7
0 - 0. There should be a free movement area of at least 1.5 m 2 at
the workstation.
Furniture: This should enable the correctly defined working posture -
upper arm and elbow vertical at an angle of approx. goo and thigh and
lower leg vertical at an angle of goo ---7 0. To achieve the correct posture
OFFICE for people of different heights, table and chair sizes must be adjustable.
BUILDINGS
Structures
Tendencies
8 Ergonomically correct basic
posture at computer workstation
e Ergonomically designed computer
workstation with fixed desk
Two ergonomicaHy equaHy valuable possibilities are:
A: workstation type 1, desk at variable height 60-78 em
60(70)
chair at variable height 42-54 em
Typology
Until1980 B: workstation type 2, type 3, desk of fixed height 72cm
Since 1980 chair of variable height 42-50 em
Space
footstool of variable height 00-15 em
requirement
Computer There should be sufficient legroom ---7 0.
workstations The desktop working area should be at least 120 x 80 em (few
Archives
Additional areas
documents, predominantly screen work; for specialist employees, at
Room typology least 200 x 80 em)
Grid 12
(20) Environment: AU furniture in the immediate vicinity (desktop etc.)
Access
Building services ::::::::::::::.·:::::.·::::.·::::::.·:::.·:::::::::·:. should have a coefficient of reflection of 20-50%.
values in brackets are target values
Lighting intensity should be 300-500 lx, and lamps have limited glare,
Construction

BS EN ISO 9241
e Legroom e.g. through recessed ceiling grid luminaires or 2-K lighting ---7 p. 501-
51 0. Light bands should be arranged parallel to the window. Matt
DIN EN ISO 9241 Job type 1
ZH 1/618, 1/535 table adjustable in height surfaces in the room with recommended coefficients of reflection
chair adjustable in height
see also: Daylight
(approx: ceiling 70%, walls 50%, partitions 20-50%).
pp. 488 ff. Women
The view to the screen should be parallel to the window fagade and to
Women and Men light bands, with the screen if possible in-between. Install computer
T (Table height)* (630-t)- (730-t)(630-t)- (780-t) workstations in windowless zones.
T S (Chair height) 420-460 420-500
Recommendations for climatic conditions and sound reduction
should be complied with. The increased use of equipment in offices
Job type 2
will more probably result in a cooling load rather than a heating load
not height-adjustable table (---7 p. 466).
not height-adjustable chair
not height-adjustable footrest Psychology of the computer workstation
Negative effects can arise for the management that determines
Women
Women and Men
computer work if a strategy of rationalisation is pursued which excludes
T (Table height)* (700-t)- (730-1)(750-t)- (780-t) the employees from the working process as much as possible and
S (Chair height) 420-460 500-550 attempts to restrict them to residual activities. Prof. Walter Volpert (---7
s P (Height 0-100 0-150 refs) formulated nine criteria for the design of workstations, which define
footrests)
contrasting (machine-person) work tasks with the foHowing features:
Job type 2 - wide scope for action and decision
not height-adjustable table - reasonable amount of time allowed
not height-adjustable chair
- possibility of personal structuring of demands
Women
- performing tasks free of hindrance
Women and Men -sufficient physical activity
T (Table height)* (630-t)- (730-t) (630-t)- (780-t) - stimulation of varied senses
s (Chair height) 420-460 420-500
T - concrete handling with real objects (or direct social relations)
- possibility of variations
- encouragement and enabling of social cooperation and immediate
* t means keyboard height above the table top contact between people
Dimensions for workstation furniture (---7 Changes at the workplace, p. 232)

236
 OFFICE BUILDINGS
Archives
Filing
Despite the application of new office technologies, the use of paper as
the main information storage medium has increased. Until1980, paper
consumption doubled every four years. Computer-aided storage is
increasingly used as information depository in office communication
systems. Letters, texts and newspapers, which are described as
uncoded information, will continue to be part of the paper volume.
Purpose: Clearly arranged ordering and storage of files within short
walking distance and efficient exploitation of the space. Space
requirements for filing systems (according to Ladner -t 0). Increasing
f) Series B -> 0 - 4D) depth of shelves also increases the distance to walk between them.
L x W (filing furniture) = space for furniture
+ Y, L x W + 0.5 m = passage space
total space required - space for furniture+ passage space
Deep filing cabinets are more economical. The relationship between
furniture floor space and passage space for a vertical filing system using
large archive shelves (Velox system) and for a horizontal filing system is
8 Shelves, usable depth 42 em; G Slide-out shelf with telescopic made clear in -t $. Furniture floor space needed with vertical storage is
1.37mwide runners 5.2 rn 2 , passage space 4.6 m 2 (100:90}. With horizontal storage, furniture
floor space 3.2 m2, passage space 3.6 m2 (90:100, ratio inverted}. A
horizontal filing system offers less storage space and the high shelves are
hard to organise. Vertical storage offers a personnel saving of over 40%.
Suspended files make about 87% better use of wall area than files on
shelves -t0. Files can be transported with a paternoster lift. Workstations
should include sorting shelves, small desk, chairs on castors.
Hanging rail for magnetic tapes,
49 single positions
e Slide-out shelf for microfilm
cassettes, holds up to 164
The filing system should be centrally located. A favourable window centre-
line is 2.25-2.50 m, ceiling clearance height 2.10 rn (2 storeys of normal OFFICE
office space = 3 storeys of filing). The rooms must be dry, so attic and BUILDINGS
cellar are inadvisable. Continuous table -1 0 + CD with suspended files Structures
Tendencies
and writing surfaces combines workstations effectively. Trolleys can be Typology
used as writing surfaces, or for card index boxes. Mobile filing systems Until1980
(Soenneken Compaktus system) enable a space saving of 100-120%} by Since 1980
Space
eliminating intermediate passages -1 0 B Systems are not standardised requirement

f) Slide-out unit for suspended files e Rails with suspended files

parallel to the front
and are adapted to the relevant requirements of filing systems, archives,
libraries, stores. Take note of the higher loading per m2 of floor area (-t
Computer
workstations
Archives
Libraries, pp. 247 ff.). Movement of the filing system is manual or by a drive. Additional areas
Room typology
The entire filing system or just parts of it can be closed with one hand. Grid
combined vertical
Access
horizontal storage library storage in
in loose-leaf letter organisers in and suspended filing
Building services
binders on open cabinet in folders on
Construction
roll-front cabinet
shelves 35 x 200 40x125x220 shelves 65 x 78 x 200
10 000 files 1) continuous cabinet or 7,25m 11.00m 2.4m
see also:
approx. 2 mm wall length
Libraries/Archives
pp. 247 ff.
Q Pull-out shelf for 0 Rail for centre-mounted
thick (without
folders) approx.
2) basic space requirement
including operational but 5.92 m2 B.25m2 3.6m2
diskettes, holding up to 190 suspended files 25 sheets not side passages
o~~~~.------------, ~o·
~ furniture space H;<-------------1 G Space comparison for various filing systems
~ aisle space ~ furniture space
r--0.81------1
~~--~u~rn~Jt=u~re~s~pa=c~e~ : aisle space

82 1-- ~ furniture space

B

c
aisle space
A

Relationship of passage/aisle to furniture floor space for various

filing systems

6} Wall space comparison between 0 Narrow shelf with trolley 4i) Section-> 0
suspended filing and box files
forthe same file content
A vertical files

8 horizontal files
Handling times:
Comparison of flat and vertical files
flat vertical
remove file 29% 14%
sort files 41% 66%
replace files 30% 20%
100% 100% Gi) A~ mobile filing system B ~ space comparison with normal filing cabinet
Large Velox archive shelf, @) Filing systems
section and plan

237
 Security ], tothe
~-~i~e~~i
J we
OFFICE BUILDINGS

Cafeteria
Canteen
equipment

Porter
t Access
control
-- __ }
1
Waiting
zone
Conference
Training
Subsidiary and additional areas
Additional Areas

The total space requirement per workstation varies between 23

Restaurant Exhibition
JJ ..... l' and 45 m2 , depending on organisational and status requirements.
Entrance zone This includes 2.6 m2 car parking area in the basement, which is
not included in the floor to space ratio. The tendency has been
increasing since the 1970s.

[ Wind lobby
j Entrance area
Connection between public and working areas. The important
..... functions are lobby, access control, information, visitor registration
0 Relationships of publicly accessible rooms to the entrance area and and waiting zone. Important area for the company's corporate
access control identity- the first impression is decisive!
Conferences, training
Conference areas should be directly accessible from the entrance
area. Provide sliding partitions (which can divide large rooms),
tables, seating, presentation media, and also store rooms and a
pantry for catering (these subsidiary rooms require about Vs of the
conference area). Good noise reduction is important. A conference
75 75 75 60 60 60 area requires about 2.5 m2 per seat (without subsidiary areas).
lt-::-::-!1
I 60 I
I I Space requirement- 0.3-1.0 m2 per workstation.

~]:
Post room
Undertakes the distribution of all incoming and outgoing post
and goods. Work positions (packing and sorting tables) should be

~
sufficiently large so that distribution can be rapid at peak times.
Space requirement - 0.3-0.5 m2 per work position.
OFFICE Archive rooms

JOOOODJ~
BUILDINGS Files and written documents, which are seldom needed but have
Structures to be kept (statutory storage requirements), are stored here to take
Tendencies
Typology
Until1980
Since 1980
J[J[J[][J JOOOOO ~ up as little space as possible (purely paper archives rapidly take
up 10-20 m per workstation). For this reason, microfilming and
some electronic archiving are worth looking into at an early stage.
Space
requirement
f) Space requirement for seating in conference and training rooms Archive rooms should be designed for an increased floor loading
Computer of 7.5-12.5 kN/m 2 (for mobile units)~ Archives, p. 252.
workstations
Archives IT technology
Additional areas
Room typology
Early planning of network technology is important. This will
Grid determine whether data centres or server rooms with or without
Access constantly manned workstations are necessary and whether these
Building services
Construction should be placed centrally or decentralised in the building. These
rooms should have a 70 em raised floor on account of the large
see also: Daylight Area(m 2 ) Range Average Total amount of installation, and should be air-conditioned. Access
pp. 485 ff.

Immediate workstation
control is particularly important. Back-up systems should if
11-15 13
Workstation 15.5 possible be separated from the data centre in fire-protected areas.
Additional area (consulting, storage) 1.5-4.2 2.5 Social areas
Sanitary facilities 0.6-0.8
Canteens or cafeterias (~ Catering, p. 174 fl.) are mostly operated
0.7
as units by outside companies. Location near the reception and
Conference/training 0.3-1.0 0.6 outside the access control allows outside visitors in.
Tea kitchens should be as near to the workstations as possible
Archive 0.4-1.0 0.6
and connected with communication zones. For every approx.
Stores 0.4-1.5 0.6
50-1 00 workplaces, one -10 m2 kitchen.
Toilets
Canteen, cafeteria, tea kitchen 0.6-1.6 1.1
Subsidiary Sanitary facilities are to be provided in accordance with the
areas 9.0
Entrance area 0.2-0.7 0.4 Workplace Regulations (~ p. 270) and separation between the
anteroom with washbasins and the actual toilets is important.
Supply and disposal 0.5-1.5 1.0 A good ratio is one toilet unit per 50-80 workstations. Space
requirement -0.6-0.8 m2 per workstation.
Post room 0.3-0.5 0.4
Cleaning services
Server room 0.5-1.5 1.0 A cleaner's room should be provided on every floor, as a store for
Garage parking
cleaning equipment and ideally with water supply and bucket sink.
0-13 2.6
A central waste room, possibly enclosed waste collection rooms
Construction area 1.9-3.8 3.0 with separate collection containers and shredders. The caretaker
should have a rest room, store and workshop in a central location.
Building Building services 2.4-4.6 3.0 10.5
Further special areas
Traffic area 2.2-6.0 4.5 Garage areas with maintenance and parking facilities for company
vehicles; company sports facilities, swimming pool, sauna and
8 Average gross space requirement for a workstation kindergarten should be considered as required.

238
 OFFICE BUILDINGS
Room Typology

Types of offices
Offices can be categorised according to size and occupation into
two types: single rooms and open-plan offices. All further types
are variations and different arrangements of these basic types.

Single-room office f) Group office Room types

Single-room offices: Single and double rooms are arranged in

~~~~~~~
rows along a mostly artificially lit corridor. Jointly used infrastructure
occupies expensive window space in occupied rooms, because
no furniture is allowed in escape routes. The most economical
occupation, by two or three people, disturbs concentrated work.
~~m~~ §o[] § Single rooms hinder internal communication. This is still the most
common form of office layout ---> 0.

~~d)~~i Open-plan office: A form of office developed in the 1960s and

1970s of the last century. Large-scale office landscapes with 100
e Open-plan office G Combi-office
or more workstations are made possible by artificial lighting and
ventilation; they stand for free communication and openness.
Economical cubic structures, however, have the disadvantage
28.9 m2
of high maintenance costs. This form is not very popular among
26.4m2
22.4m2
25.6m2
23.1 m' users---> 0.
Standard Comfortable Open*plan Group Combi-office
partitioned partitioned room
office office
Group office: The experience with the open-plan layout led to the
0 development of group offices with approx. 4-16 workstations; each
office is used by a single team or department. This arrangement OFFICE
In an investigation on cost-saving (by Prof. H. Sommer), five alternative room BUILDINGS
arrangements were set up, in order to obtain quantitative data about space is preferred above all for creative, design or coordination and
Structures
requirements. development activities with high internal communication needs. Tendencies
-;f) Typology
Until1980
Since 1980
Space
Room systems
~n··.·.·.·.·.·.·.·.·.·.·.·.·.·.·.·.·l
~:::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::: Combi-office: Very small single offices are separated by glass
requirement
Computer

:~: ~: ~: ~: ~: ~: ~: ~: ~: ~: ~: ~: ~: ~: ~: ~: ~: ~ walls from the deep connection zone, in which communally used
infrastructure is located. The combi-office was developed in
workstations
Archives
Additional areas

e Single-row layout, economical as very deep offices

the 1980s as an attempt to combine the advantages of single-
room and open-plan offices. Each employee is provided with an
Room typology
Grid
Access
individual workstation for concentrated work and a jointly used Building services
Construction
room in the central zone, with its glass partitions, encourage
communication ---> Cli).

'Hot desk' office, 'business club': Certain functions are assigned

to workstations. The users choose the suitable working location
f) Two-row layout for the current activity (non-territorial offices). The personal area
of the employee is limited to a mobile desk/cupboard unit. This
type of office is only made possible by new forms of business
organisation and technical equipment like mobile phones and
laptops. Combined with teleworking or with a high proportion
of travelling representatives, savings of 20-50% are possible
compared with personalised offices---> p. 234---> 0.

e Three-row layout
Satellite office: Office space is located in decentralised locations, for
example in residential areas near the employee. In the form of rented
office space, satellite offices provide 'service stations', not only as
branch offices of large companies but also varied sizes of office and
infrastructure for small firms or self-employed people. The intention
is to relieve rush-hour traffic and offer seldom-used office space like
meeting, conference or training rooms when required.
Cl) Layout without corridor First design for a combi-office:
ESAB Head Office., Stockholm,
Reversible office (Revibllro): This is actually not a type of office
1976. Layout variants: open-plan,
group room, single rooms, combi- but rather a form of building which hosts functions of different
offlce Tenbom Architektur AB office companies at more or less expense. The cost of equipment
rises with increasing adaptability and compromises have to be
Legend:
accepted concerning office sizes and organisation. This type of
building is rnainly suitable for offices for renting to tenants who are
QMain Q Side aJcore IZ]Group EJsmall
stairs stairs area room room not yet known ---> pp. 234, 235.

239
 o 0
OFFICE BUILDINGS
Grid

Grid module spacings define possible

room sizes through the resulting spacing
of columns and fagades. The fitting out
and fagade grids must be the same in
order to enable the partitions to connect
to the windows. The structural grid can
be offset against the fitting out grid. This
reduces the problem of connecting the
partitions to columns, but loses space
in the rooms, which contain columns.
Because of the different lifecycles of the
building elements, an adaptable module
dimension should be chosen. The
modular dimensions, which have proved
successful in recent years, are 1.50 m for
single-room offices and 1.35 m for office
types based on the combi principle.
3.75 5.00
12.50
3.75 I 4.30 5.00
13.40
4.30
Modular dimension 1.50 m
This is the economical module dimension
0 Grid module 1.50 m, building depth 12.50 m, an
economical form of building for single offices or for
Grid module 1.35 m, building depth 13.40 m, an
economical form of building for combi-offices, but
for single-room offices consisting mainly
combi-offices; this provides a narrow communal for single offices this produces deep and badly of double workstations. Workstation
zone and 10% fewer workstations at the window proportioned rooms. depth 2.20 m (80 em desk, 1 m
than with f). movement area, 40 em shelf behind).
With 10 em wall thickness, this gives
4.40 m clear room space.
OFFICE The usual depth of buildings with central
BUILDING corridors is 12-13 m. This dimension is
Structures
Tendencies
only of limited practicality for combi-
Typology offices.
Until1980
Since 1980 Modular dimension 1.35 m
Space
requirement
Room widths of 3.80 m (-18 m2 usable
Computer area) enable:
workstations -additional filing storage; two computer
Archives
Additional areas workstations with a depth of 0.90 m, as
Room typology recommended by accident insurance
Grid
Access companies; one drawing board or
Building services drawing machine and one desk;
Construction
5.15 4.75 4.40 one desk and meeting table for four
grid module 1.20m grid module 1.30m grid module 1.40 m people. All usual office workstations
C) Possible uses for various window axis dimensions
are possible, offering high flexibility of
use without moving the partitions.
Partitions
The junctions of light partitions demand
particular attention to noise reduction.
When glass partitions are specified,
the required degree of sound proofing
should be discussed with the user!
Fac;:ade
A Column in front of fagade B Column in fagade C Column behind fagade D Column offset behind Vertical profiles in the fagade, which lie
fagade on the modular grid, should be wide
8 Various possibilities of placing the columns in relation to the grid module. With A and D, the partition-fa9ade enough to connect a partition. A better
junctions are always the same. With B and C, there are different partition junctions with columns and fa9ade. solution is with sound-insulated profiles
running along the fagade. Take care
// '/////// / / / / / / / with the opening lights of the windows.
Ceiling and floor
Screed bonded to the slab is good for
sound insulation --78, D with integrated
cable ducts, because airborne sound is
transmitted only to a slight degree.
With raised access floors and suspended
B c D ceilings, either vertical continuation of
any possible partitions is to be provided
or these elements are to be sound-
9 Avoidance of sound transfer through junction elements above and below light partitions (Schulz --> refs) insulating in themselves --7 8 B + C

240
 OFFICE BUILDINGS

I~ Iiiii • Access

0 Single-row layout with

very deep office zone
Single-row layout is normally uneconomical 8 Three-row layout with supply
Building concepts
core in the dark zone
Single-row layouts are uneco-
nomical, and only acceptable
with deep office rooms (daylight?)
---70-f).

Two-row layouts have mostly

been used for administration buil-
0 Two-row layout, standard 0 Offset two-row layout, overlapping zone with supply 0 Three-row layout; lightwells
dings until now; single rooms and
solution for single-room core forms three-row layout in the core can light these small offices are possible with day-
office blocks naturally light ---7 0. The supply cores are
situated in well-lit zones. The
transitional form, three-row, is
t ~ __.-ll-L

' i produced by offsetting the two-

-"~¥--
/
I I I I I -++•t- row layout in the supply area ---7 0.
T /I" --t++t-
+ \__ ~ l _J_ __J_ I "
/
--r--fr-r Three-row layouts (typical of
office high-rise) ---7 8 + 0
0 Building forms and arrangements of supply cores (Hascher--> refs) A large supply zone at the
centre of the building is normally
practical only for high-rise buil-
dings (greater proportion of
T
0 vertical transport). Daylight can
"',-.: mostly be exploited into a room
..!..
1-30.00---+-30.00----l 1--30.00-ll---60.00---11-30.00--1 f----30.00------; depth of about 7.00 m. New OFFICE
daylight systems for the deflec- BUILDINGS
tion and transport of light (prisms, Structures
Tendencies
reflectors ---7 p. 499), exploit the Typology
available daylight still better. Until1980
Lightwells can illuminate the Since 1980
Space
centre of three-row buildings requirement
e.
naturally ---7 Computer
workstations
Archives
Building alignment Additional areas
Room typology
Coinpass orientation is variously Grid
f----30.00-----1 1--30.00-+---60.00---11--30.00--1
estimated. According to Rosenauer, Access
90% of all office buildings in the Building seJVices
Construction
USA have a main axis ENV, because
the deeply penetrating morning and
evening sun is a disturbance. Sun
T
0
from the south can be shaded more
0 easily with sun blinds. According
d
"' to Joedicke (---7 refs), the main axis
f----60.00---1 l--35.00-----t---60.00---1-35.00--l 1 in the N/S alignment is to ensure
sunlight through all rooms. North-

T- - facing rooms are acceptable only

0 for layouts without a corridor.
0
d

I Access systems
w. ~ Fixed points are sanitary facilities,
stairwells, lift shafts etc., situated
f----60.00---1 1--------100.00-------1 I
at maximum spacings defined
0 in the building regulations ---7 e
- Cl}. The arrangement of these
determines urban development's
building structure ---7 0 - 0. For
f--about 30.00 about 60.0----!
combined use units of less than
400 m2 , the corridors are not
subject to the requirements for
escape routes.

'i) Building with lightwell According to MBO 2002, every point in an occupied room must be
~35 m from a staircase. This in practice leads to a spacing of the
staircases from the end of the building of 30 m and from each other of
60 m--> 0-0. Take note of deviating stipulations in the current LBO!

241
 OFFICE BUILDINGS
Building Services
3.00

Air conditioning
Two fifths of the operating costs of an
administrative building are energy costs.
The energy required for cooling in the
summer is considerably higher than for
heating in the winter.
The room temperature should be min. 19°C
and max. 26°C (legal interpretation of the
Workplace Regulations). The construction and
Storey height 3.00/3.10 m Storey height 3.40 m Storey height 3. 70 m Storey height 4.20 m alignment of the building are decisive for the
Building with a low degree Building with installation Building with Office with 3.00 m ceiling
of installation. No requirements, without air-conditioning system. height. Crossing energy consumption to provide air conditioning
suspended ceilings. Heating ventilation system. In the A ceiling void of min. 50 ventilation ducts require and light. Building elements which store heat,
pipes in external wall. ceiling void (h =32 em): em is recommended for a storey height of
Electrical supply through electric cables and air-conditioned offices. approx. 4.20 m. All double fagades and light deflection systems
windowsill or floor duct. heating and water Ducts along the corridor. heightwdependent
building elements
reduce energy consumption.
Ceiling lighting supplied pipework. Installation
through ducts or standing ducts in the corridor. influence the ratio of
partitions. Corridor areas for building costs to usable Fully air-conditioned rooms
installation. office space. The gross built volume and the total con-
0 Storey heights according to the degree of installation (installed zone can either be in the ceiling void or above struction costs for air-conditioned build-
ings are 1 .3-1 .5 times higher than for build-
the bare floor slab)
ings without air conditioning ~ 0.
Gentle cooling ~ f) - 0
Il I II Bare ceiling slab serves as heat buffer.
In order to reduce peaks of energy

~
~ Transverse ventilation through tilted
windows and ventilation ducts over the
consumption, large areas of solid building
i elements should be in direct contact
corridor zone enable night-time cooling
1-- of the storage mass. If building with rooms as heat buffers. Ceilings are
i r-
OFFICE
BUILDINGS ""' I
I
I
~'ilm 1--
elements are additionally
temperature-regulated through heating
or cooling pipework, then it is called
particularly suitable for this purpose
because the partitions should normally be
Structures 1-- building element activation. The
Tendencies
1-- easy to relocate. A further development
Typology II QD II system saves energy but reacts
sluggishly and is not individually is building element cooling, e.g. capillary
Unti11980 -......._ controllable.
Since 1980 tube mats with refrigerant flowing through.
Space 1-- Bare ceiling slab serves as heat buffer.
Radiant ceilings work without the buffer
requirement
Computer i
r- Underfloor convector with air supply
from outside serves to heat or cool (for effect of heavy building elements. Further
- which a fan Is required). The system is
workstations I
savings of energy can be achieved with
Archives
Additional areas
I
I
~'ilm -
-
Individually controllable only to a
limited degree because the heating geothermal heat exchangers, which
and cooling medium flows in the same
Room typology - can pre-warm or cool the air supply to
Grid I I QD II circuit.
ventilation plant or passively heated halls
Access ---....._J;··
Building by making use of the constant temperature
~I
--' Bare ceiling slab serves as heat buffer.
services
Construction Underfloor convector serves for underground. In order to achieve better
heating. Cooling convectors in the
i ~
cupboards cool warm air under the
regulation capability, there are suitable
I
see also: Daylight
pp. 485 ff. I
I
-11
-1
ceiling and lead it back to the floor area
of the room (without fans). The system
systems which regulate the temperature of
the air supply with convectors. The radiant
can be well controlled individually but
~~
-
;:::'._ heating capacity of a building element in
.. requires a double system of plpework.
connection with temperature-regulated
T air supply can provide sufficient heating
(usable area can be gained through less
f) Alternatives to air conditioning of offices: saving of storey height through reduction of the supply cross-
floor or ceiling construction). The cost of air-
sections (water instead of air)
conditioning systems with building element
cooling are not more than conventional
air-conditioning systems. Advantages:
Floor Floor construction Duct type no draughts, no noise, reduction of the
construction thickness above Fresh air According to VOl According investment and operating costs (water has
slab (mm) m3/h per ventilation rule to USASRE 1000 x less pumped volume than air for
30 open duct with distribution person guideline
the same performance, closed circuit, heat
above floor 10 non-smoker with
reclamation), reduction of the supply cross-
air heating, under
55 duct under the screed with
ooc outside sections (water instead of air) and size of
distribution above floor
bonded temperature the building's energy control room.
screed 70 open duct with underfloor 10-27
distribution office
20-30 non-smoker element lifetime
duct under screed with underfloor 26-34 structure 50 years
distribution
30-40 smoker building envelope 20 years
70 raised floor with underfloor building services 7-15 years
34-51
distribution
51-68 directors' finishings 5-7 years
70-1000 cavity floor with underfloor room technical devices, furniture and Constant
distribution (smokers) communications technology

8 Floor installation dependent on floor construction 8 Ventilation requirement for office rooms e Lifetime of building elements

242
 ~~-
_5.5~ ~~~~~,5.Q~---~+~
5 50 6 50
OFFICE BUILDINGS
Floor slab rn C 20/25
~W~in=do=w=li=nle=l=i==~~c= ~=== Construction
d=20,betterd=25 g has little load
{slabs also )_!3
Structure - influence of construction on the layout of offices ---7
- ~---- -1-1- - ~- "g
1
possible) 1 ro
=---~~=~= 0 - 0. Construction proposals for the cross-sections of two-
~ijf. Slab cross-sectiOn c
0
row office buildings with the following loading assumptions:
';'
~ l
0

normal 5 KN/m 2 , additional 2 KN/m 2 for screed (8 em for floor

~
B<i;n~l;;~l;;-~~~o-;;nd
I -;;;1;,~-!-i
J

H=====i==:~~ = lo = duct and supply connections).

e.g. for 3 store;i• 0 30 ;:g Ceiling height 2.75 m according to Vst regulation (enables the
min. 24/24 em 6l later installation of raised floor and deeper suspended ceilings).
Slab seen from above ~~
_ · - · - · - · §!_a_b....§.~~fr.2.._m.~q~Le For predominantly sedentary activities, the reduction of the ceiling
height by 25 em is possible, but min. 2.50 m clear. Corridors and
~~I sanitary facilities are permitted to be 2.30 m high (this can be
Ill
exploited for installation runs). According to Kahl (---7 refs), the cost-

f
Partition
wall as effectiveness of a structure is less dependent on the optimisation
1~1 required of the individual components (e.g. pre-cast elements), and much
Finishings
111
more on their integration into a functional building. Differentiation
-5.00 10 '" 10 5,00 • - 4.8o r~ w5.00 between longitudinal and transverse spanning systems ---7 0- 0.
..!11.80 11 1
1.50 Constructive scope for decision-making via the example of a
Floor spanning across building. Floor spanning along the building.
Supporting beams running along the
reinforced concrete slab with 6.50 m span. Criteria: almost identical
Supporting beams running across
building. Central support beam and the building from external column to
costs; higher weight has influence on costs for load transfer and
columns at the side of the corridor centre column to external column. foundations; thicker slab has advantages through greater stiffness
separate from corridor wall. -flexibility and reversibility unlimited under differing loading (box-outs, spreader beams, point loads,
-flexibility and reversibility unlimited -additional sound insulation
-sufficient corridor width for clear
various spans, various floor constructions).
measures required on account
passage between column and wall of insufficient density of floor Ribbed slabs: Only economical over longer spans (less self-
-highly suitable if no suspended ceiling (suspended ceiling, floating screed weight, higher labour costs for formwork). Cutting through the ribs
or for enclosed car parking with access - highly suitable for enclosed car is not possible, due to lack of space. Supporting beams have the
route along the building parking with access route along the
same soffit level.
building.
Slab beams (double T or Pi-slabs): These are structurally advan-
0 Structural system, asymmetrical f) Structural system, multi-span tageous for long spans. Installation should run parallel to the web;
OFFICE
BUILDINGS
two-span beam beam crossing runs should be carried out in the corridor ---7 0 - 0. The Structures
far;:ade plane can lie behind, between or in front of the structural Tendencies
Typology

I
plane. Greatest variability with separation of construction and external Until1980
envelope. Layout of columns, frontface offar;:ade, back face of far;:ade, Since 1980
Space
in front or behind, have no influence on the compartmentalisation of requirement
-12m

- +- - ~ ~0 2~0 Rei:~:~~
1 the far;:ade or the division arrangement (grid, corner detail). Computer
Slab seen from above Internal columns ---7 p. 240 0 A-D: If the slab cantilevers with workstations
-5 - 1 Archives
concrete o a cantilever of c = 1/5 L-1/3 L, the span is economical. Bracing Additional areas
solrd slab ~ through walls acting as deep beams, storey frames and the Room typology
rn B25mrn. Grid
- d= 16 provision of solid access cores and end-fixed side zones. Access
20±
betterd = 20
0 ~ Building the walls: Solid partition walls can replace columns Building services
c
20f 24 0 Construction
and supporting beams, or can be considered as deep beams to

~"'
0~
m.~~:~~~J~-~~ ____II"
§

nt4/24 em Built-in ~
0

II

"{l __
"'
"'0
..8 provide rigidity ---7 0 - f). Not reversible, openings should be
specified in advance. The use of lightweight (non-load-bearing)
(min. dimensions cupboard
partitions has the advantage of potential relocation, but also
for in-situ concrete)
Slab section ai
"~~ delays decisions about room layout, even during construction
down stand UJ §
beam section ~ (construction, studding - both sides 2 x 12.5 mm plasterboards
-·-·-·- -- _rn -·
Non-load- approximately correspond to the sound reduction value of a 24 em
bearing Reinforced concrete
external waU columns, e.g.
block wall of density 1.2 kg/dm 3 , plastered both sides).
for 3 storeys 30/35 em
~- - - -

~ --l~~---.J~;-·
~~·-~
Finishings Free arrangement
. of finishing elements. - . . - - . -
- 4.80 24 60 -4 80 ·~· . . . ·-· ·-- -· ·-·-
4-~~~~~G-~~ Supporting beams spanning across

Floor spanning across the building.

building freely from external column
to external column.
:=-. w-w·a·b .--.=·
-·
~ ·=·· .. - -~~
-~·
-=·
·-· ·-· ·-·
Supporting beams running along the
-flexibility and reversibility unlimited
building on both sides of the corridor in - ·~'§!§~· - - ~- -

Ail• ~:.~-.-.~·
-suspended ceiling is required -
the middle span. The corridor wall can
services run across the building
also be constructed as a load-bearing/ between webs, longitudinal
bracing wall to increase longitudinal
arrangement in holes in beams (cut-
rigidity.
- masonry corridor wall cannot be altered,
outs) is not practical Br···
t-t -
- construction uneconomical overall,
so limited flexibility in room depth high supporting beams (also in
-floor thickness min. 20 em (impact steel), large building volume, only
-· -~--
sound insulation) if no suspended C D
for column-free superstructures.
ceiling or floating screed Reduced supporting beam height
-not suitable above enclosed car parking
of 60 em, structure susceptible
-construction of corridor wall as load-
to vibration and high degree of
bearing is cost-effective
deflection.
-construction increasingly cost-effective
with greater building depth and longer
0 Frame
bracing, which
0 Bracing using
wall panels
f) Four ways of distributing the floor
loading onto columns and core
spacing of columns along building zone in three-row layouts
transfers wind
t) Structural system, three-span Q Structural system, slab acting load into the
beam as beam foundations

243
 HIGH-RISE BUILDINGS
Basics

Definition of high-rise buildings

High-rise buildings are those intended for
long-term human occupation whose upper-
most floor on one side of the building is
more than 22 m above ground level.

Typology
There are two basic types of high-rise
building:
1. The block, which has been designed as
0 Internal traffic areas and f) Two-row floor plan with C) Cruciform floor plan with
a high-rise building for economic reasons,
subsidiary rooms are purely access at the external bracing core and external
artificially lit and ventilated faqade emergency stairs and whose form has been developed from
Arch.: Rosskotten urban structure and planning, and from
building regulations. Predominantly found
in densely built cities, e.g. New York-> G.
Foyer with 2. The tower, erected as a solitary building
enclosed stairs
and access core
and mainly intended to provide a symbolic
and prestige effect to keep the client and
the city at the forefront of attention -> e.

Use
High-rise buildings are a sign of extreme
urban density and can also be seen as
a town within the town. Use is therefore
correspondingly varied: on the lower floors,
HIGH-RISE
BUILDINGS public establishments (plaza, hall); and,
Basics above, offices, hotels and apartments.
Construction
Requirements
Because high-rise buildings in Europe are
Layout plan Entrance level
Legends
mainly built as prestige projects, these
IE Core areas - - Elevator
are often company headquarters I office
0 Main staircase
buildings with additional uses like hotels or
IT] Traffic areas, apartments. In Germany, use as schools,
foyer 0 Side stairs hospitals or homes for elderly people is
High-rise building developed from the ground plan of the block, Daimler Chrysler Building, Berlin ruled out by the applicable regulations.
Arch.: Kallhoff
Location
In Europe, the construction of high-rise
buildings is mainly determined by political
decisions. Because their effect is decisive
for a city's character, the city normally
decides where and what type of high-rises.
The integration of a high-rise building into
+ 124.40 the urban landscape poses many questions
for urban development planning. The preser-
vation of street spaces, extension of public
access areas, connection to public trans-
port, pedestrian circulation, the needs of
neighbouring buildings to receive natural
light and alteration of the urban micro-
climate all have to be considered.

Approval
In addition to the normal authorities,
further specialised bodies are also involved
in the approval of high-rise buildings
according to location and federal state,
e.g. the requirements of air-traffic control
(Radar damping -> p. 112), broadcasting
authorities, state criminal offices and water
protection boards have to be considered
and their approval gained.

Standard floors Entrance level Section

0 The load-bearing construction forms the towers, between which pre-stressed floors are ~24 m wide, but only
0. 75 m deep Arch.: Ponti-Nervi

244
 ~
~
g; HIGH-RISE BUILDINGS
~
g; 0 "' :g ,; E g; Construction
32 :2
"'
~
·s ""8@ g> 0::~ 1ij ·s :;;
)~ t5 0>
c iii-c ~:g ~

"'~~
""' I
0
0> 0~
~~
0
~~
"'c.c0>
2 g,
1'1 ·m ·m
~~ m:2"'
:> @
~-~ ~~
-"' 0> ·a.!!
cc 0- 0-
E<~>
wa. oz"' ,o
~ "'0
tD:C
"'0
OI wz '-=j(l) (1)0 ~i§ Frame construction in steel or reinforced concrete is the standard
solution. Spans vary according to material and type of constru-
ction. Solid reinforced concrete slabs span 2.5-5.5 m, ribbed
slabs 5.0-7.5 m, both with a maximum 12.5 m between main
beams. Pre-stressed concrete can span up to 25m with only 0.75
m structural depth -> p. 244 8. The exterior wall should be a
curtain wall in front of set-back external columns (take note of fire
protection -> p. 246 0). There are a multitude of mixed forms of
construction such as steel frame with concrete floors. In areas at
risk of earthquakes, special construction is necessary to prevent
oscillation of the building.
The design of high-rise buildings is determined by the construction
0 Some of the world's highest buildings
system and the vertical access elements. The ratio of usable
floor area to building cost becomes ever less favourable with the
increasing height of the building. Construction and access areas
take up a large part of the plan area. The division of high-rise
buildings into sections with transport to 'sky lobbies' by express
lift, where the passengers can transfer to normal lifts, reduces the
space required for lifts and the travel time-> p. 246 e.
Cost-effectiveness depends on the 'sway factor', the ratio of
maximum permissible horizontal deformation at the top to the
total height of a building (max. 1:600).
The decisive factor for the design of very high buildings is the
horizontal forces (wind) and not the vertical loads. 90% of horizontal
deformation comes from the shifting of the frame, or 'shear sway', HIGH-RISE
and 10% comes from the slant of the entire building. Frame BUILDINGS
structures without special wind bracing are economic only up to Basics
Construction
about 10 storeys. Conventional frame systems lead to uneconomic Requirements
dimensions for more than 20 floors. Reinforced concrete frames
are practical up to 10 storeys without, and for 20-30 storeys with,
bracing walls, and higher than that for concrete tube and double
tube structures. The cost-effectiveness of a building is determined
by material used, suitable type of construction and application of
rational construction technology -> f).
An example of a structurally economical solution is the John
f) Range of cost-effectiveness for structural systems Hancock Center, Chicago, 1965, by Skidmore, Owings & Merrill.
The visible structural elements form the design concept. The tube
principle considerably reduced the amount of steel required and
the operational economics are improved by layered usage:
Floors 1-5 shops, 6-12 parking, 13-41 offices with flexible use,
42-45 services and 'sky lobby', 46-93 apartments, 94-96 visitors
and restaurants, 97-98 TV transmitter-> 0-0.

House of Representatives,
Bonn, 1969
Arch.: E. Eiermann with BBD
0 Eccentric placement of the core
zone enables different room
configurations
0
·~ ~ ~"
..
[(~j~~:
...

John Hancock Center~ Chicago~

floors 13-14, offices with flexible
use
HI
e John Hancock Center, Chicago,
floors 46-93, apartments
Arch. Skidmore, Owings & Merrill

BMW headquarters, Munich, 1972, 0 Different fitting out with single

standard open-plan floor offices
Arch. Karl Schwanzer f) Additive basic form Compact basic form

245
 High-rise group Height above fire Special requirements HIGH-RISE BUILDINGS
service parking area
Requirements
I 22-30 m high-rise regulations apply
II 30--60 m at least 1 fire service lift
Ill 60--200 m elements of structural significance must
be F 120 and many fire service lifts can be The requirements of the high-rise building guideline are mostly
required derived from the need for fire protection. Described here are
IV over200 m the approval authority can place further mostly those relevant to the structural layout of a design. The
requirements exact requirements for particular building elements should be
0 Approval requirements for high-rise building groups taken from the relevant state building regulations and the high-rise

r
building guideline. Specific local regulations should be clarified at
·--·min. sealing
and full-walled

,J r
c=
\
an early stage.

Escape routes
Escape routes are min. 1.25 m wide and should if possible lead in
two directions, to each staircase. The maximum walking distance

~:r
~~~r-~~r--i 7
~ from each point of an occupied room may not exceed 25 m.
§I~~ Corridors with two escape directions may be max. 40 m long.
After 20 m, a smoke-proof self-closing door must be installed.
Branch corridors with only one escape direction may be max.

fj
'1
Emergency stairs on the external e Emergency stairs inside the building
10m long. If a second escape route (e.g. an escape balcony) is
available, max. 20 m.
wall with minimum distance to with ventilation system
windows Stairs
High-rise buildings up to 60 m high: at least two emergency

rc=
\
Positive pressure
from pressurised
smoke-prevention
system
J
(_
r
c=
\
stairs must be available, which must be located opposite in two
separate fire compartments. Their walking width must be at least
1.25 m. The wellhole must be min. 0.80 m wide in order to avoid
having to lay hoses on the stairs. Smoke outlets must be provided
at their highest point (5% of the floor area but min. 1 m2). The exit

~r
HIGH-RISE
BUILDINGS
7
must be directly into the open air or through a lobby without any
Basics
Construction fire load. In exceptional cases, one staircase can be approved for
Requirements high-rise buildings up to 60 m in height, if it is a safety staircase.
see also: Fire
Requirements for the location of stairs -'t 0 4:}.
protection
pp. 511 ff.
Lifts pp. 128 ff. Q External safety stairwell Q Internal safety stairwell with smoke
Lifts
Up to about 25 storeys, it is usual to provide one group of lifts with
protection pressure system
all lifts serving all floors. If more than 6 lifts are necessary, they
should be divided into two groups.
:r~~;urant - - - 1 - - - - - -
Without Upper long-
long-haul- haul group - - - In higher buildings, the lifts are split into groups. A group of lifts
group
Upper local serves a certain number of floors with priority. When there are more
group than three groups, this system becomes uneconomic because
~:~r express_ &..U..--n of the high number of lifts in the lower area. High-rise buildings
Upper
local - Middle long- above about 200 m therefore have 'sky lobbies' reached by an
group haul group
Express _ _ express group (mostly 2-3) and further distribution continues from
group
Express Middle local there. This enables a number of lifts in one shaft to provide the fine
group
Lower local
group -
distribution -'t 0.
group
Lower Middle express _ a..U..--H
long-haul group
Middle group- group
Fire service lift
Lower long- _ _
haul group
In high-rise buildings more than 30 m high, there must be at least
one fire service lift in its own shaft, from where every point of an
lower
local group -
Lower
Lower local
occupied room can be reached within a radius of 50 m. It must
local-
group group have an anteroom with a hydrant, which is large enough to enable
the transport of stretchers to the lift. Access routes must be at
0 Running a number of lift groups in the same shaft by arranging express groups
('sky lobbies')
least T 30 fire-retarding.

Fac;:ade
In order to avoid fire spreading from one storey to the one above,
there must be W 90 A fire-resistant parapets at least 1 m high
(fire spreading height). Alternatively, a W 90 A horizontal building
element projecting at least 1.5 m from the fac;:ade can be provided.
All-glass fac;:ades (also double fac;:ades) are permitted only with
special approvals if particular protection measures (area sprinklers,
mist extinguishing systems) can prevent the spread of fire to the
next storey -'t 0.

Window areas which cannot be cleaned safely from inside, must

Requirements for the parapet area in high-rise buildings to prevent fire be cleaned from the outside by trained personnel using suitable
spreading from one storey to the next apparatus -'t p. 101.

246
 ').e block of shelf units
~~,r------------~ LIBRARIES
J.,'bc.et'"" r 1 aisle between shelving .... ,.. :
~~/ I /~ Basics
,,'
--r-
_1_ ..L.<O<.l-+&4 Types of library
double- Public lending libraries ~ p. 250: offer a wide range of literature
sided shelving
(length x depth x height) and other information, preferably on open shelves. The supply of
shelf literature covers all population and age groups. In larger cities,
(length x depth x height)
~ single-sided the functions of scientific and public libraries are sometimes
shelving combined.
centre~line
distance

0 Unsealed sketch to clarify the terms used in the calculation of areas for stock Scientific libraries~ p. 251: collection, acquisition and provision
of literature on specific subjects for education and research,
mostly publicly accessible without limitation.
block of shelf units 8.70 x 12.00
t=========--12.00--========±__, State libraries: federal state and national libraries; collections,
adjacent aisle
for example, of literature produced in the state or a region (legal
deposit copies); publicly accessible.

Specialist libraries: scientific libraries for the collection of

specialist literature and media on specific subjects, often with very
limited group of users.
Components
Three areas in every library: user and reading area, store and
0 •••••••••••••••••••••••••• ........... g administration. The space requirement for these areas differs
according to the type of library.
f) Floor area for bookshelves in stacks (stores), which are closed to the public
User and reading area: With a good orientation system
(signposting of routes, functions and shelves with easily read LIBRARIES
r--- 6.00 - - - ; -
signs), the reading area with reading and working places should Basics
adjacent aisle Fittings
Area Centreline if possible be spread over as few floors as possible, also for ease Lending counter
m distance (m) of book transport; staggered floors should be avoided. Access Public libraries
~~ Scientific libraries
shelving/
<0
store 1.35 should if possible be by stairs. All areas of the user and reading Archives
(1.20)
~~
m
room should also be accessible by lift (book transport, disability-
~ 1.44
E <nO
friendly). The floor in the user and reading area should be designed
~ ~;i self-service 1.40
for a loading of 5.0 kN/m 2 •
"
~
area 1.70
aisleL ~ information 1.60
area and 2.00 Traffic routes > 1.20 m wide, clear distance between the shelves
~ reading -in public areas always fixed- up to max. 1.30-1.40 m. Entrance
room and reading room area separated by access control with book
8 Floor area for bookshelves in self-service area, standard block 8.70 x 6.00 m
security system. If possible, only one entrance and exit. The
access control should ideally be situated near the lending counter/
central information.
Library area/floor Stacks and Compact Reading room Administration
type self-service systems and self-service Outside access-controlled area: cloakrooms or lockers for
store area clothing and bags/cases, toilets, cafeteria, newspaper reading
on floors arranged 7.5 12.5 5.0 5.0 corner, exhibition room, lecture and conference room (which may
transversely be open outside library opening hours), central information point,
on floors not 8.5 15.0 5.0 5.0 possibly also card index and microfiche catalogue, online catalogue
arranged transversely terminals, book return, collection point for ordered books.
0 Load assumptions for floors (kN/m2)
Inside access-controlled area: reader information, bibliographies,
online catalogue terminals, handing out and return of books only
Structural grid
to be used in reading area, issuing of books in educational book
3.60 4.20 4.80 5.40 6.00 6.60 7.20 8.40
collection, copiers (in separate rooms), book stock on open
Stacks (St) 1.05 1.08 1.10 1.05
shelves, user workplaces, possibly access to self-service stores.
Self-service areas (S1) 1.20 1.20 1.20 1.10 1.20 1.20 1.20 1.12/1.2
1.29 The provision of user workplaces in university libraries depends
Self-service areas (S2) 1.40 1.37 1.35 1.33 1.32 1.31 1.40 on the number of students and the distribution of the individual
1.44 1.50 1.47 1.44
subject groups. Special workplaces for disabled people (wheelchair
1.60 1.54 1.60 1.53
users, visually impaired), special work tasks (microform reading
1.68 1.65 1.68
and enlargement devices, PCs, terminals, CD-ROM and similar:
1.80
observe the guidelines for computer workplaces p. 236!) and single
Reading room areas (R) 1.80 1.80 1.71
workplaces (cubicles, carrels, single work rooms). The arrange-
1.92 2.00
ment of the reading places should be in daylight. Space require-
Workplaces (2.25) (W) 2.40 2.10 2.07 2.10
ment per single reading/working place 2.5 m2 , per PC or single
2.40 2.10 2.40 2.10 2.40 2.20 2.40 2.10
working place ~4.0 m2 • Traffic routes ~1 .20m wide, clear distance
Group workplaces (G) 3.60 4.20 4.80 3.60 4.00 4.40 3.60 4.20
between the shelves, which in public areas should always be
0 Suitability of common structural grids for essential functions of a library fixed, up to max. 1.30-1.40 m.

247
 Distance between Volumes/ m Vertical Volumes/m Space Volumes/ LIBRARIES
centreline of standard shelves double needed for 1000 m'
Basics
double shelves (m) shelves shelves books (m')
1.20 30 6 360 3.99 250.6
30 6.5 390 3.68 271.7 Lighting in the user area: generally approx. 250-300 lx; reading
25 6.5 325 4.43 225.7 and working places, card index, information, lending counter
30 7 420 3.42 292.3 500 lx. Climate in the user area: 20° ± 2°C, -50 ± 5% relative
"'-
0
N 25 6 300 4.80 208.3 humidity, air changes (flow of outside air) 20 m3 /h x no. of people;
6 360 4.16 240.3
"..,t:
0
;e
1.25 30
30 6.5 390 3.84 260.4
these values can sometimes be exceeded according to the weather.
Avoid direct sunshine as UV and heat radiation destroy paper
.., 25 6.5 325 4.61 216.9
.!'!. 30 7 420 3.56 280.8 and bindings. Air-conditioning systems should be used sparingly
~
25 6 300 4.99 200.4 because of the high energy consumption and thus high operation
""'
" .ll
1.30 30 6 360 4.33 230.9 costs. Window ventilation is possible for low building depth .
.., 30 6.5 390 3.99 250.6
""'
0
0 25 6.5 325 4.80 208.3
Safety and security in the user area: fire protection is adequately
30 7 420 3.70 270.2
"'
1! 25 6 300 5.19 192.6
covered in the regulations and requirements of the local building
.ll 222.2 inspectors. Burglary prevention through motion detectors and
1.35 30 6 360 4.50
"'
.ll 30 6.5 390 4.15 240.9 burglary-resistant glazing and theft protection through book
25 6.5 325 4.98 200.8 security systems, optimally securing unsupervised emergency
30 7 420 3.85 259.7
doors through electronically controlled automatic locking on
25 6 300 5.40 185.1
30 6 360 4.85 206.1
alarm. Mechanical securing of emergency doors, also with
1.40
30 6.5 390 4.47 223.7 acoustic and/or optical signals, is not very effective.
"'- 25 6.5 325 5.17 193.4
"'
N
iii
30 7 420 4.16 240.3 The stacks (store) should ideally be situated in the basement
t: 300 5.82 171.8
0 25 6 on account of the more even climate and support of the higher
~
.., 20 5.5 220 7.63 131.0
loadings. 'Book towers' are inconvenient on account of the
.!'!. 1.44 25 6 300 6.00 166.6
increased cost of air conditioning, transport and staff because of
"'
1! 25 5.5 275 6.53 153.1
the limited space and flexibility. The largest possible continuous
""'
20 6 240 7.50 133.3
.!l
~
20 5.5 220 8.17 122.3 areas without steps are the most practical. Divide into fixed
6.25 160.0
""'
.,!.
1.50 25
25
6
5.5
300
275 6.81 146.8
and mobile shelf blocks ('compact systems') depending on the
LIBRARIES Qi structural grid of the columns (-7 DIN specialist report 13). Mobile
Basics
"' 20 6 240 7.81 128.0
stacks can increase the capacity by up to -100%. Floor load-
20 5.5 220 8.51 117.5
Fittings
1.68 25 6 300 7.00 142.8 bearing capacity for fixed shelves is min. 7.5 kN/m 2 ; for mobile
Lending counter
Public libraries
:g 25 5.5 275 7.62 131.2 stacks min. 12.5 kN/m 2 (-7 DIN specialist report 13}.
0
Scientific libraries 20 6 240 8.75 114.2
Archives
"''0
"
.!'!. 20 5.5 220 9.53 104.9 Climate in stacks: 18 ± 2°C, 50 ± 5% rei. humidity, air changes
1.80 20 5.5 220 10.22 97.8
DIN specialist m~ (flow of outside air) ~3 m3/h x m2 ; filtering of harmful substances
report 13 rnl}, 20 5 200 11.25 88.8
EN
1.87 20 5.5 220 10.62 94.1
(dust, S02 , NOx etc.) is required according to location. The use of
0
e 20 5 200 11.68 85.6 wall materials with a good capacity to retain moisture and heat
g> 2.10 20 5.5 220 11.92 83.8 can reduce the need for air conditioning. Slight air movement
'0
"'
1! 20
20
5
4
200
160
13.12
16.40
76.2
60.9
is useful for the avoidance of mould formation, particularly with
mobile stacks (use open ends). Special collections and materials
Source: Schwe1gler
(e.g. slides, film or sound and data storage media as well as
0 Space calculation card, drawings and graphics) require a particular climate.
Area Volumes
per shelf Floor load-bearing capacity in administration and book
stacks 25-30 processing areas >5.0 kN/m 2 ; can be higher in the technical
Structural grid 7.20 mx 7.50 mx 7.80 m x 8.40 m x
self-service 20-25 areas (workshops) on account of machinery (individual structural
area
7.20m 7.50 m 7.80 m 8.40 m verification required}.
information 20
n x distance 6x 1.20 6x1.25 6x 1.30 6x 1.20 area and
between 5x1.44 5x 1.50 5x 1.56 4x 1.40 reading Construction: Reinforced concrete or steel frame construction
centre-line (m) 4x 1.80 4x 1.87 4x 1.95 4x 1.68 room with a grid of>7.20 m x 7.20 m and room heights of ~3.00 m have
proved successful on account of the flexibility of fitting out.
f) Example of standard spacing for usual 0 Volumes per shelf
structural grids
Traffic routes: avoid crossings and overlapping of routes for
No. shelves Standard distance between centre-line (m) users, staff and books.
1.10 1.20 1.30 1.40 1.50 1.60 1.70 1.80
4 3.83 3.72 3.62 3.54 3.46 3.39 3.33 3.27 Transport: Book transport carried out horizontally with trolleys
5 4.38 4.24 4.11 4.00 3.90 3.81 3.73 3.65 (no thresholds, differences of level should have ramps for ;;'ii6% or
6 4.93 4.75 4.60 4.46 4.34 4.23 4.13 4.03 lifting platforms) and conveyor belts; vertically in lifts, conveyor
7 5.48 5.27 5.09 4.93 4.78 4.65 4.53 4.42 belts (plan the route carefully, with sloping upward inclines; very
8 6.03 5.79 5.58 5.39 5.22 5.07 4.93 4.80 low maintenance costs), container transport systems (mechanically
9 6.58 6.31 6.07 5.85 5.66 5.49 5.33 5.18 programmable, combination of horizontal stretches and paternoster
G Live floor loads for various number of shelves and centre-line distances
lifts} or automatic container transport systems (routes can be
horizontal or vertical as required, automatic, mostly computer route
control; high investment cost, currently very high maintenance costs).
Vertical shelves n 7 6 5 Assuming a format distribution of
Max. book height (em) 25 30 35 25cm 65%
25-30 em 25% Space requirement for bookshelves depends on the form of
Average book depth (em) 18 20 22
Load per shelf (kN)
30-35 em 10% organisation, accessibility for users, type of shelves (fixed or
0.38 0.51 0.55
results in a required load mobile}, systematic subject categorisation with corresponding
assumption of 7.5 kNJm2
display, format separation and construction grid (tables -7 DIN
0 Floor load assumption for stacks of 7.5 kN/m 2 specialist report 13}.

248
 LIBRARIES
Tr-------, I
F, ~b · e · (1+~}
WI<
formula 1

•' " I ~ T F1 floor area required for an open

workstation for library user
width of table
Fittings

distance between centre-lines

of tables arranged one behind System furniture for reference
the other
N% percentage of area allowed and lending libraries for all
for adjacent aisles providing
access to individual types of devices (telephone, PC,
workstations
Under the conditions listed above, the terminals, microfiche readers)
LI I ~ J:1 D . ·.•· 1.00
floor area required for an individual work-
station is approx. 2.50 m 2 • Example:
and for all required cable
· ~~~~~~.-~ r~ .· · . l F1 ~ 1.00
ducts for network and com-
1 11-l F1 ~ 2.48
m · (0.70 + 0.95). (1+ .§Q,)
m' 100 munications systems.
0 Space for a single workplace-> 8 f) Minimum spacing between tables 8 Area calculation -> 0 m 2 main Cupboards with special
usable area drawers for card catalogues,
microfiches, slides, film, audio
r··c·~~::::. and videocassettes, compact
discs, drawing cabinets for
1-1.00---l
maps, drawings and graphics.

~~-;;lf1::::%fffi Shelving systems for books,

magazines, media; mostly
shelf freestanding double shelf
units units (vertical steel profiles,
EEE shelves steel sheet or wood)

v1v1l h = 2.25 m, spacing of verticals

= 1.00 m, depth of shelves =
L__ Jl ~ 0.25-0.30 m, but also extra
Minimum free room in reading
area->9
e Transporting books between
sitting and standing library
e Carrels (non-lockable protected
workplaces)
depths, e.g. for atlases and
newspaper collected editions;
users-> 0 shelves adjustable for height
min. every 15 mm. Height of LIBRARIES

,,~da~itMJ:.,
the freestanding double shelves Basics
max. 5 x depth. Capacity of the Fittings
>--- 1. 70 ----4
shelves depends on the number Lending counler

:-108\
I I
1.50
Public libraries
of shelves per unit, calculated Scientific libraries
at 25-30 vols/running m (--> Archives
A 1,3.~m~-- __j
1 - - - 2.00 ---1
1 DIN specialist report 13). Shelf
spacing in stacks > 0.75 m,

ffi-·~-ill-·~-ill-=-m+ .l
longer in accessible areas.

~-lgq Mobile shelf units (only

permissible in closed stacks)

llr'narrowest aisle 'T'circulation route~ normal width rT1 B ~~m_: _____: 1 can, if the column grid is
favourable and the shelf
Q Minimum spacing e Microfiche reader workplace blocks fit, result in a capacity
increase of up to approx. 100%.
Required: floor load-bearing
capacity ~12.5 kN/m 2 (extra
costs compared to the usual
7.5 kN/m 2).
Microfilm reader workplaces
will be necessary in the future to
make available microfilmed media
(predominantly newspapers). The
tendency, however, is towards
digitalisation because this
creates better use and access
G Shelf unit, five shelves 41!) Shelf height for schoolchildren 4D Shelf unit, four shelves- small possibilities.
children

1--1,00 -----l f---54---1 !-30-l

;:=;== ;==
5 !---1 ,00 --i !--54 --j 1-30-t
f= I=

I 4
I= F= 4
-
I=
,-- :=-
0
"'. 3

2
I=
I=
F=
T
22,5
1
0

"'·
3
I= I=
I===

T I= F= 1 12 I=

I
I=
30 T I= T
1 30
I~ r==i 1
l
~
20
.L

double-sided single-sided
I~
$ Bookshelves for adults 5-6 shelves, for children 4-5 shelves-> 4D (D Magazine rack

249
 ,------ LIBRARIES
Permanent workplace Near to the
for staff f+- administration Space Requirement
~
"0
c t
£"'c Issue/return of media. Lending counter
Q) f---+ Counter Book transport automatic
and hidden it possible
This is the interface between entrance areas and the normally
"'c
·c accessible catalogue areas, the reading room with microfilm
g
c
0
::;;
t device, the stacks and the administration. Here the issuing and
return of books takes place, information about the library is given
Near to computer
Informing the users
~ terminals for catalogue and people are checked on entering or leaving the reading room.
Explanation of IT catalogue
research So there are many demands on the counter.
-
0 Demands on the lending counter/issue desk Mobile counters of combined units are mainly suitable for
smaller libraries. Larger libraries, especially when the book trans-
port systems are integrated into the counters, tend to prefer
permanently installed systems. The height of the counter depends
on the rnain activity undertaken --7 0, 95-1 05 em is appropriate.
It is better not to have any additional units above the counter in
libraries mainly used by young people and children. The surface
of the counter is subject to very heavy wear, so suitable materials
should be specified, which can still look presentable after a long
period of use (e.g. solid wood, linoleum or laminates coloured
adults right through). Provide connections for computer and telephone,
adequate lighting and a view into the open air (comply with the
requirements of the Workplace Regulations, as the counter is
normally a permanent workplace).
Public libraries
Functional scheme of a medium-sized library These offer general literature and other media on directly acces-
LIBRARIES sible self-service display. Systematic collection and cataloguing
Basics by content of printed and other media is restricted to a few large
Fittings
Lending counter public libraries. Public libraries have no scientific collection duty
Public libraries 3000 or archive function, but are lending libraries, which normally have
Scientific libraries
!--- ....... small stores or none at all. The users are children, young people
Archives 2400
,...... and adults. Public libraries aim their range of stock and services
"'~ at meeting the needs of the users. As a place of communication
1500
1//
('market place') for the population, they offer, in addition to the
g 1200
traditional lending of books, browsing zones, citizen's advice,
"'
Q)
900 -'
...... information, cafeteria, listening to music, areas for sitting and
~ 600
....v events, art lending, and/or travelling library.
" 300
r-7 ~T Tolo vf'ujej fjr "!"j 3joj'
Stock ('media') can be not only books and newspapers but also
10 20 30 40 50 80 100 magazines, brochures, games or new media (CD, DVD, video,
Scheme: space requirement of a library depending on the amount of stock
PC games), which can be borrowed or used in the library. Rooms
should encourage visitors to stay by being welcoming. Structure
the areas into those for adults, children and young people with
activity-oriented movement rooms, not separated but in zones
Technical processing with flowing transition. The space requirement is in line with the
Post room Reception booking amount of stock --7 0. The target is two media units per inhabitant,
goods entrance/ ramp Store, sort and distribute
Packaging (remote lending)
but a minimum size of 300 m2 usable area with 10 000 media
units in stock. They should be large, connected areas, almost
Administration square and flexibly usable, and extending horizontally rather than
office workplace
Invoicing
vertically (less staff), capable of extension and with an inviting
entrance area. The shelf units in the adult area will have five or
Librarian Stock-taking six shelves (max. reach height 1.80 m --7 p. 249 ~), and in the
Office workplace with additional Title registration children's area four shelves (reach height -1.20 m --7 p. 249 $ -
shelf space for media ;?i2 m2 Issue of signature
Parking for book trolley Subject assignment 0). Passages should not be longer than 3 m, neither niches nor
(50 em x 100 em) Catalogue processing compartments. Books are transported with a book trolley (L x H
x W: 92 x 99 x 50 em). Goods lift at the goods entrance, and in
Technical processing larger libraries also book transport systems. Floor loading in public
Bookbinding workshop ;?;so m2 Binding libraries: 5.0 kN/m 2 , in store-type self-service areas with denser
Restoration workshop ;?i200 m2 Labelling stacking 7.5 kN/m 2 , with compact storage (mobile shelving units)
(for 4 employees) Restoration
Material store ;?; 15 m2 12.5 or 15.0 kN/m 2 .

Distribution Sorting
Book sorting room~ 14m2 Distribution

Stacks I sell-service shelves

Q Route of book processing from delivery to lending

250
 LIBRARIES
Scientific Libraries

Scientific libraries have always had a key role in the history of

science and in the life of universities. They are not only a location
for storing books, but places where books can be worked with.
An important and decisive part of world literature has been
produced in libraries. Their erection is among society's greatest
Section reading room building projects. Important architectural examples from the
19th century show what high prestige has been applied to the
task (Biblioteca Laurentiana, Florence; Bibliotheque Nationale,
Paris).

They collect and access printed publications and other

information media for education and research, and offer it for
use in reading rooms (stock which is not lent out) and also for
lending from the closed stacks, the self-service shelves and,
to select in the reading rooms, separately displayed teaching
material or specially gathered collections for one term. As
3rd floor reading room well as books and magazines, most other types of audiovisual
media are collected, catalogued and available for use. The
number of reading places is related to the number of students
in the various subjects. Orientation is provided by systematic
classification of stock by subject. The services offered include
remote lending (obtaining literature from distant libraries),
copying services and enlargement of micro-forms (microfiche
and microfilm).
LIBRARIES
Example: Juridicum Halle___. 0- f). Basics
Fittings
2nd floor reading room Lending counter
University libraries Public libraries
These are single- or two-storey buildings: single-storey systems Scientific
are centrally administered (book processing and services) and libraries
Archives
mostly have at least a few separate user areas in branch or
specialist libraries. Two-storey libraries include a central library
and an (often larger) number of libraries for faculties, specia-
list areas and institutes. Stock is often freely available in
reading rooms, often in self-service stacks (shelving units
spaced as in closed stacks) and in closed stacks, the different
forms of display being mixed in most university libraries. The
1st floor reading room
ratio of stored to display and lending stock is determined by
the structure of the stock, and/or the organisation type or
library concept, and often also the space available in existing
buildings.

CD Main entrance ®we

®Lockers (J) Cafe, accessible from outside
®Waiting area @ Reading places
@Staff/supervision ® Bookshelves
@Exam room @ Computer places

0 Juridicum Halle: specialist law library, Halle University, Wittenberg f) Juridicum Halle, section Arch.: Thomas van den Valentyn, Gernot Schulz

251
 LIBRARIES
Archives

Basics
Archives do not, unlike libraries,
serve mainly to make available
written, graphic and audio media,
but for their systematic cataloguing
and long-term preservation.

In this function, they are often part

of libraries, museums or universities.
State archives keep all sorts of files,
0 Extension of the State Archive In Dresden, section through old building and new archive building business records, maps, drawings
Arch.: Kister Schelthauer Gross
and documents.

In order to be able to accept the rapidly

increasing stock, suitable storage
systems such as rolling shelving
units or plan chests (---7 pp. 237,
248) must be provided. The loading
on the floor slab should be paid
particular attention (---7 p. 248). For
the durability of the preserved media,
the maintenance of a uniform climate
is the most important factor, but
full air conditioning has not proved
acceptable on account of the high
Basics cost. Natural ventilation is the ideal,
Fittings f) The archive storerooms are arranged round the access and ventilation core. The room can be flexibly but also brings the danger of entry
Lending counter
Public libraries
divided due to the three entrances. Pre-stressed concrete slabs enable thin floor structures with high loadings, by air-borne pollutants. Systems
Scientific libraries so that space-saving rolling storage units can be used. without air conditioning need solid
Archives walls with the best possible diffusion
values, and the temperature should
be maintained by simple wall surface
heating (skirting radiators).

CD Controlled @Display
access for users @ Seminar/ lecture
® Information, @ Bistro/cafe
issue
®Store @ Self-service films
@) Supervision @ Film reading room
@ Reading room @Post room
® Map reading @Director

e First floor serves to connect to the old building and houses seminar rooms, cafeteria and reading room. (!)
room
Search aids
®Workshops
@
@
Administration
Archive rooms
@Stair and
®Delivery ventilation core
@ Staff access

e Ground floor and first floor serve public functions. The foyer In the new building enables disability-friendly access
8 Principle of source ventilation: prepared
air is blown in through shafts and fed to
and connection to the old building. the floors through ventilation blocks.

252
 BANKS
I
Bank buildings
I
p I
Internal administration
There are two basic types of bank buildings: high street clearing
bank branches with customer transactions and special or central
I I
banks without public access. The latter institutions are large-scale
•
.I Specialist customer
service departments
investment and/or corporate buildings.
Customers/
staff side
entrance .I
'
.• High street clearing bank branches are a mixture of administration
offices and customer service centres. The administrative share is
I
I
.I
' Counter hall . • Strong room
larger for main offices and considerably less in smaller branches,
because administration is mostly centrally organised. The main
preconditions for the banking business are security, trust and
I reliability, which should also be visible in the design.
Special area:
exhibitions
conferences
L.::.
.
I

The UK, in addition, has long-established building societies,

. Self-service zone . Self-service

• customer
deposit boxes
originally funding house purchase loans from the deposits they
accepted, but now most are also functioning as banks. Their
operating basis resembles that of a bank, so their building design
requirements are similar.

Banks' functional areas are as follows:

0 Room layout for a branch of a clearing bank with customer business Processing zone
Internal office area for administration without public access
(~ p, 231 ff.).

Special zones
In addition to the social rooms for staff and the normal subsidiary
rooms for administration offices (~ p. 238), there are conference
i. Monitor and prestige-promoting areas. These serve training purposes and BANKS
2. EPP provide space for exhibitions.
3. PC
4. Cash
cassette Security area
Weight approx. 600-1000 kg
Safes, today described as bank vaults or strong rooms, are mainly

~ 80-1.00 installed in larger bank branches or head offices. In new buildings

there is solid and specially reinforced concrete construction and
f) Cashpoint in old buildings a room-in-room structure of pre-cast elements.
The ideal location is in the cellar near the entrance, because the
ATM cash dispenser: Statement printer; shaft from the night safe has to be almost straight. The routes to
height: 1.30- 1.60 m height: 1.10-1.30 m the customer safe deposit boxes and to the bank strong room
width: 0.40-0.60 m width: 0.50-0.80 m should if possible be separate. Delivery of cash and valuables by
depth: 0.80-1.00 m depth: -0.60 m armoured vehicles also has to be considered. An access gallery
weight: 600-1000 kg weight: -150 kg with surveillance mirrors can be provided to monitor the strong
8 Dimensions of cash point and statement printer
room. Wall thicknesses are in accordance with the security level,
from 80 em (T1 0) to 100 em (T20). For the customer safe deposit
boxes, 'fully automated safe deposit systems' open at all times are
available. These can be reached from the self-service area through
an additional access control vestibule without staff involvement.
Opening 520 mm The design should take into account the recommendations of the
Research and Testing Association for safe and strong rooms and
Height approx. above all the requirements of the insurers.
9D0-1300mm
Customer zone
The introduction of automatic teller cash dispensers (cash dis-
Q Container strong room 8 Nightsafe
pensers operated by bank staff) with restricted and time-locked
cash release means that the structural protection of the counter
area is no longer necessary. Cash dispensing and simple infor-
mation is mostly at self-service cash points (ATMs). Cashless
transactions can be carried out by home banking. This reduces
(D Self-service zone
the space requirement in the customer area, because the activity
MA ® Discretion area mostly consists of consultations and reference to specialist de-
@ Customer hall partments. For initial information, standing consultation counters
@Service are sufficient, but thorough consultations require a separate room
CD Cash dispenser
SP Statement printer
for privacy. Expert departments (e.g. credit and investment) are
MA Maintenance area often located on the first floor of the customer area.
in accordance with
manufacturer's
instructions The self-service zone is also accessible outside business hours.
It is therefore mostly relocated into a lobby outside the customer
area ~ 0. This zone is equipped with cashpoints, account
statement printers, deposit slot for the night safe and possibly the
0 Self-service zone access to the safe deposit system.

253
 RETAIL OUTLETS
Guidelines and Typologies

Business types
Open sales --7 0: unrestricted entrance and exit (specialised
shops and retail chains, department stores).

Closed sales --7 f): unrestricted entrance, exit only through

staffed checkout (specialised supermarkets).

Sales types and typologies

0 Open sales, unrestricted entrance f) Closed sales, unrestricted entrance
Specialised shops --7 0: small shops (50-500m 2), mostly only
and exit and controlled exit
one sector (pharmacy, shoe shop, flower shop), service and con-
sultation --7 0.

Specialised retail chains --7 0: chain stores, mostly only one

Stores
sector, presented like specialised shops Oeweller, fashion, shoe
shop), open sales --7 0.
[]Till

Staff Specialised supermarkets --7 0: chain stores, small to very

large businesses, one or more branches, self-service (pharmacy/
drugstore, toys, DIY, electrical goods, groceries, supermarket),
closed sales --7 e.
C) Specialised shop G Specialised supermarket (self- Department stores --7 0: often chain stores, very large shops,
service) mostly multi-storey, various sectors, sections can be rented to
other chains (shop-in-shop principle}, open sales --7 0.

Shopping arcades, shopping centres/malls --7 0 Cli): concen-

tration and conglomeration of specialised shops, supermarkets
RETAIL and department stores, on one or more floors, with additional
OUTLETS Stores
cafes, bars, restaurants.
Guidelines and
typologies
Till
Retail regulations Staff A shopping arcade --7 0 is from 10,000 m2 in area, usually
Entrances and
shop windows approx. 20,000-25,000 m2 in area, roofed, mostly a 2-3 storey
Checkout and street space with multi-level access, exploiting urban block
waiting zones
Waiting zones- zones, external access (min. two) via squares, streets or shop-
examples ping areas, semi-public access routes; no fixed opening times.
Routeing,
Smaller shops are often along the internal street, with well-
escalators
Fittings-
0 Specialised shop with counter 0 Department store
known large-area chains mostly in the corners or at the end of a
dimensions
sales
Food shops
street as a 'magnet'. Internal streets often lead into squares or
Self-service courtyards.
shops

BS 9999 A shopping centre/mall --7 Cli) is a larger and more elaborate

DIN 4102
collection of retail outlets, eating places etc. It has fixed opening

~
I
LBO
Retail outlet,
I times, therefore no semi-public access routes; main external ac-
I

_
trading, business cess normally from only one road, but additional side access from
and accident
prevention
0 Section of a shopping arcade e Section of a shopping arcade a car park or multi-storey car park is possible.
regulations

~t
Workplace Road/
public area
and insurance
guidelines
___, ~----

Adjacent Adjacent
building building

Road/
1
1
public area ......
·t
Cl) Plan of a shopping arcade 4D) Shopping centre/mall

254
 ~22m
RETAIL OUTLETS
--------~ Retail Regulations

The provisions of the retail regulations apply to retail outlets whose

sales area and shop passages, including building elements, have
Ground a total area of >2,000 m2 .
- - - - - - - - Ground ~
level :55m
Sales areas
'7 v Those in which goods for sale or other services are offered (ex-
cept for emergency staircases, staircase extensions and garages.
0 Layout of sales areas
Shop passages do not count as sales areas.

Shop passages
These are roofed or covered routes adjacent to sales areas, which
Sales area Sales area
Fir~_ ;;;10,000 m2 ;;; 5,000 m2 f- Fire contain customer traffic. They must be at least 5 m wide.
_Fire Fir~­
wall on upper floor wall wall on upper floor wall
Layout of sales areas
Sales areas, except for catering establishments, may not have a
f) Size of fire compartments with sprinkler system floor level >22 m above ground level, or >5 m below ground level
-->0.

Sales area Fire compartments

Sales area ;;;1,500 m2 Sales outlets are to be divided into fire compartments with parti-
Fir~- ;;;3,000 m2 _Fire Fir~­ on upper floor r-- Fire
wall on ground floor wall wall up to max wall tioning walls built like fire walls--> 0- 0.
3rd floor
The permissible areas of fire compartments on each floor are:
C) Size of fire compartments without sprinkler system
with sprinkler system without sprinkler system

ground floor sales outlets 10,000 m2 5,000 m2

Sales area Sales area
Exit into open air other sales outlets 5,000 m2 1,500m2 '
>500m2 >500m 2 RETAIL
OUTLETS
'if the sales areas extend over more than three floors and the total area of all floors
within a fire compartment is not more than 3,000 m2 Guidelines and
typologies
Sales area
Retail
>100m 2
regulations
Emergency stairways Entrances and
Emergency stairways for customers must be at least 2.0 m wide shop windows
Checkout and
- - Exit into stair space and may not exceed a width of 2.5 m. A width of 1.25 m is ad- waiting zones
equate if the stairway is provided for sales areas <500 m2 in total Waiting zones -
f---2.00-2.50---j f-1.25---j
-->o. examples
Routeing,
G Width of emergency stairways 0 Minimum two exits/escape routes escalators
Furnishing -
Exits dimensions
Every sales area, occupied room and shop passage must have Food shops
a min. 2 exits leading to the open air or into an emergency Self-service
shops
stairway. One exit is sufficient for sales areas <1 00 m2 in total
11.001 f--2.00-l
--> 0. Exits from a floor of a sales outlet into the open air or
into an emergency stairway must have a width of 30 em per
100 m2 of sales area, and be min. 2 m wide, but for exits from
~ 500 m2 sales area > 500 m2 sales area
sales areas <500 m2 , a width of 1 m is sufficient--> ().An exit
leading into a corridor may not be wider than the corridor, and
an exit leading into an emergency stairway may not be wider
than the stairway.

0 Width of exits, depending on size of sales areas Escape routes

For every sales area, occupied area and shop passage, min. two
escape routes must be provided on the same floor, if possible go-
ing in opposite directions, leading to exits into the open air or to an
emergency stairway. These must be accessible within a distance
of 25 m from every point of a sales area (or 35 m for other areas or
shop passages). The doors must open in the direction of escape
and be without thresholds. A main entrance or a shop passage
~ 500 m2 sales area > 500 m2 sales area must be provided within 10 m (linear distance) of every point in a
sales area.

Emergency corridors
· •••••••·••••••••·• . •••n••···u••n~•·••·•
::::.:::::r:: ..
For customers these must be at least 2 m wide. A width of
1.40 m is sufficient if corridors are intended for sales areas
8 Width of emergency corridors <500 m2 --> 0.

255
 -1-- 2.00---t RETAIL OUTLETS
Entrances and Shop Windows

0
1.00-H- 1.00-f

Opening or revolving door with a

clear opening height of 2.20 m
JC==:r
f) Sliding door
Entrances
With entrances to sales outlets <2000 m2 the door widths can be
> 1.00 m; to those >2000 m2 they must be disability-friendly and
have automatic doors. According to the retail regulations, the clear
opening width must be >2.00 m, and the clear height >2.20 m
~o.

Shop windows
These serve, outside the shop, to present the goods on sale, to
wake the interest of customers and to present an invitation to pur-
chase~ 6) - 0, 0 - 0. The design of shop windows depends
C) Revolving doors with side doors G Folding door
on the particular goods being sold and should complement the
layout, form and size of the entrance. The two basic types are
windows with display area ~ 6) and windows with a view of the
shop~0.

Shop windows with display area: separation of the displayed

goods and the sales area, mostly in department stores and spe-
cialised retail chains.
Shop windows with a view of the shop: view through the win-
dow into the sales area, mostly for specialised shops (e.g. baker,
D butcher ... )

0 Simple single-leaf entrance 0 Corner entrance

RETAIL
OUTLETS
Guidelines and
typologies
Retail regulations @) Rounded turnstile 0 Three-arm turnstile
Entrances and
shop windows

D
Checkout and
waiting zones
Waiting zones-
examples
Routeing,
escalators
8 Funnel-shaped entrance e Recessed entrance
Sun
screen
Furnishing -
dimensions
Food shops
Self-service
shops

C) Offset entrance ([!) Small funnel-shaped entrance

4D Stepped shop window display with 0 Mobile shop window display
glazed screen behind unit with screen behind

''
''
'

G Shop window as display area f) Variant of->

jeweller)
6) with parapet (e.g. Cf) Shop window with view into shop e Variant of->0
(e.g. book shop)
with parapet

256
 RETAIL OUTLETS

I=
~170--1
ol c!JI
H-1oo-teo~
15
Types of checkout
Checkout and Waiting Zones

According to the product and shop type, there are various types of
0 Single cash desk, straight f) Single cash desk, angled checkout: single, area and central cash desks and rows of check-

l
outs.
Row of checkouts
In specialised supermarkets (self-service area), these form the
0 only exit from all shops with a closed sales area. The passing
0
width between the checkouts should be sufficiently wide that
0
"'"'
All
1<l shopping trolleys, pushchairs and wheelchairs can pass through,
i.e. min. 1 m. Checkouts are mostly equipped with a conveyor belt
l
1
(sometimes a before- and after-sale belt) and stationary scanner.
0
0
Self-checkouts are also available as complete products.
-1-- Single, area, floor and central cash desks
0

-'-"' In specialised shops, specialised retail chains and department

stores with open sales, depending on the functional organisation
110---i ~eat 100 -teoi of the shop, cash desks can be arranged as single, by area, by
Area or floor cash desk C) Island cash desk with large floor or centrally. Department stores with different specialised sec-
packing area tions have mostly area cash desks, specialised retail chains often
have cash desks on each floor or grouped centrally, specialised

I
~
small shops mostly have single cash desks.

1----- 130 - - I
1 1---130----j
T0
~
RETAIL
OUTLETS
0 Checkout desk in self-service 0 Variant of 0
/Ill
Checkout Guidelines and
supermarket trolleys typologies
Retail regulations

\')t D Entrances and

I +D
shop windows
Checkout and
waiting zones
Waiting zones -
examples
0 Routeing,
~ escalators

11
0 /Ill
0

~ "'"' Fittings-

j_--~------Pa_c-ki-ng_z_a_n_e----------~
l
dimensions
Food shops
Self-service
shops
111111
Entry/Exit
1----- 140 - - I I
$
f) Variant of 0 e Variantof0
Waiting zone, self-service area
basket
~65+60~ stack
-- T
check~out -
-
- -
-
- t;;
counter -
---

T
!t\l
T.
0
0
'f
0
:r.
·:
'I
>I 0 g]
basket shelf
t
+
t t\lo T

~
1------ 160-180 -----!

@) Island cash desk

~

+
0

0 [!]] "'
I"'
~
0
-L
0
~
f g T
~65+60~ 1
0 Checkout with before- and after-sale (!) Repacking checkout 0 Double checkout e Section through small island cash
desk
conveyor belt

257
 • G) confectioner
@ glazed frontage
RETAIL OUTLETS
@bakery Waiting Zones - Examples
G) ovens
®lockers
®staff area
(J) cold room While you wait: buying, with the emphasis on experience - con-
® store-room
sumption on the spot or take-away.
• ® washing-up
@silo - .
Impulse buying

I
standing consumption
® "'"" 0 snacks Addressing the senses, suggestive display, lifestyle, quality of life,
'-.
0
folding glass partition convenience for employed people and homemakers. Prepared
o ;\ plants and flowers
products, warm or to be warmed up= fast food. No self-service=
~ flower arrangement
\Ly room
0 free flow. Shop-in-shop. Multitude of ideas, concentration, smaller
• o·"-~exit shops, high turnover. Matching designs from one designer. Stor-
age for one day, deliveries typically every morning, fresh stock.
Minimal sanitary facilities for standing customers. One WC for
staff.
Range
• Bakery- sales only 40-80 m2 , +eat in shop 80-120 m2 • Butcher's
-sales only 40-80 m2 , +eat in shop 80-120 m2 • Cafe, pastries, ice
cream parlour- sales only 40-80 m2 , + eat in shop from 220 m2 •
Fish - sales 40-80 m 2, + eat in shop 80-120 m2 • Fresh food
market, eat in shop as extension from 600 m2 in checkout waiting
zone -tO: seafood, fruit, flowers, drinks, wine, champagne, deli-
• catessen, up-market snacks.
Additionally
Pizza, steaks, organic food, brewery bar etc. -1 0
(j) brewing tanks
®malting mill
• ®fish ffi
2 fish specialities @bar, steaks '<1Y
3 preparation ®hot food and drinks
counter
4 bar/eating area
RETAIL F = = - - - t 2 standing consumption
OUTLETS
Guidelines and
typologies
Retail regulations
•
Entrances and
shop windows
Checkout and
waiting zones
Waiting zones-
examples
Routeing,
Q Checkout waiting zone

escalators
Fittings-
dimensions
Food shops
Self-service Micro-brewery and pub in fresh food supermarket
shops

Operator: Floor space

(incl. ancillary areas)
CD bakery with eating area 64m 2
® butcher's with steak
and drinks bar 89m 2
® local specialities 50m 2
@ Italian specialities 54m2
@ Japanese specialities "' 43m2
@ fish specialities 43m2
(J) cheeses/salads "' 45m 2
@ Mexican specialities "' 46m 2
@ cold meat specialities 68m 2
@ fruit/saladsfluices 42m 2
• <!]) coffee and ice-cream "' 20m 2
.... @ wine merchant, tasting
@ confectioner's "' 28m2
35m2
.... .... ~ coffee roasting
@ tea merchant
28m2
23m2
@ champagne bar "'
and delicatessen 21m 2
@ chocolates ~ 25m 2

f)
<J
~.
Fresh food supermarket at Hamburg main station
,
•
em •
General circulation space
and WCs

Design: Maler and Pistor

total "'724m 2

::::::95m 2

Design: Maier und Pistor

258
 ~~''' , , , ,,,,,,,]1
RETAIL OUTLETS
Routeing, Escalators

····~.
riTniiir=l•Yi\.:··.··.~.··.·.···.··.·······
·~L_j\@W
Routes and escalators serve above all to highlight the promotion of
goods and special offers. The larger the area of a retail outlet, the more
important is the routeing concept It can be put into practice through

.~
,t=,,,,,,,,,,.,,~~
different means on the floor of the shop: lighting, fittings and pos-
itioning of the goods on offer. The location of the goods is determined
by the intention to encourage customers to buy by displaying, as they
pass by, shelves, stock and thus all the product ranges -t 0- f).
The following variants are common for vertical escalator access
Q Centric routeing (variant 1)
in shops:
Double criss-cross: -t 0
The direction of travel of this escalator is 180°.

Parallel layout: -t 0
Escalators in the same direction lie above one another.

The rule of thumb is one escalator for every approx. 1000 m 2 of

sales area.

f) Centric routeing (variant 2)

Down RETAIL
OUTLETS
Guidelines and

Sf~
typologies
Retail regulations
Entrances and
shop windows
Checkout and
waiting zones
Waiting zones -
Down examples

0 Polygonal routeing 0 Single parallel escalators 0 Double criss-cross escalators

Routeing,
escalators
Fittings-
dimensions
Food shops
Self-service
shops

Q Routeing in a single loop

Routes should include corner areas; separate entrance and exit in a and c,
doubled in b. K =checkout

express service

--,
/ I
\ ," J

:~'~ ~·~..~··~
'- -- --- _:J -- ___ ,__ ---- -"----- __ ,_), __ · · - - - I - - - - -
•
__ .. '

refill aisle

e Routeing in a self-service supermarket

The shop should be clearly laid out for customers and control (checkout), so the
customer is not forced to make diversions -7 ae

259
 • • • RETAIL OUTLETS
rn ttB tE ~il
~ ~ ~ ~ tE HE tE
~ "l
f-d
!;?
0

~
Fittings- Dimensions

H
r--------10.00 10.00----------j

I •I I I I I I I I•II
I I I I I I I I I II ~ +~
I I I I I I I I I II

II 90-1.25
,_ 60 -1 1-- ---1

I •I I I I I I I l•n • f) Wall shelves Wall shelves for Cl) Wall with drawers, passage for

~2.00i for bottles fruit and vegetables

(goods to restock)
restocking (sliding baskets are
exchanged)
~I I I I I I I I I II

u
0 e>J C!
~ shelving +~

~I I I I I I I Fsps
I I IIs9 I
T
0
0
oi 1

Ill I I I I I I I •I I I I I I I I •I I I 0

0 Dimensions of the counters and shelves, column grid 10 x 10 m

C)
f---- 59-----1
Small shopping trolley (e.g. drugstore)
l
RETAIL
OUTLETS
Guidelines and
lypologies
Retail regulations
T
0

Entrances and

1
shop windows
Checkout and
waiting zones l-ao--1-so-l-4o+4o-l--120-13o---J-;,;ao-f4o--f
Waiting zones - I I
examples f) Minimum width of a shop "'4.0 m, better 5.0 m f----1.02------1 j-5s--j
Routeing,
escalators
L ~ 2.60 + 3.85m
Cil) Large shopping trolley (e.g. large supermarket chain)
Fittings- total display area = 3.0 + 4.5 m 2
dimensions capacity~ 910 + 1360 I
Food shops
Self-service

I
shops

e
1-----1.46-

Refrigerated display case with Q

1-----1.46-

Refrigerated display case without

t----97----j

$
f----5a---i
Shopping trolley (e.g. DIY store)
l
upper shelves upper shelves

f------ 91---4

I
~

I
f---1.17----1
9 Vertical refrigerated display case C) Refrigerated display cabinet 4!) Island shelf unit G) Wall shelf unit
with upper shelves

260
 RETAIL OUTLETS
Food Shops

Fishmonger
Because fresh fish do not keep very long, they are stored cool, but
smoked fish have to be stored dry. The goods are odour-intensive,
so the shops are accessed through control doors or protective
curtains. Walls and floors must be easy to clean. Take into ac-
count bulk deliveries in the design. Consider an aquarium (display
advertising). -7 0 -f)

0 Traffic scheme for fishmonger f) Fish display case with cooler and Game and poultry dealer
extraction This business is often combined with a fishmonger. Storage for
only a day's needs. A workroom must be provided with pluck-
ing machine and game scraper. Because poultry is susceptible to
hanging odour, it must be stored separately in the shop and the cold room.
game

Counter worktops and walls (marble, tiles, mosaic, plastic) must

be washable. Provide plenty of refrigerated display cases or cabi-
nets. -7 e- e.
Greengrocer
Fresh vegetables, unprocessed or kitchen-ready, must be stored
cool, but not chilled. Potatoes are stored in dark rooms and sold
from the deposit-bearing containers they are delivered in (baskets,
8 Traffic scheme for game and
poultry dealer
e Solid counter with marble and tiled
worktop
crates, boxes). Protective sliding inserts are provided under stor-
age trays. Greengrocers -7 0- 0 can possibly be combined with
flower shops. Self-service shops offer pre-packed goods in trans-
parent packs.

Butcher
Work steps: 1. delivery of live animals, 2. slaughter, 3. butcher, RETAIL
OUTLETS
4. process, 5. cool/store, 6. sell -7 (!) -G). A single-storey shop is
Guidelines and
advantageous, possibly with hanging and sliding rail system, be- typologies
cause sides of pork or quarters of beef weigh 50 kg. Processing Retail regulations
Entrances and
and cold rooms must be 1.5-2 times the size of the shop. Walls: shop windows
tiled, mosaic etc. and washable. Counter tops: marble, glass, Checkout and
ceramic. waiting zones
Waiting zones -
0 Traffic scheme for bakery. Storerooms
should be well ventilated, possibly
e Sales counter with screen
examples
Routeing,
escalators
with vapour extraction. Fittings-
dimensions
Food shops
Self-service
shops

Sales scheme for greengrocer; small

storeroom, as mostly delivered daily
e Counter with mounting for boxes
and wire baskets; draining shelf
Ci) Pavement sales to 'passers-by' on wheeled stand or at shop front with goods
displayed for advertising purposes
and dirt drawer

I - - 1.00 ___, f---1.50 - - - 1

electric wide service passage
heating for peak times

(!) Counter with chopping block for 4D Normal counter for butcher-> f) and for fishmonger
butcher

261
 RETAIL OUTLETS
Self-Service Shops

Self-service shops mostly sell food. The staff is responsible for ad-
vice, assistance and service. The butchery, cold meats, fruit and
vegetable sections are staffed. The goods are displayed clearly in
packaging according to type. It is important to design practical
routeing. The round trip starts at the basket stack or trolley park
and ends at the checkout or packing table. Wall shelves extend
up to reach height (top shelf is 1.80 m high and lowest 0.30 m
above the floor).

Important design up to 400-499 500-599 600-- 800-899 1000-

parameters 399m 2 m> m> 799m 2 m> 1499m 2
1. full-time staff needed 10.6 12.9 15.3 17.7 22.1 30.2
range 7-14 10--16 12-18 16-20 18-25 25-33
2. fresh and cold meat

~ D department
a) turnover share(%) 22 21 20 19 18 17
.,c ~
~.~ D .,ge b) counter length (m)
19-28
6.50
20-32
7.60
20-28
8.75
17-25
9.08
16-24
9.75
14.5-24
11.75
:~ 0"0
.Elij
c.
E3
<00
C) C.
c"'
~~
D .,·;;; ~ 6.0-7.0 7.0--8.2 7.5-9.0 1.5-10.5 9.0--10.5 10.0-13.5
30
.gB c) preparation room 14 19 24 26 36
D (m') 8-20 13-25 18-30 20-32 23-38 23-50
confectionery d) cold room (m3) 11 13.5 15 15 22 25

II Ll I I I 0
confectionery 3. dairy and fats
7-15 9-18 10-20 10-20 14-30 16-35

confectionery department
ITT! ! I I! a) cool wall shelves 6.75 8.0 8.75 10.25 11.25 15.7
confectionery (running m) 9-12 10-13.5 12-18.5
perfumery 6.3-7.3 6.5-9.5 7.5-11

Etd I II II b) cold room (m 2 ) 6.0 7.6 10.0 12.0 13.0 15.0

4.0-8.0 5.0-10.5 8.0--12.0 8.0-15.5 8.0-18.0 10.0-20.0
RETAIL
OUTLETS
Guidelines and
II II 4. frozen food (without
ice cream)
typologies a) normal island (m) 5.5 6.1 7.5 8.75 10.1 13.5
Retail regulations
Entrances and II ~l*a:JI~
II II I I I II l[lldried food E
~ 5.0-8.0 5.5-7.0 6.5-8.5 7.5-10.0 7.5-12.0 12.0-15.0
shop windows
Checkout and
non~food items non-food items
.!!; a.ID b) wide island (m) 3.85 4.1 5.5 6.75 7.75 8.75

waiting zones
Waiting zones-
IEH391
non-food items
i?D I[EI~~~~~~113g
cocoa tea .!!!
c) cabinets (m)
2.6-4.6
2.4
3.0-5.0
2.75
4.0--7.0
3.6
4.0-7.5
4.4
5.5-10.0 6.0-10.0
5.8 6.6

~B~~coff~•·iJl"~
examples 2.3-2.5 2.3-3.2 3.2-4.0 4.0-4.8 5.0-8.5 5.5-8.0
Routeing,
escalators
II FII U I I !_ ·~ g
pastries
d) freezer room (m 2 ) 2.4 3.25 5.0 5.75 8.25 8.5
Fittings- 2.0-2.8 2.0-4.5 4.0-8.0 4.0-7.5 6.0-10.5 6.0-11.0
E
dimensions rr1 brd1J n
~ 0
5. fruit and veg wall 6.5 7.5 7.5 8.75 10.0 10.75
Food shops
0 0 shelving (with

i\)
5.0-8.0 6.5-8.5 7.0-8.0 7.0--10.5 8.0-12.0 9.0-12.5
Self~service
2 shelves) (m)
shops
0 6. no. cash desks
- at checkout 2.5 2.9 3.4 3.9 4.9 6.3

~·~t~~
2-3 2-3 3-4 3-4 4-5 6-7
- in the departments 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 1.3 1.3
1-+-'"-'--'-J' 0-1 0--1 0-1 0--1 1-2 1-2
7. no. shopping trolleys 85 105 120 150 180 240
required 70--100 85-130 100-160 100-200 150--220 200-300

Note: first line= average values; second line= range of the parameter

f) Planning data for the design and fitting out of self-service shops and supermarkets

<> oj
<> <>l:>
entrance

0 Supermarket

e Service counter in self-service shop, section

262
 INDUSTRY
Basics

Industrial buildings, directly or indirectly, are designed for

the production of goods. In addition to the actual production
buildings (preparation, manufacture, consignment, packag-
ing) these are also warehouses (raw materials, finished prod-
ucts), technical and administration buildings and transport
systems. The spectrum of production ranges from labour-
intensive heavy industry to 'smart' low-emission and highly
automated light industry. The requirements for the design are
accordingly varied: if the traditional factory hall is little more
0 Planning diagram of a factory than a tool, the requirements extend to 'corporate identity',
from recognition value to sympathetic and communication-
oriented workplaces.

Environmental protection
Layout planning
federal emissions protection law with criteria for an approval process, The layout is the classic basis of factory building. The various
possibly including environmental impact assessment (EIA)
parameters of the planned production plant are defined and sys-
technical instructions for the avoidance of noise nuisance
technical instructions for clean air preservation tematised in the layout -0 0. It is processed in various stag-
groundwater protection law es (ideal, trial, rough and precise layout). One of the results of
Workplace Regulations
layout planning is the room allocation plan as a scaled functional
scheme of the planned plant and as the basis for the design
Workplace Regulations
Workplace Guidelines, revised to 2010, newly available are A 1.3 (2007)
of the building. The structure designed in line with the layout is
and A 2.3 (2007) product-specific. In the course of the various non-specific de-
guidelines of the federal association of commercial accident insurers sign work (e.g. start-up centres) and the simultaneous develop-
accident prevention regulations of the accident insurers and the federal association ment of product and production plant, the layout becomes ever
of accident insurers
German engineers' association (VDI) standards
less significant as a design basis, being replaced by more flexible
concepts.
Fire protection

industrial construction guideline with minimum requirements for fire protection in

Design basis
industrial buildings -> p. 500
structural fire protection in industrial building The design of industrial buildings is subject to numerous laws,
technical rules for flammable liquids guidelines, standards and regulations. In addition to the public
technical rules for hazardous substances planning law -0 p. 56, these are mainly environmental, health and
safety, and fire protection requirements -0 f). Further, there are INDUSTRY
f) Basic planning regulations for the construction of industrial and commercial
buildings (selection) various state laws and product -specific regulations. Basics
Shed
construction
Life cycles Multi-storey
industrial
Analogous to the life cycles of the product, industrial building is buildings
subject to various economic phases -0 0. Ever shorter product Transport
Warehousing
cycles (5-7 years) are not in accord with the life of a normal build- Subsidiary rooms
ing. Aspects of adaptability, suitability for letting and resale value Examples
Store
are therefore becoming increasingly significant in the design of
industrial buildings.

Product 5 years

I I product market growth maturity market decline

I Extension : development introduction saturation
I 1 1 1
I
I
I II II II I1
L__ JI L--L------------------L-ri
1 idea design construction use rebuilding demolition

Building 25 years

0 Additive typology: Fagus Werk, Alfeld Architect: Walter Gropius 9 Life cycles of products (above) and buildings (below)

Typologies

J, Car park ,.. The basic types of industrial building can be split into additive and
integrative plants.
~----------

~oom
T 't In additive plants, the individual functional units are shaped
II Adrriin./subsid.
l : I according to their purpose and added to planar or linear struc-
tures (often along a production line). The units can be extended,
developed and exchanged separately -0 0.

In integrative plants, the functional units are assembled to form a

neutral structure -0 0. The advantages here are the minimisation
of access areas and reusability. Possibilities for extension have to
8 Integrated typology: 'open workspace' be planned into the building structure.

263
 Machine Person INDUSTRY
Basics
,··················~
Production
Production is the assembly over space and time of work, mat-
erial and tools (machines, raw material etc.) to produce products
and services. The performance required for production (work/time
unit) is described as relevant performance and is a combination of
0 Human performance- mechanical performance human performance (motor and exploratory skills) and machine
performance.

Human and machine collaborate in the production cycle ~ 0.

A maximum possible reach (:::::65 em)
B physiological limits of reach (~50 em) This comprises various forms of production ~ 0 and can be
C
D
normal reach (~32 em)
physiological inner limits of
planned using flow charts ~ 8. Human performance is not con-
reach (16-20 em) stant, but is subject to numerous individual and collaborative
factors (strain -tiredness -recovery, age, sex, health).

The general requirements for workplaces are collected in the

f) Reach zones at a workplace (according to Stier) Workplace Regulations (2004) of the Federal Ministry for Indus-
try and Employment ~ 8, of which detailed expansion is laid
down in the Workplace Guidelines (~ p. 263 8).

planning symbols w
flow diagram
£ g no. action
(/)
:2 0
..: >
Buildings in general Construction and strength according to type of use
g product _g ~
'E! work group c 1 process 0 Dimensions of sufficient floor area and clear height (depending on
,;
fro~ovo·g .,
Ql

2 store \16
workplaces, air space size of floor area) for the performance of the work
without impairment of safety, health or well-being;
1 delay
3 D D air space measured depending on the number of
2 I.T 4 11
3 12
4 test DO employees and the type of physical effort.
4 II._ 6 5 transport ¢> Floors, walls, ceilings, surfaces must be formed according to the
5 33 6 handle 0 roofs requirements of the business and be easy to clean,
e I'( 4
7 10 23
7 finish + test OD with sufficient insulation against heat, cold and damp
The VOl (Association of Gennan Engineers) at the workplace:

9
8
,.. ~ 18
10 2
symbols apply in Germany; the ASME
(American Society of Mechanical Engineers)
floor without unevenness, tripping hazards,
dangerous slopes; must be load-bearing, safe for
101 <: 16 symbols are recommended for international
walking, not slippery;
I;. use.
INDUSTRY
Basics
Shed
0 Production flow chart for an item
(example)
e Planning symbols
glass wails near workplaces must be clearly
marked, non-breakable or shielded, and roofs which
are not safe must be walked on only when adequate
construction safety equipment is provided.
Multi-storey
industrial Windows, fanlights must be safe to open, close, adjust and fix, must
buildings pose no danger in the opened position, and be safe
Transport
to clean.
Warehousing
Subsidiary rooms Painting
Examples Work bench Doors, gates location, number, construction according to type
and use of the rooms and areas, transparent doors
are to be marked at eye level, non-breakable or
constructed with protection against breakage;
construct hinged doors to see through with a view
window; secure doors against levering out and failing
out or over;
provide highly visible doors for pedestrians in
Work bench Complete single Workshop
production production of work pteces operations
the immediate vicinity of gates for vehicle traffic;
production
powered doors and gates must be safely usable,
and in emergency capable of being opened
1 2
automatically or manually.
0 0
tttt Working steps
• !......... !. . .: I Transport routes must be easily and safely usable (including stairs,
access ladders and ramps), sized according to
0 0 number of users and type of business; where
4 vehicles are used on access routes, sufficient space
Linear performance of all Production island for the for pedestrians;
working steps on single Island production complete processing of transport routes for vehicles must run with
work pieces workplaces sufficient distance from doors, footpaths, stair exits,
etc. if necessary mark borders of transport routes.

Escape routes and number, size and arrangement according to use,

The production type is the spatial/temporal emergency exits equipment and size of workplace and number of
implementation of production principles. people present, shortest possible route into the
It makes decisions regarding the arrangement
of work places and equipment and therefore open air/into a safe area, permanent marking in
represent an essential basis for the layout suitable form, if necessary safety lighting, escape
of the production area. doors easily operable at any time, open outward,
revolving and sliding doors are not permissible as
emergency exits.

0 Types of production (examples)

e General requirements for building (elements), Workplace Regulations 2004
(excerpts)

264
 ~ INDUSTRY

l 1 Shed Construction

Production and warehouse buildings are often built as indus-

trial sheds without internal floors but with large spans and room

d b heights.
Construction, spans and heights
Timber, steel or reinforced concrete construction with spans of
5-50 m according to client requirements (arrangement of ma-

0
l Single-span beam: cable-trussed,
trussed, web girder
1I f)
I
Multi-span system: addition,
staggering, continuous beam
I
chines, access routes and turning circles of vehicles) and room
heights of 3-6 m. Built as solid, trussed or cable-trussed struc-
tures with fixed-end columns -t 0, frames -t 0 - 0 or as a
framed construction stiffened with bracing, often as added or
staggered buildings. Shed height and load assumptions are often
dependent on the proposed overhead crane -t p. 287.
Advantages of shed construction
Low construction cost due to light roof construction and omission
of expensive floor slabs; uniform natural lighting with rooflights,
even for very deep spaces; heavy floor loading possible; few(er)
fire protection requirements; flow of materials and people on one
level.
Disadvantages of shed construction
Large area of land required; unfavourable ratio of plan area to vol-

Cross section Long section

1 ume; unfavourable thermal behaviour (heat loss, heat build-up in
summer).
Lighting, ventilation, building services
Lighting and ventilation (and smoke extraction) are provided by
light bands, north lights or light domes in the roof construction -t

C) Tension bracing, cable structure, e

l Space frame, folded structure,
beam grillage
1 0 - 0 or also strip windows in the fagade.
Heating is normally (central/decentralised) air heating or overhead
radiant heating (temporary heating of single areas).
pneumatic construction
INDUSTRY
Basics
Shed
5.0 20.0 5.0 construction
Multi-storey

fr
industrial
buildings

three-pin portal (arched)

:1 I
,)::·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·::::~
Transport
Warehousing

"~!i< r:::J.
Subsidiary rooms
cross·section Examples
three--columned shed
30.0-40.0
30.0-60.0 5.0

~~ ''''''~F="
three-hlngearchedgtrder ~~ ~
longitudinal section

9 Laminated timber shed construction 0 Fixed-joint frame, two-hinge frame C) Vaulted northlight roof Shed with transverse light band,
frame with cantilevered beams

:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:
two-pin portal
r:t :iff
-,~.,,.,.,,
:-:~:
cantilever shells with skylight
I I

vertical sawtooth roof glazing (45•; 60")

~
~/ '

section through north light roof

(self-supporting) like lattice girder
light.A"JTTTTTTTl/l<:rrTTrrT
/

,,,,.,_.0,.,.,,.,
three~pin portal
:~-~~~:·~~:~r:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:-:-:-:-:·:·:·:·:·=·:·:·:·:
I I I . .. . . . . . . . . ..
~·~i·r:;~~~~~·i~·~·~~;:f~ f~~·~·~ ~~~f

f) Laminated timber sheds with ridge

rooflight
e Pond roof with fixed-end columns 4D Sheds with northlight glazing Longitudinal section through
northlight roof with cross-bracing
in the glazing

265
 INDUSTRY
Multi-Storey Industrial Buildings

Production facilities can be located over a number of storeys if

2a __, required for town planning, development or operational reasons:
distance in from window: this type of structure is particularly suitable for breweries, paper
-normal daylighting: 2a
- v good
lf= : e r1.5a~
dayligh:ing: y
mills, warehouses and other buildings, where the working mat-
erial is conveyed once to the uppermost floor and then descends
/; T :::;::; under gravity, and also electronic, precision mechanical and other
branches of light industry.
~ss;:.
••••·••• F iE:[
0 Joists running along the external f) Optimal spacing of buildings for Advantages/disadvantages of multi-storey buildings
wall; uneven, weak lighting good lighting Compact, space-saving but expensive construction method,
limited floor loadings, short (installation) routes through vertical

~!:
connections, good operating costs, simple ventilation, good light
from side.

Construction, spans, room heights

0
.;

s.oo
1.75
1 3:00 1 s.o
F.,....~!:
south north 1.0
Room heights should be determined depending on building depth
and working room height (guideline 3.00 m for working rooms
larger than 100 m2).
A good ratio is 2:1 (plan depth : room height) for free-standing
multi-storey factory buildings with windows without visible lin-
C) Building depths for given storey G Truss spanning room, free use of tels (traffic routes in centre of building not included 'in calculation)
heights floor space -70.
Economic building depths are 12.0-15.0 m (3 m clear height)
wind
bracing for rooms without columns -7 8-0, 15.0 or 17.5 m (4 m clear
outer pin-
height) with 1 or 2 columns -7 0, 20 or 22.5 m (5 m clear height)
north jointed ~ with two columns -7 e.
columns

BEl EEB
Lighting
Multi-storey buildings with windows on one side should face
northeast, and, with windows on both sides facing north and
I south, they should be oriented east-west. The summer sun thus
I ! only shines into the interior to a limited extent and is easy to shade
INDUSTRY '
Basics L- 15-17.5 20-22.5
with blinds (possibly continuously motorised sun awnings), but in
Shed
construction 9 Central column determines layout 0 Cantilever beams offer structural
winter the room is pleasantly sunlit (no disturbing shadows in the
working area) -7 0. The distance of the working area from the
Multi-storey of middle passage with columns to advantages 1 but the columns
industrial
buildings
right or lett; larger space to the north mostly obstruct the working area window should be twice as long as the clear window height -7 e.
Transport Stairs and toilets (cool) can be located on the north side.
Warehousing
Subsidiary rooms The best lighting is provided by free-standing buildings which are
Examples
twice as far from each other as they are high (ground floor angle
of light = 27°) -7 e; single-storey buildings with rooflights can be
0
located between these.
M .;
Approx. figures for window areas: 1/1 0 of the floor area for rooms
lf up to 600m 2 (Workplace Guidelines 7/1 -7 p. 263); for fine work,
provide 1/5 of the floor area.
If the room depths are large, a scattering of the light coming in is
advantageous (sun shades, venetian blinds, light-scattering glass
Q Deepest space with two internal
columns providing bracing. External
e Multi-storey building with crane
shed, also acting as lilting shalt
etc.), in which case the spanning direction of the main supporting
beam is significant -7 0- e.
pin-ended columns for transporting work items to the
offset balconies projecting on the
upper floors

~·>··
E; 200
dR 300 400 500 600 700
b Tcrlt > 450"C 190 180 170 160 150
" Tcnt350-450"C230 220 210 200 190

~:.- ~:>··· d
~ pre-cast for
?;;: 1oo Pre-cast for ~
F90-A
~ 200 ~ 200 :::0: 5u cast in situ for

Cl) Floor slab supports: TT section €!) Joist/cross member support, $ Joist supports, inverted T 0 TT-section pre-cast concrete
rectangular cross-section elements, floor slabs

266
 INDUSTRY

IJ
Two-wheeled
cart
Tricycle cart
electrically
assisted
fork-lift truck

Transport is a part of the material flow process. Transport planning

is the definition of the transport relationships or tasks within the
material flow and the planning of the interactions with storage ->
Transport

~ II
p. 268. Essential terms in transport planning are:

transported goods (material, transport unit)

~~ transport performance (quantity, times, deadlines)

transport type (course of the transport routes) and
means of transport (or conveyance) technical equipment for the
0 Floor conveyors f) -->0 direct and indirect transport of goods.
Means of transport can be divided into continuous and discon-
tinuous conveyors:

Continuous conveyors
Continuous conveyors are mechanical, hydraulic or pneumatic
systems with a defined transport route (permanent or mobile),
endless chain along which the transported goods are continuously (regularly, in
conveyor
cycles or with variable speed) moved between loading and un-
conveyor loading locations. Continuous conveyors are particularly suitable
platform conveyor
for the transport of similar goods over a fixed route, but the high

screw conveyor troughed conveyor

-~-- automation and transport capacity comes at the cost of high in-
vestment and low adaptability.
C) Continuous conveyors for bulk Q Continuous conveyors for unit
Continuous conveyors include:
materials loads
Conveyor belts -> 0, track and chain conveyors -> 0, screw

~~~
conveyors, slides -> 0, endless overhead chain and rope con-
veyors, moving tables -> 0, pneumatic (pressure and suction)
conveyors (bulk goods and liquids), centrifugal conveyors and
bucket chain conveyors.
belt conveyor steel belt chain conveyor roller conveyor
Discontinuous conveyors

~-~··
) 1::
incli~e ~ Discontinuous conveyors work discontinuously. They can be dif-
2-So/~~
ferentiated into industrial trucks (running on wheels on a floor) and INDUSTRY

lifting devices (mostly cranes). Basics

Shed
construction
Floor conveyors Multi-storey
plate conveyor mesh conveyor skate wheel conveyor Industrial trucks are manually or mechanically driven, mostly with- industrial
buildings
out being on tracks, for stacking heights up to 6 m, in special cas- Transport
..... es up to 10 m. The advantages are the low plant costs and good Warehousing
Subsidiary rooms
}~:~ suitability for medium distances between unloading and loading Examples
~:::b!!l===Tv=~ locations on a flat road or floor.
..... Floor conveyors include hand sack trucks, platform trolleys, pallet
:::::
.....
:·i: ................................. .
trucks and fork lift trucks ...... 0- e ...
p. 269 .
:::::.·:.·:.·.·::::::::::::::::::::::::::::.
Cranes
Cranes are machines for the vertical lifting of large and heavy
goods. Horizontal mobility can also be provided through wheeled
trolleys or winch trolleys -> 0 - «E).
Swivel cranes -> 0 - 9 enable the lifting of objects from any
plan point in their radius of operation.
f) Wall-mounted swivel crane
~:l-'0i-.6-0 ---s.oo-ao.oo---·..,c-J:
0 60

~0.40 ~ 2:010 >

;;;o.1o"il =-I • H ~o.1o

9llif'r~ H H
"'
:c
~ 0.50 ~0.40 ·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:
0 Simple-girder gantry crane, «<!) Double-girder gantry crane, G) Runway catwalks and safety f) Gantry crane (with driver's cabin)
and safety dimensions
permissible load: 0.5--6.0 t permissible load 2-20 t dimensions

267
 Store for INDUSTRY
Raw material Supplier 1 Warehousing
Consumables Supplier2

Bought-in parts SupplierS Basics

Storage is part of the material flow process and logistically forms
Production
Intermediate the connection between production and marketing --7 0. Storage
production
is cost-intensive and does not create economic value, leading to
attempts to minimise the storage quantities and times or effec-
Finished goods Consumer
tively combine the storage and transport of materials and goods
Waste Waste disposal through flexible 'just-in-time production'.

0 Warehouse as a buffer between market and production

(FOhrer, Stormer--> refs)
There is a wide range of different static and dynamic storage
systems available for each storage situation and the goods need-
ing storage --7 f). The spatial arrangement of the different ware-
houses in the production process can also be dealt with in various
ways --7 e.

~~Production
=~::::::::.'.'.'
A
:,o Store ,o:.
......... .

Store and production

Store and production

c
0 Storage requirements and material flow within the production process

warehousing

INDUSTRY
push·through good use of space and land good for building adaptation
Basics rack store
·Shed low cost of disposition use of special equipment
construction
Multi-storey
f} Classification of warehouse systems (excerpt) high equipment costs prompt fulfilment of orders
low labour costs
industrial
buildings good opportunities for automation
Transport
Warehousing Advantages of centralised and decentralised storage
Subsidiary rooms
Examples
traffic routes inside warehouses
pedestrians min. 1.25 m
pedestrians and powered stackers vehicle width + 2 x 0.50 m
passage widths between racks
with manual operation min. 0.75 m
with forklift operation (swivelling forks) forklift width + 2 x 0.50 m
with forklift operation (rigid forks) forklift+ fork+ 0.50 m
rack heights (depending on equipment)
hand shelves single-storey (two-storey) up to 3.0 m (up to 6.0 m)
pallet warehouse with forklift operation up to 6.0 m
high-bay warehouse with high-bay forklifts up to 9.0 m
high-bay warehouse with stacking crane up to 25.0 m

0 Comparison of possible uses of a warehouse 8 Basic dimensions in warehouses (MBO, Workplace Regulations, Industrial
Building Guidelines, ZH, Health and Safety Regulations)

Picking
Picking, or order assembly, denotes collecting articles out of the
warehouse and making them ready for dispatch in accordance
with an order. This can be single-stage picking (specific to one
order) or two-stage picking, with an intermediate picking zone for
temporary storage and assignment of the articles to a number of
orders.

consignment system consignment system The work is performed flexibly and with no technical support, or
consignment system
static assembly dynamic assembly dynamic assembly very little, as a 'man to goods' system --7 0, left, or for more ca-
one-dimensional movement one-dimensional movement two-dimensional movement
manual picking manual picking manual picking pacity with partly or fully automated transport vehicles and com-
decentrallsed oheck·out centralised check-out decentralised check-out plex infrastructure as a 'goods to man' system --7 0, centre and
e Alternative systems of picking right.

268
 INDUSTRY
I Warehousing
~

Flat pallet
(DIN 15141, RAL RG 993)
I
b;
Storage and shipping containers
Storage containers serve to combine the goods into loading

1 units with the purpose of maximising the exploitation of space

and transport capacity and the avoidance of handling. The most
common storage containers for unit goods are stackable crates
Collapsible pallets
(DIN 15155) made of timber or plastic, pallets (flat pallets, pallets with side
rails and additional equipment) and also increasingly containers.
Flat pallet collars
(DIN 15148/49) On order to simplify international transport, the European pal-
let pool has introduced the standardised transport pallet (Eu-
ropallet, Pool pallet, 800 X 1200 X 144 mm) with various stacking
attachments -1 0.

Standardised pallets can be exchanged within the pool without

reloading. Numerous standard sizes for packaging, transport and
Box pallet with detachable storage have been derived from the dimensions of the Europallet.
lid and removable side wall
(DIN 15142)
On account of the variety of uses and the rough handling and
loading, storage pallets are subject to many quality standards.
Flat pallet with a stack frame

0 Pallets and accessories

r8o1 1-1.20--1

I
0
<ri
0
I
0
0

~
"'
=~--jjj---1!- dividers separate
small articles
"l

j
I ::~;:~~~·~~!:~:~; :;:;:;:~~~~~~~~~;~~;~-~~r~l~t ;~~h ~;~~~:;:;:;:;
9 Flat shelving system

Warehouse equipment
System: Hofe
INDUSTRY
Basics
Shed
construction
Multi-storey
industrial
f) Pallet rack for forklift operation (swivelling fork), elevation, section The selection of warehouse equipment has a similar importance buildings
Transport
in the design of warehouses. This depends on the quality, quan- Warehousing
tity, weight and handling frequency of the stored goods and also Subsidiary rooms
'"'
!Ill
!Ill Examples
"'' warehouse organisation and means of transport. Warehouse
equipment is subject to numerous regulations (an overview can be
"'"'"""! I found, for example, in Association of Commercial Accident Insur-
ance Companies 234 -1 p. 263). The traditional storage system

I . ~---!18§~1•~
in industrial warehouses is flat shelves -1 0 as manual shelving
for small parts. These are constructed as bolted or slot-in systems
~ 1 ,.. ~N (e.g. angle profiles with holes) with inserted steel shelves, wire
~ l :J\~\.- ..L
mesh compartments, drawers or doors. These systems can be
~ '.......................... .....
1
_
up to approx. 4.50 m high (with accessible hop-up level) and are
......~

1.00-
1 Lifting load 1-8 t
r; 1.80-3.90

Lifting height: up to 6 m
suitable for loadings of 250 kg/shelf.

-1.80 -t--2.00- 3.90 ----i (high-bay forklift up to 9 m)

For larger loadings and heights, pallet racks are available as stan-

e Forklifts with rigid and swivelling forks (elevation, plan)

dardised modular systems made of channel and 1-beam profiles.
Bays with an axial spacing of approx. 2.80 m (for three Europallets
a) horizontally) have become established. Using forklift trucks,
heights of up to 6.00 mare practical-1 f). The passage width be-

,iiillD.:3:~
tween the racks depends on the size and type of the forklift truck
to be used (rigid forks, swivelling forks) and the requirements of
C) Health and Safety Regulations I ZH 1 (vehicle width + 2 X 50 em)
1 . - - - 25.00 _____j
l
10-25m
-18.
In order to store items still more densely, fully automated high-

11111::1:
G
.... ::::::::::::::.:.·.·::::::::::.·:::::::::::.·:.·:.-.·:
a) universal warehouse with stacking crane, b) warehouse with installed pallet
racking, c) high-bay system
I
bay warehouses are used, often independent of production
location. These have special swivelling stacking cranes that
stack at heights of up to 25.00 m. They are normally supplied
by specialist firms as an integrated system (racking and building
envelope) -1 0.

269
 area served ~ 100 m INDUSTRY
Subsidiary Rooms

Toilets
These are to be provided at a distance from each workstation of
not more than 100 m or, at the farthest, one storey height (if no
unit ~ 250 men
escalator is available}. Toilets should also be provided near so-
we ~ 160 women cial, readiness, washing and changing rooms ---1 0. If there are
0 Area served by toilet facilities f) Arrangement of toilet facilities more than five employees, separate toilets must be provided for
women and men and these should be available exclusively to em-
ployees. The number of necessary toilets depends on the number
of employees ---1 @!): the site and arrangement are shown ---1 0 -

D DC 4). Disability-friendly toilets are to be provided in accordance with

regulations ---1 p. 21 ft.
T T D \
B5
l
D B5
1 Toilet facilities consist of a lobby with washbasins (at least
one washbasin per five wes) and a completely separate
\
l--1.25--j-1.55---1 f---1.50----t--1.15-l room with at least one we (unless the facilities contain only
one toilet and have no direct access to a work, social, chang-
ing, wash or sanitary room). Toilet cubicles must be lockable
and, if light partitions (incompletely separated we cubicles)
are used, the partition should have a height of at least 1.90 m,
and at the bottom a gap of 10-15 em. Urinals must be placed
1--i: 1.10---t f---6: 1.35---l so as not to be visible from the entrance. Toilet facilities
8 Single-row WCs, doors open G Doors open inward should not contain more than 10 WC cubicles and 10 uri-
outward nals. Further details of the requirements for toilets are con-
tained in Workplace Guidelines 37/1. With natural ventilation,
the minimum ventilation sections are: with window ventilation
f--1.25--+-- 2·00----1 f---1.50--+---1.65----l on one side 1700 cm 2/We, 1000 cm 2/urinal; with through
ventilation (ventilation shaft and opening window opposite)
DC 1000 cm 2 /We, 600 cm 2/urinal. Ventilation equipment is to
be designed for 30 m3 /We and 15 m 3 /urinal (altogether at

~ilOO
least five air changes/h).
TH-0--;:::::::g
1 D\ Men Women

rn'"
\ c
.§
o m s'" rns'"
construction 0 0 '"
0 0'"
:!! :!! -"
Multi-storey 4:) With urinals, doors open outward 0 As-> 9 but doors open inward
ill~ :§: ·u; ]! '0 !fi
ID ~
s 'iii rns :a'"
c c
·u;
Cl
c "' ~.~ ~ Cl
c "' c Cl
c
"
industrial !!1 _Q 0 _Q 0
.o..Q .o..Q
~
:c .c :c .c E:C 2
E c. "'
.§c '""' :g~ " E c. -"
"''" """'"'=>'" ;,'""'
buildings 0
=> E <!l
;, => E '"
=> ;, =>
Transport
Warehousing
c "' 'i= Cl
"'"' "' c "' 'i= _Q

Subsidiary f--1.25--f---2.00-+- f---1.50----t--1.25-+--- 10 1 1 0.6 1 1 1 10 1 1 1 1 1

rooms
Examples 25 2 2 1.2 1 1 1 20 2 1 1 1 1

Workplace
D 50 3 3 1.8 1 1 1 35 3 1 1 1 1
Regulations
Workplace 75 4 4 2.4 1 1 2 50 4 2 2 1 1
Guidelines 37/1
100 5 5 3.0 2 1 2 65 5 2 2 1 1

130 6 6 3.6 2 2 2 80 6 2 2 1 1

160 7 7 4.2 2 2 2 100 7 2 3 1 1

8 Two-row WCs, doors open outward e Doors open inward 190 8 8 4.8 2 2 3 120 8 3 3 1 1

220 9 9 5.4 3 3 3 140 9 3 4 1 1

250 10 10 6.0 3 3 4 160 10 3 4 1 1

f-1.50 --t-1.25 -t-1.50 -+l--1.50 --t-1.25 -t-1.50 --i
0 Required number of WC fittings (according to Workplace Guidelines 37/1,
T _, p. 263 f))
"'
+
lll
+
lll
Tat
~
_L
[]+
53
1--47--1

~@:0
I 1-37-1

+
t ~:~~ 1181
1
;J;~c;;i \/~
f-1,65---j ~ 'tJ ~ I ....L.LL.
C!) Toilet facilities for 100 women and men (example) CD WC: wall-mounted - fioor-mounted Urinal

270
 f - 35 ___.; INDUSTRY

Tt~
Subsidiary Rooms

Washrooms
Washrooms are to be provided for employees engaged in
activities dangerous to health or with strongly odorous sub-
35 --,.. ::;:..U
1.oo stances, or who are subjected to the effects of heat or damp.
fromfloor ~
Washing and changing rooms ---7 p. 273 must be easily acces-
I sible from each other.
0 Drinking fountain for free drinking, f) Row washing trough, Rotter
activation by lever, <1 00 m from system For every four employees (or in case of only moderately dirty
workstation
activity every five employees), one washroom is to be provided,
0137 em 6--8 people dimensions and layout ---7 0 - 4D, designed for the largest shift.
Special washrooms are to be provided for disabled people ac-

T~~I
cording to regulations ---7 p. 21 ff. Permissible washing equip-
ment: wash places (sluice, washbasin, washing fountain) and
showers. Wash places: width and depth min. 70 X 55 em, upper
edge 70-80 em above floor level, equipped with towel holder,
soap dish, disposable towels (for hand drying) and waste bins.

~l
Provide at least one shower, and in the case of very dirty ac-
71
tivity 30% of the washing facilities as showers; for employees
1 pedal
engaged in activities dangerous to health or with strongly odor-
ous substances, one shower per four employees. Provide a foot
wash for every 10 wash places. With natural ventilation, mini-
0 Foot washing system Washing fountain: 25% space
mum sections are to be observed: for ventilation from one side
saving compared to rows of
basins -; f)- (i) 400 cm 2 /m 2 floor area; or with through-ventilation from oppos-
ing windows 120 cm 2 (80 cm 2 with ventilation shafts) for supply
and extract openings. Ventilation equipment is to be designed
for at least 10 air changes/h.

1
76 r@)
\ ... _ j +
l T
1.10:
I*\
'
I
)i(
(®\... 1
/-~

1.10-f'"--/
I
/35.......
1.50

INDUSTRY
Basics
Shed
construction
Multi-storey
industrial
l :....................... . buildings
9 Footbaths 0 Paper towel dispenser, shelf and
soap dispenser
f) Clear height of shower heads e Space required for circular
washbasins
Transport
Warehousing
Subsidiary
rooms
Examples
r=
~ 60
tat .1R Workplace
Regulations
Workplace
t Guidelines 3511-4

If :o:
60

t 60
see also:
Industry/Basics
l. -; p. 263 f)

t-351---1.00 ___, If; 70t--- 1.05 ---...f$;70~

1---21.35--i 1-- 55-1501---1.00-1 f35f--1.10-l35~ 2.05 -------1
1------------- ~

4!) Washing facilities with washbasins (l'j) Washing facilities with foot baths 4D Washing facilities with washing 'f) Washing facilities with foot
trough washing trough

~ ,D
I[ _;j
T ...,.. . !l!llilm!!MJI'!Imf
l'trouo t!
DD 90

i t-lilPI~mlllilll
T
1.40
( I
DD t 1----J:j:j:j:j:j:j:j:j
l
~17n
T 90 ~--+-
"'~
DD +---!+!1ml:t1/
li
Jlng
l.
1r 1 If l
90
l ------lfl+ffit11
T
1.40
(
f--1.05-+- 1.50 -+1.05-+1.05--i
1------
trough
3.60 -------1
separate t-60+-1.00-+- 90-+-90--1
1 r----·.70- OU·

drain drain

(9 Semi-open showers ~ Single showers with changing 4D Open showers with drying places 0 Bath cubicles
booth

271
 II ~-·I r Ill I r
INDUSTRY
Subsidiary Rooms

>--50+--1.30--+- 90 ---1 ·u I-50+- 1.10 --+- 80 ---1

Changing rooms, clothes storage/lockers
0 Changing room with simple rows f) Racks of coat hangers
Changing rooms are intended for changing clothes and the stor-
of hooks
age of house, street and working clothing, by the employees of a

1111 r111!rr-so-+-so-1
circulation route
rso-+-90--1 t-so+S0-1
circulation route
rso+-- eo --1
company. They are required when the employees wear working
clothes at work and changing elsewhere is not reasonable.

Changing rooms should be on the direct route between entrance

to the site and the working area. Separate washing and changing
0 Changing rooms with simple rows of 0 Changing rooms with racks of coat
rooms should be easily accessible from each other: there must be
hooks, self-service hangers, self-service
changing
room for unobstructed changing in light of the number of users at

I IWI rffil r the same time. If changing rooms are not required, clothes storage
cubicles
with
benches must be provided for each employee --; 0 - ~-
t-1.10---l 1------ 1.80 -------i 1---1.10---!
They must be separate for men and women and be secure against

I §!F §3 tf
changing
cubicles draughts and view from outside.
with pull-out
stools
0 Changing rooms are to be equipped with seating, lockers (for
t-90-i 1.00 t---1.60--i 1.00 1-1.10----1 storing the clothing of all employees), waste bins, mirrors and, if

I
appropriate, a shoe cleaning machine. It is a good idea to align
rows of cupboards and racks at right angles to the window wall.
Window sills should if possible be at locker level.
I - 90 -i 1.00 I - 90 -i t - 90 --+ 1 .00 ,_ 90 -;

Minimum dimensions for changing rooms

Minimum dimensions for changing rooms --; 0 - Q. Passage
widths between changing rooms --; e.

No. people Width ap 1l

1 up to 5 0.88

. n
2 up to 20 1.00

e Staffed cloakroom, single rows of hooks 3 up to 100 1.25

4 up to250 1.75
INDUSTRY

·. Hi1+
lE
<4.00---+- 75 90
Basics >o.03 m' 5 up to 400 2.25
Shed : per hook
construction . cQ; 1) building guideline

e
~

Multi-storey
industrial
buildings
Transport
~ Ju_ 8 Width of passages

Warehousing
Subsidiary
f) Staffed cloakroom, double rows of coat hanger racks, with service

rooms
Examples
exhaust
air
Workplace
Regulations
Workplace
Guidelines 34/1-5

see also:
I
1.70
I
1.60 40
...
Industry/Basics
p. 263 f)

l
30
.!:.._
67
1
40
...
4D Clothes locker with sloping roof and
ventilation pipe
4f) Narrow clothes locker

'y

Trapezoidal changing cubicles,

System Rotter
e Double row of ventilated clothes
lockers with benches

l ,: ~OD[
~

1 ,,tQoDC
~
: oDD[
.
l
1.80
r
2.05

1.80
-nr
l i"'~OUL
~
1.95

j ,J,, ooBB t l
:',OLl Clothes locker, two compartments
ventilation
20 and 40 em wide, for street and
Two-level row of lockers 0 Smalllockers worl<ing clothes

272
 Administration (phase 2)
INDUSTRY
Examples

,------------Commissioning

,.--------Packaging

,.-----Dispatch

Main gate

Production Energy
station Administration Social rooms
Lavout olan 1:4.000
0 B. Braun Melsungen AG, Pfieffewiesen works Arch.: (1st section): James Stirling, Michael Wilford and Associates in assoc. with Walter Nag eli INDUSTRY
Arch.: (2nd section): Wilford Schupp Architekten GmbH Basics
Shed
construction
Multi-storey
---------------------------------------------------~ industrial
Road in
Additive industrial plants -> 0: buildings
Road out The functional units (administration, Transport
Warehousing
production, multi-storey car park, Subsidiary rooms
high-bay warehouse, picking, goods Examples
dispatch) are developed according
to their requirements, architecturally
independent and grouped in a natu-
Shelf rally laid out landscape. The units
warehouse are connected by a branching ac-
cess system (material route, access
bridge) .
....1.\ol~-""-,~'--+--"-+---t-----t- Stairs to
offices
Integrated industrial plants -> f):
Customer Warehouse, status two-storey sales
car park
and administration area, and deliv-
--)o-- ery at the back are combined in a
Ground floor plan cubical block. This consists of a
free-standing steel structure (span
f) Industrial shed for Aug. HOlden GmbH in DOren Arch.: Kister Scheithauer Gross
length 40 m) with diamond-shaped
beam grillage on fixed-end columns
projecting on the entrance side and
diamond-shaped grillage of secon-
dary beams.

Ill I Jll 1 1 111 Offices

Store
ll~k II 1111 Sales

e Section --> f) scale 1:1250

273
 WORKSHOPS
Joinery
CM chain mortiser
SIB slot boring
OM dovetailing/mortising
PO pin drill The development of plan forms from long sheds to more compact
CPS circular panel saw
PT thickness planer
buildings ---> 0 has been altogether more economical (better ex-
PS surface planing ploitation of the site, shorter working routes for mixed production,
ES edging circular saw
CCS cross-cut machine shorter supply pipework and cables, lighting also from above).
M milling machine
SB belt sander Multi-storey buildings are not appropriate for production areas,
BS band saw but can be recommended for offices, subsidiary rooms, stores for
small parts and valuable furniture.
Predominant construction types: framed construction of steel, re-
inforced concrete or timber. Walls and roof of large-format building
elements,with good thermal and sound insulation. Double-glazed
windows, mostly without opening lights, with a smaller proportion
of opening windows according to regulations for ventilation and
to see out.
The space requirement for the illustrated examples is approx. 70-
80 m2 per employee (without open storerooms).
0 Relationships of equipment and rooms in a joinery. Line thickness denotes
General production flow: in small businesses with up to approx. 10
internal traffic density
employees: linear, angled-shaped. In medium-sized businesses
with over 10 employees: U-shaped or circular (square) layouts are
better for workflow.
~ -j storing Jogs and cut timber I Working sequence: timber store, cutting area, drying room, mach-
~~ marking and cutting - ine room, bench workshop, surface treatment, storage, packing.
~~ sorting en The machines are placed according to working sequence: door,
~ E '-=,::;
ld=re=ss':;i=ng======!....,l ;.,: ·-~
.,;?:- loading and unloading, ramp, supervision, testing, acceptance,
~~ 1thickness planing ~ 'e delivery.
0
~ rebating, profiling II .g,~
c.
~ro ~
1 i~
... ~ ''E
I cutting to size
llaminating veneers l
_r---r- N·~
-* ~
There is separation between machine and bench rooms consist-
ing of a wall with doors. Company office and foreman's office are
E~ 5 ::'=v~e;:n;::e~er~in~g~====~l glazed with a view of the workshop. Workshop flooring: wood,
O~E n :~~
c1 ci
wood-block paving or magnesite/sawdust screed. It should be
~ ~ g; laminating Cdges l 1::: -
" O>·= 0 ~ possible to work against the light in all places. Continuous strip
~ E] edge gluing I E,
Q.., .c Imarking and cutting I windows, high sills (1.00-1.35 m).
WORKSHOPS
Joinery ._____ i storing finished boards I In order to deal with chips, sawdust and fine dust, an extraction
Carpenter's shop system is required in almost all cases, even in the smallest join-
Metalwork f) Production sequence, approximate
Vehicle repairs eries, for working in accordance with workplace regulations and
Bakery for operational reasons. Reduce excessive noise from machinery
Meat processing
plant
with rubber-bonded metal bearings.
Other trades
Laundry ~
Fire station Rooms •nd work areas Operations/equipment
WB 1 timber store FS frame saw
2 board store CS circular saw
I~ 3 finishe~ product store
4 finished furniture store
CPS panel saw
CCS CTOSS·CUt SBW

~ §'!Ms 5 timber cut to size

6 boards cut to size
BS
PS
band saw
surface planing
7 machine room- PT thickness planer
parts production BM bench milling
------------ ..... -
1 I
8 gluing- veneering
9 production- assembly
RS
PO
recessing/shaping
pin drill
10 surface treatment SIB slot boring machine
I 11 staining, bleaching MS mountings setting
I 12 spraying, casting/rolling SBB broad-belt sander

t .I;;;;;;;~~~ 13 drying, finishing SB belt sander

I -~!!"'"_ _ _ _..Jr'[j"-......:........• 14 final assembly/dispatch SE edge sander
t- D I 15 boiler room ED edging machine
CJ SBB AS Cr crane
I Sp spraying
SE
0 I
-----~-----------------1
WB work bench
VP
GS
veneer press
glue spreader

0[11
•
~s
OJ D
~ DGS PD BS
~- D D
c=Jv-;" cs
7
~ ~ED

DRs EEI:al
c::::::::Jps
[1::1
SIB 0BM 0 PT

0 Section-->8 e Example of a joinery

274
 WORKSHOPS
Carpenter's Shop

The layout of the carpenter's shop can be planned on the basis of

the following operational data:
Equipment, utilisation, cost-effectiveness, power requirements,
floor loadings, space requirement, cost, production process, pro-
duction times, number of employees, technical organisation of the
business, operating procedures and working sequence

Materials: types, quantities, weights, space requirement

Stores: size, space requirement
Energy supply: heat, electricity, compressed air.
Q Functional scheme of a carpentry and woodworking business Waste products: types, space requirement, waste disposal.

1-4 Lathes ·:· . ·.

.. ··.. :·

-~~
5 Stave lathe ...

,:~
6 Autotathe
7 Round bar machine
8 Spraying stand

~
.·:.

w
9 Storage bench
·.. ·
9
~~~g~~~ ~~f~~ c~~b~~~s
10
11 6 ·.:
12 Polishing drum [I3
D Drill ~·;~
LD Long~reach drill
.'
..
COP Combined dressing
and planing machine 07 - -·- -·-·-·-·-·-·-
BM Bench milling machine
cs Cut~off saw COP

rn
BSR Band sander g;::j
BS
CRS
Band saw
Circular saw ......
WB Work bench §BSR BM
HB Heating boiler for
waste wood
8 •
f) Example of a turnery

is
WORKSHOPS
Joinery
Carpenter's
setting out floor shop
/ Metalwork
Vehicle repairs
Bakery
Meat processing
• plant
0I Other trades
Laundry
CD Fire station
t
Cll
.J:c:: ®
0
:g
<])
(j)

0 0 Example of woodworking business, ground floor--> 8 +0

D Drill
LD Long-reach drill
COP Combined dressing ® CD
and planing machine
BM Bench milling machine
CM Cut-off saw
BSR Band sander
BS Band saw
CRS Circular saw
WB Work bench
HB

CHB
Heating boiler for
waste wood
Combined heating • .mJ-llll ..
"!
boiler for oil and ~
waste wood
(j) Solid wood store
® Board store CD
® Small machine store

~
Machine production
Bench production ®
@ Heating room
(J) Sawdust silo
® Foreman's office

~
Break room
Washroom 11.80 11.80 - - t t - - 5.80 - - - ;

" First floor--> 8- 8

275
 WORKSHOPS
1
1,65 T
1.190
·-
· ......
· l; l' !I;! l; Metalwork
1
. .l....,j.!;I;;Q;;;j;l~---
elevation --0.
23
plan
2oi k:iia£E I I I I A large business is divided into workshops for gas welding, fitting,
construction and repair, a smithy for ornamental ironmongery, plus
construction and mechanical metalwork areas. The room relation-
ships correspond to the functional scheme -:> e.

The company office and foreman's office should if possible be

located in the centre, with a view of all workshops if possible.

0 Upright storage of rods sheet metal stored on shelves

Welding and forging should take place in rooms enclosed by steel
doors, even in medium-sized workshops. The workshops should
be lit from above, and additional lighting is required for individual
machines (provide socket boxes in the floor).
1-60+60-1 t----1.20---l
Vertical storage of sheet metal The floor should be of concrete, preferably on a concrete base
slab. The welding bench is fitted with fire bricks. A charcoal pit is
required for pre-warming before welding of metal and cast iron,
with a small chimney above it; it is also suitable for brazing, forg-
ing and annealing. There should be water and oil containers next
to this for annealing.
f) Store for short metal pieces loading by hoists

1-----33.75---- 31.25
12.50 ______,

1
forge
D
0
0
~
DO

lt
welding shop locksmith's shop

WORKSHOPS
Joinery
-o:o:: o
machines

DD e Room relationship plan for large business in steel treatment and metal
Carpenter's shop
Metalwork ooooo fil
construction

Vehicle repairs
Bakery assembly I store for
I
Meat processing 0
finished products :;l
plant
I
Ij
other trades
Laundry ~
Fire station 0
0
0 0 = D 0
sheet metal shops
~
u o D 0 0 ~
CJ store for
work bench

18.75
raw materials

15.00 - - - - 1
1
33.75

8 Metalwork shop with machine location and arrangement of stores

e Example of working sequence for architectural ironmonger's

f---- 8.00 16.50

Equipment:

l
,~
PD: Pillar drill
/ SM: Straightening
/
I machine
SP: Surface plate
I SSM: Section shearing
I
I machine
I HSM: Hack sawing
I

l
I machine
\ WB: Work bench
' ' ....
---- CF: Crimping/flanging
machine

G Architectural ironmongery and precision metalwork construction businesses f) Section --> G

276
 .............. ····e~r-;:~;·~~~~~~:~ . WORKSHOPS
Vehicle Repairs
· electricity
supply pillar ·

lifting frame two-column

for cars car lifting
frame A customer-service business should be located with a good road
8.,; connection (even if this results in higher access and building
costs). In a location on the edge of town, advertising and cus-
tomer loyalty require particular attention.

Basic rule: site % built, % unbuilt. Take possible later extension

3.50 3.50
into account. For larger businesses, the average is 200 m2 per
0 One-jack car hoist, lifting height f) Two-column car hoist, lifting height employee for workshop operation. In addition to this, rooms are
1.0m 0.70--1.10 m required for sales, office, customer waiting room and social rooms
etc.

The building will be mostly steel construction, single-storey. Free-

spanning shed construction without obstructive columns is pre-
ferred. Possible future extension should be taken into account in
mobile the spacing of the bays.
n~aightening

g The workshop floor should be sealed against penetration of

~ four-column r-.: two-column
car lifting car lifting oil and grease, and grease separators installed in the drainage
frame frame system. Provide extract duct for exhaust gases. Design automati-
cally opening doors with air curtain. Installation ducts for elec-
tricity, compressed air, waste oil and water are recommended.
Check utility supply connections. Carwash equipment has high

C) Wheel alignment bay for optical

wheel alignment
e Bodywork straightening bay
water consumption.

Examples of vehicle repair workshops of various sizes ---7 0 - Cli).

600
r -,

hi l
I I

H / I
I
I
1 repair shop

Ht- r
t- tool cupboard
I
I
I
2 spare parts store
3 general office,
reception, cash desk

~- I 4 manager's office
we
:~
-- ----- -- --' 5 customers' WORKSHOPS
H I
I
6
7
8
heating
compressor
lounge
Joinery
Carpenter's shop
r-+ I
I
I 9 changing room Metalwork

1
10 washroom
f-tr I Vehicle repairs

" 1/ I 11 staffWC Bakery

I 12 tools
L J Meat processing
D- electricity I frame plant
supply pillar straightening Other trades
system Laundry
Bodywork straightening stand 0 Work bay for painting preparation
.,__ _ _ _ _ _...
-=.20.001 -------t
Fire station
with/without car hoist
C) Design example for a business with four employees: site with wide road
frontage

main drain:
---------- ----_f- gutter has 1.5% gradient

:·:·:·:·.~~ r:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·.~;:~;·;~~;~~;:;~:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·. .;.;.:.:.:-:-:·:-~::::-. :. . . . .;.;. . .;.;. . . . . .:. . . . . .

f) Schematic diagram of a work bay with grating for painting preparation -> C)

I L_j L_j L.J L.J

+trucks/
buses
:;J

1 repair shop

,.
2 spare parts store
3 general office,

...
reception, cash desk

:
3.5 3.5 3.5 3.5 4 heating 12 meeting room
I I I I
~ 1' J
5 compressor
6 lounge
13 showroom

cars 7 changing room

e Truck work area, 6.0 m X 14.0 m, consisting of 4 standard work bays, each
3.5 m x6.0 m
4Ii) Design example for a business with eight employees: carwash shed and
showroom

277
 WORKSHOPS
Bakery
flour store

raw materials store Systematic design includes the anticipation and recording of all
future technical and operational processes to which the building
will have to adapt. An investigation of the location should always
be part of the design work.
yard Room allocation plan
Basic division: storerooms, production rooms, sales rooms, build-
ing services rooms, administration and business rooms, social
and subsidiary rooms ~ 0. Work processes in or between the
individual rooms ~ f). Storerooms for raw materials, ingredients
0 Functional scheme and packaging. Daily supplies are stored in work areas .
dough kneading . . ~og%dients social and Basic types of storage
preparation machines ancillary
rooms Raw material store: grains, sugar, salt, baking agents, dry goods in
··~~f
: .·..
-,;;.
sacks, flour in silos or sacks.
cooling Ingredients room: fruit, toppings, dry fruit, fats, eggs.
room shop

dough
finished Packaging store: space requirement for containers {shelving,
products
processing racks, cupboards), stacking, counters. Space for traffic (pas-
fermentation sages).
baking Minimum area for stores 15 m2 ; approx. 8-1 0 m2 per employee
for all stores.
processing I store I sales Short routes between stores and work areas.
f) Room connection plan
Separation of workrooms for bakery and pastries
Bakery requires warm and humid room climate; pastry room
should be cooler. Bakery has following areas: dough preparation,
dough processing, baking, storage of finished products. Pastry
room: cold area - cream, creme, chocolate, fruit; warm area -
ready mixes, kitchen, fine pastries.

Workroom area is sum of:

WORKSHOPS
Space required for equipment, handling and processing, interme-
Joinery
diate storage (trolleys) and side counters. Space for traffic (pas-
Carpenter's shop sages); lost space.
Metalwork
Vehicle repairs
Bakery Working from the internal operational plan (layout), the necessary
Meat processing space requirements can be determined.
plant
other trades
Laundry
8 Example: floor plan of a bakery
Fire station
o-e key
1 dough preparation
1.1 kneading machine
noodle 1.2 kneading bowl
1.3 suspended or floor scales (flour)
1.4 basin- for mixing and measuring water
1.5 ingredients table
1.6 work table with flour trolley
1.7 work table
1.8 mixer
2 dough processing ,
2.1 dough portioning and kneading machine
2.2 rolling machine
2.3 croissant machine
2.4 dough portioner (by weight)
2.5 rotary kneading machine
2.6 rolling machine
2.7 bread roll machine
2.8 dipping machine
2.9 hydraulic portion cutter
3 baking area
3.1 oven
3.2 fermentation room
3.3 soaking machine
3.4 metal covered finishing table {icing etc.)
3.5 hand basin
3.6 baking tray washing machine
3.7 finished goods store
4 confectionery
silo room 4.1 confectionery cooling table
4.2 mixing and whipping machine
4.3 orbital paddle mixer
4.4 gas cooker
4.5 deep fat cooking
4.6 sink with floor drain
manager's 4.6.1 dishwasher
office 4.7 cream cooler
4.8 froster
4.9 fermentation interrupter
5 miscellaneous
5.1 floor drainage
0 Example: floor plan of a large bakery 5.2 shelving

278
 WORKSHOPS
Meat Processing Plant

On the ground floor --> 0, sausages, cold meat, ham and deli- 18°C; air-conditioned rooms, 14-18°C; cool rooms, 10-12°C; cold
catessen goods are produced in an area of 4500 m2 • Offices, rooms, 0-8°C; deep-freeze, -20°C. High physical requirements for
laboratories, canteen, kitchen, washing and changing rooms are construction and materials.
located on the first floor--> f). Daily production is about 25 t. The Production building: raw material is delivered in form of halves
building requires various groups of rooms with different room tem- of pork, quarters of beef and coarsely dismembered, wrapped
peratures: social rooms, offices, WC, 20°C; production rooms, pieces.

CD managing director @workshop

® WC/showers @boot room
® freezer store @foreman
@ delivery cold room @office
@ freezer room @· computing
@ meat cold room @foreman
(D offal processing @)WCs
® alkaline solvents @entrance
® acid solvents @>kitchen
@) cleaning room @ production
@ first aid room
0 Section-> f)- 0

f) First floor

WORKSHOPS
Joinery
II I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I II I Carpenter's shop
II II I II I I I I I I I I I I I I I Metalwork
I II I I II I I I I I II I I II I I Vehicle repairs

11111111 IIIlO w Bakery

Meat processing
IIIIIIIIIIUIIW plant
cold room for packaged goods Other trades
llllllllllllllll Laundry
WJIIIIIIIIIIII Fire station

D
D oo
D
D o~s:wn
D
D
D 00 El
o~c::: I IIC21 ! 1n
0
D
D
D
oopacliing 8
oC':ls:x::J n
oo 0
=0
o~c::::dl 1

@ @

cooling
DD cartons equipment
DO
DD
88 spices
DDDDDD
6.00 6.00

Electrlcs: Jena GmbH

C) Ground floor, Thuringer Fleischzentrum ZPN Rhinstr. 149 Berlin
Planning: AG Neufert, Mittmann, Gref.

279
 WORKSHOPS
Other Trades

Butcher~ 0: example ground plan for 6-7 employees

Functional scheme for in-house sausage and cold meat pro-
duction: meat arrives in sausage machine room (cutting/mincing),
into smoke house, then boiler (sausage kitchen) and from there to
the cool store or the shop.

Height of workrooms (according to size of business) ;;;4.0 m,

width of passages for goods transport ;;;2.0 m. Work space at
sausage machine, in front and every 1.0 m at side = 3.0 m2 each.
1 overhead track with 10 combined basin/ Machine spacing from walls (for repairs) 40-50 em.
electric hoist table
2 scalding vat with 11 sinks
yard rollers 12 chopper rack Sound insulation is required for cooling plant, which works day and
3 skinning table 13 support
4 hoist 14 liver examination night. Provide water taps with hose fittings in the sausage kitchen,
5 carcass hanging table
6 low-level track 15 work table
machine room and salting room. Floor rough and waterproof, ide-
7 splaying saw 16 overhead track ally of rough or ribbed tiles with gully. Walls tiled completely. Good
B high-level track weighing machine
9 chute 17 conveyor general lighting of 300 lx at the work spaces. Provide social room,
0 Example of a butcher
clothes cupboards, we and showers for employees.

Radio and television shop with workshop ~ 0

Workrooms: clear height ;;;3 m and 15 m3 minimum air volume per
0 employee. On account of the great danger of electrocution, the
workshop
workshop should have well-insulated flooring, or at least the work-
Os
benches of the employees should be insulated. Recommended
0
0 light intensity: 500 lx. For the assembly of very fine electronic
0
6
E8 0
components, 1500 lx is required.

Workbench must have a spacious worktop, ideally 1.00 x 2.00 m.

G 1 technician's work bench
2 general work bench
3 work bench with vice
4 counter
2 shelves under desk for storage of circuit plans, appliance de-
scriptions etc. and tools in easily accessible drawers.
5 record bar
shop
6 shelving for Paint spraying workshop ~ 8
repair work
1 shelving for parts
Tailor~ 0 example plan for 10 employees
WORKSHOPS
Joinery ~ 8 display shelves
9 sales counter
Carpenter's shop 10 shop window and
Metalwork display shelves
Vehicle repairs
Bakery f) Example of a radio and television shop with workshop
Meat processing
plant
Other trades
Laundry
h --t
~ ~!BE
Fire station extension t-------7.00 m
.I
lj rr-~~i SM ladies'

il ii i1 [Q] SM workshop
~ E:J., I
ii !i i!
II SM sewing machine
i' IBE ironing board
with extractor
system
ITE ironing table
with extractor
system --l
TC cutting table
TC
I
I
SM 0
TW work table 1
TWI work and Ironing 11'--c::-u"'n"'in"'g---'-· TWI
table room
FD fabric display
FR fabric rack

E
0
~
changing/wash room

changing/wash room

·j
shop
-
I-
extension
I'
I!
u
ground floor
entrance Ground floor

e Example of a paint spraying workshop G Example of a tailor

280
 WORKSHOPS
washing and spin
drying Laundry
drying

ironing
Laundries for hospital washing are to be separated into two areas
0
.,;
X
<D trolley
for soiled and clean, each with their own entrance ---7 0 - 0, e.
0
.,; ® soaking sink In the soiled area, it must be possible to damp-clean and disinfect
the floor, walls and external surfaces of built-in equipment and
® storage surface
machines.
store 0 {~o0nJ~g 1 ~fard
Passages between the dirty and clean sides of the laundry are to
0 Small laundry for hotel
be equipped with personnel control lobbies plus hand disinfection
and a place for protective clothing. The doors of the staff control
Medium-sized
laundry 0 lobby must be fitted with devices making it impossible to open
<D + ® washers both doors at once ---7 e.
®dryers
G) ironing
®+®sorting gents Weight(g) bathing Weight(g)
CD+® pressing
shirt 170 bathrobe 900
®bench
@)storage light vest 100 towel 800
In two rooms C) and heavy vest 150 beach towel 400
self-service G short underpants 75 hand towel 200
<D + ®
washers long underpants 180 bathing trunks 100
®+G) dryers
®ironing pyjamas 450 bathing costume 1-pce 260
®+CD sorting handkerchief 20 2-pce 200
®pressing pair of socks 70 bed linen
® +@) ironing, bench
@repairs ladies bed cover 850
@+@ storage blouse 140 under-sheet 670
f) Medium-sized laundry
top sheet 600
underclothes 140
petticoat 75 pillow cover 200
night dress 350 table linen
night shirt 170 table cloth 370
handkerchief 10 long table cloth 1000
apron 170 serviette 80
blouse 130 hand towel 100
~ pressing/repairing
children tea towel 100

~®t®
small dress 110 working clothes WORKSHOPS
underclothes 80 protective suit 1200 Joinery
Carpenter's shop
jacket, pullover 75 dungarees 800
Metalwork
dungarees 25 apron 200 Vehicle repairs
15 man's overalls 500 Bakery
handkerchief
Meat processing
f) in two separate rooms pair of socks 70 lady's overall 400 plant
pair of tights 100 Other trades
Laundry
f) Average weights of clothes for washing Fire station

pressin:EJ"o~
G
r§fu~-=~~-111 T
~ ~.__®_--1
~~----------~. .--.d~----------IL
H .20-t--- 3.85 - - - - - j 1--- 4.00 ----1
Q Self-service launderette

G) washing @> work table

--7 ®washing @ storage table
' ®disinfecting/
changing
@ pressing table ...-=.__..--
. . . ,! @ trolley shelf
soiled clean ll® sewing machine .

normal l:l® personnel air-locks

washing @ partition wall
washing
soiled side '1

Single-door washing machines in

the disinfection cubicle
Washing with room separation into
clean and soiled e Laundry in centre for the elderly

281
 WORKSHOPS
1--680 -1-330-1
20 20
coin slot machine
Laundry
H--595--tl

I0 ' I r _l_
8<1141>0
"'

~
Dry laundry produced per week:
Household: approx. 3 kg/person (ironing share approx. 40%)
Hotel: approx. 20 kg/bed (daily sheet and towel changing)
approx. 12-15 kg/bed (4 changes/week)
approx. 8-1 0 kg/bed (2-3 changes/week)
D
+
~ !--700-----i
approx. 5 kg/bed (1 change/week)
(above values include hotel restaurant)
f----1100~
Guesthouse: approx. 3 kg/bed
0 Automatic washer/spin dryer f) Side view--> 0 Restaurant: approx. 1.5-3 kg/place
(for hotels, guesthouses and restaurants, ironing share
approx. 75%)
Home for elderly: approx. 3 kg/bed (residential)
1-- 680 --+- 410-!
approx. 8 kg/bed (care home)
20
ft-- 595 --ti
20
IJ coin slot machine
approx. 25 kg/bed (incontinent)
Children's home: approx. 4 kg/bed,
-·-,1
Baby home: approx. 10 kg/bed

0
a• o
r
~
extrac~i~
r::::ile-
----'i-
i

~
Nursing and care establishments: approx. 4 kg/bed
approx. 25 kg/bed
(incontinent)

t 1
~ (for the above homes, ironing share approx. 60%)
Hospitals, clinics (up to approx. 200 beds):
~ 1 - - 700 ----1 general hospital: 12-15 kg/bed
f-----1100 - - - - i
maternity clinic with births: approx. 16 kg/bed
8 Automatic dryer G Side view -> 0 children's clinic: approx. 18 kg/bed
(for hospitals and clinics, ironing share approx. 70%)
care staff: approx. 3.5 kg/person
50 50
1-1--1085---i-1
1--1075----i Required washing capacity= ___ w_a_s_hi_n..:::g:_q_,_u_a_n_ti....:ty:_/_w_e_e_k_ _
washing days/week x washes/day

WORKSHOPS
D

e I
51
;!
(
L
Example calculations:

1. Hotel with 80 beds (utilisation 60% = 48 beds)

4 bedding changes/week
daily towel changes (approx. 12 kg/bed) 576 kg/wash

~l
Joinery
Carpenter's shop
Metalwork
table and kitchen washing approx. 74 kg/week
Vehicle repairs 650 kg/week
Bakery
Meat processing
plant 9 Automatic washer/dryer 0 Side view-> 0 required washing capacity= 650 kg = 18.6 kg/wash
Other trades 3x7
Laundry
Fire station 2. Hotel with 150 beds (utilisation 60% = 90 beds)
daily bed and towel changes (20 kg/bed)
extracted air r socket
90 beds @ 20 kg washing
table and kitchen washing
1800 kg/week
approx. 200 kg/week

l I 2000 kg/week

2000 kg
~ required washing capacity= = 57.1 kg/wash
~ 3x7

I 3. Home for elderly (50 residents, 70 care patients)

70 care places@ 12 kg washing 840 kg/week
r--- 1350-------; M501--390-l
Q Rotary iron e Side view -> 0 required washing capacity= 840 kg
5x5
= 33.6 kg/wash

50 residential places @ 3 kg washing 150 kg/week

table and kitchen washing approx. 1 00 kg/week
f--- 24001240012690 r-- 146711540/1540 - - I 250 kg/week

,·, required washing capacity= 250 kg = 8.3 kg/wash

I!
I'
II
II 3x6
4. Block of flats with 90 residents
'
t._ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _J '
approx. 3 kg dry washing per person and week
90 people x 3 kg = 270 kg

0
1.!§]

Flatbed iron
'=
l Cl) Side view --> Cl)
(6 days x 5 washes) = 9.0 kg/wash
5 kg/washing machine = 1.8 machines
1.8 machines will be needed = 2 machines

282
 ___,,;
Distance to the last
ladder rescue location

.- 1'
Strip without
solid obstacles

Setting~up area
WORKSHOPS
Fire Station

a) Fire sub-station for local call-outs can consist of: fire engine
E:3 parking, equipment room, store for special equipment, training
~9 room (multi-purpose room for administration and control centre),
Vehicle access passage social rooms, building services.
clear height ~ 3.5 m if the passage
length 5:; 12 m, width~ 3.5 m b) Fire station for local and regional call-outs, for example for
~3.5 m preventative fire protection and technical assistance, with central
Setting-up area ~ VII
workshop, repair, training and exercise rooms, can consist of:
C\1·''·''
fire engine parking (with additional places if ambulances are also
stationed), equipment room, store for special equipment, training
room, staff rooms like washroom, showers, WC, changing room,
External diameter Width
of curve min. drying room, social rooms (like on-call lounge, kitchenette), admin-
21-24m s.om istration, chief's office, vehicle and equipment workshop, building
24-30m 4.5m
30-40 m 4.0 services, room for ABC (disaster) service, central workshop (if re-
40-80 3.5
80--140 3.2
quired). Unless there are centralised hose maintenance and breath-
140 3.0 ing equipment maintenance workshops, these will also be required.
If the workshops are centralised, then appropriate stores will still
be needed at each station.
unitsfl
0 Examples: areas for a fire station on a site equipment room
store room for special equipment
1u
1u
training room 4U
lane associated side room 1u
staff rooms:
washroom, showers, WC, changing room, drying room 3U
on-call lounge, kitchenette 3U
administration
roam for fire service chief 1U
control room 1U
workshops: hose maintenance workshop, hose washing and testing room 8U
(min. 26m long and 3m wide)
hose store 1U
f--" 3.0----j Axle 10 t hose drying tower with exercise wall (clear height of tower 23m) 1U
(If a horizontal hose drying installation is intended instead of a hose drying room, then
f) Through passage: changes in slope C) Fire service access this should be accommodated in the hose washing and testing room, whose min. area
must then be 9 U and clear height min. 3 m)
breathing equipment workshop 4U
maintenance, repair, storage incl. radiation protection, diving2)
room for ABC (disaster) service 4U
vehicle and equipment workshop including:
WORKSHOPS
battery charging station, next door to existing parking place 2U
washing hall 4U Joinery
building services: Carpenter's shop
heating, fuel room 1U Metalwork
Vehicle repairs
I) units (U) according to -7 f) determine the floor area of rooms. For fire stations with parking Bakery
places of various sizes, the unit is based on the largest. The floor areas determined through Meat processing
~1.0-j
the units give the minimum size of the rooms. plant
G Fire service access 9 Pedestrian access 2) this does not include breathing equipment exercise facility. Other trades

e Floor areas of rooms --) 0

Laundry
Fire station

Fire service vehicles Actual total Wheelbase Turning circle Length Width Greatest
weight (kg) (mm) B (mm) (mm) (mm) height
(permissible) (mm)for
4WDvehic!es
with roof!ights
fire engine with pump 5450 (5800) 2600 11,700 (2WD) 5650 2170 2800
and crew LF 8
fire engine with pump 7490 (7490) 3200 15,050 (4WD) 6400 2410 2950
and crew LF 8
fire engine with pump 11,300 (11 ,500) 3750 16,100 (4WD) 8000 with 2470 3090
and crew LF 16 hose reel
trailer
0.5min w, fire engine with pump 10,200 (11,000) 3750 16,100 (4WD) 7600 2470 3100
w,
clear width of H . and crew LF16~TS
thoroughfare 0.5 nlln O.Smin water tender with tank 7490 (7490) 3200 14,800 (4WD) 6250 2410 2850
(essential only if and pump TLF 8/18
pillars are present) water tender with tank 10,700 (11,500) 3200 14,400 (4WD) 6450 2470 2990

Q Parking places and gaies-> 0 and pump nF 16/25

water tender with tank 15,900 (16,000) 3500 15,400(4WD) 6700 2500 3270
and pump TLF 24/50
foam tender with tank 11,500 (12,000) 3750 16,100 (4WD) 7000 2470 2990
Parking place and pump TLF16
foam tender with tank 7300 (7490) 3200 14,800 (4WD) 6100 2410 3250
Size 1) Width Length Gate (drive-through width Unit(U)
and pump 1000
b1 L b2 x drive-through height) Calculated ace. to
10,100 (11,600) 3200 14,400 (4WD) 6450 2410 3300
foam tender with tank
min. min. -> (i)'l m' and pump 2000
turntable ladder 12,550 (13,000) 4400 18,600 (2WD) 9800 with 2430 3250
1 4.5 8 3.5 X 3.5 9
DL30 hose reel
(avoid if trailer
possible) turntable ladder 20,200 (21,000) 3800x 19,900 (4WD) 9800 2490 3300
2 4.5 10 3.5 X 3.5 11.25 L830/5 with cradle 1320
3 4.5 12.5 3.5 X 3.5 14 equipment truck RW1 7200 (7490) 3200 14,800 (4WD) 6400 2420 2850
14 equipment truck RW2. 10,850 (11,000) 3750 16100(4WD) 7600 2480 3070
4 4.5 12.5 3.5x4
hose truck SW2000 10,200 (11,000) 3200 14,400(4WD 6500 2500 2980
1lsee also--+ 0 notes; 2 lcorresponds to !4 of parking place
C) Usual dimensions of current fire service vehicles from one of the largest German
f) Dimensions of parking places -> 0 manufacturers

283
 WORKSHOPS
Fire Station

Fire station: is used for the accommodation of vehicles and other

equipment.
1 watch room
2 bedroom
3 washroom Staffed fire station: is used for the accommodation of personnel,
4 station commander
vehicles and other equipment in readiness for emergency services
0 First floor of fire station -> 8 and also in some cases the constantly staffed control centre for
the centralised receipt of reports, alarming, coordination and con-
trol of emergency personnel. A flat should ideally be provided. The
crews are either in readiness or on call for call-outs by telephone
or fire alarm, either entirely or as reinforcement. Emergency call,
warning and fire alarm equipment.

Functions before the call-out: Parking of private cars. Changing

7~---------]. near the vehicle and fitting of equipment. Getting into vehicle.
I I
I I After the call-out: Vehicles returning from a call-out are parked
I
I forwards into the vehicle hall via the yard. The vehicles are then
I
I re-equipped and fire-fighting water and fuel filled up. The crew
I 1 battery charging room
I 2 fire~appliance hall
change and wash. The plot should be in a position central to all
I
61 3 bedroom parts of town or suitable for risk hotspots. Provide clear and un-
I 4 control centre
5 apparatus room obstructed access and exit routes and sufficient open areas, e.g.
6 passage
7 yard
consider the turning circles for vehicles. Vehicle washing area with
B oil store sand trap and petrol separator, tanks for diesel and petrol. The
yard should be suitable for heavy vehicles (about 16 t). Under-
f) Ground floor Of fire station --'> e ground and overground hydrants. Space is required for additional
vehicles, perhaps also a helipad (50 x 50 m) with an additional
15 m of free space. Sport facilities and green areas.

1 landing 12 parts store 23 recreation room

2 flat 13 workshop 24 practice room
3 training room 14 breathing apparatus 25 breathing apparatus
4 training material 15 courtyard training room
WORKSHOPS 5 meeting room 16 station commander 26 heating plant
6 garage 17 duty room 27 ventilation plant
Joinery 1 underground garage 7 oil store 18 changing room 28 store
Carpenter's shop 2 day stores 8 vehicle wash 19 washroom 29 battery room
Metalwork 3 hose room
9 fire-appliance hall 20 locker room 30 telephone/radio room
4 cellar 10 hose wash 21 porch
Car repair 11 hose store 22 lobby
workshop 5 ventilation
6 sluice
Bakery
7 main control room
Meat processing 8 emergency power supply
plant 9 pump room
Other trades 10 changing room
Laundry 11 store
Fire station 12 gas and water supply
13 generator and central
heating room

8 Basement of flre station 4, Munich Arch.: Ackermann + P. e Cross-section ~ f)

0 First floor -> f) e Second floor-> f)

f) Basement and (right} ground floor of fire station

284
 CHRISTIAN CHURCHES
Liturgical Elements

Guidelines for church building

QT~ Concealed~''"""'-"--'-'
The individual state Churches and bishoprics have special
guidelines for the churches to be built in their areas. In addition,

rn
strip light the Places of Assembly Regulations also apply to spaces which
are not predominantly intended for church services. For new
building, alteration and refurbishment, the advice of the diocesan
commission should be requested. Approvals are issued by the
0 Lectern f) Font e Pulpit with acoustic ceiling to
reflect the sound towards the
bishop's representative.

congregation Because churches serve religious faiths, the form of the building
should be developed from the belief and the liturgy.

+---1.10 T Liturgical elements

Religious elements required for all regular acts of worship.

,t
0
0 Pulpit---7 0
Raised enclosed platform for preaching and the proclamation of the
Word. The pulpit stands in a close liturgical relationship to the altar,
but there are no precise regulations regarding its location. This is
frequently to the right of the altar as seen from the nave. The height
Altar with toe-kick, section e Tabernacle integrated into the wall
of the pulpit is 1.00-1.20 m (pulpit floor level) above the church floor.
Lectern ---7 0
In early Christian churches this was a mobile reading desk called
ITabernacle I the ambo for the reading of the Gospels and Epistles. The lectern
+ should, despite being mobile, be placed in the immediate vicinity
of the altar.
Altar
'God's table', focus of the celebration of the Eucharist. Fixed
Altar with tabernacle, plan Q Altar without tabernacle, plan
and mobile altars or sacrament tables are possible. The shape
and material are not regulated. The altar is mostly rectangular,
~so+-2.oo-t-so~ 0.95-1.00 m high and free-standing, so that it is possible to walk
around it without difficulty ---7 8. In reformed churches, however,
~6ot-1.so-f6o~
0000 other shapes are possible. An altar should not be used before it is

0 I "' consecrated by the bishop.

0
T 0
0

0 +
Altar steps
0 0
q
0 There should be an at least 1.50 m level area in front of the altar,
CHRISTIAN
"'o; next to and behind the altar min. 0.80 m (if the altar can be walked
0 0 ol 0

0
CHURCHES
"'
l
0 around). This area is often raised by one or two steps. Liturgical
"l elements
0 0 j_ Tabernacle ---7 0 Furnishing
Vestry
Shrine for the storage of the reserved sacrament. Tabernacle and
0000 0000 altar are in a close liturgical and spatial relationship to one another.
Bell towers

e Variants of area around altar

-
Altar
;:::::1 1:::'1
u LJ
Pulpit Pulpit

Choir

0 -
Arrangement of seating in chancel
and choir
41!) Rhombus-shaped arrangement
QFontby
entrance

0
Font

Pulpit

0 Pulpit
Font

CD Three-sided arrangement 4f) Central arrangement in % circle @) Layouts of altar, pulpit and font

285
 hat hook CHRISTIAN CHURCHES
Furnishing, Vestry

The layout and form of seating is of great importance for the

dimensions and effect of the space, quality of hearing and view.
In smaller churches (chapels}, an aisle of 1.00 m width is sufficient
---7 e
with pews containing 6-10 seats, or a central aisle of 1.60 rn
f) width with seating both sides as ---7 e.
0 Church pew with kneeler Church pew without kneeler
Because of possibly noticeable cold emanating from the external
walls, two side aisles with pews in between ---7 0 containing 12-18

n11 1lf nl'

1nL iJI
seats is normal.
Wider churches will have correspondingly more aisles. The total
space requirement for each seat is therefore approx 0.63-1.0 rn 2 •

ll_!ll For standing places, 0.25-0.35 m2 each is sufficient; for these a

large part of the aisles, particularly in front of the back wall, is
occupied. The width of the exit doors and steps must comply with
the Places of Assembly Regulations.

f.lll
A central aisle on the altar axis is often desired for weddings,
processions etc.
Ct €1 Confessional ---7 G)
Three-compartment enclosed booth made of wood, in the central
e -e Arrangements of pews
part of which the Catholic priest sits to hear confession. The
person confessing speaks to the Catholic priest through one of
the two side compartments through a grille of approx. 30 x 40 em.
The lower edge of the opening should be approx. 1.00 m above
floor level. The confessional should be situated inside the church
at a location which is not too bright. Sufficient ventilation and
extraction should be provided.
Today, a confessional room is possible as an alternative.
Vestry---7 0
The vestry (also known as sacristy) is a side room in the church
for the clergy, vestments and equipment for the service. It is best
placed near and to the side of the altar.

;,25 10-25 ?,25 to-25

f-H ~

T
CHRISTIAN
CHURCHES
Liturgical
elements
Furnishing
Vestry
Bell towers
f) Church building shared by two denominations

0
built-in

Altar rail, various forms

JJl 1
detached
"'t-

~
level

T
r------2.50-----1

0
f---ss-j---so-f-ss---1
"'
~
"'c.i
T Kneeler

l 0

I,-
:===

~so-t!
r----t

41!) Two-sided, enclosed confessional, vertical and horizontal sections

G) Main room with altar

for robes, altar
hangings etc.
®Sexton
® Vestibule

e Movable partitions create a common space in a double church for two

denominations, Freiburg Arch.: Kister Scheithauer Gross
G) @we
® Entrance hall
@ Access to altar area
Arrangement of seating CD Access to nave
Space requirement for pew without kneeler (Protestant) ---7 0
= 0.4-0.5 m2 (without aisles}, for pew with kneeler (Catholic) ---7 0 ®
= 0.43-0.52 m2 (without aisles). G) Example of a vestry

286
 radius of
revolution V axisof CHRISTIAN CHURCHES
revolutlon
Bell Towers

Design
The standards on bell towers should be complied with.
A bell specialist can provide advice about the size and pitch of
the bells, acoustics and weights. A bell founder designs the bell
frame as the basis for the dimensions and layout of the belfry and
sound openings, and also contributes loadings for the structural
engineer, who has to consider static and dynamic loadings.
~ w. . m.g {m=mass)
Bells
0 Dimensional relationships depending f) Terms
Weight, alloy and wall thickness determine the sound. Electric
on the wall thickness
ringing machines are often used today.
Bell tower --> 0 - 0
According to regulations, this is a 'solo musical instrument' and
forms an 'orchestra' together with the neighbouring bell towers.
The desired audible range determines the height of the belfry
(or bell loft) in the tower, which should be above the surrounding
buildings. The quality of the bell tone depends on the tower's
construction materials and the acoustic design.
f-- D 1-- D --! The belfry is a resonance and mixing space which decides the
e Returned steel yoke e Straight yoke
musical quality of the sound transmission. The room is fully
enclosed apart from the sound openings. The natural resonance
frequency of the tower should not result in any resonance at the
I frequency of the bells.
vertical thrust Hmax = 1.55 x bell weight
HIT\Bll=0.25 X
.----<~~~~~------.-~ bell weight Sound shutters --> f)
,. .... --- / A fair number of small openings at right angles to the direction
of the bell swing is better than a few larger ones. The sound
transmission angle should not be more than 30° from the
horizontal (to protect the neighbourhood). The clapper strike
should not radiate, which should also be considered in the layout
vertical thrust V~=1.5x of the sound shutters. The total openings should be max. 5%
Vma~=3.1 X bell
1--- D ::::..._.; weight 1--- ~I weight of the interior walls of the belfry if the wall surfaces are smooth,
0
o~~ o~2xA
2.5 1.8 and max. 10% if rough. Concrete ceilings and floors can be clad
with wood.
0 Horizontal thrust 0 Suspension near centre of gravity

v3t
--·~"' ..~" Note
a
Bell
diameter
d
(mm)

Light
b
Bell
dead load
L
(kN)
a
Bell
diameter
d
(mm) (kN)
Wall thickness
Medium
b
Bell
dead load
L
a
Bell
diameter
d
(mm)

Heavy
Bell
b

dead load
L
(kN)
CHRISTIAN
CHURCHES
Liturgical
elements
Furnishing
Vestry
Bell towers

DIN 4178
F 2250 58 2320 71
F sharp" G flat" 2120 48 2220 59

~-
G" 2000 40 2100 50
G sharp" A flat" 1880 34 2000 41
A" 1780 28 1880 35
A sharp" B" 1680 24 1760 29
good distant sound; louvres of prefabricate< B" 1580 20 1660 24
muffled near sound concrete elements c 1400 16 1570 20 1680 31
c sharp d flat' 1400 14 1475 17 1580 25
f) Sound shutters d' 1325 11 1390 14 1500 21
d sharp' e flat' 1240 10 1310 12 1410 17
e' 1170 8.0 1240 10 1330 15
f' 1110 7.0 1170 8.0 1250 13
f sharp' g flat' 1035 5.5 1100 7.2 1175 11
g' 980 4.6 1040 6.0 1110 9.0
g sharp' a flat' 930 4.0 980 5.0 1040 7.2
a' 875 3.2 925 4.3 985 6.2
a sharp' b' 830 2.8 870 3.5 930 5.3

'f~1:~
h' 780 2.3 820 3.0 880 4.3
c" 740 2.0 775 2.5 830 3.7
c sharp" a flat" 690 1.6 730 2.1 780 3.2
d" 650 1.4 690 1.7 735 2.6
d sharp" e flar' 600 1.1 645 1.5 690 2.1
e" 575 0.90 610 1.2 650 1.7

~~~D,
f' 550 0.80 580 1.0 620 1.5
f sharp" g flar' 510 0.65 545 0.80 595 1.2
g" 480 0.55 510 0.70 550 1.0
g sharp" a flat" 450 0.45 480 0.59 525 0.90
OW/20?/)W&fl/Algf a"
a sharp" b"
425
390
0.38
0.32
455
430
0.50
0.40
495
465
0.75
0.65
section 0.35 440 0.50
sound openings 0 In places b" 370 0.25 405
where there is no clapper stroke length of panels o" 350 0.20 380 0.30 415 0.43
E; 5 3 =swing diameter, bell3
""2.6 x 0 3 form with value c~0.75 o~0.76 c~0.78
~s, =ofbe111 =2.6 x 0 1

e Belfry (plan) G Belfry (section) 4Il) Bell parameters

287
 SYNAGOGUES
General Design Notes

The first building commission from God, for a religious sanctuary,

with exact technical and design specifications for the erection
of the Tabernacle (dwelling place), can be found in the Bible
(Exodus 25-27}.
In a synagogue, the focal point is not an altar but the raised
s
.r preaching rostrum (almemor -1 0), from where Torah excerpts are
J:
:::;_•"' ~.:....---..._--_· ::--. -~ read. The synagogue is aligned towards Jerusalem. In the front
wall is the ark or chest (Aron Hakodesh}, where the Torah scrolls
0 The Tabernacle, the Jews' first place of worship -> 8 are kept --7 e.
Between the rostrum and the ark is an aisle for the ceremonial
- 67m -e
0
procession before the reading from the scrolls.
mi dnl_gh~ (o; "'t~>
c Constructing the plan of a synagogue is always an attempt to
I I I solve anew a spatial conflict defined by the positioning of two
1-- f-·17<h H
open ath 1/ "/ room elements of equal significance - the preaching rostrum
!'''·

'I
box [? (almemor) and the holy ark (Aron Hakodesh} - in a sacred room.
iliSI!I r'--. !7 ! In orthodox synagogues, the ark is mostly located on the east

ii.(
!Ho:v
. Oi Holle's
1
1
1 bumt

~~ , I;;;""~
b7
1iiif
I fj: (mirach) wall and the rostrum in the middle of the room. In more
liberal synagogues, the two elements are spatially combined and

1/ open path ,.,,j 1/

"' 1',,
~
f- orientated toward the east wall.
The space for women is at least symbolically separated from, and
I/ I I I gUY_.!ines out of the view of, the men, often in the form of a balcony. At the
noon (or south)
entrance to the synagogue, there is a fountain or washbasin for
handwashing. The ritual bath (mikva) for women, with immersion
pool, is normally in the cellar. It should have natural running water
that has not flowed through metal pipes. A more liberal synagogue
f) Court ofthe Tabernacle-> 0
might have an organ, but it would be unobstrusive.
The symbols of the Star of David, the seven-branched candlestick
(menorah) and tablets of the Mosaic law are essential elements. The
decoration consists of plant, geometrical or written ornamentation:
depictions of people are excluded.

G) Prayer hall
® Almemor
® Aron Hakodesh
@ Kosher kitchen
0-3.4-6.7 -13.2 -26.6 -66.6 ® Community hall
SYNAGOGUES
® Administration area
General design
notes
Solomon's Temple, Jerusalem, longitudinal section -> 0 (!) Social rooms

0 Prayer hall surrounded by inner courtyard, Darmstadt synagogue

Arch.: Alfred Jacoby

e Solomon's Temple, Jerusalem, plan -> 8

G) Prayer hall
® Almemor
@ Aron Hakodesh rooms

e Prayer hall and community centre divided by a courtyard into separate buildings,
New Dresden synagogue Arch.: Wandei-Hoefer Lorch + Hirsch f)
@ Kosher kitchen (!) Library

Oblique, oval prayer hall in unusual position in relation to synagogue courtyard

288
 MOSQUES
General Design Notes

The mosque - in Arabic, masjid (smaller), jamia masjid (larger) -

is a prayer house, cultural centre, community place of assembly,
courthouse, school and university, with the Qur'an being the
central source of life rules, teaching, law and religion for Islam.
In Islamic countries, the mosque stands in the bazaar (souk) at the
60-80 62.5 1.20
centre of public life. Where bazaars are missing in other countries,
they should be designed into the mosque (hairdresser, shop for
0 Men at prayer halal food, cafe).
There are basic categories of mosque design and seven distinctive
regional styles, e.g. the pillared hall and courtyard in much of the
Middle East, Spain and North Africa, and the triple domes and
courtyard of the Indian sub-continent. In the decoration, depictions
of people or animals are not allowed. Plant and geometrical
ornaments (arabesques) and verses from the Qur'an in Arabic
calligraphy are popular and have developed into a high art form.
Minaret
Smaller mosques seldom have a minaret, but larger ones always
do. There are neither organ nor bells in Islam. From the minaret,
with stair or lift to the mostly roofed upper walkway, the muezzin
calls to prayer five times daily, today often with a loudspeaker
(which in some countries is not allowed).
f) Functional scheme of mosque C) Section --> f) Prayer hall
The prayer hall is laid out with a praying area of 0.85 m2 for each
person. The hall is normally rectangular to square, often with a
central dome and is aligned to Mecca as prayer direction (qibla).
On the interior of the front wall, there is the prayer niche (mihrab),
and next to that the pulpit for the Friday prayers (minbar), always
with an odd number of steps, for the mosque prayer leader
(imam). An often only symbolic separation or a balcony serves to
segregate the men and the women.
Entrance
At the entrance, there are shelves for the shoes of the believers
and rooms for ritual washing and showers, always with flowing
water. The WCs are mostly as squatting closets aligned at right
angles to the direction of Mecca. Mosques often have separate MOSQUES
entrances for men and women, or the stairs to the women's General design
notes
balcony can be in the entrance area.
Decorative well
Many mosques have an inner courtyard of the same size as the
prayer hall, which can also be used as an extension for festivals and a
decorative fountain or well (sabil) for ritual washing. In warm countries,
geometrically arranged trees are planted here to give shade.
Subsidiary rooms
Office, library, lecture and tuition room, store rooms and flats for
at least the imam and muezzin complete the room allocation plan.

e Islamic cultural centre in Cologne

Ground floor
G) entrance/men
® draught lobby
·.:. @ shoe racks
@office Basement
® prayer hall CD rows of wash
ground floor/
basins
men ® WCs
® information/ @shower
men @hoist
(J) women's ®kitchen
entrance
® draught lobby
® dining room
(J) heating
® information/ ® hairdresser
women ® classroom/
® shoe racks
men
@ prayer hall @ library and
gallery/ lecture room
women @ classroom/
@ balcony women
@ minaret with lift

Q Islamic cultural centre in Frankfurt, ground floor 0 Basement --> 0

289
 DOCTORS' PRACTICES
Single and Group Practices

Single practices
A practice of a single specialist must have a minimum amount
of space (approx. 150 m2 ) and functions separated into rooms,
which are differentiated and extended according to speciality.
There is a general division between the patient and the staff areas.
At the entrance, there is a waiting area with cloakroom and WC, and
0 Reception as gatekeeper and Minimum space required:
the doctor's area with consultation room is placed near the waiting
controller for incoming patients doctor's consultation area
area. The treatment room and laboratory are next door. An extension
of the consultation and examination area for repeated treatments
and a separate diagnostic zone are sensible. The number and size
of the rooms are based on the particular specialist qualifications of
the doctor (internist and general practitioner, surgeon, orthopaedist,
gynaecologist etc.). Patient WCs, staff changing rooms with WCs
and staff lounge complete the programme. Separate children's play
areas can be a good idea in the waiting area (e.g. gynaecology).

Waiting room
The size is in accordance with the number and frequency of visits
to the treatment rooms, depending on the specialisation of the
doctor. If the practice is organised to require appointments, the
size of the waiting room can be reduced.
C) Minimum space required: G X-ray machine with control desk
Appointment planning and recording of services take place in
examination of reclining patient
the reception. The staff here must be able to oversee the waiting
room and the entrance, and the connection to the medical area
should be as short as possible.

Consultation room
The doctor's consultation room (12-16 m2) is a visually and
acoustically enclosed room and primarily intended for the
purposes of establishing case history, consultation, study of
diagnostic findings, development of therapy plans and protocols.
The furniture should include a desk with PC workstation, at least
two chairs and an X-ray display.

0 Minimum space required: taking a

blood sample
e Physiotherapy couches
Examination and treatment rooms
In size ~20 m2 , these rooms differ according to the nature and
form of treatment. The minimum furnishing would be a chair
and couch for the patient, revolving stool, workbench with basin
DOCTORS' and instrument table. Adequate space for movement should be
PRACTICES
planned for the doctor and patient.
Single and
group practices
The size of other specific examination and treatment rooms
(X-ray, taking blood samples, various therapies) depends on the
required specialist instruments, apparatus and storage room plus
integrated changing room (1.5 m2). Separate office support is not
necessary. Better is a generous reception with daylight and desks
(equipped with PCs) with direct access to patient files. Washbasins
with additional disinfectant dispensers are to be provided in all
rooms with patient contact and treatment.

Medical centres/group practices

8 Minimum space required:
electrocardiogram
e Space required: ultrasound These terms denote the combination of two or more doctors
practising together with shared staff and facilities. The creation of
such practices can result in a clear saving of space with improved
performance and convenience, for example if facilities like X-ray,
laboratory tests and various therapies, as well as administration
and staff rooms, can be used communally.

In the UK group practices mainly consist of general practitioners

(GPs), who if necessary refer patients to specialists (usually based
in hospitals). The group practice may also include practice nurses,
midwives, health visitors, physiotherapists and other health
professionals.

Cl) Ear/nose/throat practice, Stuttgart Arch:. Prof. Ulrike Mansfeld

290
 -a<D .S! ,., -a HOSPITALS
c<D "
·~ .~
.e OJ <D <D
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w ~
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c 0 ~
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General, Modular Grid

Care dept.
~ ~ D~ ~ D ~ 0 ~
The investment and operating costs of a hospital are extremely
Surgery
~ 0 0 0 0 ~ ~ ~ ~ high, so operational planning and an economical room allocation
plan must be produced as a priority to reduce the operating and
0 ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~
Intensive
care staffing costs. This is discussed and laid down at the preliminary
design stage through collaboration by the responsible authorities,
s terilisation D0 ~ ~ ~ ~ client, doctors, architects, specialist designers and the hospital
administration. Based on the operational planning and the room
Maternity
~ 0 ~ ~ ~ ~ D D allocation plan, the architectural design team can proceed with
the construction and form of the building and the installation of
A&E
0 ~ ~ ~ ~ 0 0 systems, while planning equipment for medical requirements,

~ ~ ~ ~ ~
fittings and furnishings.
Pathology
~ 0 D ~
~
Hospitals, clinics and health centres serve to treat and care for
Nuclear
medicine D ~ 0 0 patients with acute and chronic illnesses. The medical and care
~ ~ ~ ~
Out-
patients D0 0 0 0 objectives determine the size of the specialist departments and
treatment facilities according to the nature and extent of the
X-ray dept. 0 ~ ~ D0 D0 0 D conditions. Regarding domestic requirements, modern hospitals
offer something of the nature of a hotel. The atmosphere of a
Dialysis
~ ~ ~ ~ D sanatorium with particular emphasis on hygiene, which was
usual in the last century, is no longer desirable. Patients' length
0 Very good connection
required
A
Good connection
LJ;. sensible
D Connection is
desirable
of stay is becoming increasingly short. In a main hospital the ratio
of the areas for care to the areas for examination and treatment
0 Operationallinks is approaching '1 :'1. Reform of health provision is making great
changes in the hospital landscape and among service providers,
which can be public, non-profit making or private.

Structure
Area guideline Usable area
The general hospital is functionally divided into areas for
For a general hospital with regular provision and approx. 300 beds examination and treatment, care, administration, social services,
supply and waste disposal and services. Additionally, there are
Operational departments Usable area per bed/m 2
residential areas and sometimes areas for tuition and research
1.00 investigation and treatment 12.0 (university teaching hospital). The above operational areas are
2.00 care 18.0 close neighbours but operationally separate. It is necessary to
3.00 administration 2.0
maintain short horizontal and vertical connections while preserving
4.00 social services 3.0
5.00 supply and waste disposal 7.0 the greatest possible flexibility and a smooth flow of traffic
between all departments. Hospitals are categorised according to
Total usable area 42.0 m2
their function into general and specialist hospitals and university
operational area 8.0m2 teaching hospitals. The current changes in health policy are leading
traffic area 19.0m2 to different financial structures and also to new types of building HOSPITALS
Total net floor area 69.0 m2
like outpatient medical centres and patient hotels. Hospitals are General 1
also divided into those for basic provision (up to about 240 beds), modular grid
construction area (newbuild 11.0m2 normal provision (up to about 520 beds) and main hospitals (up to Building design
framed construction) Examples
800 beds), depending on their particular purpose. Corridors, doors,
Total gross floor area 80.0 m2 stairs, lifts
Operational
gross floor area/usable area ~ 1.9
University teaching hospital areas
Outpatient area
With their maximum provision, teaching hospitals are comparable Outpalient
f) Space guidelines for a general hospital to some main hospitals in their departmental structure and medical centre-
service provision. They possess particularly extensive diagnostic example
Examination and
and therapeutic equipment and at the same time are engaged treatment
in education and research. Lecture theatres and demonstration Care
Administration,
rooms should be included so that the operation of the hospital social services
is not disturbed by students. Wards need to be larger to Supply and waste
e intensive cooperation
accommodate rounds attended by a large number of people. The disposal
Technical supply
Q frequent cooperation specialisations and particular requirements of a teaching hospital
0 occasional demand special organisation, function and room allocation plans.
cooperation
-rare Specialist hospital
cooperation
Specialist hospitals are intended for particular types of treatment
<D ,., ,., "c
or groups of complaints: accident and emergency, rehabilitation
·§ 0)
0 0)
"'
0
'(j
,.,"- clinic, orthopaedic clinic, gynaecology etc. There are also hospitals
'5 0 0
0 ,.,
'C '5
"' 0
"' "E '5 c ~ ,., specialising in tuberculosis, cancer, mental disorders, different
"E 'iii 0

*,.,
E
ro ~" ro ~ :;; ""-"' :c1il '5'fj"
0)
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? types of surgery etc. There is a flexible overlap with health resorts
E
" :g " 0
c zf- '5 0
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0)
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""' z" 0€ iii' rr:"' ::>e

0
!? '5 and care, rehabilitation and homes for the elderly. The number of
~ c"' <(
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0 (/) " "'rr: (') w (L (L
specialist hospitals is increasing greatly (e.g. dermatology, lung
f) Diagram of cooperation between medical specialist departments and allergy clinics) due to the growing specialisation of medicine.

291
 r--- HOSPITALS
Helicopter landing pad
General, Modular Grid

Special ward 30 beds 3rdfloor Care 42-48 beds

Space allocation plan
Care 36 beds 2nd floor Care 42-48 beds
A space allocation plan has to be produced as part of the
1st floor Care 42-48 beds design process, and this forms the basis of the structure and
Staff Out patients Cafe Accident & emergency Amb ulance requirements of the entire hospital. Any specialist emphasis in a
--* Functional diagnosis/endoscopy GF Administration X-ray acce ss~ hospital has an effect on the nature and size of other departments.
//,
Possibly physiotherapy,
//v /
The area guideline values can give an overview of the size of the
1
special functions
Basement
Utii~Y_Y~~ / / ~ individual departments. It should be noted that these guideline
'/ / '/ '{/ '/////// '//// '///// / values are only recommendations and depend on the specialist
t Main entrance equipment and services of the hospital in question.

0 Vertical diagram of compactly structured hospital with approx. 200 beds

Building design
Possible alterations of use in the course of the period of
operation of a hospital will have a considerable influence on
the design concept, and need to be considered in addition to
shortness of distances, efficient work flows and operational
interactions. For the design of new hospitals intended for
regular provision, approx. 42 m2 usable area per bed can be
assumed, and for the gross built volume approx. 200-280 m3
per bed.

Hospitals are frequently built in a number of construction

phases or are extensions of existing hospitals. Therefore a
comprehensive target and development plan (scale 1:500)
should be produced at an early stage showing and arrang-
ing logistically the different phases. The construction and the
design (routes, corridors) must be laid out so that the build-
ing can be extended in various ways. The architect should
take note of the current regulations and guidelines (model
hospital building regulations, operational regulations of the
hospital, state building regulations etc.) at the beginning of
the project.

~~~------ ~----~~~' Modular coordination

.J Main road \_
The application of modular coordination of dimensions
f) Site: approx. 15,000 m2 for hospital with approx. 200 beds and 3-4 storeys, should form the basis for the design of a hospital. This
Breitfuss type involves the adoption of a reference system, basic module
and multiple modules in order to determine the purpose,
1------28.80 m building depth on base floor - - - - - - - j location and dimensions of a building element. For hospital
HOSPITALS
7.20 7.20 7.20 7.20 building, the preferred dimension of 12 M = 1.20 m is
General, recommended. If this module is too coarse, then preferred
modular grid
Building design dimensions of 6 M or 3 M can be chosen. All building
Examples elements are integrated into this modular system and
Corridors, doors,
stairs, lifts
matched with each other. The creation of the basic grid,
Operational horizontally and vertically, defines the load-bearing structure.
areas The effects of using a modular system are short construction
Outpatient area
Outpatient times, the simpler exchange of finishing elements and thus
medical centre - less disturbance to existing use.
example
Examination and
treatment
Structural grid
Care
Administration,
<I)
The structural grid must enable good route planning and
social services -*--=--_.~,-~~~----~~+---~) the possibility of differentiating the operational departments
Supply and waste
disposal into zones: main function, subsidiary functions and traffic. A
Technical supply comparison of the individual departments and their required
rooms leads to a structural grid, which is suitable for all
operational departments.

Structural grids of 7.20 m or 7.80 m have proved successful

in practice. Column spacings of 7.20 m or 7.80 m enable
rooms
the various departments to be included in the design with
Demonstra- the least difficulty. Smaller structural grids (e.g. 3.60 m x
tion rooms rooms 7.20 m) are also possible, because the number of larger
-Endoscopy social
- Laboratory rooms rooms such as operating theatres (approx. 40 m2) is relatively
-Doctors small. Reinforced concrete slabs should be designed without
rooms
downstand beams in order to simplify the routeing of the
8 Structural grid for examination and treatment area service installations.

292
 HOSPITALS
Building Design

Useful life
Structure, walls, fittings and finishings have different lifetimes.
The structure should if possible be framed in order to keep the
construction of the walls and partitions flexible. Medical equipment
is replaced after approx. 5-10 years according to department
and depreciation, which can have significant effect on the spatial
arrangements (e.g. linear accelerators, MRI scanners). The possible
installation and removal of such equipment without disrupting the
0 Open main corridor (principal traffic f) Care area above examination and load-bearing structure should be taken into account in the design.
route) treatment area
Site
The site for a hospital needs enough space for the building, its
access and any possible extensions, and should be in a quiet
area. Contaminated ground should be avoided. Separated access
roads for visitors and patients, staff, goods and emergency
vehicles, as well as a helicopter pad, all need to be taken into
account in the selection of a site. The minimum land area for an
acute hospital with rectangular layout is approx. 15,000 m2 .

Orientation
The best orientation for treatment and operational rooms is
between north-west and north-east. For the fronts of patient
rooms, south-east or south-west is favourable, with pleasant
8 Open main corridor, care area next 0 -> 8 morning sun, little heat build-up, few sun protection measures
to examination and treatment area
necessary and temperate evenings. East-west rooms in contrast
have deeper summer sun penetration but little winter sun.

Building forms
The form of the building is determined to a considerable extent
by the selection of access and routeing. A decision should be
reached at an early stage whether a design with a main corridor
(spine) and branches (transverse corridors) is chosen or whether
circulation will be radially outwards from a cruciform core.
Possible extensions and construction phases should be taken into
account. The vertical section of a hospital should be designed so
that the functions care, examination and treatment, supply and
waste disposal, delivery of patients on stretchers, service yard,
9 Enclosed main corridor, care area 0 --7 {t storage, administration and clinical medical service can be laid out
above examination and treatment area separately and reached quickly.
HOSPITALS
An example of a vertical structure:
General, modular
-top floor: helipad, air conditioning plant grid
- 2nd-3rd floors: care wards Building design
Examples
- 1st floor: operating theatre area, central sterilisation, intensive Corridors, doors,
care, maternity, nursing mothers, children's ward stairs, lifts
- ground floor: entrance and information, radiology, clinical Operational
areas
medical service, outpatients, delivery of stretcher patients, Outpatient area
emergency cases, administration, cafeteria Outpatient
medical centre-
- basement: archive, physiotherapy, linear accelerator, radiation example
Enclosed main corridor, care area
next to examination and treatment area
e ---7 f) therapy, laboratory, kitchen with service yard Examination and
treatment
Care
The different floors' height requirements should be noted: care
Access Administration,
area approx. height 3.40 m (less construction = flat slab with social services
floor structure = 35 em = 3.05 m clear height), examination and Supply and waste
disposal
treatment height approx. 4.20 m, supply and waste disposal and Technical supply
services approx. height 4.20-5.00 m.

Access
I
.-----.
Care 2nd floor I Air-conditioning

Care 1st floor Operations

Care Ground floor Out-patient, X-ray Ambulances

IBasement Supply & disposal Deliveries /

Horizontal structure: section through hospital with care area next to
Vertical structure: section through
Extension possibilities examination and treatment area
a hospital with care area above
examination and treatment area

293
 HOSPITALS
Examples

0 St Johann Nepomuk Catholic Hospital, Erfurt, ground floor Arch.: Thiede Messthaler Klosges

HOSPITALS
General, modular
grid
Building design
Examples
Corridors, doors,
stairs, lifts
Operational
areas
Outpatient area
Outpatient
medical centre-
example
Examination and
treatment
Care
Administration,
social services
Supply and waste
disposal
Technical supply

Operating
theatres

f) Hellos Clinic, Gotha, first floor Arch.: WORNER+PARTNER

294
 nurses' duty station
0 HOSPITAlS
Corridors, Doors, Stairs, Lifts

Corridors
Corridors have to be of suitable dimensions for the expected
traffic. Generally accessible corridors should be at least 1.50 m
wide and those in which patients are transported on beds must
have a usable width of at least 2.25 m. The suspended ceiling in
ward
corridors can be lowered down to a height of 2.40 min. in order to
provide room for service runs. This does, however, lead to the use
Q Ward corridor/nursing area of special fire protection ceilings in order to secure escape routes.
Fire protection requirements must be observed. Internal corridors
should be avoided because these have to be mechanically smoke
extracted. The usable width of corridors should not be narrowed
by installations, columns or other building elements. Windows for
lighting and ventilation should not be wider than 25 m apart.

Doors
The placing and selection of suitable doors in hospitals deserves
particular attention. The construction and quality of room doors
must meet the requirements of sound reduction and fire protection,
and the surface cladding must resist long-term cleaning and
disinfection.

f) Main corridor f) Corridor, medical services The clear opening height of doors is according to type and
function:
- standard door (unfinished): 885 x 2135 mm

- -. _ _ _~
doors through which beds pass: 1260-1375 x 2135 mm

1--
i patient
1 lobby
-corridor doors, double:

to obstruct traffic.
2400 x 2400 mm

In firewalls, T90 doors (held open) should be installed in order not

at least
Stairs
For safety reasons, stairs must be built so that they can accept

-3.50-4.00
~>Wm the entire vertical traffic in case of need. They must also be
constructed to prevent sound and odour transfer and prevent
draughts. Stairs must have handrails without free ends on both
sides. Spiral stairs are not permissible as emergency stairs. The
usable width of emergency stairs and their landings must be at
0 Service corridor, delivery and storage 0 Working corridor, operating theatres
least 1.50 m and not more than 2.50 m.

---1 Door leaves must not restrict the usable width of the stair
landings. Risers of 17 em are permissible and treads of 30 em are
recommended. Doors to the stairwells must open in the direction
HOSPITALS
General, modular
grid
Building design

E
nurses' Examples
duty of the escape route. Corridors,
station
doors, stairs,

4.70r--->l•llii~iii Lifts
lifts
Operational
Lifts transport patients, staff and also all supplies and waste. A areas
Outpatient area
separation of use should be established for hygienic and aesthetic Outpatient
reasons. The cars of bed lifts require sufficient space for a bed medical centre-
example
and two accompanying people. The internal surfaces of the lift car Examination and
must be flat, capable of being washed and disinfected, and the treatment

e Ward corridor, Intensive care 0 Llftlobby

floor must be non-slip. Lift shafts must be fire-resistant. Care
Administration,
social services
f---- a ---i A multi-purpose lift for beds, ambulant patients and visitors Supply and waste

n
disposal
pennissible load kg 1600 2000 2500
should be provided for every 100 beds. Additionally, there should Technical supply
be suitably located smaller lifts to transport equipment and staff:
shaft width c 2400 2400 2700
- car, clear dimensions: 0.90 x 1.20 m
shaft depth d 3000 3000 3300 - shaft dimensions: 1.25 x 1.50 m
b d car width a 1400 1500 1800

car depth b 2400 2700 2700

lj car door width e

car door height

1300 1300 1300

2300 2300 2300

car door height 2100 2100 2100
f--- e ---1 permissible no. people 21 26 33
c ---1

e Bedlift e Dimensions of bed lifts --> Ci)

295
 Key No. Area/dept Key No. Area/dept
HOSPITALS
1.00 Examination and Treatment 3.03 Information and Documentation Operational Areas
1.01 Admission and Emergency 3.04 Library
Provision
1.02 Medical Service
1.03 Functional Diagnostics 4.00 Social Services Hospitals are laid out according to operational areas and
1.04 Endoscopy 4.01 Service Facilities
1.05 Clinical Pathology 4.02 Pastoral Care and Social operational departments:
Services
1.06 Pathology 4.03 Staff Changing - examination and treatment
1.07 Radiological Diagnosis 4.04 Staff Catering -care
- administration
1.08 Nuclear Medicine Diagnosis 5.00 Supply and Waste Disposal - social services
5.01 Pharmaceutical Supply -education and research
1.09 Surgery 5.02 Sterile Goods Supply
1.10 Maternity 5.03 Equipment Supply -other
1.11 Radiotherapy 5.04 Bed Preparation
1.12 Nuclear Medicine Therapy 5.05 Catering The examination and treatment area is, besides care, the most
1.13 Physiotherapy 5.06 Laundry important within the overall organisation of a hospital and is
1.14 Occupational Therapy 5.07 Storage and Goods Handling
1.15 On-call Duty
characterised by particular features resulting from its specialisation
5.08 Maintenance and Repair and equipment.
5.09 Waste Disposal
2.00 Care 5.10 House and Transport Services
2.01 General Care
Patient-doctor contact varies according to discipline, as does
2.02 Nursing Mothers and Antenatal the frequency of patient examinations. The precise determination
Therapy 6.00 Education and Research
of the location of the various examination and treatment areas
2.03 Intensive Care 6.01 Research
2.04 Dialysis 6.02 Education in the building and their relation to each other can be made in
2.05 Paediatric Care 6.03 Training general terms. The individual departments in the examination
2.06 Infectious Diseases
Psychiatric Care
and treatment area are preferably situated in the basement, or
2.07
2.08 Nuclear Medicine Care 7.00 Other on the ground floor and first floor, with outpatient attendance
2.09 Admission Care 7.01 Ambulance Service concentrated in the ground floor. The combination of all medical
2.10 Geriatric Care 7.02 Limited Care Dialysis
2.11 Day Clinic 7.03 Child Care disciplines into a cohesive area is important in order to improve
7.04 Outward Services cooperation and consultation.
7.05 Inward Services
3.00 Administration 7.06 Residential NB: On hospital plans, Puml and Fango are types of therapy. OT =occupational therapy.
3.01 Management and Administration
3.02 Records

0 Categorisation of a hospital into functional areas and departments

X-ray diagnosis Ambulance admissions/A & E

5.00 ~ 5.00 ~ 5.00

>-
"'
0
0
HOSPITALS
Ladies "'
E

changing~"
r
General, modular 0
grid ""ui ?:-
Building design
Examples "'2'
Corridors, doors, ""'
stairs, lifts
Operational
"'
-~
areas
Outpatient area
Outpatient
medical centre -
example
T
·~"'
"'"'
<il
u
'5
"'
E
<il
u
Examination and
treatment "'"'>- :~
0
Care "'
0
Administration,
social services
~
c:
Supply and waste
disposal
·o
:~
"'
Technical supply 0

DIN 13080

f) Partial plan of Luckenwalde Hospital, 300 beds Arch.: Thiede Messthaler Klosges

296
 HOSPITALS
Outpatient Area

Outpatient facilities
Facilities for outpatient treatment are visited daily or consulted
many times, according to an appointment schedule, by patients
capable of walking.

Of particular importance is the allocation of outpatient rooms. A

separation of the routeing of outpatients and inpatients should
be included in the design work at an early stage. The number of
outpatients attending depends on the size of, and the specialist
departments in, a particular hospital. If there are a large number
of outpatients, then a larger dedicated area can be provided,
separate from the rest of the activity. There must, however, always
be a rapid connection to the X-ray department. The increasing
significance of outpatient (day) surgery should also be considered
(larger waiting rooms, more outpatient rooms).

Outpatient surgery
The share of operations performed on outpatients will increase
further. Outpatient (or day) surgery departments can be added to
existing hospitals, integrated into the surgical department or set
up as independent clinics. In the hospital, the department should
be near the main entrance and the emergency care department.

The patients in an outpatient surgical centre (mainly undergoing

elective operations as part of an outpatient, day clinic or short-stay
treatment arrangement) are in a different physical and mental state
from patients delivered as emergency cases. A clear guidance and
signposting system and friendly, confidence-boosting ambience
are particularly recommended.

One surgical department which concentrates on elective

outpatient treatment, has a 'modern' room arrangement with
smaller operating theatres (approx. 30 m2), a multi-functional
preparation room, smaller washrooms for two operating theatres,
one recovery room with five places, and a quiet zone. There are
no purely preparation and post-op rooms, storerooms or classic
access control lobbies for patients.

Outpatient medical centre

0 Outpatients, ground floor, Berlln-Spandau Hospital; today: Vivantes Clinic
Berlin-Spandau Arch.: Heinie, Wischer und Partner Freie Architekten This is a separate establishment associated with a hospital for
HOSPITALS
General, modular
the treatment of patients on an outpatient or short-stay basis; grid
the room and organisational structure differ considerably from Building design
Examples
T .,.
0 inpatient hospital treatment. The spectrum of complaints treated Corridors, doors,
0
(0
N and the medical services offered have to be considered. The stairs, lifts
Operational
" "'"' technical medical equipment can be reduced and the room

~t
areas
N
furnishing can be designed rather more generously regarding Outpatient area
Oulpatient
hygiene (e.g. carpets, parquet). medical centre-
0
example
"'
" "'"! Inpatient care and therapy of patients with infectious diseases, Examination and

~
0
0
"' chronic illnesses, serious complications after an operation etc.
are not provided here, so the stringency of the hospital building
treatment
Care
Administration,
<'i social seJVices
regulations can be partially relaxed or even waived for a particular
~t
Supply and waste
project with carefully reasoned exemption applications. disposal
Technical supply
.,."' The decision about the quantity and quality of ventilation
<ri
equipment, anaesthetic technology, ceiling supply units, radiation
protection equipment etc. should be critically examined, because
there are considerable potential savings. For most operations, air-
handling systems to reduce bacteria counts and particles are not
0 necessary, so the advance determination of the planned spectrum
0
,..: Wailing of operations is also of economic significance.
room

1 Doomm
10 10 15 24
1--- 7.00 ----f 2.30 -If----- 5.90 - i l - 3.40 -1+--------- 7.30 -----1
f) Emergency admission, Helios Clinic, Gotha Arch.: Worner+ Partner

297
 HOSPITALS
Outpatient Medical Centre - Example
CD Operating room ® Reception/waiting 55 m2 @ Operating room 7 m2 ® Waiting, outpatient operations 23 rn2
® Services -ventilation 32 m2 @ Records, server 15m2 @ Operating theatre @ Disinfection room 14m2
® Instrument preparation 6 m2 @ Consulting roorn approx. 13 m2 @ Washing 7 m2 @ Staff social room 14 rn 2
G) Internal corridor @ Writing room 13 m2 I§Waste disposal vestibule 7 m2 @Isolation room 8 m2
® Preparation, post-op room 19 rn2 @ Staff social room 14 m2 @ Patient vestibule 19 m2 @ Waiting roorn 17m2
®Store 8m2 @ Waste disposal vestibule 8 m2 @ Recovery room (4 places) 40m2 @ Operations vestibule 14 m2
(!)
Staff vestibule 6 rn2 @ Sterile goods store 50 m2 @ Sedation 1o m2 ® Treatment 12m2
® Waste disposal 6 m2 @ Services - electricity 7 m2 @ Regional anaesthesia 19 m2 ® Pain, outpatients 16 m2
® Changing room @ Devices operations approx. 12m2 @ Post-op room (12 places) 110m2 @Office 15m2
@ Doctor's room 15 m2 @ Operating room, washing 15 rn 2 @ Nurse's station, monitoring 17 m2 @ Consulting roorn

2nd floor
General, modular
grid
Building design
Examples
Corridors, doors, 1
stairs, lifts
Operational
areas
Outpatient area
Outpatient
medical centre-
example
Examination and
treatment
Care
Administration,
social services
Supply and waste
disposal
Technical supply

CD Bicycle ergometer 36 m2 @ Nurse I emergency 24 m2 @ Patient lounge smokers 12 m2

® Single gymnastics ® Doctor 24 m2 @ Patient lounge 22 m2
® Group gymnastics 58 m2 @ Functional diagnosis 15 m2 @Equipment
G) 1-bed room approx. 13 m2 @ Secretary 11 m2 @ Supply room 6 m2
® Consulting 18 m2 @ Reception I access I cafe 51 m2 @ Disposal room 5 V
® Seminar room 27 m2 @ Changing room approx. 9 m2 I§ Reception I monitoring 18 m2
Rest room 25 rn 2
(!) @ 2-bed roorn approx. 23 m2 @ Investigation & treatment 18 m2
@Store @Suite 23m2 @ Laundry 5 m2
® Diet kitchen I staff social 21 rn2 @ Staff social 12 m 2 @ Staff changing approx. 11 m2
0 Medical centre at the Oskar-Ziethen Hospital, Berlin-Lichtenberg Arch.: Deubzer Konig Architekten

298
 • • HOSPITALS
I lnvesti~
0
0
Examination and Treatment
"'
"
Consultant

-
galion
room

- - Head of
department
Room for two
secretaries
WaitingO

Patient"*-
0
0
0 Reception and emergency provision
The accident and emergency unit must be quickly reached by
accident patients (on stretchers) via the ambulance hall (clear
access access road height= min. 3.50 m) and by ambulant patients from
• the main entrance.

A good location for this department is the opposite side to

Patient
the main entrance. The department consists of a row of small
we
examination and treatment rooms (16-21 m2), equipped with a
couch, small operating light, cupboard units with sink and possibly
3.6 3.6-- patient cubicles. There must also be a plaster room with plastering
bench and a first-aid room for treating shock. Additionally, surgery
0 Clinical medical unit
rooms (similar to operating theatres) should be available. The
X-ray department should be nearby. Storage places for at least
two stretchers and for wheelchairs should be provided in the
ambulance hall.

The clinical service doctors, surgeons and anaesthetists should

be grouped in the vicinity.

Clinical medical service

This term describes all the management rooms of the individual
specialist departments/clinics. The classic medical service
facilities include a medical superintendent's room with office
support, a senior doctor's room and an examination room with
waiting area and toilets. These clinical medical service rooms form
the core of the outpatient zone on the ground floor of the hospital.

General medicine (internal medicine)

Further rooms should be provided for the following specialisms:
Ophthalmology: Treatment room (25 m2) with slit lamp, capable
of being darkened; squint treatment room; laser room.

Ear, nose and throat: Treatment room (25-30 m2), capable

of being darkened, with treatment table or treatment chair for
f) Interdisciplinary clinical medical service Arch.: Thiede Messthaler Klosges
examinations.

Urology: Urological treatment is connected with X-ray diagnosis.

The treatment room (25-30 m2) has a table for endoscopic
HOSPITALS
examinations and is equipped with suspended irrigator and floor
General, modular
drainage. Next door is an instrument room with sink. grid
Building design
Examples
Functional diagnosis Corridors, doors,
Functional diagnosis is becoming ever more important in hospitals, stairs, lifts
Operational
partly due to progress in heart/thorax examinations and also areas
the increase in complaints relating to heart-lung and circulation Outpatient area
Outpatient
functions. medical centre-
example
All examination rooms must be accessible through patient Examination
and treatment
cabins, possibly also preparation rooms (for left heart catheter Care
measurement). Administration,
social services
Supply and waste
disposal
Endoscopy Technical supply
An endoscope is a mirror instrument used to illuminate and
observe cavities inside the body. It is inserted through natural
body openings with the patient under partial anaesthesia.
The categories are gastroscopy, bronchoscopy, rectoscopy,
laparoscopy and cystoscopy. The device is prepared directly in the
examination and treatment room. WCs should be provided for the
patients before entering. This department should have a bedded
waiting area and rest room (beds = no. of endoscopy rooms x 2) .

Endoscopic and functional diagnosis department, with beds, at Beizig Hospital

Arch.: Thiede Messthaler Klosges

299
 25 15 HOSPITALS
~-- Examination and Treatment
m
0

"-
';! Laboratory medicine
~
~= :1 ~
The laboratory is mostly concerned with the preparation and
processing of blood, urine and stool samples. The laboratory
should be a large room with standing and sitting workstations.
~ i Specialist laboratories are added on as separate rooms.

~~
';!-
Subsidiary rooms include rest room for staff, rinsing room,
~ sluice room, disinfection room, cold room. Quick connection to
';! ~=f'
other departments is provided by a pneumatic delivery system.

1
~ Laboratory areas can also be completely off-site and serve several
'"
';! m
'" hospitals.

~[
Pathology
The pathology department of a hospital includes rooms for
storage of bodies, dissection, refrigeration of bodies, laying out,
placing into coffins, coffin storage and changing rooms for the
IO....L
pathologists. Separate access for relatives and the shortest
possible road access for undertakers are important. This

:1 department should not be in the vicinity of the service yard.

Radiology

~I Radiology requires rooms in which ionising radiation is applied

for diagnostic and therapeutic purposes. It should be near the
m_ outpatients department and the ambulance approach road. The
~I heavy weight of the equipment (up to approx. 14 t) means that
this department is better located on the ground or first basement.
~: A connecting room for staff, which also serves as store, dictation
I
room and possibly as switch room, is advantageous. The size of the

14.25 25
l\ll departments' rooms is determined by the large medical equipment
and related technology. Sonography, mammography and jaw
radioscopy need room sizes of approx. 15-18 m2 , radioscopy
0 Laboratory area at the Dr. Horst Schmidt Clinics, Wiesbaden
Arch.: Worner+ Partner and exposure rooms approx. 20-30 m2 . The access for patients

u ~]~·~
should be through two changing cubicles for each radioscopy
room and a wide (1.25 m) door for beds is also necessary. WCs for
gastroscopy, colonoscopy and contrast medium patients should
post·jif~ be attached to the radioscopy rooms. Angiography rooms require
a preparation room with cupboard units (sink, pharmaceutical
coffin stand ~
refrigerator). The exposure room for computer tomography must
~
have dimensions of approx. 35 m2 • Between the switchroom and
the exposure room is a door and a clear window. An additional
HOSPITALS room for switching cabinets and a room for film development are
General, modular also sensible. The walls and ceilings are protected with lead inserts
grid
Building design
(e.g. in plasterboard walls). The lead equivalent values in walls and
Examples ceilings depend on the X-ray equipment and its manufacturer, with
Corridors, doors,
stairs, lifts 0 Soltau District Hospital, 354 beds 0 Pathology department at the St. whom early collaboration is essential.
Operational Arch.: Poetzig, Biermann Clemens Hospital, Geldern, 480 beds
areas Arch.: Poetzig, Biermann
Outpatient area
Outpatient
medical centre-
example
Examination
and treatment
Care
Administration,
social services
Supply and waste
disposal
Technical supply

Architects: Wichtendahl, Roennich

e Munich-Perlach Hospital, 687 beds 0 Fulda City Hospital, 732 beds: centre of examination and treatment area, near
the functional diagnosis and nuclear medicine diagnosis departments
Arch.: Kohler, Kassens

300
 CD overhead operating lamp HOSPITALS
@ operating table with fixed base
@ wall or ceiling pendulum Examination and Treatment
@ anaesthesia equipment
@ dish stand with heater
@ electric suction pump Operating department
(2) X-ray display box The location of the operating department in the overall organisation
@ anaesthesia table
@ instrument table of the hospital is of great significance. The design should include a
@ waste bin, used instrument short distance to the intensive care unit, recovery room and central
container
Qj) dish stand without heater sterile store, because rapid access between these departments
@ suturing materials table must always be ensured. Surgical departments are best placed
@ operating steps
centrally and with easy accessibility in the core of the hospital.
(j] swivel stool for surgeon
@l drum stand
Organisation of the operating department
@ infusion stand
The following rooms or room zones belong in every operating
Q Equipment plan for operating theatre department:

T~
-operating theatre, preparation, transfer, scrub room, sterile
goods store, with a total area of approx. 80m 2 •

r ~ 00: ,00 -HH The operating theatre should be as square as possible to enable
proper working with the operating table (size approx. 6.50 x

' ~ I ~!=iu10~~~~ T
6.50 m) turned in any direction. The clear ceiling height must be
1 3.00 m with a space above the ceiling of approx. 70-80 em for
air conditioning and other services. Operating theatres should be
designed to be as uniform as possible to enable interdisciplinary

110'2jft~:?/:0?/J/"/~
0 work. The doors to the operating theatre operate automatically.
"'l ~
f- SH
~
The basic equipment includes an adjustable and transportable
operating table system mounted on a fixed plinth in the centre of
the operating theatre.
Routeing
In order to reduce infection through contact, the various work
f) Suspended lamp for operating theatre with satellite processes should be separated.
The one-corridor system, in which pre- and post-operative patients,
clean and dirty goods can all be present in one corridor leading to
the theatres, is still often used today for reasons of cost and space.
Two-corridor systems are better, with the patients and staff or
patients and dirty goods separated. The separation of the flow of
patients from the work area of the operating theatre is important.
In exceptional cases a preparation room is sensible. The size is
approx. 3.80 x 3.80 m. Electrical sliding doors on the side toward
the operating theatre, with 1.40 m clear opening width and clear
windows, which should provide a connection to the operating
theatre. The fixtures should include refrigerator, sink, rinsing unit,
cupboard for cannulas, sockets for anaesthetic equipment and
emergency power supply.
Likewise, a transfer room is advisable only in exceptional cases. HOSPITALS
It is equipped like the preparation room. There is a sliding door to General, modular
grid
the working corridor with a clear width of 1.25 m. There should Building design
be a sink. Examples
A scrub room with at least six places should be provided in the Corridors, doors,
stairs, lifts
immediate vicinity of the operating theatre. The minimum width of Operational
the room should be 1.80 m. areas
Outpatient area
One sterile goods room is required per operating theatre, of Outpatient
approx. 10-15 m2 • This must be directly accessible from the medical centre-
example
operating theatre. There are also floor layouts with a large central Examination
sterile goods store. The equipment room should not be too far and treatment
Care
from the operating theatre; size 20 m2 • Administration,
The operating theatres control centre should be centrally social services
located and have a large area of glass from which to oversee the Supply and waste
disposal
working corridor. In addition to a desk, there should be cupboards Technical supply
and a pin-board for organisational planning.
Dictation rooms can be provided as small room units of approx.
6 m2 , as the surgeons need this room only for reports after
operations.
(i) Recovery room @ Wash places
® Staff changing room @ Entrance and exit zone There must be a cleaning room of 5 m2 in every operating
® Supply vestibule @ Electricity department, because cleaning and disinfection is performed after
@ Wasle disposal vestibule @ Children's recovery room
® Patient rebedding @ Disposal of sterile goods each operation. Near the control lobby for patients, sufficient
@ Operations control centre ® Trolley cleaning space should be provided for clean, prepared beds, one clean
0 Trolley cleaning/store ® Staff lounge
bed per operation.
® Operating theatre @ Rapid section laboratory
®Equipment ® Plaster room Toiletfacilities should not be located near the patients' control
Surgery zone at the Hellos Clinic Berlin-Buch, 1000 beds
lobbies, and are to be avoided in the operating area for hygienic
Arch.: Thiede Messthaler Kliisges Keitel reasons.

301
 f-6.40--f HOSPITALS
Examination and Treatment

A number of essential supply and workrooms are associated

with the operating theatre. The operating department includes
staff and patient control lobbies, instrument preparation, waste
disposal control lobbies, supply control lobbies, storage space
for operating trolleys and also, in the direct vicinity, the recovery
room. Integrated into the patient control lobby are the functions
bed transfer, preparation of the operating table and storage for
operating tables.

A replacement power supply is necessary for operating depart-

ments to ensure the continuance and completion of operations in
case of a mains failure.

Post-operative patient monitoring

The recovery room has to accept post-op patients from several
theatres. The number of beds required is thus 1.5 times the
number of theatres. There should be a nurse's observation point
with a view of all beds and a dirty room next door. The recovery
room should be designed as a large, suitably arranged space.

The equipment preparation room for anaesthetic devices has

a dirty side for unsterile (infected) material and a clean side for
devices prepared for use. The fittings include sink, storage and
0 Operating department (1 0 theatres), first floor, Brandenburg an der Havel City worktop space, and steam sterilisers. Operating instruments are
Clinic, Newbuild West Arch.: Heinle, Wischer und Partner Freie Architekten
prepared exclusively in the central sterile store, which is situated
outside the operating zone.

A plaster room with plastering bench also belongs in the operat-

ing suite, particularly where many surgical-orthopaedic operations
are carried out.

The dimensions of the staff lounge correspond to the size of the

operating department. Each theatre team (surgeons, anaesthet-
ists, operating department practitioners (OOPs), theatre nurses,
anaesthesia nurses) should be assumed to have eight members.
The lounge should have sufficient seating, cupboards and a sink.

Natural lighting of the operating theatre is psychologically

advantageous, but is often impractical due to the layout of the
rooms. The artificial lighting of the operating environment must
HOSPITALS be designed so that the light can fall from various directions
I I .I according to the layout of incisions. The most frequently used
General, modular
grid
Building design
:I
I·
Corridor llI lighting system is the mobile operating light suspended from the
Examples I
ceiling. This consists of a swivelling ceiling light, usually equipped
I
Corridors, doors, with an additional light in the form of a satellite. The main light
stairs, lifts
Operational
contains a number of small lights in order to avoid sharp shadows.
areas
Outpatient area The division of the operating theatre into septic and aseptic zones
Outpatient is medically controversial, but is still sensible as a precaution.
medical centre-
example Floor and walls must be flat and easily washable throughout.
Examination
and treatment Air conditioning
Care
Administration, Operating departments are nearly always air-conditioned. The
social services ventilation serves to reduce micro-organisms by filtering, diluting
Supply and waste
disposal and replacing the air. The supply of appropriately conditioned air in
Technical supply the required quantities is provided by the air-conditioning system.
15-20 air changes are required per hour to achieve a reasonable
decontamination of the air between operations. In order to create
an extensively sterile zone in the operating theatre, there should
be no uncontrolled air intake from surrounding rooms. This can
be achieved through an airtight envelope around the operating
theatre (tightest possible joint sealing during construction) and/or
by protective pressurising (i.e. pressure dropping from the room
to be protected to other, less vulnerable areas). A standard lays
down the air flow direction in the operating area. The operating
theatre has the highest pressure in order to prevent air entering.
The lowest pressure should be in the subsidiary and functional
f) Large operating theatre with associated entry and exit zones rooms. Windows in operating theatres should be lockable.

302
 HOSPITALS
Examination and Treatment

ODD ~ o
ooo~oO Maternity unit
o Ic.
o In addition to the task of overseeing normal births, the maternity unit
also treats women with complications. A room similar to an operating
theatre, for caesarean births, is therefore absolutely necessary in
addition to the normal delivery rooms. In situations where a theatre-
special delivery like delivery room is not possible inside the maternity unit, the unit
should be next to the general operating theatre. The maternity area
should be attached to the post-natal and baby care zones.

The delivery suite should include a room for midwives and for
observation (large glass window) and a labour room. The delivery
0
"0
'E room should be equipped with a changing table with integrated
8 baby bath and a radiant heater. A demand has arisen recently for
delivery 2
further equipment for various types of birth (water birth etc.), and
a bath for relaxation near the delivery room is also very popular.
A specific team of staff work in the maternity unit and require the
appropriate lounge, clean and dirty workrooms, reception, and
toilets for staff and patients.

Radiotherapy
Conditions diagnosed as tumours are treated in the radiotherapy
department. Each treatment room requires a changing cubicle for
ambulant patients and a waiting area for bedbound patients, and
0 each department requires doctor's rooms, a switch room, possibly
0 a localisation room, services rooms and a film development
room. A workshop and at least one physics laboratory are also
necessary.
000
The safety conditions are particularly stringent for radiation
therapy: a series of laws, regulations and standards is in place.
Radiation protection can be achieved by using lead inserts or thick
concrete (e.g. barite concrete) walls.
0 Maternity/birth assistance St Elisabeth Hospital, Halle

The massive weight of radiation equipment and its required

constructional radiation protection mean that radiation therapy
will be located in the basement or ground floor. The clear ceiling
height of radiation rooms must be 3.00 m and the concrete walls
can, depending on the exact equipment, be up to 3.00 m thick for
the treatment and examination area in the primary radiation area
and up to 1.50 m thick for the secondary area. HOSPITALS

prep. doctorswashing
General, modular
grid
del.op. rr,=: ~ry ~ery Fd li Building design
:-n-::
'~-"
llll.__rj (id) I :JJ:) =
ster!l. ...._... _ _. sink
Examples
Corridors, doors,
stairs, lifts
Operational
areas
f) Waldbrol District Hospital, 448 beds; bath and sink provided next
Outpatient area
to every two maternity places Arch.: Karl Monerjan Outpatient
medical centre -
example
Examination
and treatment
Care
Administration,
social services
Supply and waste
disposal
Technical supply

Radiation therapy department, Werner-Forssmann Hospital,

8 Linear accelerator department Arch.: U +A Weicken Eberswalde, 475 beds Arch.: Thiede Messthaler Klosges

303
 HOSPITALS
Examination and Treatment

Physiotherapy
This department can be placed on the ground floor, but should
have adequate natural ventilation through rooflights or light shafts.
It must be accessed through a reception area.

Physiotherapy is divided into a dry and a wet area, the latter

consisting of exercise bath (approx. 4 x 6 m), 'four-cell' bath,
'butterfly' bath, inhalation rooms, massage baths, hand-foot baths
and the associated subsidiary rooms. The separation between wet
and dry areas should be implemented completely.

The necessary subsidiary rooms are changing rooms for women

and men, wheelchair-friendly toilet, staff and patient toilets,
lounge, laundry store, waiting zone, cleaning room and services
rooms for the exercise bath.

In the dry area, there are gymnastics rooms (approx. 40-50 m2)
for group treatment and single therapy rooms (approx. 20 m2) for
0 Bobath concept and exercise therapy. The clear ceiling height
must be min. 3.00 m.

n~ Atrium Decentralised therapy rooms can also be convenient near the

B wards (e.g. accident surgery, orthopaedics).

4.585
15
:I 2.25
15
II li 2.6s' I 4.755

tl[J[J[J[J[J )Massage
0 CJ ~~
[5
u
Waiting §
c: I_)
~~01i
HOSPITALS
l~¢;1
General, modular
grid
0 Physiotherapy, first floor, Berlin-Spandau Hospital; today: Vlvantes Clinic,
timulatio
Building design Berlin-Spandau Arch.: Heinie, Wlscher und Partner Freie Architektenen
Examples I~
Corridors, doors,
stairs, lifts
Operational
areas
in
Outpatient area
Outpatient
medical centre-
example
Examination
and treatment
Care
Administration,
social seiVices
Supply and waste
disposal
Technical supply

6.96

f) Physiotherapy, Heiios Clinic, Gotha Arch.: Worner+ Partner

~G) Special use (66 m2) 0 4-cell bath @ Locker room

® Personal residence ® Occupational therapy (81 Rest room
®Office ®Massage ®Spa/Sauna
@Treatment ® Elevator hall ® Pharmacy (132m2)
®Gymnastics @Waiting
® Exercise pool @Cosmetics

Physiotherapy, ground floor, ThOringen Clinics, Saalfeld-Rudolstadt

Arch.: Thiede Messthaler Klosges Kasper

304
 HOSPITALS
Care

The care department is laid out as an enclosed unit and through

traffic should be avoided. The wards must be naturally lit but
functional rooms, like those for treatment, or the duty station with
clean workrooms and pharmaceutical stores, can be located in
the internal artificially lit area.

The normal size of a care ward is 30-36 beds. If the arrangement

of the central functional rooms is appropriate (nurses' station,
clean workroom etc.), then a number of wards can be structurally
~ combined.
+l=~~~~~jJ-I With other organisational forms of medical care, economic ward
sizes of up to 48 beds can be reached. The rooms must be laid out
so that there is sufficient room for movement. A sufficient number
of patient cupboards, and space for care equipment (walking
frame, corn mode) and care devices must be available.

0 One-bed patient room f) Two-bed patient room

General care
Standard care units provide general inpatient care, particularly for
~---~~- 3.90 -~~--j short-term and acute illnesses, with predominantly short stays.
Units with the same space requirement should be structured
above each other, in bed blocks.

The individual wards of a hospital are increasingly being run on an

interdisciplinary basis and mixing the sexes, so the wards should
be planned as units capable of being combined. Each ward must
have at least one doctor's room where minor examinations can
take place.

Room relationships
The ward entrance lobby must be clearly visible from the glazed
nurses' station, and pharmaceutical stores and wash rooms
should be easily accessible. The logistics of patient supply requires
centrally located supply and waste disposal rooms for medi-
cation, laundry, waste and catering.

Wet cells
Each patient room should have its own wet cell with WC,
washbasin and sometimes also shower, although these can also HOSPITALS
be separated as shower rooms. The wet cells should be accessible General, modular
for disabled people. grid
Building design
Examples
The heights of vanity unit and WC are important (vanity unit Corridors, doors,
stairs, lifts
rnin. 86 ern so that wheelchairs can fit underneath). The WC for Operational
wheelchair users should be at a height of approx. 49 em, i.e. top areas
Three-bed patient room with shower Three-bed patient room level of the toilet seat. Each ward should also have staff, visitor Outpatient area
(column grid 7.80 m) (standard) Outpatient
and wheelchair WCs. medical centre-
example
Examination and
treatment
G) Clean workroom Care
<D
"1 ® Dirty workroom Administration,
social services
@ Preparation
f--- 6.40 ----j
"'1
~T
Supply and waste
disposal
Technical supply

0
lh 0
I ro
co
<ri "'<ri i
<ri

!::.¢
I

mLm
"'"'
c----------- 3.30-~+-~- 3.28--1
Section of floor plan, second floor, general care ward, Brandenburg an der Havel
f--~~-- 6.51 ~------1 City Clinic, Newbuild East
0 Three-bed patient room (superior)
Arch.: Heinie, Wischer und Partner Freie Architel<ten

305
 HOSPITALS
Care

Size of patient room

Patient beds should be accessible on three sides, and next to the
bed there should be at least one side table. On the window side, a
table (90/90 em) with chairs (one per patient) should be provided.
It must be possible to open the built-in cupboard without having
0 Three-bed room, section
to move bed or side table.
The minimum size for a single bedroom is 16m2 , for two and three
bedrooms 8 m2 per bed (Hospital Regulations). The room widths
should be chosen so that the beds at the back can be wheeled out
of the room without having to move the first bed out of the room
(minimum width 3.45 m with an axial width of 3.60 m).
Fitting out patient rooms
-
In order to protect the walls of the room from damage by beds,
side tables or trolleys, a protection rail made of suitable material
,;-\ must be fixed to all walls (height min. 40-70 em above floor level).
IF=="' This also applies to the corridors in the ward.
fW Patient cupboards must be sufficiently large. A suitcase com-
partment above the cupboard and a lockable compartment for
valuables inside the cupboard are useful.
f) Patient bathroom 0 Elevation -> 8 The room doors must be large, 1.26 x 2.13 m, on account of
frequent bed transport, and sound protection to the corridor
should be 32 dB. Behind the beds, there is a supply rail for air/
gas and lighting. Special sockets can supply oxygen, vacuum
and compressed air. Also integrated are sockets, reading lamp,
<D Patient lounge @ Supply & disposal
® Care/doctors' station @Bathroom telephone, nurse call button and radio.
®Equipment <1) Bed preparation
@) Staff lounge ® Cleaners' room

HOSPITALS
General, modular
grid
Building design
Examples
Corridors, doors,
stairs, lifts
Operational
areas
Outpatient area
Outpatient
medical centre-
example
Examination and
treatment
Care
Administration,
social services
Supply and waste
disposal
Technical supply

Arch.: Heinie, Wischer und Partner Freie Architekten

306
 HOSPITALS
Care

Workroom, clean/medication
The clean workroom should be about 20 m2 • The fitting out
consists of fixed shelving or a flexible storage system of modular
units, which are filled up in the central stores, and pharmaceutical
cabinets. Special cupboards for medicines should be available
4.50 4.50 and also a safe for narcotics.
0 Senior doctor's office f) Examination and treatment room
Workroom, dirty
This room is for the staff in the vicinity of the patient rooms. One
1--- 4.00 --1 dirty workroom should be provided for every eight beds. There
should be cleaning and disinfection sinks (emptying bed pans),
wash-hand basins, worktop with lighting, cupboards or shelves
for dirty washing bags, room size approx. 8-10m 2 •

Nurses' station
The nurses' station, size approx. 25-30 m2 , should be in the centre
of the ward. It should have a large glazed opening to the corridor
for visual and communication contact (observe fire regulations).

4.50 Staff lounge/kitchenette

C) Ward doctor's office e Clean/medication workroom The staff lounge, size approx. 16 m2 , with its own kitchen work
area, staff refrigerator and possibly lockers for valuables. The
kitchenette is for preparation and warming up of small amounts of
food for patients. The equipment depends on the organisation of
the main kitchen, e.g. catering distribution system with insulated
trolley.

Ward doctor's office

The ward doctor must be able to examine patients here. In addition
to the desk, there should be room for shelves and an examination
couch. Room size approx. 16-20 m2 .

Patients' lounge
As general meeting point for patients, size approx. 22-25 m2 . The
furnishing should be homely. A television set no longer has to be
provided here, as this is normally mounted on the wall in each
7.00 7.00 patient room. The question of separate lounges for smokers and
non-smokers should be clarified at an early stage with the hospital
office jstretcher jnl,.jJ--.'D;;:.:;c-.c.Pu:.:.ll:...:·a:..:u.:..tt:..:•:.:.bl.:..•
...J
management.
~
1~1
smk
X-ray instrument workroom HOSPITALS
viewer table
Patient bathroom
General, modular

[]
[] treatment
tablel_j
n The equipment includes a bath with lifting device, which is
accessible on three sides. An additional shower in a version
designed for disabled people is also useful and an accessible WC
grid
Building design
Examples
Corridors, doors,

1 _•in-k- - -
should be integrated.

Services room
Each ward must have its own electricity distribution board for
stairs, lifts
Operational
areas
Outpatient area
Outpatient
room
medical centre -
Combination of doctor's office, treatment room, nurses' workroom and nurses' high-voltage electricity, emergency power supply and communi- example
station into one unit Arch.: Rosenfield cations/iT. Room size 8 m2 • Examination and
treatment
Care
Administration,
social services
Supply and waste
c:=J c=J Prep. Doctors disposal
Technical supply
Corridor,
external
c::::::::Jc::::::::J
]

Urology
c::::::::Jc::::::::J
c::::::::Jc::::::::J
f) General care ward (40 beds), Eberswalde Hospital Arch. Thiede Messthaler Klosges

307
 HOSPITALS
DO DO Care

Nursing mother and neonatal care

~~;ngmg~ T p~remat[ur~e
g;
eqpt
.L:.J -a .S
babies and inTfa:~s gcon~
l><l
I g t:i
m
> qu1et
.8 o room
~
'ii)
~ g .
_I ~
The care of nursing mothers and babies includes all activities
necessary after a hospital delivery for the bodily, medical,
psychological and social support of nursing mothers and
·rn:g lE
~ newborns with normal progress.
" 2 I co
:ii "' [prep. :0 .'!l dirty clean ;:! 1:: m
I .~C:±:J
-o admm.
~L:::::J
The organisation of care for nursing mothers is similar to that for
0 Premature baby and Infant ward with 27 beds, Fulda Arch.: Kohler, Kassem
general care. Where the care of newborns is centralised, their care
unit is located at the edge of or within the nursing mothers' unit.
In order to reduce infection, the area is divided into small rooms
or compartments. The babies are carried or wheeled on trolleys
into the nursing mothers' room for breastfeeding. This creates a
more frequent and intensive contact between mother and child
than the former arrangement with a central breastfeeding room.
The accommodation of new mothers and newborns in one room
('rooming-in') avoids the transport of babies and makes less work
for the staff.

Care units are mostly smaller than for normal care; limiting the
size of the care group to 10-14 beds is sensible. For hygienic
l---3.60-+-- 3.60 - - l reasons, the requirements for the care of nursing mothers and
Care of infectious children, room variant Arch.: Deilmann newborns are higher than for normal care. Therefore, in addition
to the normal control lobby system, a lobby plus cloakroom must
be provided for visitors. The bed space can be designed as with
normal care but the spacing of the beds needs to be larger to
allow for the baby's cot. The sanitary facilities must include
hip-bath/shower combinations and showers.

Neonatal care units comprise: cot spaces for newborns, nappy

removal, baby bathing, nappy fitting, cradle space, work area for
neonatal nurse, possibly parking for transport trolley, work area
for the departmental sister, nurses' lounge, kitchenette, doctor's
office, examination and treatment room, clean workroom, patient
bath, day room for patients and visitors, store, equipment and
r-- 5.0 ------1
cleaning rooms, staff and visitors' WCs, linen cupboards.
8 Care of infectious children, room Q Single-bed room with separate
variant Arch.: Deilmann infant room Arch.: Mayhew

HOSPITALS 1 0 0 35 4.60
General, modular
grid
Building design
Examples
DO II
G) After-care 3-bed room
® Intensive care 3·bed room
Corridors, doors,
stairs, lifts
Operational
areas
Outpatient area
.
ii\
@
@
@
@
Service room
Service doctor
Service care
Discharge room

Outpatient
medical centre -
example
Examination and
treatment
Care
Administration,
1
social services Single-bed rooms with separate infant room Arch.: Mayhew
Supply and waste
disposal

'""""' '"~'' 1 o\J LJ D "-1

Do8o Drl E]D

D D oo( 0 D
D D lfl D
c. 0 ~ D ~ ~
~

r=:>
rr~~~~~~~~~~~;
(. J ol o0o Dl lo
f--3.60 3.60 - - - i 1~r 1f
3.22$i~5 ~?
3.421T 1r
5
3.42
5
3.425 3.425 3.35 2.2slf 4.65 1r
1
G Room unit for infants' and children's care Arch.: Mayhew f) Neonat~logy, Lei~zlg University Cll~ic Arch.: Worner+ Partner

308
 HOSPITALS
Care

Intensive care medicine

Patients with significant disturbance of vital bodily functions
are treated in intensive care. A direct, short route to the surgical
3.00 department and to the medical service (anaesthesia) is necessary.
~

0 Intensive care room: single bed f) Section --> 0 The patients are permanently monitored by doctors and care
staff. The organisation of intensive care is similar to that of related
with supply panel
disciplines like neurosurgery, heart/thorax surgery, transplant
surgery and neurology or interdisciplinary fields like surgery or
internal medicine.

For general hospitals without a particular medical specialisation,

the integration of intensive care with surgery and internal medicine
is usual. Intensive care must be spatially separated from the
general care area and accessible only through a system of control
lobbies (for hygiene reasons).

The central point of every intensive care ward is an open nurses'

station with a view of every room. The number of patients (6-36)
in an intensive care unit depends on the total size of the hospital.
Each unit requires a duty station, a clean workroom (preparation
of medication and infusions) and a materials and equipment room.

The beds can be arranged in an open, closed or combined

layout. The open layout requires a spacious area. The patients are
separated visually by half-height partitions with glazed window
elements. In the closed arrangement, the patients are separated
into different rooms.

Further facilities should be provided: anaesthesia preparation

2-bed room, clean material room, dirty workroom, cleaning room, waiting
I room for relatives, doctors' on-call lounge, documentation room,
1-bed 1-bed
and possibly consulting room. There should be connections for
Q) Work room, clean @)Disposal oxygen, compressed air and vacuum at every bed space.
® Work room, unclean G) Bed vestibule/visitors/supply
Intensive care ward, Luckenwalde Hospital, 10 beds
Arch.: Thiede Messthaler Klosges
15 15 15 15 24 15 24
4.65 4.60 4.05 5.25 2.50 3.40 3.40 2.78
II II
HOSPITALS
General, modular
grid
Building design
Examples
Corridors, doors,
stairs, lifts
Operational
areas
Outpatient area
Outpatient
medical centre-
example
Examination and
treatment
Care
Administration,
social services
Supply and waste
disposal
Technical supply

Corridor

G) Equipment ®Disposal
® Service room @Electric
@ Staff lounge @ Care work room, unclean
8) Treatment @ Tea kitchen
® 1-bedroom @workroom
@ 2wbedroom @Workplace
15 15 15 15 15 (i) Shaft @ Rebedding vestibule
4.60 4.60 4.05 4.05 1.65 II 1.9o ®Changing @ Cleaner's room
11
e Intensive care ward, Helios Clinic, Gotha Arch.: Worner+ Partner

309
 HOSPITALS
Care

Paediatric care
The proportions of patients in dedicated children's hospitals
are babies (35%), premature babies (13%}, small children
and schoolchildren up to 14 years old (22%) and all ages after
G) Bedroom @ Nurses' station ®Treatment infectious illnesses (22%}. The accommodation of this last group
@Doctor @ Personal wardrobe @Quiet room should aim to avoid contact between patients and other patients/
(J) Nurses' lounge
staff. Isolation wards should be provided for measles, chickenpox,
Q Children's ward with 28 beds, Velbert City Hospital Arch.: Kruger, Kruger, Rieger diphtheria, scarlet fever and TB. Rooms should also be provided
for teaching, activity and play. The design of children's wards

CJ8 g should be similar to that of a kindergarten, rather than a sterile

clinical area.
D D D 0
c=J c:=J Care of the mentally ill
This can be open or closed (as well as in the special forensic form
0
under a hospital treatment order). The special nature of mental
illness results in a higher space requirement for day rooms, dining
rooms and rooms for occupational and group therapy. Small care
units (up to 18 patients) should be created with short circulation
routes and homely design in order to give the patients a feeling
of security. The trend is towards the integration of psychiatric
f) Single- and two-bed rooms with
8 Four-bed room with all
departments into general hospitals.
strong radiation protection, equipment for basic care {for
in the controlled area of long-term psychiatric patients)
a radiology ward Arch.: Deilmann Arch.: Deilmann Care of radiotherapy patients
In the design of nuclear medicine care groups, which address the
diagnosis and therapy of patients undergoing radiation treatment,
0 compliance with the Radiation Protection Regulations is the first
CJ D
0
D principle. The size of a care group should correspond to a normal
care group. The operational centre is divided into a controlled area
0
"! D CJ D D and a supervised area. In this way, patients who have received
" the greatest radiation doses are separated from those treated with
less. Patients should therefore be accommodated in single-bed
rooms.

>---- 3.60----+·- 3.60 7.20 ---1

G Room unit for patients with mild mental illness and for those needing care
Arch.: Deilmann

Workroom, unclean Workroom, clean

HOSPITALS
General, modular
grid
Building design
Examples
Corridors, doors,
stairs, lifts
Operational
areas
Outpatient area
Outpatient
medical centre -
example
Examination and
treatment
Care
Administration,
social services
Supply and waste
disposal
Technical supply

Arch.: Thiede Messthaler Klosges

310
 5.12
22
1.77
5
3.42 i 2.18 I 4.23 4.04 4.04 3.60 3.575 HOSPITALS
11 1
Care

Music OT OT Bio- Office Day clinic

therapy therapy therapy In the course of the reform of
0) health provision, many hospi-
tals are partially outsourcing
certain clinical areas, which
0
can be operated by private
doctors' collectives. These
specialist clinics are for pati-
ents who are cared for only
during the daytime without a
bed in the hospital. Outpatient
operations can also be carried
out. Because these patients
are separate from the usual
operation of the hospital, a
separate entrance is required.
0
The reception and waiting
"',-.:
areas are designed in a simi-
lar way to a doctor's practice
and should avoid a 'hospital'
25 15 5 15 20 5 30 5.61' 15 5 15 atmosphere.
-il+l---'-7_,_,.1-"-0---~l:"""""""'3.=28~-lil-l2=:·cc10"-1!-l:_ _.4.._..7'-"6'----1-l f-- _. ---flll-""4.;o23,.___~
11 _""4.ocOO,.__-+
0 First floor -7 f)

21 15 15 15 15 15 15 15 25
5.07
II 1.82 II 3.16
I
230 5
· II 2.87 3.03
II
2.88
II
2.88
I
3.45
II
3.425
II

"'

'Hl
(\J

'lb
Services
8[} 8[} 8[} 8[} 8[} 0
0
0
0
.,.": Care office Psychol. Psychol. Doctor Doctor
0 0
social work social work Tea room

'&
0)

General, modular
~ grid
Building design
Examples
Care workroom Corridors, doors,
stairs, lifts
"'"'cO Operational
Waiting areas
Atrium
Outpatient area
"' Outpatient
medical centre -
example
Examination and
treatment
gj ~ Care
Administration,
social services
Supply and waste
~ ';" disposal
Technical supply

'lb
~
CJD 0)

D D
('")
.,.;
Disposal "
0
CD 1!3
('")

30 15 15 15 15 15 15 25
3.285 2.15 2.965 5.90 5.90 4.00
II
2.10
II
4.95
II II II II II II
f) Ground floor plan, psychiatric day clinic, Dr. Horst Schmidt Clinics, Wiesbaden Arch.: Worner+ Partner

311
 HOSPITALS
<D entrance hall
®sales Administration, Social Services
@administration
@X-ray archive
@sink room
®kitchen
<V staff dining room Management and administration
Administration offices are divided into those dealing
directly with patients, and other offices. Offices for patient
admission and dealings with friends and relatives should
be provided near the main entrance. The offices for
internal hospital business are: administrative director's
office with secretarial support, accounts department and
personnel department. Conference and meeting rooms
are also required. In larger hospitals, social workers and
psychologists also work in the administration.

Increasing rationalisation in accounting and the

application of IT need to be considered in the design,
perhaps involving raised floors and the central accounts
office with pneumatic postal delivery connections.

Records
A short distance between records and working areas is
advantageous but mostly difficult to achieve. A location in
the basement with access by stairs is possible.

0 Community Hospital, Herdecke/Ruhr, 192 beds; entrance hall with There is a difference between stores and records rooms
administration area Arch.: BockenmOhl for files, literature, films, administration, X-ray department
. . . . . etc. Mobile shelving is useful to reduce the space
requirement for the same storage capacity. The high
~~~~~~ loading assumptions for shelves (up to 1000 kg/m 2) have
to be considered. The storage term for patient files is 30
years.

Library
Medical libraries should be provided with open shelving,
without closed stores and book issue. A large part of the
literature is journals. Sufficient availability of reading tables
Hot with lamps is important. Hospital libraries are divided into
patient libraries and medical libraries for doctors. The
significance and use of these is reducing through today's
omnipresent IT and Internet resources.

HOSPITALS Main entrance and services

General, modular A simple and easily recognisable main entrance with
grid
Building design
vehicle access and disability parking places must be
Examples created for general patient and visitor traffic and delivery
Corridors, doors, by taxi. Special entrances should be avoided if possible.
stairs, lifts
Operational The entrance hall should be designed as a waiting room
areas for visitors on the open door principle, with the layout
Outpatient area
Outpatient today more like a modern hotel lobby. From here, visitors,
medical centre- outpatients, inpatients capable of walking and business
example
Examination and
traffic go their separate ways.
treatment
Care The size of the entrance hall is in accordance with the
Administration,
social services hospital's bed capacity. The reception can put telephone
Supply and waste calls through and also act as the post room. Also in the
disposal
Technical supply entrance hall are coin telephones, and kiosks for sweets,
flowers, stationery etc. A cafeteria for visitors and pa-
tients is situated directly next to the entrance and is open
all day offering a free choice of warrn and cold food and
drink. Also important are storage facilities and the pro-
vision of rooms for staff in accordance with Workplace
Regulations.

Pastoral care and social services

There should be a non-denominational chapel or prayer
room. This has adjoining rooms for the chaplain and
f) Entrance and cafe, Helios Clinic, Berlin-Such vestry, and side rooms. These facilities also need offices
Arch.: Thiede Messthaler Klosges for the chaplain and the social workers.

312
 HOSPITALS
Supply and Waste Disposal

Supply area
Commercial and technical supply enters the hospital either via
a separate service building or at a neutral supply and waste
disposal level (basement) under the main building. There should
be an access for deliveries into the service yard, separated from
the main entrance and the arrival of patients on stretchers. The
location of delivery and waste disposal areas to the north is
ideal. External and internal traffic routes should be designed so
that interaction with the traffic in the care and treatment areas is
avoided as much as possible.

It should be taken into account in the design that this area of the
hospital can potentially cause noise and odour nuisance (waste
0 Supply centre, Cologne University Clinic: kitchen, prepared stores
containers, kitchen waste, etc.). There is a noticeable tendency
Arch.: Heinie, Wischer und Partner Freie Architekten
towards increasing centralisation of supply and waste disposal
facilities and also the outsourcing of certain functional areas (e.g.
laundry, kitchen).

kitchen, Sterile goods supply

ready
supplies The central sterile store should be near the surgical department,
the largest consumer (smaller stores of sterile goods in the the-
IJ c IJ c 0 atres themselves are no longer needed). The layout is structured
according to the direction of flow of materials into acceptance,
pre-cleaning, washing machine, sterilisers, packing zone and
sterile goods store. All the instruments for use in the hospital are
prepared here. The departments with particularly heavy use are
surgery with 40% and operative intensive care and internal inten-
sive care with 15% each.

The number of sterilisers required depends on the size of the

hospital and the surgical department. Size of central sterile store
approx. 40-120 m2 •
f) Supply centre, Cologne University Clinic: kitchen and pharmacy, prepared
stores Arch.: Heinie, Wischer und Partner Freie Architekten Pharmaceutical supply
Pharmacy: In medium-sized and large hospitals, the pharmacy
stores formulations and carries out the production of drugs under
the management of a qualified pharmacist. For design purposes,
the rooms required are dispensary, materials room, drug store,
laboratory and possibly also issue desk. Rooms may also be
HOSPITALS
required for herbs, dressings, substance storage, on-call room.
General, modular
The equipment of pharmacy and laboratory includes formulation grid
table, work or packing table and a sink. The fitting out is similar Building design
Examples
to that of the dispensary. The location of the pharmacy should Corridors, doors,
involve a short route to the lifts, pneumatic post etc. Since fire- stairs, lifts
Operational
hazardous substances and acids are stored here as well as areas
various narcotics, the walls, ceilings and doors need to meet Outpatient area
security standards. Outpatient

0 Pharmacy for medium-sized hospital

with 500-600 beds, ground floor
e Basement-> 0
Dispensary: In hospitals without a full pharmacy, medicines
medical centre-
example
Examination and
requiring approval are issued from the dispensary. This consists treatment
Care
of work and dispensing rooms with direct access to the circulation Administration,
corridor. The equipment consists of desk, washbasin, sink, social services
Supply and
scales and lockable cupboards. Adjacent rooms are the dry and waste disposal
proprietary medicines stores, cold store for hazardous substances, Technical supply
a dressings room and a darnp store according to fire regulations.

Bed preparation
The processing of used beds and mattresses is normally done
today with spray and wipe disinfection in the ward, or possibly
clean even in the room.
bedding
stora
Pushing numbers of beds through the building and the heavy
mechanical wear and wetting of the beds, usual in central bed
processing, is no longer necessary. It can, however, be sensible to
provide for separate disinfection of mattresses in the basement,
e Central bed unit, St. Elisabeth Hospital, Halle/Saale Arch.: U. +A. Weicken possibly combined with a bed repair roorn.

313
 HOSPITALS
Supply and Waste Disposal

Catering
10 Admission Providing patients with appropriate nutrition places high demands
11 Store, empties
1 Store, drinks on the preparation because there are often particular requirements
13 Store, dry goods regarding protein, fats, carbohydrates, vitamins, minerals, dietary
G) Wet rubbish cooling 14 Store, dry goods fibre or flavourings. The predominant catering systems rationalise
® Cleaner's room 1 Store, conserves
the individual phases of conventional food preparation (preparing,
@Waste
@ Kitchen management processing, transporting, serving). The processing of food is
® Fruit/vegetables separated into normal and diet recipes. After preparation and
@ Day cool room
(J) Dairy products cooking, the food is assembled on the portioning conveyor. The
@ Sausage/meat ready-portioned trays are taken to the wards on serving trolleys
®Day store
for distribution. The same trolleys transport the washing up back
to the central washing up and trolley cleaning room. Staff catering
amounts to about 40% of total catering. The cafeteria for staff
should be very close to the central kitchen.

The location of the kitchen on the supply level guarantees an

efficient flow of delivery, storage, preparation, processing and
serving. When frozen food is used, the function and fitting out of
the kitchen alters. The clear ceiling height in the kitchen is 4.00 m,
and the size depends on the requirements and the number of
patients in the hospital.

Disposal The design should also provide a special diet kitchen (min. 60 m2)
with a desk for the head chef, vegetable cleaning area (30 m2) with
E
e room for waste (5m 2), a daily supply room (8m 2), a cold room with
compartments for meat, fish and dairy products (each 8 m2), and
a pre-cool room (1 0 m2) with chest freezer and cooler.
Deliveries
The goods reception should have sufficient storage space
(15-20 m2). The main store, with fruit and vegetable store (20 m2),
dry goods store (20 m2) and store for conserves is next door.
Provide sufficient changing rooms and social rooms for the
0 Kitchen with service yard, Luckenwalde Hospital
kitchen staff.
Arch.: Thiede Messthaler Klosges
The central washing-up unit of the central kitchen is organised
around one or more large dish washing machines (approx. 30 m2).
There should be sufficient worktop space for dirty and clean racks.

HOSPITALS
New cooking methods make it possible to supply food for a
General, modular
number of hospitals from one central location.
grid
Building design
Examples
Corridors, doors,
stairs, lifts
<D daily supplies cool room G) cold meals/salads
Operational
® daily supplies store ® vegetable preparation
areas
® kitchen chef ® vegetable cool store
@ cold meals kitchen @ meat cool store
Outpatient area ® main kitchen ®dairy
Outpatient ® placing ready ®cool store
medical centre- (J) lift \l) supplies (one-way goods)
example ® entrance area @ delivery area
Examination and ® trolley station ® freezer room
treatment @) plate stacker

I
supply store
Care

~
pot washing dry goods/conserves store
Administration, storage area plate stacker detergents
social services washing up office
Supply and returns
waste disposal
Technical supply

f) Kitchen building, ground floor Arch.: Thiede Messthaler Klosges 8 Basement-> f)

314
 HOSPITALS
Supply and Waste Disposal
mortuary

Laundry provision
disposal The collection and delivery of laundry is normally undertaken by
an external organisation. In the hospital, only collecting rooms for
dirty and clean washing (each 30 m2) need to be provided, near
kitchen the service yard.

Storage
This is divided into coarse pallet storage, rack storage and special
sterile area
storage. All storerooms should be centrally placed near the
service yard and very robustly built. A logistics room is required,
laundry, dry from where the collection and delivery services for the hospital
cleaning are controlled. The distribution and storage of goods is rationally
controlled from here. Important: for hygienic reasons, dirty and
clean items should be separated. Automatic laundry transport
central bed store
systems are cost effective only for large hospitals (from 400 beds).

Workshops
staff rooms Connected with the service yard, these could be metalwork,
joinery and electrical workshops, and a medical technology office
with materials stores, replacement parts store, general stores and
general rooms parking for vehicles.

Housekeeping and transport service

Multi-purpose mobile units and trolleys are often used for the
special care
distribution of requested items to each location of use and at the
same time for storage. A pneumatic delivery system should be
provided for the sending of small goods (medicines, paperwork).
normal care
The scope of the transport facilities depends on the size of the
institution; the supply and disposal quantity is about 30-35 kg per
bed and day. For large, bulky goods (beds, ventilators, heart-lung
intensive care
machines), normal bed lifts are available. Separate groups of lifts
can be arranged for the transport of medium-sized goods (food,
laundry, rubbish, consumables).
0 Supply and disposal area- traffic relationships

CD Glass (f) Service yard

UV treatment @ Control centre (27.i m2)
®Plastics @ Mach. services @ Office (24.3 m2) The design should consider the parking and turning areas for
@ Scrap metal ® Laundry container (56.2 m2) (8} Disinfection plant delivery trucks, also the multitude of types of waste (kitchen
G) Special waste (@) Container washing plant, automatic @ Special waste
® Paper press goods transport storage space, clean @ Waste disposal
and special rubbish, glass, waste paper, developing fluid etc.)
@ Household rubbish (162.6 m2) and their storage areas. The service yard can also provide
@ Automatic goods transport service rooms for emergency power generator., sprinklers, oxygen
5
storage, unclean 1----26.98 ' - - - - - l HOSPITALS
and compressed air, and other supply requirements. With its
General, modular
location in the basement, the service yard will require a ramp grid
(gradient less than 15%!) for access. Minimum size of a service Building design
Examples
yard: 30 x 30 m.
Corridors, doors,
stairs, lifts
Operational
areas
Outpatient area
Outpatient
medical centre-
example
Examination and
treatment
Care
Administration,
social services
Supply and
waste disposal
Technical supply

Supply and disposal station, Erfurt Clinic Surgical Centre (KEG) C) Staff restaurant for 150 staff, Cantonal Hospital, Basel Arch.: Suter&Suter
Rossmann +Partner Architekten

315
 HOSPITALS
Technical Supply

Heating, ventilation, sanitary, medical gas supply Technical details, temperature requirements
Plant and service rooms, shafts and installation areas The temperature in plant rooms must not sink below soc for
technical reasons (danger of frost!) and should also not exceed
Early consideration of the buildings/rooms required for the 40 oc (because of electrical equipment), which should be ensured
installation of building services is a precondition for optimised by suitable technical measures. Damp and increased humidity
layout and for hygienic and energy-saving operation of the should be avoided. Plant rooms should be equipped with a water
facilities. The size and location of plant areas should generally be supply with hose connection and backflow preventer, and also at
able to fulfil the following requirements: least one floor gully. The EU safety data sheets for the equipment
a) optimal transport of air (short routes) and consumables should be at hand in case of breakdowns. The
b) energy-saving specification of building elements installation of electrical equipment should comply with German
c) compliance with hygienic requirements and provision for Association of Electrotechnicians (VDE) standards. Plant rooms
cleaning should have at least one power socket (230 V, 16 A) and a three-
d) provision of maintenance and repair areas at central plant area phase connection (400 V) suitable for the particular situation. The
nominal lighting intensity in plant rooms should be 1DO lx; and
Building requirements at switching panels, and regulation and measurement equipment
Space required for air-conditioning plant 200 lx.
The area and space requirement for air-conditioning equipment is
determined by: Requirements for service shafts and horizontal ducts
a) volume flow Shafts are employed for vertical service runs and horizontal
b) number of thermodynamic conditioning stages services use service ducts or are fixed below the floor slab,
c) installed elements with cables in cable trays. In accordance with the applicable
d) connection situation for the duct network state building regulations, installation shafts and cable runs in
buildings, with the exception of buildings of limited height and any
The minimum height of a central plant room should be 3 m clear
installation shafts or cable runs which bridge fire compartments,
for optimal operation; 4-4.5 m following the number of functional
must be detailed so that fire and smoke cannot enter staircases,
units. The calculation of the area needed should be discussed
other storeys or other fire compartments. Installation shafts
according to the specific technical requirements, and a specialist
and ducts must comply with fire resistance class L30, L60 or
building services engineer should be appointed. General note:
L90 for the relevant pipe or cable. Comb-shaped connection to
the size of the air-conditioning equipment can be estimated via
functional areas is ideal. The sum of air ducts, pipe runs and
the volume flow with a speed of 2 m/s. The total length is the
cable trays should remain constant in relation to the height of the
sum of the length of the individual elements required, taking the
storey. Shafts and ducts should be detailed so that they cannot
thermodynamic functions into account, and additional space for
act as structural stiffening. Only main shafts and ducts are
connection at each end and maintenance.
permissible in this case. Accessible shafts should be reachable
from a corridor.
Cooling plant room
The cooling plant room has to provide space for chillers,
Suspended ceilings
expansion vessels, cold water and cooled water distributor and
The space between structural and suspended ceiling should
collector, main pumps and the associated control equipment.
not be used directly for air supply and cannot be used directly
The space required depends on the nature and type of chiller and
HOSPITALS for air extraction, depending on the extracted air collection
the capacity. Room heights should be more than 3 m, which may
General, modular arrangements. The spacing between the bottom of the slab
grid depend on the output.
and the top of the suspended ceiling depends on the degree of
Building design
Examples installation (air ducts, water pipework, electric cable runs, lighting
Corridors, doors, Recooling plant elements, air handling units, air intakes and outlets, sprinkler
stairs, lifts The area and space requirement for recooling plant is determined
Operational pipework) and should normally be min. 400 mm. A smaller ceiling
areas from the required cooling capacity, the type of cooling, the form space is possible in exceptional cases.
Outpatient area of the air intake and outlet, the mounting and the noise insulation.
Outpatient
medical centre-
The selection of the room height and the floor area must take into
Gas supply plant room
example account the lateral proportion, operation, maintenance and repair.
Examination and The special oxygen pipework is supplied from operational and
The installation should also take special aspects of noise emission
treatment reserve units with automatic switchover equipment. In order to
Care and fumes emission into account. The recooling capacity depends
Administration, ensure short transport distances, direct access to the service yard
on the type and capacity of cooling.
social services is sensible, e.g. for delivery and collection of the cylinders. The
Supply and waste
disposal
storage of the cylinders can be combined with the air/gas pumps
General equipment of plant rooms
Technical (vacuum, nitrogen, compressed air) in order to enable centralised
supply Preferably, plant rooms should be located near the supply area. control (possibly computer-controlled). The gas cylinders are
The location of the central plant area should ensure suitable being replaced nowadays with bulk tanks, which must be situated
conditions for supply and disposal and result in short distances in the open air and at least 5.0 m from buildings.
for air/gas supply.

Plant rooms must comply with the fire protection and safety
requirements of the relevant state building regulations, the
conditions imposed on the particular building and the Workplace
Regulations if appropriate. The operation of the technical
equipment in the plant rooms should not impair the environment
nor cause nuisance in the building through noise or vibration.

316
 HOSPITALS
Technical Supply

Electrical installation I high voltage plant Each patient room is provided with a patient operating panel
Electricity supply is generally from a public medium-voltage mains with call light, signal connections for wall-mounted TV and/or
network (1 0-20 kV) provided by the electricity supply organisation. bedside devices and sockets for telephone and Internet access.
The mains connection transformation to low voltage (400 V) and TV signals come either from a cable operator or from a satellite
distribution inside the building take place in the hospital sub- reception system and are fed centrally into the signal network.
station. The appropriate switchgear and transformers should When a patient presses the call button, the light signal system
each be placed in their own room, and the Regulations for communicates with the locations where the care staff have logged
Building Electrical Service Rooms and the VDE standards should in. The prioritisation of calls:
be complied with. In larger hospitals, a number of specialised
electrical rooms should be provided in addition to the sub-station. - patient call
The' installation is sized depending on the dimensions of the -we call
building and the energy requirements of the individual pieces of - emergency call
equipment. The hospital sub-station should be situated centrally - resuscitation call etc.
and provided with good, ideally level, road access as well as
adequate ventilation and extraction. A location in the basement is is also supported, as is forwarding of any calls to the mobile DECT
not suitable if there is any risk of flooding. phones of the care staff, including detailed information. The fire
early warning and alarm scheme includes a fire alarm system
A hospital should also have an emergency power system, with automatic and manual alarms as a loop system, which saves
which continues to supply certain defined equipment in case cabling, and an electro-acoustic system with its own cable network
of a mains failure. This arrangement is provided by emergency to maintain function. The delivery routes and roads to the parking
power generation sets with diesel motors and alternating current places are secured by barriers. These can be manually controlled
generators. This equipment should be placed in its own room by the gatekeepers or automatically controlled according to
with ensured air supply and extraction, and exhaust gas escaping identification or invoicing.
above the roof. An additional emergency power supply must be
provided for lighting in operating theatres and certain vital medical Cameras are provided, either fixed or adjustable, to monitor the
devices. Decentralised battery sets are provided for this for use in entrance areas, access roads and specific areas; the images are
the room containing the medical device. sent through a central cross-loop to the monitors for observation.

Starting from the sub-station, the general and emergency power The operating units for the telecommunications components:
supplies are distributed separately, in a star shape, through
the hospital. Depending on the building structure and the - switchboard for the telephone system
distance, this may be via distribution boards on each floor or - camera control
one central distribution board. The arrangement and number of - server for the hospital information system
distribution boards on the floors have to be in accordance with -control server for the patient media system
fire compartments, whose assignment to functional areas should - lift surveillance etc.
also be taken into account. The distribution boards are separated
are installed in the lodge or entrance area in smaller hospitals.
into general and emergency power supply and placed in their own
rooms. In larger hospitals, these will be installed in a central control room.
This is where all relevant fault reports arrive and are processed HOSPITALS
Telecommunications I IT centrally. The requirement for prompt recording of and access General, modular
The correct functioning of telephone and data networks in a hos- to all relevant clinical and patient data is ensured by the use of grid
Building design
pital is essential for the care of patients and the basis for econ- complex software. The functionality of the user applications is Examples
omic success. A central telecommunications room and also at based on active network components in the central server rooms Corridors, doors,
least one server (IT) room should be provided to accommodate stairs, lifts
and IT rooms on each floor, together with the system of servers. Operational
the system components, each with a size of 35-70 m2 • Uninter- areas
ruptible power supplies and an extra cooling system should be Stationary PC workstations in functional and care departments Outpatient area
Outpatient
provided. and mobile data recording stations in the wards are integrated medical centre-
into the network and support the care staff. The internal network example
In order to optimise availability, a further IT room should be planned Examination and
is secured from access by unauthorised third parties by firewall treatment
for backup systems in another building or at least another part of solutions, which have to be updated constantly. Care
the same building. Starting from the central telecommunications Administration,
social services
or server room, the star-shaped distribution cabling (copper or Speech and data integration (VoiP - Voice over IP) and database Supply and waste
fibre-optic cables) runs to the distribution hubs on each floor. The consolidation (SAN) of all IT and medical IT systems are an disposal
telecommunications and IT devices are connected from here. Technical
important part of hospital IT. supply

The modern 'structured cabling topology' provides unified sockets The radiology department, in particular, with a number of systems Regulations for
for telephone, IT and medical technology, enabling rapid reaction producing and processing images, places very high demands on Building
to the very fast progress of development in communications Electrical Service
the quality and capacity of the network. Rooms
technology. VDE standards
The appointment of specialist engineers is absolutely necessary.
Speech communication in administrative areas is provided by
analogue and digital telephones, which are connected directly
to a central telephone system. Cordless mobile DECT phones
in connection with powerful communications servers are rapidly
replacing traditional pagers, and provide a second route for
communication.

317
 STADIUMS
Overview
Ancient stadiums, whose size has never been matched (the Circus
Maximus in Rome had room for 180,000 spectators), still form the basis
for today's sports venues. The dimensions are normally determined by the
70 x 109 m layout of a football pitch and the running track around it ~
p. 323. The basic shape of the playing area is an ellipse, which is similar to
the ancient egg shape. A stadium is normally partially dug into the ground
and the earth removed is heaped around it. From the town planning aspect,
sports facilities must fit well into the terrain and the transport and utility
0 U-shaped layout supply conditions should be good: rail, bus, tram stops, large car parks etc.
Industry in the immediate vicinity should be avoided because smoke, smell
and noise are undesirable. Covered and open-air facilities for various types
of sport can be combined and integrated into the zoning plan of the city.
The orientations of ancient arenas were usually west-east or south-
north, according to the various times of competitions ~ 0; in Europe,
northeast-southwest so that most spectators had the sun behind them.
Open entrances are therefore at the eastern end. The pay booths were
placed far forward, and behind them the flow of visitors distributed
itself to various points in the stadium. These provide access, mostly
up the heaped areas, or up stairs, to the stand at half-height and then
to the rows above and below~ 0. For acoustic reasons, the Roman
architect Vitruvius recommended a fixed gradient of 1:2 for both rows
of seating and standing places. Nowadays, when loudspeakers are
used, the inclination only has to ensure a good view.
f) USA= segmented layout 0 Amsterdam= semi-circular ends Accordingly, with staggered seats, the audience in each row should
be able to see over the heads of those two rows in front. This results
in a parabolic curve. The best viewing conditions are from the long
side of an arc.
The width of the access passages and stairs must be worked out
using the sudden flow of spectators leaving (in contrast to the
gradual trickle of those arriving). According to the calculations of
C. van Eestern, each 5000 spectators at the Amsterdam stadium ~
8 require 7 minutes (or 420 seconds) to leave using the 9.5 m wide
stairs provided (in Los Angeles 12 minutes, in Turin 9 minutes).
So one spectator uses 1 m stair width in
9.5 x420 =O 8
5000 . s
e Rotterdam = curved sides and
corners. Only for football
e Budapest= horseshoe around
transverse axis
or in 1 s, for each 1 m stair width,
5000
1 25
9.5 X 420 = ' S
NE spectators leave. The formula for the necessary stair width for a
defined number of spectators intending to leave the stadium in a
desirably short time would therefore be
stair width (m) = no. spectators
STADIUMS evacuation time (s) x 1.25
Overview First-aid rooms should be provided according to the number of
Spectator stands
spectators and close to the spectator area. A group of rooms is
s
necessary for every 20,000 spectators: treatment and rest room
15m2 , store room 2m 2 and two toilets with lobbies to prevent odour
transmission. For stadiums with room for more than 30,000 spectators,
there should also be a 15 m2 room for public safety personnel (police,
sw fire service). The commentary boxes will be in the main stand with a
Viewing distance determines size of sports ground
good view oft he sports field, each box 1.5 m2 . Behind every five media
boxes, a switchroom of 4 m2 • One car parking space for every four

~
~

6
spectators and parking places for coaches should be allocated.

~oom••
'""""''~
Berlin
Helsinki

t-1,12 -+72 -+-72-4

~
Rio de Janeiro Florence Arezzo

8 Spectator traffic routes at various stadiums e Stand sections

318
 STADIUMS
Spectator Stands

Spectator and VIP areas

The design is based on the relevant state Places of Assembly
Regulations, which contain requirements for access routes, stairs,
ramps and spectator places. Further regulations can be prescribed by
ruling sports bodies, e.g. the FIFA guidelines for international games
prohibit standing places in stadiums.
According to the number of spectator places planned, stands are either
viewpoint
placed on the long sides of the sports field (a good view, because the
0 Sight line construction distance is not too far) or, for more than approx. 10,000 places, around
the entire playing area. Because sporting events mostly take place in
the afternoon, the best spectator places are on the west side (no glare).
standing terrace If the spectator places are arranged in a multi-row layout, sufficient
super-elevation should be provided to improve the viewing conditions.
>--40---; ~
For smaller stands with up to 20 rows of standing places or 1 0 rows
1::,:·:·:· of seating, this can be a linear gradient of 1:2, but in all other stadiums
w:,:,:,.. 1-23-i the linear gradient should be parabolic. In this case the gradient for
"'·""'··'"'·'""·'·.,;,~--liir-I sitting and standing places can be determined by using spectators'
sight line construction, with the super-elevation 12 em for standing
f) Concrete units places and 15 em for rows of seats ~ 0.
Seated areas (Places of Assembly Regulations)
Seated place width 0.5 m
1--40~
7

For design purposes, in rows of seating the required space is two

visitors per m2 • This can be provided as row seating (benches) or as

~.·gravel
...J.r',!(' individual seats, which have to be fixed and immovable when there are
more than 5000 visitor places. Seats with backrests offer more comfort
(height min. 30 em according to FIFA guidelines) and there must be a
G ~e e Sloping reinforced concrete with
drainage
clear passage width of 40 em between rows of seats. Seats must be
arranged in blocks of max. 30 rows. Behind and between the blocks,
there must be aisles with a min. width of 1.20 m. Depending on the
seating steps layout of the access and exit routes, each row of seats may contain:
20 places if there is an aisle to the open air at one side, or
40 places if there is an aisle to the open air at both sides
Sitting and standing places must be separated. A 1.20 m width of
escape route (stairs, ramps, level surfaces) must be provided for every
600 places, with a minimum width of 1.20 m.
Standing terraces (Places of Assembly Regulations)
Standing space width 0.5 m
For design purposes, in standing terraces the required space is two
visitors per running metre of terrace. A 1.20 m width of escape route
(stairs, ramps, level surfaces) must be provided for every 600 places,
with a minimum width of 1.20 m. In order to ensure that standing areas
fill and empty evenly and to avoid dangerous crushes, they should
be divided into blocks of about 2500 places. These blocks should be
fenced apart and separately accessed.
Within a block of standing terrace, 'wave breakers' (crush barriers)
Steps > 50 em high must be provided If backrests are > 65 em high, should be provided. It must be ensured that, seen from each standing
with fall protection min. 90 em high barriers can be omitted
place, there is a suitably strong parapet about 1.1 m high within 10
rows. Possible diagonal surging must be hindered by a staggered
arrangement of the 'wave breakers'. STADIUMS
1---78 --j 1--76--J
VIPs: Larger stadiums should provide a covered VIP box with movable OveJView
Spectator
1--30-+- 46 --; seating.
stands
Roofing of stands: The intention should be to provide cover for as
many places as possible. Overlapping of stand structures can increase
the number of covered places. The Berlin Olympic stadium has recently
received a new roof~ 4I!)- $.

e Sloping reinforced concrete slab with

steps
No fall protection is required for
steps < 50 em high

I-- 6.80 --f--10.14---+- 4.60-+--4.60-+------6.20-+-- 5.90 ---l

1 - - - - - - - - - - 4MO - - - - - - - - - - - - 1
Section through the Berlin Olympic stadium after rebuilding
Section through the Berlin Olympic stadium Arch.: Prof. Werner March Arch.: Gerkan Marg u. Partner

319
 SPORTS FACILITIES
Playing Areas

Sport Competitive sport Leisure sport Net Goal/

basket
(m)
Playing Free space Total area Playing Free space Total area Height W-width
area around area around H =height
dimensions sides ends dimensions sides ends
(m) (m) (m) (m) (m) (m) (m) (m) (m)
0 Football Football
45-90 X
9D-120
1 2
46-91 X
92-122
68 X 105 1 2 69 X 107 - W-7.32
H=2.44
Football, FIFA 45-90 X 47-92 X W=7.32
2 3.5 68 X 105 2 3.5 ?Ox 108.5-
requirements 9D-120 93.5-123.5 H =2.44
Rugby 68.4 X 100 2 12-23 70.4 X 123 68.4 X 100 2 12-23 70.4x123- W=5.60
H = 3.00
55-65 X 56-66 X W=3.00
Handball
9D-110
1 2
92-112
60x90 1 2 61 x92 - H=2.00
Indoor 18-22x 19-23 X W-3.00
handball 38-44
1 2
40--46
20x40 1 2 21 x42 - H=2.00
Hockey (field W=3.66
hockey)
- - - - 55x91.4 2 4 57 X 95.4 - H=2.14
netH-
Netball 25x60 1 2 26x62 25x60 1 2 26x62 - 2.50
f) Rugby (German) Softball/
- - - pole H =
rounders
25 X 50-70 10 10 35x6D-80 - - 1.50
Indoor cycle 9-11 X 9.5-11.5 W-2.00
polo 12-14
0.5 0.5-1
X 13-15
- - - - - H =2.00
Volleyball 9x 18 2 3 11 x21 9x 18 2 3 11 x21 2.43 -
Prellball 8x16 2 4 10x20 8x 16 2 4 10x20 - -
Schleuderball - - - - 15x 100 8 30 23 X 130 - 1-
Fistball - - - - 20x50 6 8 26x58 2.00 -
Basketball 15x28 1 1 - - 1- - - - 3.05
1 1
13-15x 14-16x
Streetball
24-28
2 2
26-30
- - - - - 3.05
0 American football, goals 5.50 x 3.05 m

0 Handball
0 Volleyball

SPORTS 4J} Schleuderball

FACILITIES ([!) Prellball f-----15.0-----1

~~
1----14.0-----j
Playing areas
Athletics
Q Hockey
1---12.0-----l
Tennis l------1 0.0----l
Miniature golf ,. l-----8.0---l .,
Golf courses
Water sport,
marinas
y ';Y .North
I f---6.0--4
rr----------------n
I

Water sport,
rowing and Cf) Fistball
I I
canoeing
Equestrian sport 0 Netball, net diam. 55 em, 2.50 m high I
Ski jumping
Ice rinks
Roller skating
I
I
I
rinks
Speed roller
~--r
I
I I
skating,
skateboarding
Cyclo-cross, @) Basketball --> ~ I
BMX
Shooting ranges T 1.25 !1.81 1.25
1.80x 1.20 f-+---6.25-l----6.25--+-l
.L ~--h-30::::--"40

1
12.0 15.0 2.01
15t+- -i
45 " Streetball --> basket ~
2.65
1.20-l

·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:
f) Softball/rounders 0 Basketball basket --> @) + 0

320
 SPORTS FACILITIES
Playing Areas

Playing area size (m)

Standard
max. min.
Game dimensions 1)
L w L w L w
0 Small playing field for school football
0 School football 70 40 40 20 44 22

f) Indoor football 50 25 40 20 44 22

E) Indoor handball - - - - 44 22

8 Indoor hockey 40 20 36 18 44 22

0 Indoor netball 60 25 64 27 - -
0 Cycle polo on grass - - - - 60 40

0 Horseshoe throwing 15 3 12 3 - -
f) Indoor football, goals 2 x 3 m
- - - -
0 Croquet 20 4

0 Fencing piste 24 2 13 1.80 - -

4Ii) Boccia - - - - 24 3

CD Shuffleboard - - - - 17 3

0 Tennikoit 12.20 5.50 - - 18.20 11.50

CD Baseball - - - - 18.29 18.29

1l including safety margin
0 Indoor handball

0 Indoor hockey

0 Fencing piste

0 Indoor netball, net dlam. 0.55, 2.5 m high

(!) Boccia
SPORTS
4D Shuffleboard
FACILITIES
Playing areas
Athletics
Tennis
---...
/I
Miniature golf
--------""Pitcher Golf courses

0 Cycle polo on grass

z:;s---------
/ Mound
Water sport,
marinas
B/L / Water sport,
rowing and
/
canoeing
Equestrian sport
""'·"··. // Ski jumping
Ice rinks
" " R•tter0 Roller skating
~ ><Catcher rinks
Speed roller

f) Horseshoe throwing
4D Baseball skating,
skateboarding
Cyclo-cross,
BMX
Shooting ranges

e Croquet lawns

321
 SPORTS FACILITIES
Playing Areas

Beach sport Competitive sport Leisure sport Net Goal/basket Sports hall
0 Beachminton type Size of Free space around Total Size of Free space around Total Height w~width Clear
playing area playing area H ~height height
area area (C)~compe-
sides ends sides ends titian
(m) (m) (m) (m) (m) (m) (m) (m) (m) (m) (m)
Volleyball 18.00x 5.00 5.00 28.00 X 18.00x 3.00 3.50 25.00 X 2.24 F reg >5.50
9.00 19.00 9.00 1500 2.43 M nat >7.00
int>12.50
Football 36.00 X 1.00 2.00 40.00 X - w~7.32 (C)
('professional') 28.00 30.00 H~2.44(C)
---------- -- ------ ------ ---
('amateur') 31.00x 1.00 2.00 35.00 X - W~.OO(C)
25.00 27.00 H~2.00 (C)
-~-------- ----·-· ------- ---- ---· ·····-· I -- ~-- -
27.00 X 1.50 1.50 w~3.oo
f) Beach basketball
12.00
30.00 X
15.00 H~2.00

Football 18.00x 1.00 2.00 22.00 X 1.30

tennis 9.00 11.00
Sepak takraw 18.00x 2.00 2.00 22.00 X 12.00x 2.00 2.00 16.00x 1.10
9.00 13.00 6.00 10.00
Handball 27.00 X 3.00 3.00 33.00 X 27.00x 1.50 1.50 30.00 X - w~.oo
12.00 18.00 12.00 15.00 H~2.00

Badminton 13.40 X 2.00 2.00 17.40x 13.40x 1.50 2.00 16.40 X 1.55 reg >7.00
6.10 10.10 6.10 exceptio- exceptio- 10.10 nat >7.00
nally. nally int>9.00
0.30 1.30
Beachminton 12.30x 0.45 1.00 14.30x 12.80x 0.30 0.35 13.00 1.28 reg >5.20
0 Beach badminton (competitive)
3.80 0.70 1.50 4.70
15.30x
3.80 4.40 nat >6.50
lnt>9.00
5.20
Basketball 12.00 15.00x 1.00 15.00x - 12.00
(basket 8.00 10.00 (basket
spacing) spacing)
Tennis 18.00x 3.00 3.00 24.00 X 18.00x 300 3.00 24.00 X 1.50 reg >7.001)
(single court) 9.00 3.00 3.00 15.00 9.00 300 3.00 15.00 1.50 nat >9.00
18.00x 24.00 X 18.00x 24.00 X int >9.00
6.00 12.00 6.00 12.00
TAM beach 24.00x 1.00 2.00 28.00 X 18.00x 1.00 2.00 22.00 X 2.10 to -
(single court) 11.00 1.00 2.00 13.00 9.00 1.00 2.00 11.00 2.15
24.00 X 28.00 X 18.00x 22.00 X
7.50 9.50 6.00 8.00
11 Regional leisure sport can take place from a hall height of 5.50 m

G Beach volleyball (competitive) 0 Dimensions of beach playing areas

SPORTS
FACILITIES
Playing areas
Athletics
Tennis
Miniature golf
Golf courses
Water sport,
marinas
Water sport, C) Beach football tennis e Beach tennis (doubles) Ci) TAMbeach (competitive)
rowing and
canoeing
Equestrian sport
-
....... ........
Ski jumping
Ice rinks
Roller skating
rinks
Speed roller
skating,
skateboarding
Cyclo-cross,
BMX
Shooting ranges

.......... _,. ....

e Beach handball (competitive) 1.0 2.0

0 Beach soccer

322
 5.00
SPORTS FACILITIES
45.00
Athletics

playmg f1eld
runmng track
high jump
pole vault
long and triple jump
shot put
discus and hammer
t---13.00-+----- 45 .00 _ _ _ _ __,1c.c.o,o:... javelin
3.00 J-----9.00 -tt 1.00 1---11.00-+-- 9.00 --45.001 water jump
f--+-10.00-+--------------100.00 - - - - - - - - - - - 1
t-----------------------176.91---------------------~

0 Track and field, arena type A

Track and field, arena type A

This consists of an eight-Jane perimeter
track and large inner field; shot put,
discus/hammer throwing, high jump
and javelin in southern segment; shot
put, discus/hammer throwing, javelin
and water jump for obstacle race in
northern segment; pole vault pit with
run-up from both sides on eastern side
outside perimeter track; long jump and SPORTS
triple jump pit with two run-ups on FACILITIES
western side outside perimeter track. Playing areas
f) Track and field, arena type B Athletics
Tennis
Track and field, arena type B Miniature golf
This consists of a six-lane perimeter Golf courses
Water sport,
track and large inner field; shot put, marinas
discus/hammer throwing, high jump Water sport,
rowing and
and javelin in southern segment; pole canoeing
vault, javelin, discus/hammer throwing, Equestrian sport
long jump with three run-ups and water Ski jumping
Ice rinks
jump for obstacle race in northern Roller skating
segment; pole vault, long jump and rinks
Speed roller
triple jump pits can also be arranged skating,
outside perimeter track. skateboarding
Cyclo-cross,
BMX
Track and field, arena type C Shooting ranges
This consists of four-lane perimeter
track and large inner field; discus/
hammer throwing, high jump and
javelin in southern segment; pole vault,
H--------------100.00---------l discus/hammer throwing, long jump
t-----------------~-167.15---------------- and triple jump pits with three run-ups
C) Track and field, arena type C and shot putting in northern segment.

323
 SPORTS FACILITIES
Athletics

,.,, Track and field, arena type D consists of

r--...
I :I I
I I I I
.......... facilities for the following events -7 0:
I J't..:: 4-6 single lanes for straight sprints and
-,- - cy{_,_,.,1
I
"~-"·-
I I) 1
straight hurdles
Z
-
r ' ,...
~3:6.00
---,~r.
I lo
,,,,,
I I I I,
,,,,,
1 playing field 68 x 105 m (70 x 109 m
including safety zones)
L-~ ..L

''I' 1 shot put practice area, throwing southwards

I I I II
1-./s.oo
. I
1' ' ' 1 triple facility for long jump, triple jump;
'1 8:
I
:/r
N-=v,_,_,
''''
1
run-up to the west
1 high jump area; run-up northwards
'L -~;); s 1 shot put ring; throwing direction northwards
-- q 7
ii!"' . 1 softball throwing area; throwing direction
northwards
1 small playing field 27 x 45 m (including
2
2.00~ 105.00 I 27.00 ~ •'f safety zones)
3.oor=1o.oo--t-·------------1~:~------------t-23.00~
The running track in type D is normally clay
0 Track and field, arena type D
paved, but synthetic paving is recommended
for very heavy use.
9.00 m for competitions (take-off board offset 1.00 m) A combined large field includes a large
8.00 m for training (take-off board offset 2.00 m- see also the following page)
playing field, with areas for track and field
playing field long jump events next to and on the field. It consists
running track
high jump
pole vault
shot put
discus and hammer
javelin and ball throwing
of the following areas: -7 e
1 playing field 68 x 105 m (70 x 109 m with
safety zones)
1 high jump area; run-up northwards over
1-- 2 0 . 0 0 - - - i 6 . 0 0 · t - - - - - - - - - - - - - 1 0 9 . 0 0 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - j the field
f-+------------105.00 2.00
1 shot put practice area; throwing direction
eastwards
1 shot put ring; throwing direction westwards
For practice in throwing disciplines, the
provision of a run-up or throwing field is
recommended for safety reasons. This
consists of a grass area for landing about the
size of a large field and a run-up or throwing
area for javelin, discus and hammer on the
southern short side -7 0.
!-----32.00----1

3.00
SPORTS H-10.00 + - - - - - - - - - - - - 1 0 0 . 0 0 - - - - - - - - - - - + - - · 1 7 . 0 0 - - - - j
FACILITIES i-l-----------------130.00----------------l--l

Playing areas f) Combined large field

Athletics
Tennis
Miniature golf
Golf courses
Water sport,
marinas
Water sport,
rowing and
canoeing
Equestrian sport
Ski jumping
Ice rinks
Roller skating
rinks
Speed roller
skating,
skateboarding
Cycle-cross,
BMX
Shooting ranges

8 Throwing field 0 Combined small field

324
r--- 7.00 ----1 t--- 5.00 ----!
SPORTS FACILITIES

18.,;
Athletics

m
c-
0

~~~ IE!5JI
~
It- ;I It- 11
p-221
I I
:1.22:
1 I
I 1 I I 30
H
~2.oof2.oo{-2.1l0-{
I
I
I
I
1
I
I
1
I
I
I
I ~track
: I I l
l I border
I

II
I
'"""''
It- .J 1
I
I
I
I

i
I
e Hurdle with counterweight Ci) Hurdle

:I 11.22:I 1 ~ water jump

I I "'

"""''!>~,..-~
: : I I
:I :I II
--- TT---. . , : -
I
I
I
_,_ _,LI I
-'- I
_,_
-,- ,- " I I
~
~~-

! ! i :I I j / o
, .s- 1 I I
// <0
: I I
r ~:f.>. L_ 15.1 ~ --1
I ! I :
I /
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,
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<l'o'y ~-,-----}---- -_::-;V

l
I t I I
I 1 I 1
I

~-·---:
I I

r~-~
1
II ill/
' I I

L. ..... L__ J....... l

Plan
:

Plan
-------
J-----R=36.5----i
l ' ~/
£.~'JL'1 ________ _

0 Long jump and triple jump layout Pole vault layout -> 0 0 Obstacle race with 16 m radius and water trough

1- 3.43-_, !---3.66~0.12'
t-6.01 3.45

1501-3.66--l

Water jump Steeplechase water jump

n
IT
direction of

r~ """~""'~"'~"""~"~""'""""" ~ Type of track Length of start (m) Track Run-out Width of each lane1>
sprint 3 1102) 17 1.22
t=== 20 ---;:;-- 10' -+3'1 1---3.0-----1
~~~er underframe circular _3)
400 17 1.22
1> the circular track needs an additional28 em safety zone, which does not have to be
section through take-off board section A-B through mat and mat-frame

0 Long jump and triple jump details 0 High jump layout and details
constructed as a track
2> the length of 110m results from the 110m hurdles: for other sprint events the

distance is 100 m
3> no additional starting space necessary

@) Track dimensions -> 0 SPORTS

FACILITIES
Playing areas
Track Class No. Height of Distance to Spacing Distance Athletics
length hurdles hurdles first hurdle of hurdles after last Tennis
12&110' (m) (m) (m) (m) (m) Miniature golf
Golf courses
section A-B 400 Men and men, 10 0.914 45.00 35.00 40.00
Water sport,
junior A+ B marinas
400 Women and 10 0.762 45.00 35.00 40.00 Water sport,
women, junior A rowing and
5.0 / canoeing
~ /2.0
110 Men 10 1.067 13.72 9.14 14.02 Equestrian sport
1.5y 110 Men, junior A 10 0.996 13.72 8.90 16.18 Ski jumping
Ice rinks
0 Pole vault details -> 0 Sprung stand and landing pad for
110 Men, junior B
Women and 10
10 0.914
0.840
13.50
13.00
8.60
8.50
19.10
10.50
Roller skating
rinks
section E-F pole vault -> 0 100
women, junior A Speed roller
skating,
Area for: Run-up Width(m) Pit(P)or Length (m) Width(m) 100 Women, junior 10 0.762 13.00 8.50 10.50 skateboarding
lenQth (m) landing pad (L) B (from 1984) Cyclo-cross,
long jump i;;45 1> 1.222> p 2.75
~8
100 Women, junior 10 0.840 12.00 8.00 16.00
BMX
triple jump ~45 3 ) 1.222> p s;;;;B 2.75 Shooting ranges
LP 5.00 B (from 1983)
pole vault "-'45 1.22 ~5
high jump L 3 5-6 80 Schoolboys A 8 0.840 12.00 8.00 12.00
semicircle r >2.00
1) the take-off board is min. 1 m in front of the pit, because the distance between 80 Schoolgirls A 8 0.762 12.00 8.00 12.00
the take-off line and the end of the landing area must be at least 10 m. For high- 60 Schoolboys and 6 0.762 11.50 7.50 11.00
standard layouts, the landing area is 9 m long. schoolgirls B
2> for multiple layouts, the width of each lane is 2 m.

3) the take-off board is 11 min front of the landinQ area (for'uniors 9 m, for top athletes 13m).
Note: a tolerance of± 3 mm is allowed in the standard height

0 Dimensions for jumping sports -> 0 -0 C9 Hurdle tracks -> 0

325
 hinged flaps SPORTS FACILITIES
Athletics

The dimensions given in -1 Ci) are in line with the competition rules and
must be observed. Deviations are possible for school sport, training and
leisure sport.
Hammer throwing equipment is laid out similarly to discus equipment -1 0
- 0. except the throwing circle has only ~2.135 m safety cage -1 0- f) for
competitive facilities; otherwise, the more simply constructed safety cage,
as for the discus, can be used -1 e.
bracing
Javelin facilities consist of a run-up track and a throwing sector. The width
1--2.74----1 of the run-up track is 4 m, length is normally 36.5 m, but min. 30 m. The
run-up track is divided from the throwing sector by a permanently marked
0 Side view of combined hammer
throwing circle and cage ~ f)
Plan of hammer throwing
circle and cage curved throwing line.
Shot put facilities consists of a ring and a landing sector -1 0 - 0. The
normal length of shot put facilities is 20 m, for top-level sport 25 m.
The following design examples 1-V for the allocation of the usable space
(4 m2/inhabitant) in various catchment areas should be seen only as an
orientation aid.
Example 1: Sport facilities for a catchment of approx. 5000 inhabitants
4.20
1 track and field arena, type D 10,554 m2
1.
~.
2 small playing fields 27 x 45 m
1 training playing field
2430 m2
4500 m2
2 leisure playing fields 250 m2
1 grass play and gymnastics area 1000 m2
1 fitness area 1400 m2
total usable area approx. 20,000 m2
0 Plan of discus throwing circle
and cage
e Discus throwing area; discus
"'219 mm "'221 mm (men)
Example II: approx. 7000 inhabitants
1 track and field arena, type D 10,554 m2
1-- 11.--1 1 large playing field 70 x 109 m 7630 m2
2 small playing fields 27 x 45 m 2430 m2
leisure play area 3000 m2
1 grass play and gymnastics area 1000 m2
1 fitness track 2300 m2
1 roller skating track 800m 2
total usable area approx. 28,000 m2
Example Ill: 7000 inhabitants
1 track and field arena, type B 14,000 m2
1 large playing field 70 x 109 m 7630 m2
3 small playing fields 27 x 45 m 3645 m2
iron ring
throwing circle 1 grass play and gymnastics area 1000 m2
(d = 2.135 m)
1 fitness area 1400 m2
9 Shot put circle -> 0 0 Shot put: circle edge board, total usable area approx. 28,000 m2
section A-8
Example IV: approx. 15,000 inhabitants
1 track and field arena, type B 14,000 m2
3 large playing fields 70 x 109 m 22,890 m2
7 small playing fields 27 x 45 m 8505 m2
leisure play area 6000 m2
SPORTS 1 fitness track 3300 m2
FACILITIES 1 fitness area 1400 m2
Playing areas 1 fitness playing area 1000 m2
Athletics
Tennis
2 grass play and gymnastics areas 2000 m2
Miniature golf total usable area approx. 60,000 m2
Golf courses Example V: approx. 20,000 inhabitants
Water sport,
marinas 1 track and field arena, type B 14,000 m2
Water sport, 1 combined large playing field 8400 m2
rowing and 4 large playing fields 70 x 109 m 30,520 m2
canoeing Javelin area
Equestrian sport 10 small playing fields 27 x 45 m 12,150 m2
Ski jumping f--------- ~ 7.32 - - - - - - - - - - 1 leisure play area 6000 m2
Ice rinks
Roller skating
rinks o ULJLJLJLJLJ c;;
1 fitness track
1 fitness area
3300 m2
1400 m2
Speed roller
skating,
inside
lane
I "!
:i6
1 fitness play area 1000 m2
2 grass play and gymnastics areas 2000 m2
skateboarding
Cycle-cross,
'0
c
~
~1.22
~1.25
~1.22
::;1.25
; -; 1.22
,1.25
~ 1.22
"1.25
;;;;:1.22
~1.25
G 1.22
"1.25
i total usable area approx. 80,000 m2
~
~
BMX ·2 Area for sport Throwing area (m) Landing sector
Shooting ranges
j30 j20 j20 j20 j20 j2o 31!1"' An ale Length m
Discus Circle diam.- 2.50'1 80
t: t:
lane measurements
I
I
I
I
-+-----slope <1%
I
Hammer Circle diam. = 2.13
34.92°
34.92° 80

rf] I
~
Javelin Run-up length= 36.502>
Run-up width = 4 approx. 29° 100

'5' II II i II II II Shot put

1> also suitable
Circle diam. - 2.13 34.92°
for hammer throwing with insertion of profiled ring
up to 25

running direction 2lc30m

e Track dimensions, track and field type B f) Dimensions of throwing areas

326
 f----------36.54--------1
l-----18.27----l SPORTS FACILITIES
f3.6&j--1 0.97 --+3.651 13.651---10.97 --!3.6513.651-1 0.97 --+3.65;
Tennis

c--.--

--
n
~ ~
-.--

.---
Doubles court ~ 0 - e ....................................... 10.97 X 23.77 m
Singles court ...........................................................8.23 x 23.77 m
Side margin .......................................................................33.65 m
Side margin, tournament.. ....................................................4.00 m
Back margin ......................................................................36.40 m
Back margin, tournament.. ...................................................8.00 m

lI
Space between two courts ..................................................7.30 m
I
Net height in centre ............................................................0.914 m
Net height at posts ............................................................... 1.07 m
Perimeter fencing height ......................................................4.00 m
0 Tournament courts
Fencing: 2.5 mm thick wire mesh with 4 em mesh size.

1 r "1·· i
1-'0:.::.5:..:.%"+1:::•::.:,_+-------8.23 - - - - - - - r - 1 . 3 7 ,0.91'1
0.91' 1.37
10.97-----------1
H"'
Number of courts required:
Currently the number of active tennis players is 1.6-3% of the
total population. Ratio of courts to players for new courts is 1 :30;
formula to determine the approximate number of courts required:

f - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 1 2 . 7 9 5- - - - - - - - - - - - 1 . population x 3
no. courts required (T) = -'-----'--------
f) Thenet 100 X 30
Area required for children's court~ 0.
Parking places: normal tennis playing (without spectators), four
vehicle parking places per court.
I Plot size: net area ('usable sport area') is identical to the tennis
net height SQ-90 elm
court and the areas required for the practice wall and the children's
court. Experience shows a 60-80% supplement to the net area
gives the plot size. The location of the courts should be in the N-S
direction if possible.
Deviations are possible 0N is better than E). More than two courts
I-2.50-t----1Q-12.00-----t-2.50--l
next to each other is not recommended, behind each other only
f-----------15-17.00--------l with visual separation. Artificial lighting at 10m height is needed
e Children's tennis court at the long sides. ·
The production of the space allocation plan should include later
requirements for flats (caretaker, trainer, tenant) and garages from
the start. The project should be designed so that building can
proceed in stages without disturbing the tennis.

SPORTS
T
1.50 FACILITIES

1------4.00~
t
3.00
Playing areas
Athletics
f----------8.00-------1
f--------------12.00-----------l
I Tennis
Miniature golf
f---------------12.80------------l elevation -----t 0 elevation ----t O Golf courses
Water sport,
Wall marking (for serves, passing shots etc.) marinas
Water sport,
rowing and

I.,
canoeing
Equestrian sport

J1
Ski jumping
Ice rinks
Roller skating

q
"? "'
"'
0
0
rinks
Speed roller
skating,

1
3.00
I I
skateboarding
Cyclo-cross,
BMX
Shooting ranges

"'
..L
51 5 51 5
H----10.97----H f----- 8.00-----;

f-------12.00----1

parabolic wall sloping wall vertical wall

e Training wall (doubles): shown above are
recommended dimensions for tennis
f) Training wall (singles)

Types of tennis wall walls+ playing area in front of wall

327
 9.0> 111.00> I I h~11.0 SPORTS FACILITIES

·~::
Tennis
'" Ceiling heights for indoor tennis halls are fixed internationally. Davis
Cup rules require a height of 10.67 m; recommended height 9-11
h=s.ao ------------- I
~:~g I m, although 9 m will normally suffice---+ 0. Tennis is also possible
I in gymnastics and sports halls with 7 m height. The hall height is
h .. 3.0
boundary of
I measured from the floor, at the net, to the underside of the roof
run-out net
truss, and must be the same over the entire 10.97 m width of the
court. The height is min. 3 m at the outer edge of the playing area.
f - - 6.40 -+---- 11.88
5
- Types of halls: demountable hall, permanent hall, convertible hall.
0 Hall heights Hall internal dimensions 18.30 X 36.60 m ---+ (t. Because the size
00~7.00
of the courts and the prescribed areas of the court outside the

~
markings are fixed internationally, this gives:
tennis hall with 2 courts Te H 2
singles + doubles (S + D)
h=9.00
(2 X 18.30) X (1 X 36.60) = 36.60 X 36.60

~I ~
f~J with 3 courts Ti(Se H
+D)
3

which gives analogously a hall area of 54.90 x 36.60 m. These

00=11.00
dimensions are the ideal for sporting flexibility. If 'economical

~
0
.,; tennis halls' are planned, this makes a reduction of the built area
possible but will restrict the use.
The uses are:
f6.40+-- 23.77 ------+6.40< 1. both courts suitable for singles competition
f) Cross- and longitudinal sections of hall types hipped on the long sides --> C) 2. one court suitable for doubles competition
E 0 0 0 E 3. practice or leisure play on both courts, 2 singles games or 1
singles and 1 doubles.
Considering the possible savings, this gives the following hall size:
B B

1
~ : 12D 32.40 x 36.60m
I - - - - 36.57 - - - - t The following table shows some of the possible options:
A A Hall type Courts Singles Doubles Width Length Use C* No use C*
(S) (D)
1 1 1 1 18.30 36.60 SID -
2 2 2 2 36.60 36.60 2 S/2D
>---- 18.27 ----i 2 practice 2 2 2 33.90 36.60 2 S/1 S/1 D 2 D or2 S
-
Q
3 3 3 3 54.90 36.60 3 S/3D
c c 3 practice 3 3 3 49.50 36.60 3 S/2D 3D or 3 S
net 2a 2 1 1 33.90 36.60 1 S/1 D -
E 0 0 0 E 2a practice 2 1 1 32.40 36.60 1 S/1 D -
C) Ground floor plan __, f) Hall dimensions and forms
f - suitable for competition

18.27 18.27
f---------(18.30)---++---(.18.30)-----l I
I I I I 1 I I
36.54
I !36.60 I
SPORTS
. I I
FACILITIES
Playing areas I~ I
I I I
. I . I
Athletics
Tennis
I I
Miniature golf I
I
I
Golf courses

I~ I I
Water sport,
marinas
Water sport,
I I I
rowing and I. ·I I. I
canoeing I I
Equestrian sport
Ski jumping I I
Ice rinks
Roller skating
I
I I I I
I
I I
rinks
Speed roller
skating,
skateboarding
Cyclo-cross,
BMX
Shooting ranges
0 Permanent hall over one or more courts e Permanent hall over one or more courts

I I I
328
 SPORTS FACILITIES
..__ lane numbering
Miniature Golf

A miniature golf course consists of 18 clearly separated lanes

(exception: driving shots}, which are numbered and must correspond
0 General points for all lanes setting*down markings to the standard regulations of their system. Lanes suitable for
6.25 competitions have the following features:

"'Jh;".~
actual playing area
lane demarcations (mostly strips)
tee marking
one or more obstacles (can be omitted)
borderline (can be omitted)
f) Pyramids setting~down markings set-down markings (can be omitted)
6.25
hole
and perhaps further components and/or markings specific to the
system.
Playing area size: min. width 80 em, min. length 5.50 m. Playing
areas intended to be level must be completely flat (90 em spirit level).
In case the edges of the playing area are not determined by strips,
8 Somersault (with angled baffles) then they must be marked otherwise (exception: driving shots). The
edge strips must be so installed so that they enable a strategy to be
implemented. Each lane must have a tee-off marking. The type of
marking must be standardised within one course or for a certain lane
system. The obstacles must be practical in construction and shape
and installed permanently (according to the sporting purpose). The
..............................v.%. ............................... ~~\34 location of obstacles which are not fixed should be marked.

e Sloping circle with kidney barrier

p l oo•.o·~o
~
t4Ql ~

e Floor waves
borderline

p
~
~I
~
[8) $ Straight lane with staggered obstacles

0 Flat curve

~~~target
A " . .. .............. .
0
.:......_......:~-----------------
............. h•...... ..
SPORTS

8 Bridge
a} Labyrinth FACILITIES

8 '{j qCQ
Playing areas
Athletics
lane without borderline Tennis
Miniature golf
Golf courses
Water sport,
marinas
borderline ·Water sport,
~ to be played only from the starting tee rowing and
G) Blunt cone
canoeing
plan---+ 0 Equestrian sport
Skiiumping
Ice rinks
Roller skating
rinks
Speed roller
I 625 skating,
skateboarding

·:::.-:::~.%. . . . . ~ Cycle-cross,
BMX
G Skijump
m Shooting ranges

f-:wl
Cl) Rocker with hoop 4D Irregular passages

329
 SPORTS FACILITIES
Miniature Golf

Each obstacle must be different from all the others on the course,
e Central circle- lane without borderlines not only externally but in how they are played. A strategy must be
possible.

=p=-~~-6.2-5---~----,-------1 ~1. The borderline marks the end of the first obstacles. On lanes
without built-in obstacles, it shows the minimum distance the ball

f-40~ ~ has to be hit from the tee in order to remain in the game. If the first
obstacle takes up the entire width of the lane, then the borderline
is identical with the end of the obstacle. Lanes which can only
Ci) Volcano -lane without borderlines -only playable from the tee
be played from the tee have no borderline. Borderline markings

l-40~
'-----'-p

1--75--1
1___,_-----(p
0 T
should be laid out so that the marking edge pointing to the tee is
identical with the obstacles.

Set-down markings: when setting down or moving the ball during

play is permissible, there must be markings showing where the
30 35 ball may be set down .
.·.·.·::.·:.·:.·::::.·:::::.·:::::::::::::::.·.·.·. :.·::::::::::::::::::::::.·::.·:::.·::.·.·::.·.·.·:.·:::.·.·: ·::.·:::.·..·
4Ii) Steep slope with V-obstacle - lane without borderlines - only playable It must be possible to reach the target from the tee marking
from the tee
with one stroke. If these are target holes, then the diameter may
not exceed 120 mm. For the systems Minigolf, Miniaturgolf or
Sterngolf, 100 mm is the limit.

Markings must be applied to all lanes. The game is played with

golf clubs and golf balls. All clubs which are usual in golf, or similar
objects, are permissible.

The striking area of the club head may not exceed 40 cm 2 • All
miniature golf and golf balls are permissible of any material. Ball
20
H diameter ~37 mm and :"'i43 mm. Balls made of wood, metal,
glass, glass fibre, ivory or similar material, and also billiard balls,
are not recognised as miniature golf balls.
T
40
.L
Miniature golf lanes normally have the following standard sizes:
G) Right angle fli) Lightning flash

Lane length 6.25 m, lane width 0.90 m, target circle diameter

1.40 m --7 p. 329 0.

Minigolf:
Developed by the Swiss Bogni at the start of the 1950s; consists
f.D Straight lane without obstacles of 17 concrete pistes (12 m long) and one long piste (approx. 25 m
long). The concrete pistes are surrounded by tubular steel frames.
SPORTS The obstacles are made of natural stone.
FACILITIES
Playing fields
Athletics Cobigolf:
Tennis One of the most difficult lane systems, the 'little gates' set in front
Miniature golf
Golf courses ,': ::::.·: .::::::.·::::::::::::::::::.·::::::::::::::::::. :::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::. ::.'.·::,': .::
.'
of the obstacles are a special feature. The course also consists
Water sport, of 18 lanes.These are in large format (12-14 m length) and also in
Sloping circle without obstacles- lane without borderlines- only playable from
marinas small format (6-7 m).
Water sport, the tee
rowing and

-~
canoeing
Equestrian sport Sterngolf:
Ski jumping A Sterngolf course consists of 18 lanes; 17 of the concrete pistes

~
Ice rinks
have a semi-circular target area and the last has a star as a 'target
Roller skating '------p
rinks f-40-1 circle'. This gives the system its name. The lane length is 8 m, lane
Speed roller
skating, Circular plateau- lane without borderlines- only playable from the tee
width 1 m and end circle diameter 2 m. The lanes are bounded by
skateboarding pipes. The tee is marked by a circle of 30 em diameter and the
Cycle-cross, hole is 10 em diameter.
l--1.26--+---2.5n-----+3~ ~
BMX

~1UU1
Q\
Shooting ranges
All the obstacles are standardised for all lane golf systems, and
P'------.1....__1: _______c<,.,...l selected and constructed according to sporting requirements.
Therefore it is possible to hole every lane in one stroke, because
""' borderline every player of miniature golf aims to take as few strokes as
:j:~ window 5.5 x 10
g possible on every lane.
· : : : : : : : : : ; : : : : . · . · : : : . · : : : : : :• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • : : . · : :• • • 0 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0 • • : : : :• • • • • • • • • • : : : : . · . · : : : ; : : .

fD Run-up ramp with central opening (window) A score of 18 -every lane holed in one- has often been achieved.

330
 f--- 2.0---1 SPORTS FACILITIES

~A+(J2\i. ~j t ~
Golf Courses

Practice areas --7 0 are used either to practise the short game
~7o-f,.2 1.'1- 62.5 --+--2.o-:45: !-L2-t-62.5-+--2.0-1
(2.8-3.0) 40 or for beginners taking up golf. A golf centre as an independent
sports facility can, for example, be laid out on an area of only

~T
10 ha. This would include a practice area, an approach green, a
practice green and a 9-hole golf course (par 3) --7 0.
L'T
7

l-------3.0 --------1 f---2.0 1 160-701 Recognised standard lengths of golf courses vary between the
0 Space requirements for golfers standard 60 with a normal length of 37 49 m and the standard
74 with a normal length of 6492 m. These overall lengths of golf
courses result in the 'par' score.

Elements of a golf course

The course starts at the tee, which has no specified size. It should
\) be about 200 m2 with adequate width. Fairways are 30-50 m wide
and 100 to > 500 m long. At the end of the fairway is the green,
min. 400 m2 , but normally 500-600 m2 • Aprons to the greens,
which are not usual everywhere, min. width 2.5 m. Roughs are
areas with growth of various heights at the edge of the fairways
and over the remaining areas. Bunkers are the most common

···~·v··r:':r~ ·:;t;-
artificial obstacle, but have the disadvantage of working as foreign
bodies in the landscape.

watering/drainage membrane Golf courses are best situated in uneven terrain with flat
f) Golf bag with trolley
wrong
e Construction details for types of green slopes between wooded thickets, trees or tree groups without
undergrowth, with natural hazards (watercourses, lakes), with
slope cuttings and hillocks, or among dunes on the coast. The size
: : :. .:J~.Zsw•P... ,», ;,cc ,
of a course depends on the number of holes and their length
<WI right
(distance from tee to hole}.
. right
~ ~wrong
~::_·~.,-

'Par' Length of hole

steps "'.- .... - wr~ng
-----..:...- _,./-~ r1ght
.... Men Ladies

~
~ .. · 3 up to 228m up to 201m
4 229-434 m 202-382 m
buckles/waves ~-~ wrong 5 above 435 m above 383m
h,~~~(J.;J{,,)(:J..JF-z»i~f:S.'.'~ '!! right
........
e
8 Bunker design, depth and shape Golf hole lengths
G Surface modelling of greens depending on distance from
green. The nearer to the green,
the steeper the face

SPORTS
FACILITIES
Playing areas
Athletics
Tennis
Miniature golf
0 Section through a bunker next to a green Golf courses
Water sport,
marinas
Water sport,
rowing and
canoeing
Equestrian sport
Ski jumping
Ice rinks
Roller skating
rinks
Speed roller
skating,
skateboarding
Cycle-cross,
BMX
\ Shooting ranges
\..,.\.... ~
\ \
"' \ \
.....
.

A
B
Practice green
Driving range hut
1-9 Fairways
A Practice green
B Driving range hut
8
C Pitching greens C Pitching greens
D Parking D Parking

f) Basic layout of a practice area--> 0 0 Extension of practice area

331
 SPORTS FACILITIES
Golf Courses

3 Green with apron Golf courses are not standardised

4 Green bunker as sports facilities and are generally
1 Men's tee 5 Fairway bunker
2 Women's tee
Bushes unique. Nearly always today, they
can be constructed only on former
forest or agricultural areas. Golf
course design requires the direction
of a versatile expert, who needs the
expertise of a landscape architect,
landscape ecologist, soil scientist,
cultural technician, economist etc. -
and golfer. Before the actual design
work can begin, background data
Tree group has to be collected. Catchment
0 Elements of a golf hole
area of the intended site: number
of inhabitants in the area within 30
minutes by car required for a 9-hole
golf course is approx. 100 000, in
order to achieve a sufficient number,
about 300, members of a golf club.

An important part of a golf club is

the practice area, which comprises a
grass area, a practice green and an
approach green -7 p. 331 f). Grass
practice areas should be as flat as
possible with a width of min. 80 m
in order to provide practice space
for about 15 golfers simultaneously.
The length should be min. 200 m
(better 225 m) and arranged so that
neighbouring holes are not disturbed.
The ideal location is near the
clubhouse. Approach greens should
have a minimum area of 300 m2 and
be shaped. A sand trap for practice
strokes should be min. 200 m2 and
have various depths.

The design of a golf course should

generally assume that the completed
facility will provide an 18-hole course,
which means sufficient land of min.
SPORTS
FACILITIES
55 ha (better 60 ha) must be available
Playing areas
in the longer term. In order to offer
A Practice green
Athletics B Driving range hut the alternative of a half round (9
Tennis
Miniature golf
C Pitching greens holes) on an 18-hole golf course, the
D Parking
Golf courses
1-18 Fairways
1st tee, 9th green, 1Oth tee and 18th
Water sport, green should all be within reasonable
marinas f) Example of an 18-hole course
distance of the clubhouse if possible
Water sport,
rowing and -78.
canoeing
Equestrian sport
Ski jumping
Ice rinks ®
Roller skating
rinks Open-air terrace Service rooms: G) Workshop with car lift or pit
Housekeeping/
Speed roller
skating,
skateboarding
I kitchen
I I
Equipment room
Workshop
Material store
® @ @Office
®Lounge
@) Sanitary area
Cyclo-cross,
BMX
Shooting ranges
I Toilets
r- Lounge SeJVices room
Staff
Golf cart parking
®
®
Changing room
Machine shed
(j) Material store
l Washroom & showers I Caddies' room
D ®Paved yard
®Fuel store
G) @ Washing area with oil separator
I Changing
f- Foyer H Administration @ Storage area for small machines
@ Spares and tools
@ Fertiliser and seed store
l Toilets
I H Shop
®
.6
e Space allocation plan for a golf clubhouse Q Functional example of a golf course utility building

332
 SPORTS FACILITIES
Water Sport, Marinas

Boat types
Competitive races are possible only if every competitor has the
same equipment. This has led to mostly standardised types of boats
competing in sailing regattas. National classes are recognised by
national ruling bodies and international classes by the International
Sailing Federation in London. This also regulates the Olympic
classes, which are newly specified after each Games(----> 9 Examples
of sailing boat classes and dimensions).
The depth of water required in harbours, marinas and watercourses
depends on the type of boat. Usually specified are 1.25 m (dinghies,
centreboard boats) and 4-5 m (keelboats) depth of water. Uniform

I water levels are favourable for the construction of harbours and safety
of the boats.

::r ~}
Sailing boat Unitary Size- Draught Sail area Distinguishing mark
type/class (U)or length/width (m) 3-S= on sail
(crew) (1-3) constructed (m) spinnaker
(C) class (m')
1--- 4.9-9.5 m ---t t--1.7-2.1 m---1 internat.
f) Open keelboat classes:
Finn dinghy1> u 4.50/1.51 0.85 10 two blue wavy lines
111) above one another
Flying u 6.05/1.80 1.10 15(S) black letters FD
Dutchman (2)
Star1> 2 u 6.90/1.70 1.00 26 five-pointed red star
Ten1j>8st u 6.69/2.00 1.13 22.93 s black letter T
Dragon 3 u 8.90/1.90 1.20 22 s black letter D
Soling (3) u 8.15/1.90 1.30 24.3(S) black letter 0
Omega)
Tornado 1>(2) u 6.25/3.05 0.80 22.5 (S) black letter T with two
lE_arallel underlinings

e Open catamaran
470 1)2
5.50-m_yacht
Yngling 1> 2
u
c
u
4.70/1.58
9.50/1.95
6.35/1.75
1.05
1.35
1.05
10.66
28.8
14
s black number 470
black number 5.5
black letter Y
49er1)(2) u 4.99/1.TI.2.!Jl 1.50 21.:U.~ black number 49er
Pirate (2) u 5.00/1.62 0.85+ 10(S) red axe
Optimist(1) u 2.30/1.13 0.77+ 3.33 black letter 0
children & junior u 3.32/1.27 0.74+ 5.10 (S) black letter G
cadel_l2)
0Kdinghy(1 u 4.00/1.42 0.95 8.50 blue letter 0 and K
Olympia dinghy u 5.00/1.66 1.06+ 10 red ring
1(2)
420 dinghy (2) u 4.20/1.50 0.95+ 10(S) black number 420
sloping and staggered
some national

e Keelboat cruiser
classes:
15m2 c 6.20/1.70 15 (S) black letter H
Wanderjolle
or H-boat (2)
15m2 dinghy c 6.50/1.85 - 15 (S) black letter P
cruiser_(2)
20m2 dinghy c 7.7512.15 20(S) black letter R
cruiser
1>Olympic classes+ w1th lowered centreboard SPORTS
FACILITIES

e Examples of sailing boat classes and dimensions Playing areas

Athletics
!----5.1-10.25m_________...... f--------.---2.0-3.1 m-------1 Tennis

e Keel cruiser
Miniature golf
Golf courses
Water sport,
marinas
Water sport,
rowing and
1--- 2.5 m -----1 canoeing
Equestrian sport
f) Motor cruiser Ski jumping

,oAfP ~I~
Ice rinks
Roller skating
rinks
Speed roller
skating,
-------------- 0 skateboarding
Q Bllgeboard cruiser r----5--9 m-----1 1--- 2.5 m-----1 Cyclo-cross,
BMX
41!) Classic boat Shooting ranges

~r!~~r~
~ ~:b
f---- 2.5 m ----1 f - - - 9--15 m ------l 1--- 4-6 m ---1 o
f----- 4-6 m --------1
0 Inflatable boat 4D Motor yacht

333
 sea/Jake side harbour side SPORTS FACILITIES
Water Sport, Marinas

B---1 Marine engineering works

height H (m) base width B (m) Structures protecting against wave impact, suction and swell are
1 4.00 important for every marina.
2 7.50
3 11.00
4 14.50 Breakwaters (or moles) are formed of rammed sheet piles or
5 18.00 stone boulders --7 f) - 0. Concrete caissons can be used only in
6 21.50
relatively shallow water. --7 0 Floating piers consisting of concrete
0 Sections of moles and seawalls f) Reeds with at least two layers of pontoons are also possible. --7 0 Breakwaters should permit
vegetation pedestrian access for sightseeing.

Sheet pile walls offer permanent coastal protection with the least
use of space. They normally consist of rolled steel profiles with
vertical interlocking, but can also be of timber or plastic. A sheet
pile wall is nearly watertight and, because of the great resistance of
heavy sheet pile in place, can bridge large spans. Sporting boats,
which are tied up against a sheet pile wall, must be protected
against mechanical damage with fenders. Steel pile walls can also
rust, which does not look good in a marina. --7 0

Dolphins consist of steel pipes, sometimes filled with concrete

or timber. Min. length 3 x water depth, depending on the seabed.
Boats and quays are fixed to dolphins. The average lifetime of

8 Rammed timber piles e Sheet steel pile wall

timber dolphins in seawater is 15 years and of steel pipes 35 years.
Because this lifetime varies greatly with location, information
should be sought locally.
20
I f----2.00---f
Banks stabilise coasts and are formed by rubble, concrete or
planting. Slopes depend on the height, ground conditions and
detailing. --7 f) + 8
Slipways and cranes
Boat cranes can be permanently mounted in the service wharf
area or else be mobile cranes. This requires load-bearing ground
and sufficient space for landside access (car with trailer + truck),
according to the size of the crane and the boat. The coastal
protection at this location will have to be vertical.

e Pre-cast concrete caisson with

sand filling
e Section through floating pontoon,
edge loading P min. 2.5 kN
A travellift is a mobile lifting device for transporting boats in the
marina. --7 p. 335 0

Slipways are ramps for launching boats. Smaller and lighter boats
can be launched on a trailer, but larger ones will require the trailer
to be towed. --7 0 - fli)
SPORTS
FACILITIES Construction materials and details for marine works are exposed
Playing fields to attack by the sea and should be made of stable, durable and
Athletics lasting materials. Corrosion is considerable in water, especially
Tennis
Miniature golf
seawater. Buildings should be sealed against wind and spray, and
Golf courses insulated for thermal protection in summer and winter.
Watersport1
marinas
Water sport,
rowing and
f) Fixed quay of timber or concrete
piles
e Floating concrete pontoon, suitable
as a breakwater
canoeing
Equestrian sport
Ski jumping
Ice rinks
Roller skating
rinks
Speed roller
skating,
skateboarding Normal

1
Cyclo-cross, water level
BMX
Shooting ranges Low water Mooring wall
level
~- ------ --------
: : Round change
1 1 of slope Rings
I I
I I
I I
LJ
I I Strip foundations according
~" to the load-bearing capacity
Mooring space
of the subsoil

8 Section through slipway (!) Plan _, 0

334
 SPORTS FACILITIES
~~ol+Eloat length~ :~at width , Floating boom
Water Sport, Marinas

+ ca.1.00 //
J.. ""/ I
Design of moorings
f==~GEGTIJBC----..,.----- /
I Berths should always be aligned to the wind, with the size
Stem mooring posts:
I
of berths appropriate to the type of boat and how the boat is
I
I
moored (bow or stern). If sailing boats without motors are to
be expected (a regatta harbour), there should be sufficient
"'
>--Boat length x 1.5- 1.8--j Approx.
dimensions space for manoeuvring to halt the boats. Sailing boats stop
by running into the wind, which can take 2-5 boat lengths
0 Manoeuvring between quays
according to type -t e.
Behind the harbour mouth, there should be a turning
circle to allow the largest ship to turn. This turning circle,
-35-60 m diameter, is necessary to enter the harbour
safely and for manoeuvring in a storm -t 0.
Quays
The choice of type of quay is determined by the strain from
the load, ship impact and hawser tension.
Fixed quays on rammed piles are endangered by high
tides. -t p. 354 0
~600
1501+-W-t- --+-W-+1150
Modern floating quays are fixed to mooring posts or
Mooring posts 500 r+---:.":~g~ 500 anchored, and enable safe and controllable docking at any
f) Mooring a boat: mooring between 0 Mooring a boat: diagonal boat mooring;
water level. -t p. 354 0
quay and posts quay and outrigger Berthing at a mooring is normal in southern waters -t 0
The water depth at the mooring place should be min. 1.8
times the deepest draught. The berth should be provided
with electricity and water and a drainage connection. Tying-
up equipment like bollards, clamps or rings of adequate
size is needed. Slip-resistant surfaces and planking of
quays are necessary, as are a handrail on one or both sides
and lighting for the quays and berths.
Provide waste containers of sufficient number and size
(rubbish separation!).
Size of berths
The size of berths depends on the boats in the marina.
i-2000--j
Berths of various sizes should be offered, ideally sorted
according to size. A few berths for superyachts (length over
21 m) are also necessary. Manoeuvring and tying up at the
G Mooring a boat: mooring a boat 0 Mooring with and without buoy berths should be safe.
between quay and outrigger In a
Y-shape Dry storage marina
If there is too little space available on the water, boats
can be stored on shore and transported by a travellift to
be launched in max. 30 min. The dry storage marina is SPORTS
--r·-~-l~ind ~irecuo~--- equipped with quays and berths on land so that the use FACILITIES

of the boat is also possible on land (water, drainage and Playing fields
Athletics
stopping into electricity connections). The ratio of land to water in such a Tennis
the wind 3-5
marina is about 80:20. Miniature golf

\\·····------~
Golf courses
boat Igths The investment costs are only about 40% of a comparable Water sport,
conventional marina. marinas
Water sport,
rowing and
Manoeuvring space for stopping f) Right-angled harbour canoeing
under sail Equestrian sport
Boat class Required Safety Passage Ski jumping
berth size (m) spacing width Ice rinks

T TTOT T "'i length width

(m) (m)
Roller skating
rinks
Speed roller
I IL\ IIW) I IS) I (P) skating,

*o*A; ;n* "'i Finn dinghy

Flying
Dutchman
4.50
6.00
3.00
3.00
3.00
1.00
5.00
6.50
skateboarding
Cyclo-cross,
BMX
.L :J..v.J. .J.v.J. "'{ Star 7.00 3.50 1.50 7.50 Shooting ranges
Tempest 6.70 4.00 2.00 8.00
"- Dragon 9.00 4.00 2.00 9.50

~B~~~nT "'1
Soling 8.50 4.00 2.00 9.50
T Tornado 6.50 6.00 2.00 7.00
470 5.50 3.50 1.50 5.00

.J.v.J.v.J. "'±
S safety spacing in front of and behind the berth
Toilet, bilge and foul water, electricity Travellift for land transport and rapid .J. .L lenath L
and water supply, cable TV and launching
Internet connection (D) Sizes of berths on land for Olympic sailing boat classes

335
 ha
SPORTS FACILITIES
Water Sport, Marinas
1000

900

800 The first stage of designing a marina is a feasibility study

700 and various approvals on land and water. A marina is always
intended for leisure and tourism. The specialisation trends for
300
marinas are fitting-out marina, event marina, berth marina,
200 mini-marina, dry store marina etc. ---7 p. 337.
100
50 Selection of location
The boats must be protected. Access by water and by road
on land must be guaranteed. Marinas should ideally not be
Length: ;:3 3.7 m
Draught: 0.8 m built in open countryside but rather in connection with leisure,
urban or tourist attractions.
0 Relationship- extent of water : boat size

u
Size and capacities of marinas
There should be a minimum depth of water to suit the
intended sporting boats. Avoid sporting and ecological
conflicts and overloading on the water. On average, only
33% of the marina's boats will be on the water at the same
time. Consider the simultaneity factor (describes the ratio of
Circular layout
the total permitted number of boats to the average number
I of boats underway), determination of the technical space
requirements for individual types of boats, and sufficient
spacing from other boats.
Radial layout
Organisation of areas
f) Arrangement of berths Parallel layout

------------------- ---------- ___ .,...----... ______ ' Mooring area: toilet pump, lifebelts, supply columns for
electricity, water, waste disposal; this area should be safe,

~
attractive and functional ---7 p. 335. Technical area: slip
--;-~-~--
__---.--
_. ---..--
__ ramp, crane, chandler, workshop, motor service, repair area
-.... .... ? (consider emissions and influence of pollution). Restaurant
f) Breakwater closed on one side e Open breakwater parallel to the shore
- ___
..... ..... __
area: with terrace overlooking the water. Service area:
harbour master, showers, toilets, information (must be easy to
---.--------... /_

-------------, ----- __
--- find). Parking: safe and easily accessible for cars and trailers

~4P
,-

- ----- ---7 e.
Layouts

~I
Right-angled harbour ---7 8: mainly for medium-sized marinas
(1 00-400 berths), long major breakwater running parallel to
the shore, closed at one end; alignment to the main wind
Funnel-shaped breakwaters Island and river mouth
direction and to waves must be considered.
Harbour/canal ,2.5,2.5l5t
3.03.03.0
Open breakwater parallel to the shore ---7 0: the breakwater
access, manoeuvring
circle is not accessible and offers only limited protection, as the
harbour is open on two sides. It is suitable only for shores
without sediment deposition, but can be used for inland
waters. Disadvantage: reflection of the waves from the shore
SPORTS
through the harbour against the inside of the breakwater.
FACILITIES
Enclosing breakwaters ---7 0: two breakwaters run from the
Playing fields
Athletics shore and form a funnel-shaped harbour entrance. This is
Tennis very expensive to construct and suitable only for locations
Miniature golf
Golf courses with the best possible natural conditions- the ideal type for a
Water sport, protected coastal marina.
marinas
Water sport, Area distribution of a marina- Boat storage hall scheme, doors Island harbour ---7 8: with sensitive shores, if water depth
rowing and land:water approx 1:1.5 facing stern side is insufficient or space is a problem. According to local
canoeing
Equestrian sport
conditions, an island marina can be piled or constructed on
Ski jumping pontoons.
Ice rinks
Roller skating Land storage of boats
rinks
Speed roller
Larger boats are stored in sheds or in the open air over the
skating, winter. Storage should be safe against storms if on blocks
skateboarding
Cycle-cross,
and jack stands, with sufficient safety spacing between
BMX boats ---7 e.
Shooting ranges Open areas and roads in marinas must be adequate for
boat transport and storage. The car park should have an
associated lockable place for trailers.
Turning areas should be sufficiently large for vehicles with
trailers and cranes and in front of slipways, diameter min.
18m, and load-bearing (min. 6 t axle load). In large marinas,
these areas should be concrete or asphalt surfaced. ---7 0
C) Land storage places

336
 SPORTS FACILITIES
Water Sport, Marinas

Marina types
Day marina: floating location; only for daily mooring of boats on
the coast as a floating marina.

City marina/Mini-marina/Water touring rest place: ---7 0 in

0 Water touring rest place Design: Arch. Haass, Hannover attractive urban location, only for overnight stays by boating
tourists, minimal service.

Event marina: urban location; only intended for boating tourists

visiting events, temporary and with minimal service.

Regatta and Olympic marinas: ----> 8 Olympic flame, helicopter

pad, workshop/verification hall, weather station, medical care
and doping testing, organisation and competition office, security,
VIP lounge, press boxes, cranes, washing area. Berths: Star
and Yngling. Land storage area: 49er, Tornado, 470, Laser, Finn,
Europe Star and Yngling (all including container storage), surfer
hall. Shuttle jetty, changing rooms/sanitary facilities!WCs for the
teams, information and communications centre (for team meetings,
official committee, competition transmission for participants,
bistro). Parking, mooring for trainers' boats, moorings, mixed area.

Berth marina: location at the edge of town is possible, only

water berths without additional service. Suitable for clubs and
associations.
G) Access road @ Newsagent (!) Boat service, workshop
®Reception ®Catering @ Slip, crane, travellift Tourist marina: harbour office, berths, sanitary facilities, chandler,
@ Charter area @Moorings ® Land storage restaurant.

f) Dry marina on a creek Design: Arch. Haass, Hannover Association and club marinas: club house, terrace, car parking,
access, jetties, berths, land storage space, repair/workshop.

Dry marina: ----> 0 location at the edge of town or industrial

estate, predominantly land storage with well-functioning travellift
launching of boats. Service, facilities, minimal space on water.

Technical marina: possible location on industrial estate; only

technical services like crane, repair, winter service, boat building,
refitting etc.

Winter marina: possible location on industrial estate; only winter

storage of boats in sheds or the open air. Observe sufficient space
between boats and possibly separate storage areas for equipment
G) Olympic fire @ Press @ Land storage and working materials (fire hazard from paint and varnish}.
® Helipad 0 Info. & communications @ Moorings
® Competition office ® Multi-stone car park @ Moorings SPORTS
(±) VIP lounge ® Workshop, surveying @ Surlers' hall FACILITIES
@ Teams' sanitary facs @ Weather station & first aid @ Mixed area Task/function Requirements Construction
Playing fields
1. Transport areas for - sufficient width - frostsafe construction Athletics
C) Olympic sailing harbour at TravemOnde Design: Arch. Haass, Hannover trailers and towing - turning space for towing -drainage Tennis
vehicles, etc. vehicles - solid surfacing of Miniature golf
- sufficiently loadbearing concrete, asphalt or Golf courses
Water sport,
- surface drainage similar
marinas
2. Land areas for boats - sufficient size - frostsafe construction Water sport,
- sufficiently loadbearing - waterbound surfacing rowing and
- anchorage for tarpaulins - founded anchorages, anoeing
e.g. rings Equestrian sport
Ski jumping
3. Access roads for - width according to - frostsafe construction Ice rinks
emergency services RAST - drainage Roller skating
- sufficiently loadbearing - surfacing of paving, rinks
- turning circles for concrete, asphalt or Speed roller
skating,
vehicles similar
skateboarding
- surface drainage CycloHcross,
4. Parking for vehicles - sufficient space - waterbound surtacing BMX
- sufficiently loadbearing - paving strips to mark Shooting ranges
- clear marking of places spaces
- frostsafe construction
G) Harbour entry @ Old harbour @)Kiosk 5. Footpaths and cycle - width 1.5-2.5 m - frostsafe construction
® Dinghy ramp ® Moorings 0 WC @Boatyard ways - separated from vehicles - waterbound surfacing
@Boats ® Hotel & restaurant @ Winter storage for boats - safe and clearly laid out or paving
@ Travellift - surface drainage - drainage
@ New harbour @ Shopping centre
G Example of a yacht harbour 0 Roads and car parks: functions and construction quality

337
 SPORTS FACILITIES
Water Sport, Marinas

Superyacht marinas
Yachts of more than 21 m/70 ft length are described as
superyachts. From a length of more than 30 m, these yachts have
0 Superyacht marina, section showing separation into crew and owner areas
Arch.: Haass, Hannover
professional crews. Such yachts require particular attention in the
design of a marina, either as an extension of an existing marina or
as an independent marina.

The location can only be exclusive with high-quality tourist

attractions, and connection to an airport and a major city. The
size of yachts 10-21 m 30-80 ft
superyacht business in Europe is mostly concentrated in the
small 21-30 m 80-100 ft
superyachts
Mediterranean.
medium 30-60 m 100-200 ft
superyachts Superyachts require extensive space for berths 0 - 8 and have
large over60 m over 200ft heavy utility requirements 0. Water depths of min. 8-9 m are
superyachts required.

The concept of a superyacht marina corresponds to the

f) Superyacht categories according Theoretical sketch of a superyacht
requirements of a 5-star hotel, with 24-hour service for technical
to size marina with service building and
lounge support and a personal reception service. Zoning is similar to
a 5-star hotel, plus separated areas for crew and service --+ 9.
The security of ships and crews need to be ensured through
appropriate facilities. 24-hour security service, video surveillance
and electronic access control systems, as well as the lighting of
the most significant areas of the marina, are important.
Medium Connection on board Capacity

Electricity
c==r Operated
by crew
Security in marinas
Security facilities in marinas protect boats, equipment (electronics)

~
Fresh water min. 50 I I min and people from the forces of nature and criminality, vandalism
Operated by crew
and terror.
Pump-out station
Waste-water
c=:=J Operated by crew
Active measures:
Fuel
c:=J Diesel I petrol operated
by marina
Arrangement, visibility of berth areas
Alarm systems on boats
Q Requirements and usual location of the utility aspects of superyachts Security for berths, jetties (gates)
Passive measures:
Video surveillance of berths
Lighting of the marina
Security service, security patrols
Emergency measures, security plan
Security management

Marinas inside waterfronts with public access require a lockable

SPORTS
central area (harbour office) and additional 24-hour surveillance.
FACILITIES The marina should be marked with notices and rules, which can
Playing fields be implemented as marina regulations and enforced by police.
Athletics
Tennis
Miniature golf Each marina requires an emergency plan, which provides
Golf courses the greatest possible safety in an emergency, with employee
Water sport,
marinas instruction and training. Training days should be carried out at
Water sport, least twice a year.
rowing and
canoeing
Equestrian sport Sustainability
Ski jumping
Ice rinks
Environmental technologies can be implemented in marinas to
Roller skating save energy, but also for the exploitation of alternative energy:
rinks geothermal, wind power, waterpower, photovoltaic, solar heating
Speed roller
skating, etc. can all be employed in marinas. A good marina should function
skateboarding without external energy supply. An environmentally friendly marina
Cycle-cross,
BMX protects water and subsoil through the use of environmentally
Shooting ranges safe materials (no water pollution).

Environmental acceptability is achieved through concentrating

the marina equipment and technology into functional areas,
which can be switched off in the winter - energy zones and
levels of operational intensity. Public transport instead of shuttle/
taxi service, energy-saving times (e.g. 24:00-6:00), price levels
C) Functional scheme of club house according to energy use etc.

338
 1.65-1.70
SPORTS FACILITIES
Water Sport, Rowing and Canoeing

0 Racing shell: single

Rowing boats are predominantly team boats belonging to clubs.

4--====:r<w[,a~~ill!i;;t::::>c:====~- ~120
Like kayaks and canoes, they are mostly found on flowing
waterways which are free of obstacles, in attractive countryside.
o-------11.0/13.5.~-~~--~
'60'
A boathouse has windows or skylights to the north, in order to
Coxless pair I four keep sun out. Doors £';2.50 x 2.75 m, to carry boats in above the
head. Boathouse width £';6.00 m, length ideally 30 m, height 4.0

~=====:JLJ@d~~~a~rii'd~tp~Rl1§~lW~~~w~>c=:~-70==~ m if possible --> G). Oars 3.80 m long, spoons 15-18 em. Storage
near the entrance, horizontally on racks or, better, hanging from a
f--------~----19.50•~-----~---~-;
clamping ring above a pit (depending on boathouse height).
Racing shell: eight
Between boathouse and water jetty, a shore strip £';20-30 m wide
is required for cleaning and preparing the boats, with water taps
>---------7.5/12.5/17.5--------< and parking space for trailers. If possible, provide nearby lawn or
woodland areas for camping.

G Racing skiff: single/four/eight Rowing basin for training with shortened oars--> (f), basin size for
an eight 12.60 x 7.60 m. Single or double-sided rowing basin (also
offset). Water circulation creates similar currents to open water.
Ideally, this facility should be combined with a sports hall or indoor
? I 5
~
I3o pool and their changing rooms.
I 54-60 I
78-90
J..-.----6.50-7.0/8.25-8.5-------<

0 Touring skiff: single/pair

>--1.70-1.8()-< >----4.8 6.5/4.0 5.2---<

2
r bl6!7
~50/8(}<
pot14

~ ls/7 [1 0/14 .
' - ) B5 F - - - 4 , 8 6,5-------j
1.0(A) ' t-80-1

0 Touring skiff: four/eight 4D Kayak with double-bladed paddle: single/pair

~c=~===~========~<~~~~~~6
0

~16 116
F--------11.0----------i >-60---<
0 Seagoing gig: pair/four
0 Kayak with double-bladed paddle: four

8s===~~~~~~­
~-'\ T./'J~
-<~C lI ~=
T
I :
-1.80
MH30

f---------11.5----------j 1--1.4()---+--<

e Touring boat

SPORTS
FACILITIES
Playing fields
Athletics
Tennis
C) Canoe with single-bladed paddle Miniature golf
Golf courses
1 - - - - - - -... 6 . 0 - - - - - - l section elevation

e Section through boathouse 0 Boat stands every

2.00-2.50 m
Water sport,
marinas
Water sport,
rowing and
1------1.17---i
canoeing
'1!) Racing canoe: eight with cox Equestrian sport
Ski jumping
Ice rinks

>------6.0;/.7.0 ---l
::)===:=) ¥¥§ $-
'8~~~~~~~
I I
10/15 25/30
Roller skating
rinks
Speed roller
> - - - - - - 9. Q - - - - - - - < skating,
F--90/1.15--< skateboarding
Cyclo-cross,
$ Touring crew canoe: eight and ten with cox BMX
Shooting ranges

,...._-------10.96-~----------< t-1.25-1

G) Dragon boat, IDBF racing standard f) Double-sided sculling pool

339
 SPORTS FACILITIES
Water Sport, Rowing and Canoeing

Requirements for regatta and

training courses for canoe and
slalom:

1. Natural facilities: In steep

sections (min. 1:100 gradient) of
0 Regatta course for canoe slalom
waterways not suitable for normal
boating traffic or similar rivers with
min. 10 m3 /s flow (at mean low water
control trap or as controlled by an upstream
waterfall 0.8 m weir). Also in tailwater from mills and
power stations, min. 8 m wide, with

r
and without obstacles (installation
e
~I
0.4
0
7 J= 1:12.5
c

h.4 3±0.0- of gates) ->

oj -1.5;:
2. Artificial facilities: Olympic
course in the Eiskanal/Lech near
0 100 106 325
Augsburg, 550 m long. Reinforced
f) Horizontal section --? 0 concrete channel with concrete
rock obstacles and 6 m falls, invert
waterfall, up to 32 gates.

Requirements for regatta and training

l courses for competitive international
rowing and canoeing -> e.

~--~6~.0~-~1~5·.~ Minimum requirements for water

G touring courses -> 0- 0. Criteria
8 Cross-section -> 0 Control trap with draining base
for water touring rest places and
canoe stations are laid down by the
DKV (German Canoe Association).
See alsop. 337.

plan: rowing

C) Track markings (International dimensions) for competitive rowing and canoeing

SPORTS
FACILITIES favourable course direction: SW-NE
>--women's kayak 500 m---o
Playing fields
Athletics ~ men's kayak and Canadian canoeing 1000 m - - - - - 1
Tennis 1-----------women's rowing 1000 m ------------+-
Miniature golf men's rowing 2000m
Golf courses
Water sport,
marinas
Water sport, m
rowing and 0
.0
canoeing
Equestrian sport
Ski jumping
Ice rinks
Roller skating
rinks
Speed roller
0 Regatta course in Munich (international dimensions) for competitive rowing and canoeing
skating,
skateboarding
Cyclo-cross,
BMX
Shooting ranges
gg ..undersiae·ort;rid9e :::::: ................. .
1.5-2.0 l
40
' ===t
11.0
I

f) Waterway for touring,

~
e Waterway for touring, Ci) Waterway 4li) Jetty, min. length
1000 1/mln. normal ~?.Om

340
 SPORTS FACILITIES

Tr
2.50
to
withers
Equestrian Sport

Riding facilities/stables should, if possible, be in the immediate

vicinity of land suitable for riding. Areas with high ground and
1.67
air humidity, as are often found in valleys, should be avoided,
as should windless locations, where providing the desired
ventilation may be difficult. Ideal sites are in hilly and windy
\-90-j areas. However, slope gradients for buildings and riding arenas
should be <1 0%.

0 Dimensions of horse and rider Saddle rooms, as far as possible, should be long and rectangular,
with a large wall space and a width of 4.0-4.5 m. Saddles can be
hung in three rows, staggered above each other --1 (i). Saddle
rooms and grooming rooms should have heating and be well
ventilated.

2.75 In riding arenas the minimum headroom for show-jumping and

horseback acrobatics is 4.00 m --1 0- 0. No universal rule can be
applied to the space allocated to spectators. In general, though,
spectators should not look down too steeply on the horses. An
effective solution can be to use a spectators' gallery --1 @), with
the first row for seating and the second for standing. Behind this
/--1.25-1.3o---1 !----:;; 1.25---j is room for two rows of circulating people. This arrangement will
f) Stable entrance,
mounted
t) Door/stable passage e Horse
and rider,
create 200 seated and standing places in a 20 x 40 m arena. The
size of the main entrance has to be large enough to allow access
dismounted for medium-sized lorries (3.00 m wide, 3.80 high}. Side entrances
should be 1.20 m or more wide and min. 2.80 m high. Doors have
to open outwards.

The ring fence as enclosure of a riding ring has many purposes

--. 0. It simplifies dressage riding of horses and saves the riders
from injury. Angle of the slope to the vertical f:;;20°. Glass windows
< 2 m above the floor of the riding arena should be protected by a
fine mesh grille. An exercise area of approx. 1000 m2 is sufficient
for 10 horses, mostly in pairs daily and weekly.

40 f3of 40 t3of 45-j

0 Space for stunt riding e Space for show-jumping

333

-+33 3 SPORTS
FACILITIES
-+33 3
Playing fields
Athletics
Tennis
t-65
Miniature golf
Golf courses
65 Water sport,
marinas
I-- 55 ---+- 55 --1 Water sport,
:::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::.·::::::.·::::. rowing and

8 Saddle with blanket e Saddle rack on wall Spectator stand with access passage
canoeing
Equestrian
sport
r17t17J17J f- 60 -f-40-+--- 90---l Ski jumping
0 Ice rinks
Roller skating
rinks

o~y H
f-30-i Speed roller

I
skating,
skateboarding
Cycle-cross,

~00 I··
2.05 BMX
1.05
\I Shooting ranges

j ij B~
/ 2S.. 14>' · . · :: : :• • 0 . . : : : : :• . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

0 Tackrack fii) Bridle rack Ring fence profile G) Practical spectator stand

341
 SPORTS FACILITIES
Equestrian Sport

Most of the operational functions of the various types of riding

facilities are basically the same, apart from variations due to special
operational features or local conditions. Building specifications vary
primarily according to the size of the business or stable occupation
number, which is decisive for the design of the individual elements
and determines whether various functions can be combined ---1 0.
Generally, the core of the organisation is the buildings needed for the
accommodation, care and feeding of the horses, always designed as
a self-contained structure. A covered riding area is essential to enable
activity to continue in all weathers. Flats for stable boys, grooms and
instructors should be designed together with the facilities.
The long axis of the show-jumping arena should be aligned
north-south out of consideration for the horse and rider ---1 8
because most of the jumps are approached towards the main axis of
the riding arena. Tournament arenas, which are aligned north-south,
should have the stand for the judges and single-sided spectator
stands on the west side, because major events take place in the
afternoon. The minimum area of the riding space is 20 x 40 m net (pure
functions under a people only riding area) ---1 f). 20 x 60 m riding areas are required for dressage
roof or in a building
r-----, people and horses from class M and eventing. The riding space needs additional spaces
L_ ____ J outside areas
sight connections at the sides (~3.0 m) and at the entrance (~5.0 m), so the arena
Q Scheme of the indoor spatial relationships of a riding facility has a gross area of 26 x 48 m ---1 f). For competitions, the minimum
distance of the spectators from hooves is 5 m, for indoor trials 20 m.
sizes for
competition
.-,-,,---=-----------------'-"'<-,._,---, arenas
0 0 16
• !unge/h?rseback
acrobatics
/' I ',,\

50x100m
20 x 40m • dressage square
(_ _____________ ___j J up to

0----.l
----~
150x300m
20x60m ,,_

I1..-----------.lI
25x40m •testing
showjumpers
--------- . c
0
30x60m •jumping/two- :~
horse carriage
~

CJ
40x80m •dressage testing, 8
or four-horse
sox ao m carriage

''
1..--------------.J'' • showjumping

arena dimensions uses

5) trusses on restrained columns 6) profiled beams on restrained columns
minimum
sizes for a
riding arena 9 Riding hall cross-sections

8 Functional dimensions of open-air riding areas

lunge/horseback acrobatics: alternative to a hall in the

0 f:: 14.0m smallest clubs and private stables; used to relieve the
main arena in larger establishments
smallest arena: for private stables only and as an
D 12.5 x 25.0m emergency solution for clubs; suitable as a second
arena for larger establishments
SPORTS
FACILITIES D 15.0x30.0m private stables and smaller club stables; second arena
for larger establishments
Playing fields
normal size for every type of establishment; dressage
Athletics
Tennis
DJ 20.0 x 40/45 m exams possible

Miniature golf 20.0 x 60.0m for larger establishments and institutions which
Golf courses specialise in dressage
Water sport,
for large schools providing jumping and dressage
marinas 25.0 x 66.0m training, and boarding establishments; hall dressage
Water sport, exams possible
rowing and
canoeing format of arena uses
riding halls dimensions
Equestrian
sport
Ski jumping
8 Clear dimensions of riding halls

Ice rinks
Roller skating Stored substance 100 kg Daily requirement Stored quantity per horse
rinks needs m3 per horse (kg) No. of
Speed roller space months kg m'
skating, oats (grain) 0.22 5 1 150 0.33
skateboarding
hay long, stored 1.00-1.18 8 12 2900 29-34
Cycle-cross,
BMX compressed
Shooting ranges wired bales 0.59 17
straw long, stored 1.43-2.00 approx. 20 (clean 3 1825 26-37
compressed straw for box stalls)
strung bales 1.05-1.18 19 22
wired bales 0.42-0.50 8-9
chopped 2.22-3.33 approx. 15 1375 31-16
100 mm long

e Storage space for horse feedstuffs e Riding facility in Gerolstein/Eifel Arch.: Schnitzer

342
 SPORTS FACILITIES
Ski Jumping

plan The distance of the parapet of

the lowest judge's cabin from the
horizontal 'd' through the tip of the
ski jump= D x tan 16°- tan 20°.
The cabins should be arranged as
section steps in the sloping line passing
through the ski jump table edge to
the end of the point 'd'. The upper
edge of the floor of the individual
0 Sketch of the construction cabins is 1-1.20 m below the
ofaskijump parapet. The slope of the tower

P
TP
K
~datum
~table
point
point
I
~critical point (end of section where slope is parallel to the flight path)
A
to the track axis should be 7-10°,
so that the judge can observe the
entire flight and landing. At the
top of the starting ramp, as many starting places as possible should be
B ~end of the landing track curve
M ~slow-down section (distance from P to K)
uniformly distributed along the length E/5, whose vertical spacing should
M1 ~distance from P to B be about I m. Lowest starting place= E- E/8.
L ~distance from edge of slope to P Minimum width of the landing piste at K = Li/7 + 4 m.
L1 ~distance from edge of slope to K
H ~ vertical projection of L Notes:
N ~horizontal projection of L All slopes are to be given in old divisions (360°). If the transfers are parabolic,
H:N ~ratio of vertical to horizontal
then Ri and R2 are the smallest curves of the parabolas. If the starting
~ slope of launch platform
~ slope of landing track from normal point (P) to critical point (K)
ramp is natural, the parts actually used should be marked every 2m in order
c ~slope of starting ramp to simplify the exact determination of the starting place. The slope of the ski
R1 ~radius of curve from starting ramp to launch platform jump table and also a number of points on the curve between starting ramp
R2 ~ radius of curve from landing track to run-out
and the tip of the ski jump table should be determined on both sides with
R, = radius of curve from launch platform to landing track
T ~length of launch platform
fixed profiles, so that even non-experts can produce the exact and correct
u ~part of starting ramp, in which speed no longer increases profile during the construction of the jump. It is recommended that profile
E = part of starting ramp, in which speed increases markers should be placed at both sides alongside the landing profile and
F ~total length of starting ramp (F ~ U + E + T)
into the run-out to enable the creation of the exact snow profile, particularly
A ~ length of run-out
V, ~speed at launch platform in m/s
if there is a lot of snow. Ski jumps whose L is >50 m should not normally
D ~ horizontal distance from launch platform to lower edge of judge's tower be built with a V0 <21 m/sec. Ski jumps with L >90 m are not approved by
Q ~distance from the landing track axis to front edge of judge's tower the FIS (International Ski Federation); exception: flying ski jumps.
f) These symbols should be used
The standard values for the most important parts of the ski jump:
H:N ~ 0.48-0.56
medium and large ski jumps
The datum point of a ski jump is to be determined:
E L
P ~ L 1-M, where the standards are forM: T ~0.22 V,
c c c 9-12° 8-10° <-a M ~ 0.5-0.8 V, for ski jumps up toP~ 70 m u ~o.o2 Va'
30° 35° 40° u T v, H:N ~ 0.56 0.54 0.52 0.50 0.48 b.!- M ~ 0.7-1.1 V, for ski jumps up to P ~ 90 m A~ 4-5 V, with horizontal run-out

62 52 44 8.8 4.6 21 53.0 51.0 35-37° M ~ 0-0.2 V, D ~ 0.5-0. 7 x L1 to lower edge of the
R1 ~0.12V/-0.12V,2 +8m tower
71 58 49 9.7 4.8 22 65.3 63.0 60.8 58.5 56.2
R2 ~ 0.14 Va'- 0.14 Va' +20m Q ~ 0.25-0.50 X l 1
80 65 54 10.6 5.1 23 71.5 69.0 66.5 64.0 61.5 36---38°
R3 ~profile for the front structure is selected to best
89 72 60 11.4 5.3 24 77.7 75.0 72.2 69.5 66.7 suit the flight profile
99 80 67 12.5 5.5 25 84.0 81.0 78.0 75.0 72.0 37-39°
The data point of a ski jump Is to be determined
111 90 74 14.0 5.7 26 90.2 87.0 83.7 80.5 77.2 SPORTS
124 100 81 15.0 5.9 27 96.3 93.0 89.5 86.0 82.5 38-40° 1start FACILITIES
2run·up
137 110 88 16.0 6.2 28 91.5 87.7
3
4
la~noh platform
run·o~t
Playing fields
5grandstand Athletics
0 Dimensions of medium and large ski jumps
Ojudges'towers
Tennis
Miniature golf
Golf courses
small ski jumps Water sport,
marinas
E L
Water sport,
c c c 8-10° 7-9° 6---80 <-a rowing and
30° 35° 40° u T v, H:N~0.50 0.48 0.46 0.44 0.42 0.40 0.36 b.!- canoeing
Equestrian sport
26 23 21 4.5 3.3 15 20.0 19.5 19.0 16.5 18.0 17.5 17.0 30-34° Ski jumping
32 28 25 5.1 3.5 16 25.5 24.8 24.0 23.3 22.5 21.8 21.0 30-35° Ice rinks
31.0 30.0 29.0 26.0 27.0 26.0 25.0 33-36° Roller skating
39 32 28 5.8 3.7 17
rinks
46 37 32 6.5 4.0 18 36.5 35.3 34.0 32.8 31.5 30.3 29.0 33-36° Speed roller
52 43 37 7.2 4.2 19 42.0 40.5 39.0 37.5 36.0 34.5 33.0 34-3JO skating,
skateboarding
59 49 42 8.0 4.4 20 47.5 45.8 44.0 42.3 40.5 38.8 37.0 34-37°
Cyclo-cross,
0 Dimensions of small ski jumps
BMX
Shooting ranges

Example: according to the terrain, the following details were given for L1 and
H:N, for example H:N ~ 0.54; c~ 35°; L~ 87 m.
In the table, you can find: L ~ 87 and in the left column V, ~ 26; at the same
level under c ~ 35°, E ~ 90 m, U ~14 and T ~ 5.7; F ~ E + U + T ~ 90 + 14 + 5.7
~ 109.7 m.
A ski jump which has dimensions different from the above can be approved by
the FIS. In such a case, the designer of the ski jump must provide a detailed
justification in writing. @ Garmlsch-Partenkirchen f) Holmenkollen

343
 SPORTS FACILITIES
Ice Rinks

1----63.11----+---- Ice rinks are for skating, ice hockey and

curling, which may of course also take place
f--20.32
on naturally frozen lakes and rivers, also
on frozen open-air swimming pools (the
edge must be strong enough to resist ice
pressure).
Sprayed ice rinks can be created on tennis
courts, roller skating rinks and other large
flat areas (surrounding wall about 10-15 em).
Start 3000 } inside Start 1000 inside
5000 Water is sprayed 2 em thick; drainage will be
needed for water run-off.
Artificial ice rinks with cooling pipe system,
2.5 em under screed layer. Pump system
with deep-frozen salt solution or chambers
Direction- with cold air (mostly ammonia compression
process)-'> 8- e.
Standard ice racing rink. Length ;:;:;300 m;
Start500 Target 1000 Start 10,000 333% m; normal 400 m. Measured 50 em
0.43 Target 1500 3000 5000 10,000 from the inner edge of the track. Radii of
1-----56.785 ----+--- 56.785 the inner curves ;:;:;25 m crossings ;:;;yo m. It
1---------113.57----------{
should be a double track -'> 0.
f----------------185.57----------------{ 2 x central axis = 2 x 111.94 = 223.89 m
0 Standard ice racing rink with marking inner curve= 25.2 x 3.1416 = 80.11 m
outer curve= 30.5 x 3.1416 = 95.82 m
crossing
vcrossing length 2 X track Width 2
from 70 m
= 0.18 m
total length 400 m
5000 500 1500
Standard ice racing track
II II II Width of a circular track: 4 m; width of the
~ ~ ~
(f) (f) (f)
inside warming-up track: 3 m (for better
training, 4 m is recommended).
II Bob tracks with steeply banked curves of
~
(f)
ice blocks. Spectator places should ideally
3000
be inside curves, otherwise with protecting
c"' walls of snow or straw bales in front of them.
II I 0 :Cell
_J
<(
Toboggan tracks lie on N-NW-NE slopes,
~ .!!2
<!l c -
.~
(f)
I [[
ideally in a hollow. Length 1500-2500 m;
slope 15-25%; width ;:;:;2m.
I
5--5 Flat run-out or uphill section, banking of
SPORTS 1------25.6- - - - - - i curves and protection of obstacles with
FACILITIES
60 straw bales or snow walls. Climbing up not
Playing fields
on the track but next to it.
Athletics
Tennis
f) Plan for short track
Long curling rinks -'> 0
Miniature golf
Golf courses
Water sport,
marinas
guide line
Water sport, / ice layer
rowing and
canoeing
Equestrian sport
Ski jumping
:J~:JI:I1Ii
0 ::?.
01I::III~:CI01~CIIII
J:!

0
/ ,~ cold layer with pipe system
:~pdeS5~~~! topping

Ice rinks 1~m'i~m~::::: slip membrane

Roller skating ~ protecting/levelling layer
insulation layer side boundary line,
rinks
Speed roller structural slab, possibly about 100mm
skating, with heating system
skateboarding
Cyclo~cross, frost protection layer

BMX
Shooting ranges capillary barrier layer

DIN 18036 pitching line

pitching point
protective circle
(radius 2m)

e Artificial Ice rink: scheme for a cooling plant

(brine operation)
G Laid pipes -> 8 0 Long curling rink_, p. 345

344
 SPORTS FACILITIES
Ice Rinks
~====.;j---·:::::.-::.-====----=--=--=-===·t==::::::~
II I ·------------T-1--
~----~--------l ___ f_~----~
+ r-:;:~--------rr-r~ ~ ~ Ice stock or Bavarian curling -1 0 playing area length 28 m; width
L_.=_____j ________ lo. --.l-~ 01
3.9 m (30 x 3 m is also possible). Between playing areas, bands
*" r-----.--------1!·--r~ + 1 m; at the ends ~60 em. Start and target areas are enclosed on
three sides by wooden barriers, which can be stepped over.

C~:::::~t~;.~;;.;~~~~~~~H 0
Curling -1 8: playing area (sheet) length 44.5 m; target circle
(house) ~3.65 m. To the centre point of the target circle 34.74 m,
shortened on bad ice to 29.26 m. Curling stone: weight ~19.985 kg.
pitching line ~ ~ ~ Circumference ~91.4 em, height ~% of circumference.
0 Curling rink Long curling rinks -1 p. 344 -1 e.
Ice hockey: playing field 30 x 61 m. Goal 1.83 m wide, 1.22 m
high, play continues behind it. Playing field requires 1.15-1.22 m
30.00
high perimeter barrier (wood or plastic) -1 e.

-----------1r-
16.00
Figure skating: ice area rectangular ~56 x 26 m ~30 x 60
m. Combination of roller skating rink in summer (March to

Q_~~~~:~-~~~~~')b
November) and ice rink in winter (December to February). Cold
pipe system 2.5-5 em under the surface of the rink (not possible

01 middle cross back boundary line

+
b?undary line ~
,1[ with terrazzo)
< pitch delivery point 0.25 m . . fdg~;rprox. ROLLER SKATING RINKS
back boundary line ~n~\i~~a With
in stadia with 8,5m boundary radius 1. Sport rinks
rink boundary radius roller hockey 15 x 30 to 20 x 40 m
f) Ice stock sport in an artificial ice rink roller figure skating 25 x50 m
2. Recreational rinks 1 0 x 10 to 20 x 20 m
Crash board 25 em high, 3 em over rink, 80 em parapeton all
44.50
-1.22 1.83 1.83 6.40 21.95 6.40 sides, 2 m wire mesh fence at the ends (to catch the ball),
perimeter round playing area 1.2 m; 5-1 0 em deeper, joints
radius 1.83m
1.22m ~5-6 mm, gradient ~0.2%o. Surface water in gutters or trenches,
frost protection layer ~20 em -1 e.
0.61m
0.15m Construction types
1. Fibre cement boards, 15 mm; laid on squared timbers or on a

e Scottish curling sheet

sand bed.
2. Concrete tracks, 1 0-15 em according to sub-base properties,
as few joints as possible, possibly cut dummy joints 2-3 mm
wide, expansion joints every 25-30 m, width ~15 mm.
3. Hard concrete screed, ~8 mm on fresh base concrete (if
possible, with 2 em cement mortar as stress compensation
between screed and base concrete).
4. Cement screed with additives 1-10 mm.
5. Terrazzo, ground, ~15 mm, brass, aluminium or plastic joint
strips, only indoor.
SPORTS
6. Poured asphalt, on solid base layer,-, as usual. FACILITIES

Skater hockey -1 0 Playing fields

Athletics
The playing surface consists of wood, tiles, parquet or other Tennis
flat and smooth materials suitable for roller skating. The rink is Miniature golf
Golf courses
surrounded by a ring barrier min. 0.20 m and max 1.22 m high. Hall Water sport,
walls are also allowed. marinas
Water sport,
rowing and
8 Standard rink with markings for ice hockey
canoeing
Equestrian sport
2.5-5.0 Ski jumping
Hs.o-j Ice rinks
Roller skating
I
rinks
1-2
-1I
+- 5.4 -1-5 I

T Speed roller

ttJLl
I
r--o> skating,
I :§
I E I 0 skateboarding
·c;

p" ~
I 0. I 15 ro "' 0
Cyclo-cross,
:u"' "'~
I I
IF BMX
i
I
I 0
~~I
I 15- Shooting ranges

~ 0.5
I
I
I
1.0:

0.2
I
I
I
i"'
c.
~
0.
:g
0)
«i
&
20m ')'
0
0
2"'
H I I
I

1
I

1
"' I '-----
I 'C I
"0
I .E I

side line
30-40 m

e Roller hockey rink 0 Skater hockey

345
 SPORTS FACILITIES
Speed Roller Skating

Space required: standard area 20 x 40 m ---7 f)

standard 20 x 40m roller Rooms for athletes:
skating rink 2 (4) communal changing rooms, each with 8 m bench and clothes
hangers (roller hockey, 4 communal changing rooms). For roller
hockey, if required additional clothes hooks every 3m 2 •
2 shower rooms with 4 showers, drying zone, 2 washbasins, 2
spectator
facilities
hairdryers and separate toilet in anteroom. 4 drying rooms (only
roller hockey) per 6m 2 • 1 umpires' and trainers' room, approx. 9m 2 •
Facilities for public speed skating: entrance area with ticket machine
and turnstile or staffed cash desk, approx. 40m 2 • Changing rooms
for public skating, also serve for putting on skates. Use all-year-
round. 30 single, 60 double lockers and bench length 20 m.
1 ladies' toilet with 2 WCs, separate anteroom and washbasins.
1 gents' toilet with 2 WCs, 3 urinals, separate anteroom and
washbasin, 1 sanitary room 9 m2 , 1 skate rental room 12 m2 (in
connection with cash desk).
1 supervisor and control room (also control room for lighting
and loudspeaker system) 8 m2 • Changing, shower, washbasins,
~r
. ' . . . . . __________________ _ toilets and cloakroom for 1-2 people, 1 workshop 4m 2 , 1 sporting
equipment room (large items) 15 m2, 1 sporting equipment room
~20.00 51.93 20.00~ (small items) 6m 2 , cleaners' room 12m2 , heating 10m2 , electricity
,__ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 97.93 -----------~

room 4m 2 , supply room 3m 2 •

f) Dimensions of a 200 m speed roller skating track with inner standard rink 20 x 40 m
Possible uses Required Remarks
skating area (m)
public roller skating, roller figure 20 x40 m standard area min. area for
skating, roller dancing and roller roller hockey 17 x 34 m
hockey
public roller skating, roller figure 20 x50 m in particular cases
skating, dancing and hockey
public roller skating, roller figure 30 x60 m in general only if combined
skating, dancing and hockey, with ice rink; 110 m short track
inline speed skating and ice rink for speed skating is possible
on an area of 30 x 60 m
inline speed skating track 200m standard track only in
333Y, m combination with cycle track
400m and ice speed skating rink
track width 5m

C) Example of paving: with drainage G Edge detail: floating slab without 0 Possible uses and dimensions of sports areas
on cohesive soil fixed point or step down to perimeter

SKATEBOARDING
Skateboarding is related to inline skating and roller facilities are
also suitable for skateboarding. Space required for a facility min.
200m 2 •

~~
Suitable locations: 1. Existing road-like surfaces in schoolyards,
Playing fields playgrounds, ice rinks, closed roads, separated areas of car
Athletics parks, houses and back yards. 2. Suitable paving newly laid in
Tennis
Miniature golf
sports centres, public parks and green areas.
Quarter with Funbox Quarter with roll-in,
Golf courses
wall ride rear or sub box, front
Water sport,
marinas Height+ wall: 2m Height: 1.35 m Quarter
Water sport, Width: 3m Width: 2.5m Height: 2m Type Height Width Radius Centre Verticals
rowing and Radius: 2m Radius/jump: 2.5m Width: 4m
(m) (m) (m) part(m) (m)
canoeing Table length: 2.5m Radius: 2.5 m
Equestrian sport Landing: 4.2m Table length: 1.5 m skateboard mini-ramp 1 5 1.5 2 none
Ski jumping Roll-in (top part at back)
Ice rinks Height: 1m BMX mini-ramp 2 6 2.5 3 none
It should be noted for layouts for flybox jumping:
Roller skating Width: 1.25 m
The run-up must always be higher than the fun pipe 3 6 2.8 3 0.3
rinks Radius: 2m
Speed roller jumping point. Normally, twice the jump-off height.
Sub-box (top part at front) half-pipe- standard 3.5 6 3 3 0.5
skating, Height: 1m
skateboarding Flybox for jumping with skateboard, inline Width: 2m half-pipe- king-size 4.1 10 3.5 3.5 0.6
Cyclo-cross, skates and BMX bikes Depth: 90 em
BMX
Shooting ranges f) Dimensions of half-pipes

e King-size half-pipe Cl) Standard half-pipe Cl) Funpipe f) BMX mini-ramp 4!) Skateboard mini-ramp

346
 SPORTS FACILITIES
Cycle-Cross, BMX

r- ~20.0 ~20.0 --+ 15.0 -j Minimum plot size for BMX sport facilities 50 x 60 m. Maximum
~ ~40m plus jump ---i dimensions for a generous track with sufficient spectator places
0 Startinghill 100 x 200 m. Observe safety spacing of tracks in opposite
directions. Four types of BMX track are possible according to local
I
conditions.
max height : --
4m ----}:---- C track, B track, A track/national, A track/international.

--------
...-- I
C track min. length 200 m. Starting hill width = 5 m = 4 starting

---- ----
places,

- ground line
.._====r. . . . . . . . . . . . .
.............::.............................w ..............................:·~·....~~:~:~~..... w
B track 250 m. Starting hill width
lap time 30 s .
= 7 m = 6 starting places, min.

A track/national min. length 270-320 m. Starting hill width = 9 m =

8 starting places, rnin. lap time 35 s.
f) Heights of the starting hill
A track/international min. length 300 m Starting hill width =9 m =

"'" " " " " " "'" ";'"'" "~;" "' 1 ~$;1;~;~ :.
8 starting places, min. lap time 35 s.
Paved surface on the starting straight. Lap time rnust be achievable
by an average 15-year-old rider. Trackside markings are not of
solid materials (stone, concrete, timber or similar). Safety barriers
of car tyres or straw bales are sufficient. Fixed barriers must have a
min. distance of 1 m. Closure to spectator space must be marked
8 Starting hill detail --> f) with warning tape. No spectators allowed inside the track. Max.
speed on downhill sections 40 km/h. Curves and obstacles can be
placed as desired along the course .

..I..
1-0.Bj
1--- 2.1 ---1-lf---- 3.0 - - - - {

C) Stepjump

0 Starting ramp with pre-start area ,1~--------=-~~~===~;.,

~i: ,7 o_t
-------/.....;<~ 4li) Canon jump
1--1.2 - 1 - - 3.0 - - - t - 1 . 2 -I

1--2.3---; j--1.8 --1

0 Speedjump 0 Speedjump

SPORTS
1--- 2.0 ---+- 1.5 -+- 2.0 --+- 1.5 -+-- 2.0 --1 FACILITIES

f- 1.4 --1- 2.00--+---- 1.6 -1---- 2.5 - - t - - 2.0 --1 4) Mogul jump (moguls) Playing fields
Athletics
0 Triple jump (or triple combination) Tennis
Miniature golf
Golf courses
Water sport,
marinas
Watersportt
rowing and
f - - - 3.0 --+--- canoeing
e Double speed jump
f)
I - - 2.0
Tabletop
- + - - - 4.0 - - - t - - - 3.0 - - - 1
Equestrian sport
Ski jumping
Ice rinks
Roller skating
rinks
Speed skating,
g• skateboarding
Cyclo-cross,
BMX
Shooting ranges

1 speed jump 3 table top 5 stepjump

2 speed jump 4 table top

@) BMX track at the WM '87 in Bordeaux 4D BMX track at 1he IFMA '84 in Cologne

347
 minimum height of the minimum thickness: SPORTS FACILITIES
side boundary ~ 20mm softwood

± Shooting Ranges
planks

r---..---.i-;_..;-;_ ::-:~ -:--;;--]Jlo- .:=-~ :::-_;:;:...::-

-·;- ·-;;.::---:-~:=._-;c.. 4;h7oil,;g hei;Jht- ·
+ ..'"()~-----.
1.0
"'-- shelf
I' .Industry-std. 17
2.00
bullet trap 1.50
Location: if possible in a gully within a wooded area, with
firing range floor surrounding hillside to catch bullets naturally, away from public
roads and buildings. Shooting ranges are also possible in

---+
+ (;.?~, 10.00
jr
buildings, e.g. in combination with public multi-purpose sports
halls. Common categories are air gun range, pistol and small
-4'---5.35-·---+- target stand calibre range -7 0 - 0 -7 p. 349.
distance of baffle
The safety requirements for Germany are laid down in the
0 Section -> f) 'Guidelines for the construction and acceptance for shooting
ranges for sporting and hunting shooting' from the German
Shooting Association. Apart from the normal permission for the
shelf building of a shooting range, a report is also required from an
minimum width: 300mm accredited shooting range expert. The right of 'neighbours' to
~ t> _::5 - --i object on the grounds of noise nuisance is mostly upheld. Safety
leisure
~ f-- § constructions like overhead baffles, side protection (walls or earth
room ~ t> . --i
-I<- ~ bullet trap banks) and the closing off of the range must be built of approved
boxes__ -!
t> construction materials or are tested by the expert.
shooting overhead In the UK, rifle and pistol (but not air gun) ranges require the
gallery[> baffle --;

~~~~y I>
target pulley
mechanism __ , approval and safety certificate of the Ministry of Defence. Early
approval is also needed from the National Small-Bore Rifle
1.00- Association (NSRA) or the National Rifle Association (NRA).
1.20 t> --i

Shooting programme
f) Shooting range for air pressure and C02 guns, covered shooting gallery,
Olympic competitions: x = for men, xx = for women and men,
open-air range
xxx =only for women.
Rifle shooting: air rifle 10 m xx; Zimmerstutzen rifle 15 m;
small-calibre rifle 50 m x; KK standard rifle xxx; sport rifle 100 m;
large-calibre rifle 300 m; GK standard rifle 300 m.
Pistol shooting: air pistol10 m xx; Olympic quick-fire pistol25 m
x; sport pistol 25 m xxx; standard pistol 25 m, free pistol 50 m x.
Clay pigeon shooting: trap shooting x; skeet shooting x.
Running target: moving boar, 10 m and 50 m x.
Archery: hall conditions, international conditions xx, field bow.
Crossbow: national conditions, international conditions 10 and
30m.
Small-calibre range for target-pulling Muzzle loader shooting: national conditions.

+2.80

SPORTS
FACILITIES
Playing fields
Athletics ~10.70 l
Tennis 26.70 I
Miniature golf
Golf courses
66.70
Water sport, 50.00 1.001 13.50'1?3.501
marinas 100.00 1.ool I?.Bol?2.aol.
Water sport, Tl
rowing and
canoeing G Cross-section ~ 0
Equestrian sport
Ski jumping
Ice rinks
Roller skating
rinks
Speed skating,
skateboarding
Cyclo-cross,
BMX
Shooting ranges

8 Combined 100 m range for all rifles and a 50 m small-calibre range-> 0

348
 SPORTS FACILITIES
Shooting Ranges

Elevation safety
The total range of a shot is mainly determined by the ideal angle of
elevation. According to experience, the vertical elevation needing
to be safely restrained is 20° for air pressure and C02 guns and
Zimmerstutzen rifles, and 30° for rifle ranges and handguns.

For high crossbow and archery ranges, the regulations differ.

Endangered areas are to be protected by dedicated safety
structures. A shooting range must be constructed so that,
according to experience, no danger to shooters taking part can
shooting gallery tp gun rack arise internally nor externally to the surrounding neighbourhood.
0 Clay pigeon shooting range
The requirements of the Federal Pollution Control Law must be
complied with.

An assessment whether a specific site is suitable for the building

of a shooting range is essential for the estimation of the cost of
building. An accredited expert on shooting ranges can provide the
architect with the necessary specialist information, and should
always be consulted. Particular points to note are:

Distance from existing or planned built-up areas and inhabited

houses, intended shooting direction (north or north-east), soil
f) Longitudinal section through clay pigeon range conditions and features of terrain, utility supplies, waste disposal,
road connection, routeing of roads (also planned), car parking,
' holiday and leisure areas. Can or must there be deviations from
,i'oo~1
1
-~ '
'
!3858
~6.76
/
/_.-· = 1't001 the guidelines? Any required protection measures should be
included in the design from the start. Ranges can be built in
separate construction sections.

The procedures for approval and permission are determined

by state regulations. The layout and extent of a shooting range
should include the consideration of additions and extensions,
which could become necessary in the future and can be built at
reasonable cost. The design of open-air ranges should include
noise protection measures.

1-8 skeet shooting

positions

Combined trap and skeet shooting range

SPORTS
FACILITIES
Playing fields
Athletics
Tennis
Miniature golf
Golf courses
G Section-> 0 Water sport,
marinas
Water sport,
25.00 8.50

I
1.00,, rowing and

·r 3.oo 4.30
10.70

1'
j•
21.70
t 4.00
50
H
4.00
t canoeing
Equestrian sport
Ski jumping
Ice rinks
Roller skating
rinks
Speed skating,
skateboarding
Cyc!o~cross,
BMX
Shooting ranges

I g
I ci
I
I "'

25 m range for handguns (pistols and revolvers of all calibres). Left, a continuous side wall and, right, continuous earth Danger zone for archery range with
bank (wall or earth bank can be used either side). six targets

349
 Hall type Dimensions (m) Usable playing Hall sports 1l No. training No. competition SPORTS HALLS
area (m2 ) courts/fields courtslfields 2l
Dimensions
Multi-functional halls
single hall 15 x27x 5.5 405 badminton 4
basketball 1
volleyball 1 The design basics are: multi-functional hall, sports
triple hall 27 X 45 X 73)4) 1215 badminton 12 5•>
3 1
hall and multi-purpose hall. The design has to include
divisible into 3 basketball
sections (15 x 27)5l indoor football 1 consideration of the competition rules of the specialist
indoor handball 1 sport associations and also the best-possible integration
indoor hockey 1 of the individual sports ---'> 0.
volleyball 3 1
quadruple 27x60x7 3l 1620 badminton 16 76)
hall divisible into 4 basketball 4 2 The required site size depends on the playing area
5
sections (15 x 27) > indoor football 1 required and the administrative offices. It can normally
indoor handball 1 be estimated as follows if the detailed room schedule is
indoor hockey 1
not yet available: required sports area x 2 + necessary
volleyball 4 1
possibly 22 X 44 X 7 3)4) 968 badminton 6 5•> open areas to the site boundary + necessary parking
also double divisible into 2 basketball 1 space for vehicles.
hall sections (22 x 28 + indoor football 1
indoor handball 1
22x 16 Dimensions of halls ---'> 0. Halls capable of being sub-
or22x26+22 indoor hockey 1
X 18)5) volleyball 3 1 divided are preferable, on grounds of flexibility, to a
Sports halls number of single halls.
single hall 22 X 44 X 7 3)4) 968 badminton 6 5
basketball 1
Operational rooms for sporting events
indoor football 1
indoor handball 1
Entrance hall, with cash desk, spectators' cloakroom
indoor hockey 1 and perhaps cleaning equipment room, based on
volleyball 3 1 ---'> 8 0.1 m2 per spectator. Space needed per seat for
triple hall 44x66x8 3l 2904 badminton 24 15 spectators and VIPs, press, radio and television (incl.
divisible into 3 basketball 46)
immediate traffic area): 0.5 x 0.4-0.45 m; per press
sections (22 x 44)5> indoor football
20x40 3 place 0.75 x 0.8-0.85 m; per reporting cabin 1.8 x
30x60 1 2.0 m; per camera platform: 2.0 x 2.0 m. 1 cloakroom
indoor handball 3 place for every 3 spectators, 1 m of cloakroom service
indoor hockey 3
volleyball 9 3
counter for every 30 cloakroom places. No. toilets per
quadruple 44x88x9 3l 3872 badminton 32 256 > spectator: 0.01: 40% WCs, ladies; 20% WCs, gents;
hall divisible into 4 basketball s•> 4 and 40% urinals. Per seat incl. anteroom 2.5 m2 , per
5
sections (22 x 44 ) > indoor football urinal incl. anteroom 1.0 m2 • cash desk, cafeteria,
20x40 4
40x80 1
police, fire service, administration, storeroom, press
indoor handball 4 rooms as required.
indoor hockey 4
volleyball 12 4
Room Dimensions (m) Usable playing
1> common indoor sports not incorporating national or regional customs area (m2)
2>dimensions according to guidelines of the international sport ruling bodies; can perhaps be
Conditioning/power depends on equipment, 35-200
reduced in national use
3 >height of hall can perhaps be reduced at the edges according to sporting functions training room min. height 3.5
4l if there are a number of halls on one site or in the planned area, height can be reduced to 5.5 m in
Fitness room depends on equipment, 20-50
part of the halls according to intended use min. height 2.5
5l less the proportional thickness of the relevant partition
6) maximum number without consideration of the partition Gymnastics room 10 X 10 X 4 to 14 X 14 X 4 100-196

0 Dimensions of halls 8 Dimensions of rooms for additional sports

SPORTS HALLS
Dimensions Hall type Entrance Changing Showers (min. Toilets Teaching room4> Equipment room Cleaning Waiting
Layout, hall(m 2) rooms 15 m 2) 3l (min. 12m2) equipment room min.
construction per changing lobby Multi- Sports hall
(min. 20 m2) 2l without first aid room 10m2
Equ·lpment room min. no. functional hall
Stands function (min. 8 m2) min. 5m2
Examples m2 min. no. no. min. no. F M min. no. min. m2 5> min.m 25) min. no. no.
Judo
Wrestling Single hall 15 2 16) 1 1 1 1 6Q7) 20 8> 1 1')
Weightlifting
Boxing Double hall 30 2 2 1 1 1 1 9Q7) - 1 1'l
Badminton
Triple hall 45 310) 310) 1 1 1 2 1207) 608 ) 1 1
Squash
Table tennis Quadruple hall 60 410) 410) 1 1 1 3 1507) 808>> 1 1
Billiards
1> minimum room height generally 2.5 m
Conditioning,
fitness 21 space requirement per person is 0.7-1.0 m2, based on allowances of 0.4 m bench length per person, 0.3 m sitting depth and min. 1.5 m between benches or between bench
Climbing halls and wall (1.8 m recommended)
Bowling alleys 3
> 1 shower per 6 persons (but a minimum of 8 showers and 4 washbasins per facility), shower space including a minimum circulation area of 10m2 and circulation space at
least 1.2.m wide
DIN 18032
DIN 18036
4
> training supervisors', umpire/referees' room, perhaps including first aid post (min. 8m2 for separate first aid room), with changing cubicle and shower: can also be used as an
administration room if correctly positioned, designed and of sufficient size
5> because the range of apparatus provided varies according to location, it is likely that these minimum dimensions will have to be exceeded; no hall section in a multi-functional
hall should have less than a 6 m length apparatus room
•> divided into 2 sections, each with half of the apparatus
7> room depth normally 4.5.m, max. 6.0.m
B) room depth normally 3 m, max. 5.5 m
9) according to need
10) alternatively, 2 bigger rooms with proportionally more shower and washing facilities

f) Operational rooms for sports halls

350
Type of sport Usable playing area (net) Unobstructed SPORTS HALLS
Additional playing area Clear
Permissible Standard unobstructed
Dimensions
with standard hall
dimensions: dimensions: zone at the: dimensions (gross) height1>

length width length width sides ends length width

(m) (m) (m) (m) (m) (m) (m) (m) (m) Operational rooms for multi-purpose use (in
Badminton 13.4 6.1 13.4 6.1 1.5 2.0 9.1 92) addition to entrance hall) ~ p. 350 f). Per
17.4
visitor: 0.1 m2 • Cloakroom: 1 place per visitor.
Basketball 24-28 13-15 28 15 1'> 1'> 30 17 7
Per cloakroom place: 0.05-0.1 m2 (incl. 1 m
Boxing 4.9-6.1 4.9-6.1 6.1 6.1 0.5 0.5 7.1 7.1 4 of service counter in cloakroom for every 30
Fistball 40 20 40 20 0.5 2 44 21 (7) cloakroom places). Number of WCs per visitor
Football 30--50 15-25 40 20 0.5 2 44 21 (5.5)
O.Q1, of which 40% WCs for ladies, 20% WCs
for gents, 40% urinals.
Weight lifting 4 4 4 4 3 3 10 10 4

Netball 40 20 40 20 14) 2 44 22 75) Storeroom for tables and chairs per visitor:
Hockey 36-44 19-22 40 20 0.5 2 44 21 (5.5) 0.05-0.06 m2 • Raised stage and associated
equipment, per m2 stage area: 0.12 m2 . Cash
Judo 9--10 9-10 10 10 2 2 14 14 (4)
desk and sundries: as required.
Netball 28 15 28 15 1 1 30 17 (5.5)

Sports 12 12 12 12 1 1 14 14 (5.5) Catering: standing space per vending machine

acrobatics 1.0 X 0.6--0.8 m, tea kitchen 12-15 m2, store
Gymnastics 52 27 52 27 - - 52 27 8 6m2 , kiosk with drinks 8-12m2 , store 1D-12 m2 •
Cafeteria/restaurant per seat: 1.5-2.7 m2, of
Cycle football/ 12-14 9-11 14 11 1 2 18 13 (4)
polo/gymnastics which altogether for the guest area 1-1.5 m2 ,
for kitchen and stores 0.5--1.2 m2 . Servery for
Rhythmic 136) 136) 136) 136 ) 1 1 15 15 82)
gymnastics
self-service: per 50 visitor places = 1 m counter.
With waiter service: per 100 visitor places = 2 m
Wrestling 9-12 9-12 12 12 2 2 14 14 (4)
counter.
Roller hockey 34-40 17-20 40 20 - - 40 20 (4)

Roller 40 20 40 20 - - 40 20 (4) Small stage <200 m2 ~ p. 203. Athletes'

acrobatics/ cloakroom, multi-purpose room for meetings,
dancing training, lectures, leisure use. Playroom for
Sports dancing 15-16 12-14 16 14 - - 16 14 (4) board games, billiards etc., reading room and
Tennis 23.77 10.97 23.77 10.97 3.65 6.4 36.57 18.27 (7)
bowling alley as required.
Table tennis 2.74 1.525 2.74 1.525 5.63 2.74 14 7 4 Operations rooms for technical services are
Trampolining 4.57 2.74 4.57 2.74 4 4 12.57 10.74 7 included in sports halls. Open-air facilities
Volleyball 18 9 18 9 5 8 34 19 12.52> which do not have a dedicated building
must be provided with an equipment room
1> nos in brackets: recommended; 2) for national events, 7 m is sufficient; 3) for spectator stands bordering
the playing area, ideally 2 m; 4>additional space requirement for timers' table and reserves' bench (pass. in for sports and maintenance equipment in
sports equipment room); 5>in a 3.3 m wide zone around the playing area (net), a uniform reduction to 5.5 m is the room arrangements of the sports hall.
permissible; 6>for national competitions 12 m. Open-air sports equipment room = 0.3 m2
per 100 m2 usable playing area (net area) =
0 Playing area dimensions for competitive sports use
15 m2 • Maintenance equipment room for hand
appliances = 0.04 m2 per 100 m2 ; gross open
area = 8 m2 . Maintenance equipment room
for machines = 0.06 m2 per 100 m2 ; gross
open area= 12 m2 • (If maintenance is carried
Unobstructed total sport area 1> Safety distance 2>(m) SPORTS HALLS
Apparatus out externally, or else centrally - and the
length x width x height (m) Dimensions
Sides Forwards Backwards To each other machines are delivered and taken away - the Layout,
last mentioned room can be omitted.) construction
Floor gymnastics 14 x 14x4.5 - - - - Equipment
Pommel horse 4 X 4 X 4.5 - - - - Stands
Examples
Vaulting horse 363) X 2 X 5.5 - - - - Judo
Wrestling
Suspended rings 4> 8x6x 5.5 - - - - Weightllfting
Boxing
Parallel bars 6 X 9.5 X 4.5 4.55)6) 45) 35) 4.5 Badminton
Squash
Horizontal bar 12x6x7.57 1 1.5 6 6 - Table tennis
Billiards
Assymmetric bars 12 X 6 X 5.5 1.5 6 6 - Conditioning,
Beam 12 x6x4.5 - - - - fitness
Climbing halls
Swinging rings 4> 18x4x5.5 1.55>(2)A 10.55>(7.5) A 7.55> 1.55> Bowling alleys

Climbing rpe - 1.5 4.5 (4)A 4.5 (4)A 1.5 (0.8)A

Header hanging ball - 4.5 5> 4.55) 4.55> 7

Wall bars - 4.55)6) 4.5 4.5

1>for competitive sport; 2>for school and leisure sport (between fixed apparatus and wall or other fixed
apparatus); 3) run-up length 25m, apparatus length 2m, run-out length 9 m; 41distance between centres of
ropes 0.5 m; 5l measured either from centres or top of apparatus posts, or end of crossbar, or centre of rope;
7
6) reduction to 4 m to walls or to 3.5 m to netting walls possible; > for national competitions 7 m height is

sufficient; A= Austria.

f) Unobstructed areas and safety distances for fixed sports apparatus

351
 SPORTS HALLS
Layout, Construction

screed
1 apparatus room
!ower sprung upper sprung
2 services room
floor frame floor frame
3 instructors' room
~18-23mm ~18-23mm
4 changing room
5
6
shower and washroom
cleaning materials/equipment
f) Sprung floor construction
7 toilets

0 Schematic plan of sports hall

:::
...

Ill
screed
damp-proof
ro membrane
.c
springy elastic foam layer

e Flexible floor construction

elastic layer"" 10-14 mm

plastic web
PVA glue layer
plastic finish
layer

~~:
8 waiting room
9 corridor (sport shoes)
10 corridor (street shoes)
11 hall 27 x 45 x 7 m divisible
into three practice rooms
:111·=·
of15x27m ~=;iF ·n §
~~l~ screed
:::3:
f) Schematic plan of a triple sports hall Cl) Impact-absorbing floor construction

exercise oar
1 traimng harness
14 2 horizontal bar
3 asymmetric bars

1
4 ring stand
SPORTS HALLS ~ 5 supported horizontal bar
c
Dimensions ro 6 fixing hooks for pommel horse
7 practice parallel bars
Layout, acrobatics lane
.~ 8 beam 15.00
construction :c

l
9 ballet rail
Equipment 0 0 6 E 10 mirror
Stands
z 11 parallel bars
12 gymnastics mushroom
Examples 13 pommel horse
Judo
Wrestling
trampoline =
13
10
14 safety mats/wall padding
15 instructors' platform
Weightlifting special glue
Boxing
Badminton 4Ii) Construction detail for wood-block
Squash l-----------27.00----------il-------18,00--------l flooring- laid rectangularly with surface
Table tennis
Billiards
0 Gymnastic apparatus hall15 x 27m with floor gymnastics hall15 x 18m
treatment

Conditioning, 1 equipment cupboard 4 large vaulting box 7 parallel bars 10 magnesia holder 13 small trampoline 16 area for additional apparatus
fitness 2 trolley 5 vaulting horse 8 gym bench 11 handstand bars 14 jump stands 17 handball equipment
Climbing halls 3 small vaulting box 6 small vaulting horse 9 springboard (springs) 12 gym mats on trolley 15 floor exercise mats 18 soft floor mats
Bowling alleys

1-------------15.00------------1 1------s.oo------1 1----6.00-----tl

8 Arrangement plan for large equipment in the apparatus storeroom 0 Equipment room Q Equipment room
of a 15 x 27m sports hall

352
 SPORTS HALLS
Equipment

r-----14.50-----+--3.50-+-5.00---1

beam

I
I
Q Vaulting horse f) Pommel horse

"l
1
20 "'
Jo<
20
<
2Jl

e Vaulting horse e Parallel bars

1g

1
Q Assymetric bars f) Horizontal bar
!--9.50---+---4.50-r---9.00----<
J ~judge
HJ ~ head judge

4Ii) Competition podium, space requirements: dimensions of podium, arrangement

of judges' places

SPORTS HALLS
.

B
-./' Dimensions
Layout,
construction
Equipment
\ 1.0 Stands
Examples
\ Judo
Wrestling

f) Beam e Rings support frame 0 Mat trolley 4i} Gymnastics bench

Weightlifting
Boxing
Badminton
Squash
f------------> 25.00--------------1 Table tennis
r-----1.90----+------3.20------i Billiards
Conditioning,
1-1.60- adjustable (50mm) fitness
J--------------~25.00--
H Climbing halls
Bowling alleys

MEN run-up lane

I
~ F"''"' ' '
springboard
DIN 18032
DIN 18036

' "' ""'"

1
adjustment rail

·" :· " :· :" ·: ·" :· ,. ~:· :; :;·: ·:; : ·: ;: ;:· :"'·: ·;: ;:i ,.:~·: ·~:. ·:; ;·: ; :;·: ·; : ·: ; :;·: ·;: ;:· ;! :· :; :;·,:·;: ;:· :; ;·~.:· !:. ·:~·: ~:· ~:. ·:~·: ·~:· :; ·: ;: ·: ·;: ;:· :; ;·: "'·: ~ :·~ .:·~:· ; :· :; ·: ·;: ;:· ;: ;,:· "'·: ·;: ;:· :; ;·: "'·: ·;: ;:· :~·: ·; l·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:P·:·:·:·:·:·:
.... ...

vaulting horse tethered to floor r------1.20-----i

CJ) Vaulting layout, men CD Vaulting layout, women

353
 f---- 80----l SPORTS HALLS
l--35--4--45--j
Stands

Spectator stands ----) 0 - 0 can be fixed or mobile. For smaller

installations with up to 10 rows of seats, a linear rise of the seats
(height 0.28-0.32 m) can be assumed. All other installations
should have a parabolic rise (height for seats 1.25 m, standing
places 1.65 m), sightline rise for seats 0.15 m, standing places
0.12 m. Row spacing for seats 0.80-0.85 m ----) f) - 0. For
standing places, 0.4-0.45 m. Sightline origin point 0.5 m above
the boundary marking of the playing area.
0 Schematic section through f) Section through stepped seating Protect spectator places behind goals with mobile catch nets.
access steps with access steps behind
Seats in upper levels and galleries should be closed off with nets
while practice matches are underway. For the group of rooms
l------1.5--t--0.80--1 including entrance hall, changing and sanitary facilities, teachers'
room, additional sport room and hall, it is recommended to arrange
a separation of the routeing of people wearing street shoes and
sports shoes ----) 0 - 0. Showers must be immediately accessible
from changing rooms, with a drying area between the wet area of the
shower room and the changing room. Shower rooms divided into
two room units must be connected to the two adjacent changing
rooms so that one or both of the room units can be used from either
of the changing rooms ----) 0 - 0. Teachers' rooms should be near
the changing rooms. The first aid room must be on the same level
as the sports area and can be integrated into the teachers' room.
28 places
Spectator stands can generally be accessed from below or above;
8 Stand with access from below (A); stand with access from above (B) from below leads to lower costs (spending on stairs and access
galleries is saved), but this is disadvantageous for the organisation of
events because of visitors passing the base of the stand, disturbing
competitors and existing spectators ----) 0. Free sides should be
protected by ~1 m high barriers, measured from the traffic surface.
The design of the wall and ceiling area next to the partition must
ensure that no noise transfer takes place when the partition is
down----)0-e.

e Retractable stand, length 2 6.0 m

SPORTS HALLS
Dimensions corridor (street shoes)
Layout,
construction 0 Example! '~!) Cloakroom seating as wall-mounted
Equipment and double bench
Stands
Examples
Judo
Wrestling 1---*-----1
f-------*------1
Weightlifting
Boxing
Badminton
9 Partition curtain between
two beams
0 Side view of partition curtain at
beam, with sound absorption recess
Squash
Table tennis
Billiards
Conditioning,
fitness
Climbing halls 4D Example2
Bowling alleys
corridor (sports shoes)
BS EN 13200
DIN 18032

* - width, depending on height of hall

and thickness of material

f) Partition curtain both sides of a

beam
e Partition curtain with pulley system
mounted in sound-absorbing recess 4!}
corridor (street shoes)

Example 3 Three proposed solutions for the changing and sanitary facilities
inside a space frame (shaded: floor areas laid with PVC grid mats)

354
 track SPORTS HALLS
Examples
key-> f)
,._. direct entrance
[> alternative emergency exit
principal connection
visual connection
alternative connection
additional connection
additional rooms with
multipurpose halls
additional rooms and facilities
depending on local situation and
need

version A: running track version B: boxing arena

0 Arrangement of spectators

f) Room relationship scheme key-->8

plan of entrance floor level
1 competitors' access at perimeter level,
2 entrance and foyer for spectators,
3 administration, 4 cash desl<s, 5
cloakroom, 6 gents' toilets, 7 ladies 1
toilets, 8 space above warming-up hall, 9
Information, 1o training room and lounge,
11 access to basement, 12 drinks bar,
13 stairs to balcony, 14 administration
room with display and announcements,
15 permanent stand, 16 changing room
area/hall connection, 17 200 m track, 18
sports hall, 19 large display board, 20
mobile stand, 21 score board, 22 hall
perimeter route with emergency exits.

Flexible use of hall is possible

--->8
1. Tennis, 2. Handball, 3.
Athletics, 4. Boxing, 5. School
sport. Ball-catching safety
nets at the front separate the
interior into four units, each
the size of a school sports hall.
With warming-up hall in front
of the training area 'under' the
(l(.l(.)(.)(.)(.)(.)(.)(.l(.l{.) SPORTS HALLS
telescopic stand, the large
8 Europa Hall, Karlsruhe, ground floor plan Arch.: Schmitt, Kasimir, Blanke section~&
sports hall offers schools and
Dimensions
Layout,
clubs six practice locations, construction
Equipment
competition conditions for Stands
top-level sport, and practice Examples
Judo
and training facilities for Wrestling
school and club sport. Weightlifting
Boxing
Sport-relevant data: ---> 0 200 Badminton
m circular track (competition), Squash
130 m + 100 m straight sprint Table tennis
Billiards
(training) track, 60 m straight Conditioning,
sprint (training) track, 400 m fitness
Climbing halls
stadium curve (training) shot Bowling alleys
put, discus and high jump
facilities.

key-> 0
plan of entrance floor level
1 entrance hall with cash desks, 2 exits/
emergency exits, 3 foyer, 4 drinks bar, 5
telephone, 6 stairs to spectator toilets, 7
access as bridge over the sports level,
8 200 m circular track, 9 pole vault, 10
high jump, 11 sprint competition track,
Q Athletics Hall, Dortmund, ground floor plan Design: Hochbauamt Dortmund 12 long jump, 13 shot put, 14 stairs up
to administration

355
 15.1.
t--1.50
... 98 4
lOX 10 - - - - - - - ; SPORTS HALLS

::~:~!.J:::::;:::::::::::::::::::::::.::::::::::::::~~==;~~:~::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::~:::::::::::i
0 Judo contest area on a platform
JUDO

•'•'L::
""~
Contest area 6 x 6 m to i 0 x i 0 m or 66 x i 2 m, covered with

~L . ~
soft, springy mats. For German championships and international
events, contest area 6i 0 x i 0 m. Upholstered mats are not
allowed. Ideally, the mats should be raised by i 5 em. The
separating line between the contest area and the surround should
be clearly visible -7 0.

~tD~
WRESTLING
Mat size for competitions 5 x 5 m; for German championships
and international competitions 66 x 6 m, possibly 8 x 8 m, for
international championships and Olympic games 8 x 8 m. The
middle of the mat is marked with a ring of 6i m diameter with
iO em wide edge strip. Mat thickness: iO em, soft covering.
f) Punchball front view --> e Surrounding protection strip should if possible be 2 m wide,
otherwise boundary tapes at 45° angle. i .2 m width of the
padding
protection strip should be in mat thickness, with colour difference.
Protection strip for national competitions i m wide. Platform
height ~i. i m; no corner posts or ropes.

WEIGHTLIFTING
Lifting area 4 x 4 m; ideally with strong timber base, chalk
markings, floor should not spring, solid footing for weightlifters.
Largest weight diameter 6450 mm
ropes 30-50 mm diameter
wrapped in cloth {also all Weight for one-handed exercises i5 kg,
metal parts) Weight for two-handed exercises 20 kg.
30-40 mm side canvas strip

T/ 91-1.22
BOXING
Dimensions of a boxing ring to international requirements, 4.9 x
/1 4.9 m to 6. i 0 x 6. i 0 m. 5.5 x 5.5 m is usual. Raised rings are usual,
with a podium i m wide on all sides. Entire podium 7.5 x 7.5 m to
8 Boxing ring
8x8 m-->0.
f46t------ 5.18 ------+46-l
court back line
T BADMINTON
:e back line for jingles service
The standard is a doubles court, singles court only if space is

r back line for doubles service lacking.

spacing between courts at side 60.30 m
between court and walls 6i .50 m
~ gJ
backwards spacing between courts 6i.30 m
~ 'iii~
"0 safety strip at each side i.25 m
.E .E! ~
c safety strip front and back, each 2.50 m
~ ~

SPORTS HALLS
:§ :§ Spectators should be behind the safety strip.
~ ~
'0 '0
Dimensions 'iii 'til
layout, Hall height: 8 m international games, 6 m over rear partition. Net
construction front line for service
Equipment
height at posts i .55 m; in middle i .525 m, net surface 76 em
Stands high --> 0. Floor covering lightly resilient. Lighting: if possible no
Examples windows, but rooflight (glare-free) 6300 lx.
Judo posts posts
Wrestling 0-- - - - --- .. - - - .. ---- --- .. - - - - -- - - 0
Weightlifting net lndiaca volley game: game field dimensions 5.5 x 13.0 m and 9.0 x 18.0 m,
Boxing Net height of the post 1.70-2.00 m, 1.68-1.85 min the network centre,
Badminton Single court: 4.4 x 10 m 1---1.85--4
Squash

-r r =,=-= =f=ro=n=t=lin=e~ f=or=s=e=rv=ic=e= = ~F=n

Table tennis ~
Billiards T
1.0
r-- --------~--------,
Conditioning,
fitness
T I ~ -~
Climbing halls I Extra space - I
T
:e
r I
Bowling alleys
~~ ~
I
I
~ front view of net T 5.50 I
~ --~
5.50 ';\ I
L __
~\
court back line
f - - - - - - - 6.10
H
1.0
_j_
I
I
I
r-
L __
-Extra space

so
______ -=-=.--:._
s

1-1,0+---------13,0 ---------+1,0-1
~-Network

~c':"!_ty .E_at~s _ _ _j
:
I
I

0 Badminton court e lndiaca playing area (game played using hands and special ball)

356
 special two~layer
plaster 12-14mm surrounding outline, SPORTS HALLS
Red-RAL 3000

SQUASH
special two-layer The normal construction of squash courts involves massive walls
plaster 12-14mm with special plastered surfaces, pre-cast concrete elements, pre-
fabricated panelled timber-framed roof, collapsible seating.

Room size: 9.745 x 6.40 m

Room height: 6.00 m
A glass back wall is advantageous for spectators.

Floor: slightly springy, light wood (maple or beech), good

0 Squash court end wall f) Squash court side wall
surface slip-resistance, floorboards parallel to the side walls.
A practical flooring is tongue and groove parquet strips 25 mm
thick and a sealing layer, parquet according to DIN 280 parts 3,
4 and 5.

Walls: Special plaster, flat, white. Strip (the 'tin') running across
foot of front wall: of sheet metal 2.5 mm or plywood with sheet
metal cladding, painted white --> 0 - 0.

TABLE TENNIS
At championship level takes place only in halls. Table surface
horizontal, matt green with white border lines.
Table area .............................................................. 152.5 x 27 4 em
Table height .......................................................................... 76 em
Board thickness ............................................................... ;;;;2.5 em
8 Basic dimensions for squash court For tables in the open air, fibre cement board 20 mm thick.

Board hardness: so a normal ball bounces 23 em when dropped

from 30 em
Net length, centre ............................................................... 183 em
Net height, entire length ..................................................15.25 em
Playing box (formed by canvas screens 60-65 em high) ;:;;6 x
12m, international? X 14m, spectators beyond screen --1 Q,

BILLIARDS
Location of rooms:
First floor or well-lit basement, seldom ground floor.

Q Basic dimensions for table tennis Space requirement: for the various table sizes --> 0 - $.
Common sizes for private purposes ............................. IV, V and VI
For cafes and clubs ........................................................... IV and V
In billiards halls and academies ...................................... 1, II and Ill SPORTS HALLS
Spacing of table sizes I and II from each other ............... ;;;;1.70 m Dimensions
Spacing of table sizes 111-V from each other ................... ;:;;1.60 m Layout,
construction
and, from the wall, a bit more if possible. Equipment
At the side where the waiter passes or the spectators stand, Stands
Examples
correspondingly more space, plus room for chairs, tables, food Judo
and drink (--> pp. 174, 175). Wrestling
Wall mounting for cue rack and rules of the game. Weightlifting
Boxing
1 cue rack for 12 cues, overall 150 x 75 em. Badminton
Squash
Table tennis
Lighting Billiards
The smallest possible lights with full and even light distribution Conditioning,
0 Basic dimensions and spacings for billiards onto the playing area. Usual height for light above table: 80 em
fitness
Climbing halls
75 Bowling alleys

&I
f-----M----i 12 cues
Normal table size (dimensions in em)

internal (playing area)

external

room
A
B
285 X
I

310 X 1675

575 X 432 5
1425
II
230x 115

255 X

520 x405
140 245
Ill
220 X 110

510 X 400
135 225

500
IV
220 X 100

X
125

395
200

225
v
X

490 x390
100

125
VI
190 X 95

215x 120

480 X 385

~£.T weight (kg) 800 600 550 500 450 350

0 Ball cupboard 0 Cuerack e Usual billiards table sizes

357
 SPORTS HALLS

I Conditioning, Fitness
li!

l 1
"'
Area

A
Conditionin room
40m2 80m 2

2/3'
200m2
1
2
Equipment list

1 hand roller
2 biceps station

I
3 3 triceps station
4/5' 4 4 pull-over
f---1.30
machine I
5 5 pull-over

~ I
T 6/7' 6
machine II
6 Latissimus
machine I
f---95-------j 7 7 Latissimus
machine II
1----- 90-----l 8 8 8 chest station

0 Rowing machine and bicycle

ergometer
Stomach muscle board with push-
up bar and wall bars
9
10/11'
9
10
9 torso station
1o hip station I
11 11 hip station II
12 12 12 leg station
13 13 13 foot station
14 (2x) 14(3x) 14 multi-training centre

I 1
B 20 20 press apparatus I
23 231eg press
25 25 (2x) 25 stomach muscle station
26 26 (2x) 26 pulling machine
27 27 press-up apparatus
"'": ~
33 33 Latissimus

I l
floor bells
c 43 (4x) 43 (10x} 43 small disc stand
46(2x) 46 i2xl 46 46 training bench
D 50 50 50(3x) 50 hand dumbbells
51 51 51 (3x) 51 short dumbbells
52 52 52(5x) 52 short dumbbell stand
f-----1.45-----1 f---1.00------j
53 53 exercise dumbbell rod

C) Multi-exercise centre Q Pulling machine

56
57 57 (3 X)
56 press bench
57 sloping bench I
58 58 sloping bench II
59 59 all-round bench
60 60 60 multi-training bench
61 61 compact dumbbell
Area Apparatus or equipment Exercises Motor functions Training
62 62 dumbbell stands
intention
E 70 (3x} 70 70(4x) 70 cycle ergometer
A general training stations single joint power fitness 71 (2x) 71 (3x) 71 (2x) 71 rowing machine
flexibility condition 72 72(2x) 72 running belt
73 73 (2x) 73(3x) 73 wall bars
B special training stations many joints power, speed fitness 74 74 (2x) 74(2x) 74 press-up bar
condition 75 75 75 75 stomach muscle board
78 78 punch ball
c lifting surface (with many joints power, speed, condition
79 (2x) 79 (2x) 79 (3x) 79 expander-impander
multipress or isometric bar) coordination 80 (2x) 80 (2x) 80 (2 x) 80 skipping rope
D traditional small apparatus one and many power fitness 81 (2x) 81 (2x) 81 (3x) 81 Deuser band
joints flexibility 82 (2x) 82 (2x) 82 (3x) 82 finger dumbbells
83 (2x) 83 (2x) 83 (3x) 83 Bali machine
E special training apparatus many joints duration fitness 85 (2x) 85 (3x) 85 hydro-dumbbell
and open area to warm up coordination condition 89 89 89 (2x) 89 equipment cupboard
(gymnastics etc.) one and many flexibility fitness *Apparatus 2 and 3, 4 and 5, 6 and 7, 9 and 10 and are available in very different versions
joints coordination condition and should therefore be provided to suit the number of dumbbells and weights to be chosen:
7 as well as 10 and 11 can be used for two functions from various manufacturers.
0 Categories of machine by use
0 Equipment suggestions for fitness rooms
SPORTS HALLS
Dimensions
Layout, 1 handrol!er
construction 2 biceps station
Equipment triceps station
Stands pull-over machine I
Examples 5 pull·over machine I!
Judo 6 Latissimus machine I
Wrestling LaUsslmus machine II
chest station
Weightlifting
9 torsostation
Boxing 1 hip station I
Badminton 11 hip station II
Squash leg station
Table tennis foot station
Billiards multi-training centre
Conditioning, press apparatus I
leg press apparatus I
fitness
stomach muscle station
Climbing halls
pulling machine
Bowling alleys press-up apparatus
Latissimus floor bells
BS 1892 small disc stand
training bench
short dumbbell stand
sloping bench r
aU-round bench
mum-training bench
cycle ergometer
rowing machine
running belt
wall bars
press-up bar
stomach muscle board
equipment cupboard

358
 Description Movements SPORTS HALLS
Conditioning, Fitness
hand roller hand bends, hand stretching 60/30
2 biceps station arm bends 135/135
3 triceps station arm stretching 135/135
4 pull-over machine I arm lifting in front of the body
Room size for 40-45 people min. 200 m 2 __. f), clear ceiling height
190/110
pull-over machine II arm lowering in front of the body 190/110 for all rooms 3.0 m. Conditioning and fitness rooms should generally
Latissimus machine I sideways arm lowering and 200/120 be 6 m wide for an optimal arrangement of machines in two rows.
lifting Room length ~ 15 m, otherwise there is no overview while training.
7 Latissimus machine II bring arms together and apart 200/120
The smallest room unit of 40 m2 is suitable for 12 users.
in front of the body
A chest station bring arms angled together in 165/100
front of the body
torso station stretch and bend torso 135/125
10 hip station I lift and lower legs 175/125
11 hip station II lift and retract legs 175/125
12 leg station stretch and bend legs 125/155
13 foot station (calves stretch and bend feet 140/80
apparatus)
14 multi~exercise centre various leg and multi-joint various
movements
20 push apparatus I arm stretching, horizontal 120/140
(standing)
21 push apparatus II arm stretching, vertical and/or 70/160
calf training (standing)
22 Hackenschmidt apparatus leg stretching on slope 90/140
23 leg-press apparatus leg stretching, horizontal (sitting) 120/160
24 knee-bend apparatus leg stretching, vertical (standing) 200/90
(with weights)
25 stomach muscle station various exercises for stomach 65/200
and back muscles
26 pulling machine various single and multi-joint 100/140
basic movements
B 27 press-up apparatus arm bends and arm stretching, 120/155
vertical (hang or push-up)
28 press bench I arm stretching, vertical (lying 200/120
bench pressing)
29 dumbbell apparatus bench press, knee bend, 200/100
(multipress machine) standing presses and pull
exercises (all with weights) 185/100
30 press bench II (sloping sloping bench presses (sitting) 150/70

,
bench for long dumbbell)
31 curl bench arm bends
32 press bench Ill bench press (on back sloping 160/170
downwards)
33 Latissimus floor dumbbell arm bends, pull in with forward torso 120/130
40 lifter bed with rubber all exercises with free dumbbell 300/300
inserts (knee bend, press and impact)
41 practice dumbbell bar 200 1$ro$$1
42 large weight stand 50/100
43 small weight stand 30/30
44 magnesia container 0/38
45 knee-bend stand (in pairs) 35/70 ea.
c 46 training bench 40/120
47 full-rubber mixed weights SPORTS HALLS
(10; 15; 20; 25 kg) Dimensions
48 weights with vulcanised
rubber edge (15; 2; 25 kg)
f) Example of 200 m2 conditioning room
Layout,
construction
49 cast weights (1.25; 2.50; Equipment
Stands
5; 10; 25; 50 kg)
Examples
50 hand dumbbell (1; 2; 3; 4; various single and multi-joint 70 cycle ergometer endurance, coordination; nos. 70-76 40/90 Judo
5; 6; 8; 10 kg) exercises with hand, compact 71 rowing machine arm bends 120/140 Wrestling
80/190 Weightlifting
51 short dumbbells (2.5; 5; and long dumbbells 72 running belt
Boxing
7.5 etc.- 30 kg 73 wall bars 100/15
Badminton
52 short dumbbell stand 140/130 74 press-up bar for wall bars 120/120 Squash
53 training dumbbell bar 185 75 hanging stomach-muscle board 100/180 Table tennis
54 knee-bend bar 200 76 spine relief apparatus flexibility, coordination, nos. 77-<l8 70/150 Billiards
55 (upholstered) 77 jumping power tester Conditioning,
fitness
curl bar 78 punch ball
Climbing halls
56 press bench (adjustable) 140 E 79 expander-impander Bowling alleys
D
57 sloping bench I 40/120 80 skipping rope
58 sloping bench II 40/120 81 Deuser band BS 1892
59 all-round bench 40/120 82 finger dumbbell
60 multi-training bench 40/120 83 Bali machine
(12-fold adjustable) 84 ball dumbbells
61 compact dumbbell (2-BO kg) 85 hydro-dumbbells
62 dumbbell stand 145/80 86 weight vests
87 weight bags for arms/legs
88 mirror
89 equipment cupboard 50/110

0 List of machines and apparatus for conditioning and fitness training

359
 Construction Description Properties SPORTS HALLS
solid concrete compact standing concrete sharp edges, additional grips,
Climbing Halls
(formwork) panels with positive and variable surface design is
negative structures possible
shotcrete mesh of steel wires organic shapes can be bolted on
(reinforcement) sprayed with subsequently, only for outdoor Climbing halls make climbing possible all year round, whatever
concrete. walls the weather. The size and shape of halls is variable depending on
timber timber-based boards with or install numerous drilled holes.
the operator's ideas and space available (up to 2500 m2 indoor
without coating bolted directly to Projecting and recessed grips
an internal wall or onto a support can be installed cheaply area).
construction
GRP (glass natural surface, various surface-
Concentrating the subsidiary functions is practical in order to keep
boards or various shapes made
fibre-reinforced of GRP can be bolted directly to fixed or recessed grips are a large part of the area for climbing. The entrance with reception
plastic) an internal wall or onto a support possible. Disposal could be a and cash desk can be supplemented by a cafeteria and shop for
construction problem climbing equipment.
0 Climbing wall construction types (Deutcher Alpenverein ~ refs) Sanitary facilities are similar to those in a fitness centre. Sensible
additions would be a steam bath/sauna with rest zone, possibly
also a fitness area.

A high degree of daylight is desirable (smoke extraction domes

as daylight sources) and artificial light should only be indirect to
avoid dazzling of climbers and safety staff. Climbing walls must be
regularly maintained by an expert according to the manufacturer's
recommendations.

Types of climbing wall:

Boulder wall: This is climbed at low height without safety ropes.

The climbers move horizontally ('traverse') or 'boulder' short
stretches upwards. The wall can be climbed without supervision.
There must be a jumping-off area of gravel, bark mulch or mats.

Top rope or lead wall: Roping is necessary on account of the

height. The climbers mainly climb upwards and, at the top of the
f) Magic Mountain climbing hall, Berlin, section Arch.: Gantz Weber Architects wall, are let down by a climbing partner or abseil themselves.
It is also possible to boulder at the foot of this wall and it must
be secured against unsupervised climbing. No grip should be
reachable up to a height of 2.5 m. If a top rope or lead wall is in a
sports hall, the requirements for sport operation in sports halls still
have to be met (e.g. impact protection)

Climbing walls are modelled on natural rock faces in their surface

and design. The colour scheme is variable and often in accord
with a Cl scheme. Dimensions and shape are flexible. The height
for sport climbing is up to 18m, exceptionally to 30m. Climbing
walls are built by specialist firms and are offered as a building-
block system or as a free design of the climbing area.

The support construction (steel or wood) must support itself or

be extended from the hall construction, with cladding of various
SPORTS HALLS materials -0 0. Various grip and step elements can be screwed
Dimensions to these types of climbing wall. The climbing grips are made of a
Layout,
construction
resin mix with quartz sand dusting and are fixed to the wall with
Equipment M1 0 Allen bolts. The types range from 3 em to beer crate size.
Stands
Examples
Grips of various colours can mark different 'colour' routes. The
Judo, wrestling, combination of various colours in one route enables a number of
weightlifting, routes on the same section of wall. The number of grips per m2
boxing,
badminton should be in accordance with the intended user group.
Squash, billiards
Conditioning, An ideal layout provides differentiated areas for beginners and
fitness
Climbing halls
experts, and separate areas for children.
Bowling alleys

BS EN 12572

\1\1
DIN 18032
DIN EN 12572

0 Grip pattern staggered (or square) (Deutcher Alpenverein ~ refs)

C) Magic Mountain climbing hall, Berlin, ground floor

Arch.: Gantz Weber Architects e Number of grips/m2 according to user group (Deutcher Alpenvereln ~ refs)

360
 ball return
SPORTS HALLS

iH0------1
~1.oo+1.2o--1
---+--~~·ti l----5.50----j
Bowling Alleys

ca.60 19.50 6.50-----j A bowling alley contains the following areas:

1. Run-up area, where the ball is rolled after a few steps.
0 Construction of lane with side bands
2. Lane, the actual rolling area of the ball.
3. Catching area, where the pins stand and where fallen pins and
ball return
the bowling ball are collected.

i-1-1~----- I ----1---~~+1 Asphalt track is a specific sporting track and places the highest
demands on the bowlers because of its particular surfacing. The
lane is 19.50 m long and 1.50 wide (with side strips) or 1 .34 m
Ja.sF--1.00-j f-..----5.50---l
t-------19.50-----t----6.50--j (side bordered by gutter) asphalt or plastic lane -7 0 - e.
f) Construction of lane with side channels Planked lane was originally a timber bowling lane, but may also
be constructed of plastic -7 0. The particular feature is the rise
! bal~pit ! 18 +O.Omm
of 10 em, measured from the bowling position to the first pin. The
!-·-·-·---~-·-·-·-·-1 -20 mm lane is 23.50 m long and 0.35 m wide with elevated edges.

/0,/~·,. ~{!I
outer boundary batten
ij I~ !}~., o<(
Tapered (or scissor) lane is also a timber bowling lane (or plastic)
-7 0. The lane widens after 9.5 m to 1 .25 m at the centre of the

iI q~ ~){],_ -~~ ! pins.

i~
i
\
t
I. :il.
2

I
· @f
1
'd{ ~ i
0.25A
I
I

1-1.00 ±, 2 mm .,1
'
j I I
<(

0.25A

I/
I
!
18 +O.Omm
-20 mm

outer boundary batten

In bowling alleys -7 0 the run-up area is made of cleanly sanded
parquet over the entire width (1.041-1 .065 m). The lane is polished
or varnished parquet. The bowling balls are 21.8 em with a
maximum weight of 7257 g, with three finger holes.
\I ~~ jjcentre~line
--- I
l~aesurface
"M
A ~
On asphalt and tapered lanes, balls are of diameter 16.5 em,
i
~
weighing ~ 2800-2900 g. Planked lane balls are 16.5 em,
~
~3050-3150 g. The balls are made of plastic mixture and the pins
0 Arrangement and description of pins 0 Possible designs for side channel of hardwood (beech) or plastic with standardised sizes. Pins are
also made of plastic-coated wood or plastic, also standardised.
ball return
===::::J

Il IIf-c:£-=·=·=====~·-·-1·-·-·-·-·-ln
I ·.· - ~
~ j
r--f'i.-1.oo+--5.50----\
ca. SO i---------23.50 5.50 1.00--l
S the lane surface rises evenly from Q to S Q
~
+I -·-·-· -~-·-
0
~
overall measurements

0 Planked lane

ball return

= e f)

II!£'£--:-
Section --> Standard pin area

=======··~=4--·-·-----+~~ I I
SPORTS HALLS
Dimensions
Layout,
construction
Equipment
t---Ff1.00+--8.50----j Stands
ca. 60 s 18.00 5.50--+1.00--l Examples
the Jane surface rises evenly from P to S p Judo, wrestling,
weightlifting,
+I
0
-·-·-·-·-·- boxing,
~ badminton
0 Layout and main dimensions of tapered lane
Squash, billiards
Condition, fitness
Climbing halls
Bowling alleys
f- 5-+-- 10 -+-----27.50-34.00--------l
r-·-·-·-·-· - · - · - · - · - · - · - · -

oc·~:::~2~~~:~~=~=~:::::·::
lT 4IJ) Section --> ([) Pin area

~--·-·-·-·-·-·-·-·-·-·-·-
!]}====:=:=:=:-=.·.--=.·.=:=---=-:-=:=-.=..
g I

1Ill!ltl~~. ." l!!~r!~I.1

'-· 1

1 clubroom 4 cloakroom 7 shower room

2 servery 5 public toilets 8 cleaners' room
3 attendant 6 staff toilets 9 fitness room "='"*======1\li.Oi!i=======!==ss==l
10 equipment room f----------25.55-------------1

f) Example of a bowling alley G) Double bowling lane

361
 SWIMMING POOLS
Indoor Public Pools

The size of an indoor swimming pool building depends on the

size of the pool/water area (or the dimensions of the basin and
the diving boards), the surrounding areas, additional facilities and
required room heights.

Building plot
For indoor pools (without parking) allow a plot size of 6-8 m2 per m2
of planned pool area; if the water area is very large, a smaller value will
suffice. Additional open-air areas (terraces, sun decks, sunbathing
lawns) can add about 10-20% to the total plot size.
A building plot which is flat or with a max. slope of 15° enables the
design of a public indoor pool on one level, which is a precondition
for an economically and functionally optimised design. A greater
slope to the terrain will lead to higher building costs or functional
disadvantages.

Parking
1 car parking space per 5-1 0 clothes lockers for the swimming
pool.
1 bicycle space per 5 clothes lockers for the swimming pool.
If there are facilities for spectators: 1 additional parking space
for every 1 0-15 spectators. If catering is included: 1 additional
parking space for every 4-8 seats.

Subsidiary spaces
The total water area serves as the basic value for determining
the subsidiary rooms. With leisure pools this value should be
supplemented to take additional functions into consideration.
Area in front of entrance: 0.2 m2/m 2 of water area.
Entrance hall: floor area 0.15-0.25 m2/m 2 of water area,
additional minimum direct access possibly
depending on the pool size and the leisure orientation. Also 5 m2
facilities facilities direct access wind lobby, 5 m2 cash desk or automated paying area, 1-2 m2
0 Indoor swimming pool -room relationship scheme cleaning room and toilets (1 WC each for ladies and gents).

Total water area Pool types 1> Example 1 Example 2 Example3 Diving facilities'> Plot area without
(WA)(m2) Pool size (m or m 2) WA(m 2) Pool size (m or m 2) WA(m 2 ) Pool size (m) WA(m 2) parking (m 2) 3>
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
up to 300 CP 10.00 X 25.00 250 - - 1 B+3P approx. 2500
pp approx. 15
up to 450 CP 10.00 X 25.00 250 10.00 X 25.00 250 12.50 X 25.00 313 1B+3B approx. 3000-3500
NSP 8.00 x 12.50 approx. 100 8.00 X 12.50 125 8.00x 12.50 100
SWIMMING pp 20 20 approx. 20 20 approx. 20 20
POOLS CP 313 forCP:
12.50 X 25.00 313 12.50 X 25.00 313 12.50 X 25.00
Indoor public 1B+3Bor
pools 1B+3B+1P
Outdoor public
NSP 8.00 X 12.50 100 8.00 X 16.66 133 8.00 X 12.50 100 +3P+5P
pools up to 600 3500-4000
Indoor and DP 10.60 x12.50 133 forDP:
outdoor pools 1 B+ 1 P comb.
Private pools pp approx. 25 25 approx. 25 25 approx. 25 25 +3 B + 3 P comb.
+5P
CP 12.50 X 25.00 313 12.50 X 25.00 313 16.66 X 25.00 417 for CP and DP:
NSP 8.00x 12.50 100 8.00 X 16.66 133 8.00 X 16.66 133 1 B + 1 P comb.
DP4> 10.60 X 12.50 133 10.60 X 12.50 133 12.50 X 11.75 147 + 3 B + 3 P comb.
up to 750 4000-4500
+5P
pp approx. 30 30 approx. 30 30 approx. 30 30 or:1b+3B
+1 P+3P+5P
CP 16.66 x25 417 16.66 X 25 417 for CP and DP:
NSP 8.00 X 16.66 133 8.00 X 16.66 133 2x1B.2x3B
DP') 12.50 X 11.75 147 16.90x 11.75 199 1P+3P+5P
up to 800 approx. 5000
pp approx. 35 35 approx. 35 35 or:
1 B+3B+1 P
+3P+
Notes: 1>Abbreviations: PP- paddling pool; NSP- non-swimmer pool; CP- combined pool; DP _diving pool.
In special cases, a swimmers' pool (SP) can be provided instead of a combined pool (CP).
2
>Abbreviations: B =board; P= platform; 1-10 =diving height (m); WA=water area.
3
) Recommended plot sizes
4
l Dimensions under consideration of safety/measurements
Pool size= pool width (diving board side) x pool length in diving direction

f) Design examples for indoor swimming pools (division of the water area between swimmers and non-swimmers approx. 2:1)

362
 t-1.50 8.20 1.50--j
f--1.60--j-1.60--j
SWIMMING POOLS
~ Indoor Public Pools
0.

r
g
"'
i.l
1'l :;;
l1l Changing area
+
t(j
'6
":;;;
The size of the changing area can be derived from the water area
(m 2). Rough estimate for a swimming time of about 1.5 hours: no.
~
+
8 ~ cloakroom places= 0.3-0.4 m2 water area. No. changing places:
.a.,:. 'E

u
.:;! 0.08-0.1 m2 water area, of which 40-50% as cubicles, the rest as
~ .g changing benches in communal rooms. Ratio of changing places
~
0 2"
.0
to clothes lockers 1:4.
'l;i
1U
5 Family or wheelchair cubicles: 10% of the cubicles
~ No. communal changing places: min. 2; each communal
changing place with min. 30 clothes lockers.

0 Changing area: cubicles with clothes locker Dimensions

Minimum dimensions of installed fittings:
Cubicle: axis dimensions 1.00 m wide, 1.25 m deep, 2.00 m high.

T
8
~~0
~
~
Family changing cubicle: internal dimensions 1.60 m wide,
1.25 m deep, 2.00 m high.

1i~ ~
1U
~
Changing cubicle for wheelchair users: internal dimensions
2.45 m wide, 1.50 m deep, 2.00 m high, clear door width 0.94 m
--j 0-0.
f) Communal changing room: without shoe-removal bench
Clothes locker --t 0 0.25 m or 0.33 m wide (axis dimensions),
0.50 m deep (clear), 1.80 m high for full-height lockers or 0.90
m high for stacked lockers. For wheelchair users, the lockers are
0.40 m wide and should be provided only as full-height lockers in
order to be able to house walking aids etc.
Changing bench: 0.20-0.25 m seat depth, for wheelchair users
0.40 m seat depth, 0.45 m seat height. Min. 7.50 m bench length
in communal changing rooms (for school use min. 10.00 m).
No. sanitary fittings per guideline unit: 0.03 hair care places
with dryer, 0.015 foot disinfection points, 0.015 bucket sink,
cleaning equipment room 1-2 m2, near changing area. Ceiling
height 2.50 m.
Foot disinfection point (traffic area): 0.75 m wide, 0.50 m deep.
e Communal changing room: without shoe-removal bench

r~·-4~-- ~
Clothes locker

\i,
0 0
SWIMMING
POOLS

It
"'
%
Indoor public
pools
~
0 Outdoor public
~ pools
~ Indoor and
outdoor pools
ti
Private pools

Q Communal changing room: with shoe-removal bench

l--1.50-t-1.00+1.00f---4.00---t-1.12+ 1.50-j
Wheelchair-accessible changing
cubicle: with clothes lockers
0 Wheelchair-accessible changing
cubicle: without clothes lockers

r
double locker single locker 'z' locker

l(j

+
l(j
r-
0
0
+ 0
0
.
"'~ _] .J _,

B
"'
_g"'
"'
1U
i DOD
e Changing area: mixed type e Clothes lockers: details (examples)

363
 fao-j SWIMMING POOLS
changing area
Indoor Public Pools

The sanitary facilities include showers and toilets, ladies'

and gents' separated. Location should be between the
changing and the pool areas. The toilets should be arranged
so that, after use and before entering the pool area, the bather
""7 pool area has to cross a shower room --> 0 - 0. A direct route back
l-90---i 'V
from the pool area to the changing area is definitely to be
0 Scheme of sanitary facilities recommended.

changing area Size of the sanitary facilities: basic equipment min.

shower room each for ladies and gents with min. 10 showers
@) (applies for water area up to 500 m2). In addition, a further
shower should be provided for every 25-50 m2 of water area.
<1 In indoor swimming pools in schools up to 150 m2 water area,
1 divisible shower room each for girls and boys with 5 showers
is sufficient --> 8.

pool area Toilets: each shower room requires 2 WCs for ladies, 1 WC and
2 urinals for gents--> 0.
Scheme of sanitary facilities with divided shower room

Minimum dimensions of movement areas in sanitary facilities:

changing area
shower without partition: 0.80 m wide
(open row of showers) 0.80 m deep
shower with partition: 0.95 m or
(row of showers with spray guard) 0.80 m wide
L..-f>o 1.45 m high
shower with double-T partition: 0.80 m or
(with spray and sight partition) 0.95 m wide
'V pool area 1.40 m deep
to pool return to changing room 1.45 m high
0 Sanitary facilities (example ladies) corridor width between two rows of showers: 1.10 m
toilet with inward opening door 0.90 m wide
1.40 m deep
2.00 m high
toilet with outward opening door: 0.90 m wide
1.20 m deep
2.00 m high
urinal (axis dimensions): 0.65 m
free standing area: 0.40 m
installation height: approx. 0.70 m
SWIMMING
pool area installation height for children:
POOLS approx. 0.50 m
'V
Indoor public return to changing room to pool washbasin (axis dimensions): approx. 0.70 m
pools
Outdoor public
pools
e Sanitary facilities (example gents) free standing area:
installation height
approx. 0.60 m
approx. 0.80 m
Indoor and
outdoor pools minimum clear ceiling height 2.50 m
Private pools
recommended 2.75m

--, I

I
"E
gJ
--1 ' "E "'
.<::
Ceramic gj
""'"'
I
floor tiling I 0.
-"I
"'c"'

r·t
-
!'!o
I

""'"'
~"'
0 --~
m g.m
.<::o ·;;
I :2
~"'
0

"0
--, I

'
"'
0) ""'
a;
"'"' ~
e"' !'!
~" ~
I
c - -~I ~
_g"'
""'
Q)
a.o
oro __ j ' 0
I ~ 0
80 110 80 0:
80 60 110 60 80
"0
0:

0 Shower room (scheme) -> 8 0 Sanitary unit for wheelchair users f) Shower and partition arrangement

364
 1.35
f----1
SWIMMING POOLS
Indoor Public Pools
r_,...,__ _ _______ _r-,_

I
Pool area
Pool Width Length Water depth, remarks Min. ceiling
(m) (m) height
paddling pool min.15 25m 2 0.00-0.40/60 2.50 m
non-swimmers' 8.00 12.50 0.60/0.80 to max.
pool-> 0 10.00 16.66 1.35 m 3.20m
combined pool 8.00 25.00 with lifting floor:
1-----12.50 ------< _,f) 10.00 50.00 0.30-1.80 m
f . - - - - - 16.66 ------1 12.50 25.00 in swimmers' section:
16.66 25.00/50.00 1.80m 4.00 m
21.00 in diving section:
25.00 min. water depth 3.80 + 4.50 (5.00) m
0 Scheme of non-swimmers' pool, plan and section
swimmers' pool 16.66 25.00/50.00 4.00 m
r.on
= ----~ 25.00 -,r;,.---,--,,------,--nn~
1.0p_,LIJO 1.1)Q; 21.00 50.00 min. 1.80 m

r
25.00 50.00
0
a: 0
0
wave pool -) e 12.50
16.66
min.
33.00
initial water depth:
0.00 m (if step, max.
0
0~ 21.00- 0.30 m) 4.00 m
a: o{l 25.00 final water depth:
0 0

a: 0 § according to the use of the pool and

·~0;
0
type of wave machine

L
0 "-
0::
:~ Pool perimeter; perimeter areas generally at the same level as water Width (m)
0
in the main access area to the swimming pool: 3.00
a: 0
in main entrance area between pool steps and hall wall: 2.50

>--- 8.00 ---1

0

1-- 9.00/11.00~
- at the starting blocks:
at the diving facility:
3.00
4.50
f----1
1.25/1.35 (behind the 1 m diving board: free passage min. 1.25 m)
at the access to the paddling pool 2.00
non-swimmers' pool- steps side: 2.50
/ I I non-swimmers' pool- narrow side: 2.00
I ,/ between diving, swimmers' or combined pool and the non-swimmers' pool
I ,/
I or non-swimmer's section of the combined pool: 4.00
L - - - - - -"" Height-adjustable
between swimmers' pool or swimmers' section of a combined pool and the
f) Variopool 25.00 m between soil
divers' pool: 3.00
1/3 Pool length remaining widths for a water area less than 300 m2 min. 1.25
1------6.00------t over300 m2 min.1.50

ceiling height at pool perimeter: 2.50

! 33.0D-50.00 lifeguard's room space requirement: min. 6 m2 2.50
sanitary room space requirement: min. 8 m 2 2.50
equipment room 2
up to 450m water area, min. 15m 2 2.50
2 2 2.50
over 450 m water area, min. 20 m
lounge for competitors: 2.50
6 swimming lanes~ 30m , 8 ~50m , 10 ~70m
2 2 2

2 2.50
teaching and club: 30 up to 60 m
spectator facilities stands: 0.5 seats per 1 m2 water area used for sport
space required for 1 seat: 0.5 m2 including immediate traffic area
spectator cloakrooms, space required: 0.025 m2 per 1 m2 water
0 Wave pool (scheme) area used for sport
spectator toilets: the toilets in the entrance area (ladies: 1 we,

~
gents: 1 WC, 1 urinal) are sufficient for 200 spectators. For SWIMMING
larger spectator facilities, 1 additional toilet (WC or urinal) for POOLS
every 100 further spectators plus 1 toilet (WC or urinal), with a
Indoor public
ratio of ladies: 2 wcs, gents: 1 we, 2 urinals. pools
workplaces for press Good view of the start and finish (raised position) required: Outdoor public
f) Section of wave pool and television 5-20 places, each place 0.75 x 1.20 m pools
Required: 4-6 places, each place 1.20 m x 1.50 m Indoor and
catering Space required per vending machine: 0.5-0.8 m2 outdoor pools
Seated area: min 50 seats, each seat 1-2m2 Private pools
(cafe/restaurant)
supply and subsidiary rooms (additional): for cafe approx. 60%
of seating area, for restaurant approx. 100% of seating area, of
0 Section of combined swimmers' and wave pool which 20-25% for stores and cool room, for empty packaging
15-20%, for kitchen, pantry, office, staff, remaining area.
Toilets: min. ladies, 1 WC, gents, 1 WC, 1 urinal.
services area Total area for services (without wave water tank, storeroom,
sub-station and gas supply room): up to 1 m2 per 1 m2 planned
water area; for larger indoor pools, a reduction of up to 30% is
possible.

0 Variant of point A with steps 8 Point B -> 6 (Finnish channel)

Finnish channel St. Moritz channel Wiesbaden channel

e Examples of overflow channels

365
 SWIMMING POOLS
Indoor Public Pools

Diving facilities are used for school and competitive sport. Two
diving-off points are used: a rigid platform at heights of 1, 3, 5 and
10 m, and a rebounding springboard, made of aluminium, wood or
plastic, at heights of 1 and 3 m. The height of the diving positions
is measured from the water surface. The climb up to the board or
11 to the platform is up steep steps. All diving facilities are on one
side of the pool --) 0- f). Water temperature: 24-28 a c. In order
~ ~
:: for divers to be able to discern the water surface better, water
rippling devices or sprinkler jets can be provided.

j
I • • ej • • e • • • • • • • • • • • • • -~-· •-rc
11 q
~
(j) goal line (white)
® 2 m line (red)
® 4 m line (yellow)
@) centre line (white)
·:
~
1

;
@ I

: :~
I
I

I 1•
~1.0~ t1.0~
@goal :(j) ®~ @ I ~
® boundary line g
[ : :~
f-------16.90 ------------<
~
0 1-5 m diving facilities (complete). B = board, P =platform
:1' I
I
I r
'

•: I 1 1:
e I ~

.................... .. : : ~-~
I I

:;.: ~
30 2.00 0 30
11.oo--r--11.oo,---Ff·.c.+q_,",_'-'1
2.00 2.001.70
f-------30.00-------+---1
2.00
50.00

0 Water polo playing area

size of pool
possible dimensions: 22.40 x 16.66m
or 25.00 x 15.00 m
depth of water
at least: 4.50 m
recommended: 5.00 m

Alternative: with a hook-in goal in a

25 rn pool, at least 70 ern
f-1 1----l
1.00 1.00
f - - - - - - - - - - - - 22.40----------------;

f) 1-10 rn diving facilities (complete). B =board, P= platform

0 Water polo goal (front view) f) Water polo goal (side view)

Dimensions of diving facilities Length/width 1rn 3m 1m 3m 5m 7.5m 10m

board board platform platform platform platform platform
4.80/0.50 4.80/0.50 4.50/0.60 5.00/0.60 6.00/1.50 6.00/1.50 6.00/2.00
A from front edge of board/ min. dimension 1.50 1.50 1.50 1.50 1.50 1.50 1.50
platform back to pool side
A-A from front edge of uppermost min. dimension 1.25 1.25 1.25
SWIMMING board/platform back to pool
POOLS sidewall
Indoor public B from centre of board/platform min. dimension 2.50 3.50 2.30 2.80 4.25 4.50 5.25
pools sidewavs to pool sidewall
Outdoor public c from centre to centre min. dimension 1.90 1.90 - - 2.10 2.10or 3.13 or
pools 2.45 2.65
Indoor and D from front edge of board/ min. dimension 9.00 10.25 8.00 9.50 10.25 11.00 13.50
outdoor pools
Private pools ,.to. I platform to forward pool sidewall
E from top of board/platform to min. dimension 5.00 5.00 3.00 3.00 3.00 3.20 3.40
0 Cross-section underside of ceiling
F space, within which the min. dimension 2.50 2.50 2.75 2.75 2.75 2.75 2.75
dimension 'E' is to be
F G complied with backwards and

;=~:~:::::·::;.:- : I p N"::::::::::·:·:
G
to each side of the centre of
the board/Platform
space, within which the min. dimension 5.00 5.00 5.00 5.00 5.00 5.00 6.00
dimension 'E' is to be
7.50~~A-A complied with from the front
..§.,QQ._m_ _=,_; A-A edge of the board/platform
H water depth under the board/ min. dimension 3.40 3.80 3.40 3.40 3.80 4.10 4.50
platform
J distance from the front edge min. dimension 6.00 6.00 5.00 6.00 6.00 8.00 12.00
of the board/platform forwards
K water deoth at distance to 'J' min. dimension 3.30 3.70 3.30 3.30 3.70 4.00 4.25
L distance sideways of the min. dimension 2.25 3.25 2.05 2.55 3.75 3.75 4.50
centre of the board/platform
M water depth at a distance min. dimension 3.30 3.70 3.30 3.30 3.70 4.00 4.25
A
from 'L'
0 Longitudinal section
e Safety dimensions for diving facilities --> 0 -0

366
 SWIMMING POOLS
Outdoor Pools

covered entrance area

(pool side) Building plot size: 10-16 m2 of the planned water area.
changing area Parking: 1 car and 2 bicycle spaces per 200-300 m2 of building
plot area.
Space in front of entrance: 150 m2 per 1000 m2 water area,
50 m2 per 1000 m2 water area for roofed entrance zones, including
sitting area
cash desk and access control equipment.
sunbathing terrace Changing area: changing places as cubicles: 0.01 per m2 water
play area
area, per 1OOOm 2 water area min. 10 changing places, of which: 8
changing places as cubicles including 2 cubicles for families and
leisure/sports facilities
wheelchair users and 2 privacy-screened changing places on the
foot rinse pool
sunbathing lawn. Communal changing rooms: as required, min.
children's play area 2 communal changing rooms, each with 10.00 m bench length.
paddling area
Cloakrooms: cloakroom places and lockers for valuables: 0.1 per m2
water area, 20 lockers for valuables per 100 cloakroom places.
pool area
Sanitary facilities: child-parent area: 15-25 m2 •
toilets Showers: per 1000 m2 water area 3 warm showers for ladies,
... direct access note: the illustration represents only 3 warm showers for gents, possibly also 1 cold shower per shower
the intetnal links; do not use this for room.
optional direct
I> access room planning.
Toilets: per 1000 m2 water area: 4 WCs for ladies, 2 WCs and
8 Room and area relationship scheme 4 urinals for gents, anteroom with washbasin.
Foot disinfection point: according to local regulations. Foot
washing and rinsing point (combined}: per 1000 m2 water area,
4 taps.
Covered area for weather protection: per 1000 m2 water area,
100 m2 covered area.
Warm lounge room: per 1000 guideline units 30-70 m2 , min.
50m 2 •
Staff rooms: up to 1500 m2 water area, up to 10 m2 ; over 1500 m2
water area, up to 30 m2 •
Lifeguard's room: approx. 10 m2 •
First aid room: approx. 8 m2 , if combined with lifeguard's room
~1 .50+1.25+1.25+1.50~1.50-l-1.25+1.25-1 and sanitary facilities, approx. 14 m2 .
f) Cloakroom unit (scheme)
Store and equipment room: up to 1000 m2 water area, min. 30 m2
(recommended: 50 m2); over 1000 m2 water area, min. 50 m2
f-1.20t1.25t1.25+1.50-f1.25f1.25+1.50f1.25f1.25-j (recommended 80 m2).
::::::::::::::::~;~~~; ~j~~ ~~~~~ :;:: ;:;;; Pool area
.... Paddling pool: water area: 80-200 m2 , water depth: 0.00-0.60 m,
division into a number of pools of differing depths is ideal.
Non-swimmers' pool: water area: 600-1500 m2 , water depth: SWIMMING
0.50/0.60-1.35 m, possibly divided into a number of pools of POOLS
differing depths. Indoor public
pools
Swimming pool: water area: 313-1050 m2 , water depth: > 1.80 m, Outdoor public
pool size according to number of swimming lanes. pools
Indoor and
Swimming lanes Pool width Pool length outdoor pools
Private pools
5 12.50 m 25.00 m
6 16.66 m 25.00 m
C) Cloakroom unit (scheme) 6 16.66 m 50.00 m
8 21.00 m 50.00 m
(j)
10 25.00 m 50.00 m
~
~ Wave pool: pool width: 12.50 m, 16.66 m, 21.00 m, 25.00 m, pool
~
~ length: 50.00 m, min. 33.00 m, initial water depth: 0.00 m, final
I,. (j)Coldshower
"'
>
.c
.c
water depth according to pool use and type of wave machine.
Pool perimeter: min. width 2.50 m. Near the access points
.c with spray guard .Q
.0
.Q
®Hot shower
@Drain
and the starting blocks, 3.00 m; near the pool steps to the non-
@Cleaning equip-
mentroom
swimmers' pool 3.00 m, near the diving facility 5.00 m.
u
u ;: Open areas: approx. 60% of the building plot area, divided
5
into sunbathing, leisure sport and children's play areas. Ratio
sunbathing area: sport area= 2:1 to 3:1.
Children's play area: dry area: sandpit 100-300 m2 , play area
Sanitary facilities for 2000 m2 water Sanitary facilities for 1000 m2
300-700 m2 • Wet area: water play area 100-500 m2 •
area (scheme) water area (scheme)

367
 Small children's play
area, open-air part
SWIMMING POOLS
Indoor and Outdoor Pools

Combinations of indoor and outdoor swimming pools enable,

according to the type of operation, almost complete spatial,
functional and·operational combination of the individual facilities'
components. At the same time, they also offer more flexible
Services opportunities for use and thus possess a higher leisure value than
A outdoor or indoor pools alone. The differing needs at different
0 Room and functional scheme times of year require different areas of water indoors and outdoors.
Operation can be categorised into summertime, wintertime and
in-between (pre-season and after-season).

The following types of operation can be considered: simultaneous

use of the inside and outside water areas with common opening
times, unlimited bathing time and unitary entrance price; separate
use of the indoor and outdoor water areas with different opening
times, partially unlimited opening times (outdoors) and different
prices; seasonal use of only one part, e.g. by mothballing one
part. Combinations of indoor and outdoor swimming pools
can sometimes also be achieved by extending the facilities at
existing pools, adding an indoor or outdoor section. If the indoor
and outdoor parts of a new project are not to be opened in one
construction phase, then the design of the entire facility should be
undertaken, including technical specialist design work. This can
avoid double expenditure. The first construction phase should
generally be the indoor swimming pool.

8 The Wallenberg, Oberammergau Arch.: P. Seifert

SWIMMING
POOLS
Indoor public
pools
Outdoor public
pools
Indoor and
outdoor pools
Private pools

1 sauna/leis·u·r~ .rooms ·
outdoor sauna
3 plunge pool
4 outdoor swimming
5 children's paddling
swimming pool
7 water grotto
changing
showers
sun beds
terrace
plant

C) Leisure pool, Heveney Arch.: Aichele; Fiedler; Heller G Outdoor pool, Bad Driburg Arch.: Geller+ Muller

368
 SWIMMING POOLS
Indoor and Outdoor Pools

The building plot size should be in line with the requirements for an
outdoor pool. With a plot requirement <1 0,000 m2 for the indoor
element, a supplement of 5.00 m2 per m2 of water area should be
added for the outdoor. Otherwise, the design recommendations
for indoor or outdoor pools apply.
The pool area of the outdoor pool should ideally be connected
to the pool area of the indoor pool. This ensures better utilisation
between seasons, central supervision and a favourable technical
combination. The lounge area with catering should have a view of
both pools if possible.
Access to the outdoor pool is normally through the entrance hall
of the indoor pool, but at peak times this can be supplemented
by the covered entrance zone. The cash desk and access control
area should serve both parts if possible.
A close link between the pool areas in the indoor and the outdoor
facilities enables flexible use. The connection between the two,
preferably to the non-swimmers' section of the outdoor pool, can
be through a swimming channel (with access in the indoor pool) or a
closed corridor. The intention is that the bathers can reach an outdoor
pool from the indoor pool without contact with cold outside air.

0 City pool, Trier Arch.: MOiler, Karnaiz & Bock

G) draught lobby <V changing @plant, filters

®entrance hall @equipment @transformer room
® ticket office ®swimming supervisor 0 chlorine room
@staff ®swimming pool @ battery room
®staff changing @learners' pool @heating
@office

" indoor pool

<D
® boating lake
® children's
playground
@ outdoor pool
changing
® outdoor pool
@sports area

C) Indoor swimming pool, Stuttgart -> f) Arch.: J. Welz

SWIMMING
f) Ground floor -> 8 POOLS
Indoor public
pools
ground floor--> e Outdoor public
pools
G) elevated entrance Indoor and
® draught lobby outdoor pools
® ticket office
Private pools
@atrium
®flat
® changing
(f) equipment
® swimming club
® swimming pool
® diving pool
@ office
@ teacher
@ swimming supervisor
\@ first aid
@ leisure room
@ family cubicles
@ nonMswimmers

':(
':(

Q Indoor and outdoor pool, Zollikon -> 0 Ground floor Arch.: E. Ulrich+ C. Braun

369
 SWIMMING POOLS
Indoor and Outdoor Pools

Construction details
The use of foils for the lining of swimming pools saves the normal
expense of waterproof sub-structure. The foil in areas around
stairs, standing steps and children's paddling pools should have an
embossed and structured surface for safety reasons. At penetrations,
fixed flange connections are helpful ---7 0- ~- Possible condensation
on the side away from the water should be considered, and secondary
drainage or relief drillings should be provided under the waterproofing
0 Edge connection/foil lined pool f) Variant--> 0 layer. In order to empty the pool, the floor is constructed with a
gradient of 5% or max. 10%. In order to securely connect the foil,
with bonded sheet metal
1--7 ---1 use bonded sheet metal profiles ---7 0 - 0. Also possible are pre-
fabricated pools in one piece as a shell structure, or segmental pools.

Relative air humidity

50% 60% 170%
Air temperature
28oC 26°C 28°C 30°C 28°C
21 13 0 _1) 0
24'CR
_1) 67
M 219 193 143
26'C R 48 53 21 2 0
M 294 269 218 163 143
28'C R 96 104 66 31 36
M 378 353 302 247 227
157 145 123 81 89

•
30'C R
M 471 446 395 339 320
Foil fixed to pool wall Edge connection with angle of 1l temperature difference 4 K water/air
bonded sheet metal cannot be held in the long term air and water temperature (°C)

Specific quantity of evaporation Evaporation limit for an indoor

in an indoor pool (g/m3h): out of pool: upper line, in use; lower
operation (R) and max. use (M) line, out of operation
(Kappler --. refs)
pool rim paving

e Pre-fabricated pool e Connections at floor/sidewall with

rounded corner

G) 'ZOrich' pool edge overflow system 4D 'Wiesbaden' overflow channel

system
grip tile
slip·resistant
grip tile paving

SWIMMING
POOLS
Indoor public
pools
Outdoor public
pools
Indoor and
outdoor pools
Private pools

f) Pre-cast concrete gutter/foil liner e Variant --.Q

4D Finnish channel 0 'St. Moritz' overflow channel
system
pool rim paving
pool rim paving

0 Fixed flange connection 41!) Fixed flange with anchor sleeve

$ Overflow channel with pool edge
kerbstone and drainage channel
e Surface skimmer

370
 (}) changing area SWIMMING POOLS
® we Private Pools
@ shower

CD exercise room

® sauna anteroom location

Protected from wind --7 0, near the bedroom (for use on cool
® sauna
days), visible from the kitchen (keep an eye on children) and living
0 sauna area
room (scenery effect), i.e. in view. No deciduous trees or bushes
® footbath
next to the pool (falling leaves). Prevent grass etc. falling in at the
® rest room
sides, possibly with a raised edge (design question).
@ galley
Size
® bar
Lane width 2.25 m, stroke length approx. 1.50 m, plus body
0 Related elements of the Indoor pool of a detached house. A flat part of the
length: 4 strokes = 8 m length. Water depth: chin height for the
swimming hall can also be the living room.
smallest adult, not the children! Difference between pool depth/
water depth --7 e. depends on the type of extractor system.
Shape
As simple as possible due to cost and water management (see
below), rectangular, always with ladder or step recess.

~Ijl Types of pool

~L
smallest single~ Normal foil pool (foil = waterproof surface) on masonry-bearing
lane swimming construction --7 0, concrete, steel (also above ground) or sunk
pool (2 strokes, .E
1-2 people\
average size two- 0 into ground --7 0.
lane swimming pool "'oi
(3-4 strokes, 4-5 Polyester pools, seldom locally produced, mostly with pre-
people); minimum
size for racing dive
fabricated elements, are generally not self-supporting. Lean
from deep end concrete backfilling is necessary --7 0.
f) Poolsizes 8 Poo\depth Watertight concrete pool --7 0 (two-sided in situ concrete,
shotcrete with formwork for one side, pre-cast concrete elements);
surface mostly ceramic or glass mosaic, occasionally paint
(chlorine rubber, cement paint).
soil Water cleaning
A recirculation system is usual today, generally providing flat
water flow with the good surface cleaning effect of a skimmer or
a channel.
Filter types
sand bed
compacted
Gravel (deep filter, sometimes with cleaning air injection), diatomite
and drained (surface filter), plastic foam. Algae is combated with chlorine,
e Sloping pool with foil; edge formed
by timber beam
0 Single-skin prefabricated polyester
pool
chlorine-free algae agent, or copper sulphate.
Heating
plastic With counter-current apparatus or through-flow heater in the
sealing strip heating boiler- mind the regulations! This prolongs the swimming
season considerably at relatively low cost --70 - 0.
Protection of children SWIMMING
Can be through fencing, covering the pool or self-activating alarm POOLS
inlet valve device (reacts to waves). Indoor public
with leakage pools
flange Frost protection Outdoor public
pools
For rigid pools with inserted edge beam, heating or overflow kept Indoor and
frost-free. A pool should not be emptied in winter (sloping edge outdoor pools
Private pools
of pool).
working joint
with external
jointing tape

0 Reinforced concrete pool: simple 8 Masonry pool with drainage

version with Wiesbaden channel

Water Season Additional months

temp. 4 Months 5 Months 6 Months 5th Month 6th Month
22°C 1.25/6.5 1.33/7.2 1.55/7.8 1.65/7.2 2.65/7.8
23oC 1.50/7.2 1.70/7.9 2.00/8.5 2.50/7.9 3.50/8.5
60
24°C 2.08/7.9 2.26/8.6 2.66/9.2 2.98/8.6 4.66/9.2

25°C
26°C
2.60/8.5
3.50/9.2
2.80/9.3
3.75/10.0
3.20/9.8
4.00/10.5
3.60/9.5
4.75/10.0
5.25/9.8
5.25/10.5
f--so ----J
1
2
Heat loss of an outdoor pool (average/maximum) in kWh/m d according to
measurements by energy company RWE. Special influences are not considered, Heat loss from a pool surface or the Floor gully with groundwater
e.g. considerable heat loss of public pools (hotel pool etc.) through the use of free-standing poolside wall for a pressure balance
heated pool water for filter back-flushing (up to 1.5 kW/m 2d or 1300 kcal/m 2d). 5-month season (average values)

371
 SPA
sauna Sauna//Wellness
entrance/exit

In contrast to the separated features of a commercially operated

sauna --7 p. 373 f., the functions of a private sauna can all be
integrated into one room, e.g. changing and relaxation (can also
take place in the house) or pre-cleaning and cooling (can take
place in the same room with the same sanitary facilities).
Free-standing sauna cabins or facilities (e.g. in the garden) are
normally constructed of spruce in log cabin style, and are either
Q Functional scheme of a private sauna f) Warm footbath self-built or bought pre-fabricated. The log cabins are available in
t----11 0------l various versions, either as sauna cabins --7 4D) or also with shower
and changing or relaxation room --7 Ci). There are also sauna
cabins available as prefabricated or kit elements for installation in
existing rooms --7 CD+ 0.
Sauna stove: Sauna cabins for installation usually have electric
stoves (which require a three-phase supply above a certain size),
while log cabin types mostly have solid fuel stoves (which require
a chimney).
Plunge pool--7 8 - 0 max. depth 1.20 m.
An important part of a proper sauna, a (warm) footbath --7 f) with
a seat are required.
e Plunge pool f) Wooden plunge tub Room temperatures: changing room 20-22°C, wash room
i':; 24-26°C, cooling room ~ 18-20°C, rest room 20-22°C, massage
room 20-22°C.
Humidity: 100°C: 2-5% rei. humidity, 80°C: 3-10% rei. humidity,
70°C: 5-15% rei. humidity, 60°C: 8-28% rei. humidity.

f - - - - - - - 6.00------1
<DShower
®Steam bath
®Equipment

e Sauna cabin: one person lying or

two sitting
e Sauna cabin: two people lying or
three sitting
@Sauna
@Sun bench
@Sitting&
relaxation corner

I· m Sauna (installed, e.g. in cellar), 30 m2 , 4-6 people

1 - - 2.00---; t------2.30-----1

1-----2.30'-----l
<D Sauna cabin
®Massage&

SPA
8 Cross-section e Sauna cabin: three people lying or
five sitting
washing room
® Changing room
Sauna/well ness @Veranda
@Woodpile
f-----3.70-----J @ Cubboard
(fJ Heating oven

II ~
@ Water kettle
@Water tub

11~~-------.d
1--2.40---1
I
0 Sauna
C) Sauna constructed as log cabin 41!) Sauna cabin constructed as log cabin

.-IIIII.-
lower
~ extract air
~ G) Sitting & relaxing corner
·@ ® Sauna cabin
.1! @Shower
~ @ Plunge pool

L
®Footbath
@we
\l) Sun bench
@Wall bars
®Ergometer

G House sauna $ Cross-section of sauna with

indirect heating (Bamberg) «it Sauna, 35m2 , 4-6 people, sauna cabin as built-in element

372
 SPA
Sauna/Wellness

Spa is the general term for health and wellness establishments,

which should generally include: sauna facility, massage and
solarium, relaxation, fitness and condition training (including
swimming -7 Indoor and outdoor swimming pools).
A commercially operated sauna (size III-IV -7 E)) will include:
Changing room, shower room with washing facilities, sauna
cabins, rest/relaxation room and subsidiary rooms (staff room,
reception, cash desk, sanitary facilities for visitors and staff).
In public saunas, separate rooms are provided for changing,
0 Functional scheme of a sauna
preliminary washing and toilets; for staff and visitors' toilets, the
relevant building regulations apply. Access to swimming areas,
r----- 3.00 m - - - - j food/drink providers and fitness areas is increasingly being offered
in spa and well ness establishments.

r----- 3.00 m - - - j
D0 Warm footbaths
0
The wash room is used for washing with warm water before
entering the sauna -7 0 - 0.
[jfe---J
Do Do
1
The cooling room is used for cooling off between visits to the

Do
Do
[[]
E
0
0

"'
Do
[[]
1
g
E
.,;
sauna using cold air or cold water in, for example, plunge pools,
pouring water, showers and footbaths -7 0- e.

l
Size No. sauna places Type of use
"'~
"'
~ ~<] I 2-4 very small or family sauna

~<J
"' L -
(3
1':::..
Dressing
"'
5 r.~~.~~~
hooks

!':::..
Dressing
1 II
Ill
IV
4-5
6-10
11-15
family sauna
commercially operated sauna
large commercially operated sauna

Room type Size Average room Places Usable area (m 2)

f) Wash room of size Ill, approx. Wash room of size IV, approx,
size (m2)
12.00 m2 15.00m2
sauna I 1.0-4.0 2-4
r-~~~- 6.001---- II 7.0-11.0 4-5
t-4.00----j
Ill 12.Q-17.0 6-10
0
0
~LJ] ~
IV 17.5-21.0 11-15
cooling room II 16.0 up to 12 16.0
Ill 22.0 up to 12 22.0
IV 30.5 up to 17 30.5
0 0
washing room II 9.0 up to 8 9.00
0 ::l 12.0 up to 12 12.00
Ill
IV 17.0 up to 17 17.00
changing room II 16.0 up to 20 12.00

1.1.1.1.].11 Ill 24.0 up to 30 18.00

SPA
IV 34.0 up to 45 20.00
Sauna/welt ness
rest room II 13.2 2-3 10.00
Cooling room of size Ill, approx. Cooling room of size IV, approx, Ill 18.0 6 20.00
22m 2 33m2 27.0 8 30.00
IV

Capacity parameter Size

I II Ill IV
no. sauna places 2-3 4-5 6-10 11-15
usable area (m2) 1.7-2.2 2.4-4.0 5.Q-10.0 8-13
cabin size (m/place) 1.7-2.3 1.2-1.6 2.0-2.4 1.8-2.0
ceiling height (m) 2.00 2.10 2.40 2.40

Q Plunge pool, sunken 0 Plunge pool, half-sunken in the smallest sauna with 2 seating levels: ceiling height: 1.90 m, min. 1.80 m; clear
height above the upper seat: 1.00-1.10 m

Approximate room and space requirements for various sizes of sauna (HOckert
->refs)

f--100 m----j
e Plunge pool, free-standing C) Steps in plunge pool

373
 SPA
Sauna/Wellness

T Rest room

~ Provides relaxation between or after visits to the sauna. It should

be well ventilated and have visual contact with the outside and a
1 low noise level. The design and furnishing should be suitable for
rest and relaxation.
Solarium: an area of approx. 0.80 x 2.00 m is required per lying
0 Ergonomic couch in the sitting f) Massage couch with head rest
place. The side aisle width is 0.40 m.
position in relaxation room. Length
in lying position: 1.70-1.90 m Pool types and sizes ~ 0:
Whirlpool: for relaxation and recovery. Max. water depth: 1.0 m.
Exercise pool: for relaxation, rehabilitation, water gymnastics and
f--3.50~ health care, max. water depth: 1.35 m, water area 25-60 m 2 :
~3.00~ - salt-water pool: water with a salt content of min. 5.5 g sodium

T o=s
a
and 8.5 g chloride per litre.

I~~
- mineral pool: water with a mineral content of min. 1 g per litre.
~
l...,.o-..____..._.
Massage room 8.75 m2, G
a}
Massage compartment 6.00 m2 ,
- thermal pool: water with a natural temperature >20 °C.
Because this pool is not for swimming, it can, according to use,
be designed in almost any shape.

Size of sauna cabin (m2 ) Air supply opening (cm 2) Air extraction opening (cm 2 )
surrounded by solid walls separated by curtains
5 100 70
10 150 105

T
0
0
~
E m

l l"'
m m
a.
~
I
E
0
0
~
m

l l
~
£
m

"'B
m
a.
~
0
N
e
15
20
200
250
140
175

Size of ventilation openings in relationship to floor area of sauna cabin

(Hackert -> refs)
00
<0 £
a.

1
a. a.

l
B £ £ ::> ::> ::>
a. a.
:'5- ::> ::> f - - - - - - - - Approx. 9.50 m - - - - - - - - j

"""-~
up to 8 people

B.ODm
up to i 2 people

1o.oom
up to i 6 people
6.oom--j~~
up to 10 people

B.OOm
up to 15 people

12.00m
up to 20 people
o;;DDDDD DD
~Staff Relaxation

Pool sizes for swimming and exercise pools In sauna area (usable capacity) Plunge
pool

D Cooling off

T
"'
D

Preliminary
SPA

I Changing washing
Sauna/wellness

~
Equipment we

0
Sauna facility with washing and cooling rooms for about 12 people,
approx. 90 m2

e Hotel sauna 5.50 X 8.50 m

f) Sauna for approx. 30 people C!) Sauna and indoor swimming pool

374
 AMUSEMENT ARCADES

I~ The provision of gambling machines, often called fruit machines

or slot machines, is controlled by gambling regulations. According

I to these, a gambling machine offering the possibility of winning

money or goods may be made available in amusement arcades or
similar enterprises.
650-,...- On a floor area of 15 m2 , only one gambling machine to win money
or goods may be positioned. The total number may not exceed
0 Games console f) Flipper
10 machines ~ e. In the calculation of floor area, storerooms,
corridors, toilets, anterooms and stairs are not considered.
In addition to building regulations, planning regulations also have to
be borne in mind forthe building of amusement arcades. Amusement
arcades are permissible as places of entertainment in urban planning
zones. In exceptional cases, they can be approved in other zones, in
which commercial businesses which could cause a nuisance are not
allowed. Automated entertainment machines, which offer prizes as
goods, can also be made available in amusement arcades, but other
games only if their winnings are paid in cash.
Games may not be organised in amusement arcades without
permission. Neighbouring amusement arcades can share common
toilet facilities ~ e.
The 'Pachinko' amusement arcades usual in Japan ~ 41!) - 0 are
550-,.-
not permissible in Germany. Balls won in these games can be
0 Standing slot machines 8 Card game machine exchanged for goods.
In the UK, gaming by means of machines is restricted and is
governed by the Gaming Act 1968.

/'1 entrance from

"J
T
g
car park

I
oomo
ogm o
card games

~ ~o<>
"''i"i ~~
0 Driving simulator (t Bike simulator

@arcade@
C3 arcade@
~
;£150m2 :; 150m 2

~ D
~
~
D AMUSEMENT
ARCADES

w
billiard tables
driving simulators

f) Pooltable e Slot machine

~
f) Plan of amusement arcade

G!) Japanese 'Pachinko' amusement arcade Gt Japanese 'Pachinko' amusement arcade

375
 ROADS
Street Spaces

Design
Street spaces are formed
by roads with surrounding
buildings. These can easily be
illustrated on black layouts, on
which the roads and squares
are coloured black and the
buildings remain white --7 0.
The spacing and height of
opposing buildings have an
influence on the impression
0 Street spaces in cities become readable when their areas are blacked in, because the eye understands black areas as
cohesive and white areas as holes. made by a street space.
Considering an angle of view
of about 45°, the effects of
street spaces can range from

-~]
The percentage of space boundaries in
the field of view determines how open
closed (like a ravine) to open
or closed a street space is read as. The (like a square) --7 e.
perception of architectural details on
buildings also depends on the distance The design intentions for street
from the building _, p. 40. The formula
on p. 40 can be used to determine the spaces, in addition to the fulfil-

14J'
relationship between the distance of an ment of traffic and supply func-
observer from a building and the scale tions, are to create an identity,
of a drawing of a building. The degree of give orientation and provide
detailing at a scale can thus be matched
to a certain distance of the observer. residential quality. Identity is
the result of emphasising par-
The relationship of scale to distance
according to the formula is approximately:
ticular local features, and rela-
1 : 100 12G-170 m tion to topography and to view
1:50 5G-80 m axes. Distinctive places provide
1:20 1G-20 m more ways of orientation and
offer means of identification.
!!1111!1!111 1!11! 11!!!'!!!!11
Apart from building fagades,
trees are the strongest space-
f) The relationship of width to height determines how a street space is read (FGSV-> refs)
building factor. They can also
bind the street space upwards.
Trees can direct the eye, create
scale and fill in gaps --7 e.

Height (m) Age (yaers)

20 18 ... 20

I
10

5
I
ROADS I
Street spaces
Types of road Ooo
Motorways 2.00
Traffic space I
Inter-urban roads
Distance (m) I I I I I
5 5 5 5 10 10 20 For flat-rooting trees

•
Cross-sections
Intersections
Footpaths and
When choosing the positioning of trees for planting, the space that will be required by the fully grown trees
should be considered (FGSV _, refs)
Q Distances of trees from other street
cycle ways elements
Bicycle traffic/

r{~~cc ~);6(~~
:~
~.-;;~Q~
storage
Traffic calming
Noise protection

'-._c,
/'1"'--u<y- ~-~~
!..,~ I ""'~/] ]>. )~ lf

~~-~ ~
~~
?Y(;;;])Y
Sequence of spaces Developing a square Creation of an island
0 Structuring of a unified space with trees

376
 ~~~,~~ullt- Inside built-up area ROADS
~N_oa_d~Ja_ce_nt_b_u•l_dl~ng~s~----~-----T----~
Adjacent buildings
Types of Road
Lmk Access Stay
r----.-----.-----r----~----~
A B 0 D E

BI 01 Dl El Classification
Bll 011 Dll Ell As part of the transport network, the layout of roads depends
Bill Gill Dill Eill on their function in the network's structure. The classification
BIV CIV DIV E IV of roads has to differentiate their location inside or outside
DV EV a built-up area and above all their function as access for
===-=::;-----;:===:;-'!,......::.............::..............::........ .....~.!~.....! properties and buildings next to the road, leading to the
important distinction between roads which are built along and
!:::~~:~:!:?.~~~.~~:] those which are not.
0 Determination of road categories (FGSV-> refs). RAS-L: Guidelines for
Construction of Roads- Road Layout; RAS-Q: -Cross-section; EAHV: Roads without adjacent building
Recommendations for Construction of Main Roads; EAE: ... Access Roads. These roads are almost entirely used for vehicle traffic. Their
design is based on the planned average speed, the connection
function level and the category group. The correct road category
so 35.5
AI S029.5 can be found in ~ 0 and, together with the forecast number
so 15.5
SC10.5 of vehicles, the cross-section of the road can be determined ~
SC33
p. 378 o.
Bl SC26
All S020
so 15.5 Roads with adjacent building
Bll so 10.5
SC9.5
These roads are part of the public space and serve a multitude
of uses in addition to transport, though the predominance of
SC20
Alii SC15.5 motorised transport has today led to them being mostly formed
SC10.5
SC9.5
by the needs of road traffic. Town and transport planning has the
purpose of achieving a balanced relationship between road traffic
AIV SC9.5
SC7.5 and the other important functions of the street space. These are,
AV SC7.5
for example:

f) Determination of standard cross-sections for roads without adjacent communication areas relaxation, strolling, walking, demonstrating ...
building (FGSV-> refs). SC: standard cross-section.
play areas cycling, roller skating, ball games, playing
hide and seek
commercial use market stalls, pavement cafes, food stands
green areas binding dust and pollutants, oxygen
production, microclimate improvement

Elements of road cross-section

C) Desirable width relationships between vehicle areas and pedestrian spaces
The publications of the Research Company for Roads and Traffic
(FGSV: RAS-Q 96 -> refs)
(FGSV) give basic dimensions for the various uses of street
spaces. The traffic space is measured from the width required by
the traffic participant plus a margin for movement, dependent on
the speed. Together with the safety distance from solid obstacles,
which has to be kept free, this gives the clear space required
for traffic ~ p. 379. To determine the profile of the street space,
the recommendations in the Appendix for Main Roads and the
Recommendations for the Construction of Access Roads state a
0.7 m-1 m space number of criteria which enable a differentiated adaptation of the
!L.Q&Q_j_j 110.5511 ROADS
available space for various needs. The most important decision
0.10 0.10 0.10 0.10
Street spaces
LJ_.QQ_J 1 o.75l criteria are: Types of road
Motorways
1. Zones, divided into town centre zones, areas of old buildings Traffic space
Inter-urban roads
near to the town centre, residential areas, industrial and Cross-sections
commercial areas and village areas. Intersections
Footpaths and
2. Type of connection road: main road, main feeder road, cycle ways
Bicycle traffic/
residential street and residential side street.
storage
3. Requirement for park and green areas. Traffic calming
Noise protection
4. Type and frequency of public transport.
5. Type of use of the pedestrian areas. In addition to
pedestrian routes, these offer opportunities for the social and
communications functions of street spaces.

After these factors have been evaluated, a decision is made as to

which size of vehicles will be allowed to travel on the road and at
1.5 m-3.5 m space what speed. The required carriageway width is then derived from
8 Basic dimensions for various uses of pedestrian areas (FGSV: EAR 05 -> refs) considering possible encounters ~ p. 379.

377
 ROADS
sc 35.5 Motorways

H2.5113.7513.51 3.5113.511 3.51 3.513.75112.5H

0.5 0.75 0.75 0,5
Motorways are roads without adjacent building, designed for high-
29.5
speed vehicles and express transport. The two carriageways, one
l i-:;=:::':1:'::1.;5;::;:::==+
I .9.oo sc 29.5 in each direction, are separated by a central reservation. Each

~--------~~~------~
carriageway consists of two or more Janes and normally a hard
~¥511 3.7513.75113.5 I! 3.7513.75 112.5 ~.sl shoulder...; 0.
0.75 0.75 0.75 0.75
33.0 Motorways are linked to each other by grade-separated (...; p. 381)
==1~3.5====+
Ir
intersections. These can be three-directional ...; 0 - 'Ii> or four-
11.5 sc 33 directional intersections ...; 0 - 0 and specialised junctions for
joining and leaving the motorway...; 0 +(D.
v.¥oll 3.5 1 3.5 1 3.5 113.o 11 3.5 1 3.5J 3.5 112.o11.d
0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5
Motorways are the safest roads and have the highest capacity.
26.0
10.0 The most important factor in the design and construction of new
II I . 8.0 sc 26 motorways is environmental impact.

~¥ol13.5 13.5 113.0 113.513.sll2.o~~ Route signage ...; 0: the location of the sign for junctions is at
0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5
1 000 m, and for intersections 2000 m before the turn-off.
0 Standard cross-sections (SC) for motorways (FGSV: RAS-Q 96--> refs).
In order that built infrastructure next to the motorway does not
negatively affect traffic (obstruction of view and reduction of

----------x--------
----------- --------
concentration), legislators have identified adjacent zones where
building is either forbidden or restricted...; 8. Building restriction: the
erection or significant alteration of buildings and facilities at a distance
40--1 00 m from the outer edge of the carriageway of motorways is
subject to a special application. Buildings of all types are forbidden
up to 40 m from the outer edge of the carriageway of motorways.

1,50
/t.oom\
illf.f.ilflflilllllli ~
(1,00m)
100m
j'Bulldlng
restriction zone zone
40m
~No-buildingJ
zone
40m ,
j No-building1Building
100m

restriction zone

;.;.;.:·:·:·:-:·:-:·:·:-:·:-:-:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:A::::::::::/:}~:t~d~.:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·
f) Sign bridge over motorway 8 Building ban/restriction zones near motorways
Motorway interchanges (four-way)
Motorway junctions {four-way)

ROADS
Street spaces
Types of road
Motorways
Traffic space
Inter-urban roads
e Clover leaf 0 Maltese cross e Windmill f) Half clover leaf

Cross-sections
Intersections
Footpaths and Motorway junctions {three-way)
cycle ways
Bicycle traffic/
storage
Traffic calming
Noise protection

e Trumpet Q Triangle Cll) Fori< G) Diamond

378
Space required at full speed (~50 km/h} ROADS
General dimensions for traffic spaces and clear spaces for the stated encounter Traffic Space
type with full and reduced speed

,-
r -------.., r-- ------, Vehicle traffic space is the sum
I II I
I
I
II
II
1
I
of the space required by the
I II I 0
assessment vehicle, the margin for
-- ~~
I
':i
u
I I - dI
movement at the sides and above,
II I
I
I 0 0
l:=k--1=] the addition for two-directional
I
I = II I I I
traffic, and the spaces above the
drainage channel at the edge of
l? 5
2.50 2.50 1~·5? 0.25 0.25 0.25 0.25 the road and the hard shoulder. The
0.25 0.25 0.25 0.25 0.25 0.25
6.25 5.50 4.25
I maximum width of the assessment
0 Truck/truck f) Truck/car 8 Truck/bicycle
vehicle is, in accordance with
European standards, 2.55-2.60 m.
Traffic space for bicycles is one
lane each, 1.00 m wide and 2.25 m
high ~ p. 384. Traffic space for
pedestrians is a walking strip
0.75 m wide and 2.25 m high.
0.50 2.10 0.25 0.50 The height of the traffic space for
~1o 10.~51.75 ~~·5? I II
o.1J 11.00 I vehicles is 4.20 m, plus a safety
0.25 0.25 0.25 0.25 0.250.25 0.25 0.25
0.25
5.45 1 5.1o I 3.85 margin 4.50 m (or, better, 4.70 m),

e Van/van 0 Van/car 0 Van/bicycle

in order to be able to renew
elevated superstructure. For foot-
paths and cycle tracks, the clear
r--------, r--------,
l c::==::::) I I I height is 2.50 m.
~ .,+:. ~ ~~ I~ ~ The width of the safety space at the
I~ C> I! i I sides is measured from the edge
I : 1 ~ of the traffic space to the side. The
0.50
necessary width depends on the
2.50 0.50
111
0.25
11
0.25 0.25
It permissible maximum speed.
I 6.50 Permissible speed ~70 km/h,
0 Bus/bus e Car/car 0 Car/bicycle
safety space ~1.25 m (1 .00 m)
Permissible speed ~50 km/h,
safety space ~0. 75 m ~ ~

Space required at reduced speed (~40 km/h}

r-------,--------,1
I I

1
I
:
I
!
1
r--------T--------,
I= I 0 I
:
,-----,
~~
l oO
I
Oo
l

I
i k-J aCl
f-
I

(
I
1
:5
.f
P )I~
I
I d leo
~[
:~"'
I
=='..., ~~
I"'
I
I
I
n\ I I
I
I I
~
• 0 • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • : : : : : : : : : : : . · . · : : : : :• . . . . . . . . ........................................ :.::::::.: ·················································
0.25
0
·f~ 2.50 1
1.75 ~-~
5
o.F~ 2.50 ?.!~.ooU5 0.25
Itt
2.50 0.5~ 2.50 ,\
0.125 0.25 0.125 0.125 0.25 0.125 0.125 0.125 0.25 0.25
.J.____ 4.75 I 4.00 6.00
5.50

G!) Truck/truck G Truck/car @) Truck/bicycle (9 Bus/bus

ROADS
Street spaces
Types of road
Motorways
Traffic space
Inter-urban roads
.. . .. ............................0 25 .... .. Cross-sections
t.i'252.10~2.10o:ii5 Intersections
-4--------4.70-------+ Footpaths and

~ Van/van 0 Van/car 0 Van/bicycle Cf) Car/car

cycle ways
Bicycle traffic/
storage
Traffic calming
85 = safe side clearance Noise protection
So = safe head room
P = pedestrians
= clearance limit
liS.
... l5 = limit of space for
V traffic
C = cyclist
MV = motor vehicle

e Dimensions of clear space/traffic space for vehicles Q Car/bicycle

379
 ROADS

/l ~~~~t~ll ["
1.50 50 50 50 50 1.50 sc 20
In order to achieve standardised design in the construction and
operation of roads, standard cross-sections are provided for the
roads outside built-up areas, which should not be deviated from
Inter-urban Roads

. 15.50 ·r
without reason -> 0. Knowing the number of vehicles forecast

1 and the category of the road, the suitable cross-section can be

/j
+---11.50 ,k

1 ~::::~m~~::m::;;::::mx·:·:·:·~:·:·:·:·:~·:·:·a' l""
1
determined using-> 0 p. 377.

2.5J~ 3.75 ~~ ~ 3.50 251.50

~
For roads with adjacent building, there are no standard cross-
3.25 sections. A suitable profile is developed considering the various
50 50 SC15.5
requirements of users and adjacent property owners for sections of
the road. The precondition for this is the decision as to which type of
vehicle the road space should be designed for-> p. 391. Examples of
various built-up road cross-sections are given here -> 0- 0.

The intention should be to give the road a distinctive image. This

can be achieved through clear, differentiated dimensions, differing
arrangement of the various cross-sections, a balanced relationship
of the width and height of the street space and diversity of planting.
As a result of this, the layout of the street space should enable
orientation in the street and also in the town itself.

t 1' ::~~ 1' 1' it= ::,:~-+1' The cross-sections lying at each side of the carriageway influence

~ ~
the creation offunctional and visual structure. For design purposes,

~+2.75f2.7s+t
the following elements should be discussed in addition to function
and effect: the footpaths and cycle tracks associated with the
25 25 sc 9.5 1.00 1.00 sc 7.5 road, stopping and parking areas, screening and protection areas,
0 Standard cross-sections (SC) for roads without adjacent buildings delivery areas and commercial and sales areas.

17.10
~
Grass
~ ~ -"'
1ii
% "' %
0
0
lL Vehicles 6 tE
!!
12.2J .30t2.00~ ~·:·:: J
2.00 .. 6.60 i'·:·::··~2.00~2.00 t1.30t 2.25

f) Pedestrian and cyclist area separated from road and parking by grass strips; f) Feeder road, carriageway designed for encounters of trucks with reduced speed;
tram on its own track bed drivable side strip in case larger vehicles meet

>.
"'
-"' -"'

% g,"
1ii 1ii
"'
Q.

ROADS 0
00
lL () lL
Street spaces
Types of road
Motorways
Traffic space
Inter-urban
roads
Cross-sections
Intersections
G Cycle way near the road has advantage at crossings; bus lane in middle Feeder road, carriageway designed for encounters of cars with reduced speed;
of road drivable side strip in case larger vehicles meet
Footpaths and
cycle ways
Bicycle traffic/
storage
Traffic calming
Noise protection
-"'

:-~-:-----""'r.====...........-.,ll
Q Extra-wide road, which can be driven in four lanes, with the parking strips
physically separated from the road. They can be accessed across the lanes for
8 Road for residents, designed for the reduced speed car/truck encounter; parking
strips parallel and at right angles to the road
cyclists and adjacent residents.

380
 :'L
ROADS
Intersections

i [1,-
Intersections are categorised into grade-separated and at-
grade. Grade-separated means that the roads cross at different

11
levels (with at least one bridge) and are connected by ramps
or slip roads (a motorway-type junction). Intersections on one
level are at-grade (with and without traffic lights). These can be
T-junctions (one road meets another) ___.. 0- f) or crossroads (two
roads cross) ___.. e - e.
0 At-grade T-junction
The design of crossings as roundabouts ___.. G) - 0 has become

I~
common in some countries (e.g. UK, Germany). Small roundabouts
are defined as diameter = 25-40 m, large roundabouts >40 m.
!It;.
E
'0
I Their advantages are: less danger of serious accidents, traffic
~
Q)
iI\ kaln direction
of traffic residential road,
light control no longer required, less noise nuisance, energy
:E '1\. open to main saving and reduction in speed on urban roads. The diameter of
through traffic
!i! . ' the roundabout depends on the necessary waiting queue length,
I~>, which depends on the traffic volume.

r
.I~'
,,.,...-·-.· .........
A staggered traffic crossing allows more space, clearly
II '·
understandable road section and spatial definition of the road.
r This is suitable for slow traffic in residential areas___.. e.
&l Building is forbidden within 20 m of federal main roads, measured
C) T-junction in a residential Q With profile widened for left turning from the outer edge of the carriageway. Building is restricted up
feeder road vehicles to 40 m from the edge of the carriageway. ___.. p. 378 Motorways.

_j!,~.l _jli·"
service or
residential
road normal
crossroads

+I (for secondary
roads)

~ ~ -·-·-·-=--·-a--·
service or
residential
road
·--'--·+r-=-··-
j
ll·llll re:d:::l=
road open
1 ~1 1 1
:
=cr?ssroads
w1th
~- lll:llr-_T
1
R
to main 1 widening to ·
i through I aid those I
traffiC \ turning left 1
I '
9 At-grade crossroads t» ~as0 E) ~as0

space traffic lights space road

interchange saving necessary at saving intersections
via slip roads crossroads intersections crossroads using a
requiring a roundabout
relatively
large area

secondary secondary
road road-

main main
road ROADS
road
Street spaces
Types of road
Motorways
Traffic space
T-junction/crossroads, grade- Inter-urban roads
separated Cross-sections
Intersections
Footpaths and
cycle ways
Bicycle traffic/
storage
Traffic calming
Noise protection

residential
road

G) Narrowing of the carriageway Small roundabout, D = 25-35 m, Larger roundabout, D >40 m, with Staggered road crossing,
inner circle paved pedestrian islands only for slower traffic

381
 cross-sections1!
{values in brackets are Values of design parameters ROADS
minimum dimensions in min.
existin! built-up area) /'
Footpaths and Cycle Ways
R, szl Rs Rs clear
min max min min height
Areas for walking should always be designed to be varied and

Jl -2.25

~0.75~w~~-255)
(-0.50) ?;1.50
II :r.:c--

11'-'-'-
[m] [%]

6(12)81
[m] [m] [m]

2.50
interesting, also taking into account likely children's usage.
Weather protection can be provided by trees, arcades and maybe
protecting roofs. Roadside pavements should if possible not
be narrower than 2 m (of which 1.50 m min. width and 0.50 m
0 Roadside footpath
safety distance from the carriageway). A much wider pavement
is, however, often appropriate. Near schools, shopping centres,

~ as for relevant
leisure facilities etc., a min. width of 3 m is ideal. ~ 0- 0
Roadside cycle ways should be min. 1.00 m wide for one-way

~~
10
(2)11 type of road 30 10 2.50 traffic and 2.00 m (min. 1.60 m) wide for two-way traffic, with
safety strips of 0.75 m added to the road. Combined footpaths
?;0.7S''L [2.00~ ~~0.25"
(?;0.50)1 (1.60)?;1.50 L_ and cycle ways should be 2.50 m (min. 2.00 m) wide ~ p. 384.
(1.00) PS/GS MV PS/GS
c .......-2.5% ,._2.5%
2.5%-..
2.5%-.. ..,_2.5'%
10 3
(2)11 (4 in) <250 m) 81 30 10 2.50 0.700.700.70

jP'~ +w1· G+ E·I·

0
(8 in <30 m)81

e Basic widths for utilities and layout In road space

E = electricity
G "' gas
10 3 W "'water
(2)1 (4 in <250 m)'l 30 10 2.50 DH "' district heating
(8 in <30 m)81 T = telephone cable
?;0.75'~· l
(?;0.50) 1
"'4.00
h
I· h"'0.75''
(?;0.50)
CS
FW
= combined sewer
= foul water drain

e Cycle track
RD
F
R
= rainwater drain
= footpath
= cycle riding

~~!.
MV = motor vehicle
PS/GS = parking or green strip

6(12)81 2.50

~0.75M~0.2551
(?; 0.50) "'1.50
Ill
f) ::~

.
Separate footpath 30

==~~'-='==lijj
~:I
10 3
(2)'1 (4 over <250 30 10 2.50
m)81
~0.75611. QJ_~0.255l (8 over <30 m)81
(?;o.sorr;:60f

e !I
:~
Separate cycle way
3.0

,~:oo;~ ~ 6(12)'1
-~===~11
M;+-C
3.50
(2.50)

ROADS
8 Residential access, not for vehicles

Street spaces
Types of road
Notes
Motorways 11slight
Traffic space deviations from the given
Inter-urban roads dimensions can be necessary to suit
Cross-sections the size of paving slabs
Intersections 2
1Smlo = 0.5% (drainage)
Footpaths and 3
>length of non-vehicle residential access:
cycle ways
up to 2 storeys "'80 m, 3 storeys "'60 m,
Bicycle traffic/
storage 4 and more storeys "'50 m
4>with separated drainage system
Traffic calming
Noise protection 4.00-4.50 m
'I additional width suggestions: continuous Abbreviations: -> 0- 0
rows of trees require at least 2.50 m P = pedestrian
wide planting strip C = cyclist
B) two-way traffic only in exceptional R1 = radius of curves
cases S = longitudinal slope 1
7) rounded out radius at intersections R8 = rounded out brow radius
11
81in exceptional cases Rs = rounded out dip radius
:~
0 -8
~W'=~~"""""'dll
Pedestrian and cycle traffic areas
flower bed
special purpose areas
with boilards 50/50

eli)- 0 Examples of the layout of street space in built-up areas

382
 ROADS
Bicycle Traffic/Storage

1.70-1.90
Dimensions of bicycles --7 0 - 8. Note allowances for baskets
and children's seats. Include space for special bicycles: recumbent

I
bicycles are up to 2.35 m long; tandems up to 2.60 m; bicycle trailer
(with shaft) approx. 1.60 m long, 1.00 m wide; bicycles adapted for
disabled people and for delivering goods.
;tti±trri4~~;0;!;i:)I,;?:;t~~?J.;;;}~:;;;:;~~;~~~;~ Offer comfortable parking --7 0 wherever possible; cramped
60 parking can cause injury, soiling and damage when locking,
0 Basic dimensions of bicycles f) Bicycle with basket/child seat loading or wheeling in and out. Double rows with overlapping front
wheels can save space --7 @. In contrast, stacking vertically is
problematic as it can cause damage.
1.20 1.20 There should be an appropriate number of parking spaces,
according to rules of thumb and building regulations --7 CD. Cycle
stands offer steady support, even when loading the bicycle.
Locking should be possible using only one U-lock, securing the
front wheel and the frame to the stand at the same time. Frame
stands are therefore suitable --7 e. Bicycle stands which do not
provide sensible locking opportunities are only suitable for internal
use in areas of restricted access. Provide an intermediate bar for
children's bicycles. Bicycle stands are mostly used on both sides,
in which case the space required is 1.20 m --7 e.
C) Comfortable bicycle parking e Cramped bicycle parking
Bicycle passage width 1.80 m --7 0- e; also provide cross-aisles.
The entire layout should be as clear and helpful for orientation
as possible. Additional parking areas may be required for bicycle
trailers and special bicycles.
Where bicycles are parked for many hours, provide roofing and
lighting. The parking location should be placed so it is easy to
find and ride into, and where there are social controls. Supervised
bicycle parking can be appropriate for major events, stations,

~~~
open-air swimming pools and shopping centres. Locations for
{• • l) bicycle parking can also be converted from car parking spaces .

Iao ( • •) %~~~n 'Q~-70

( •
1.90-2.00 1.80
•
1.90-2.00 I 1.50 I 1.50 I 1.50 I
Flats
Visits for private flats
1 per 30 m2 total residential area
1 per 200 m2 total residential area
Student residence 1 per bed
9 Basic dimensions for the parking of
bicycles, straight
0 Level arrangement, slanting General school
Adult education
0.7 per pupil
0.5 per visitor
Lecture theatre 0.7 per seat
Libraries 1 per 40 m2 of main usable area
College refectory 0.3 per seat
Workplace 0.3 per workplace
Stores for daily shopping 1 per 25 m2 sales area
Shopping centre 1 per 80 m2 sales area
Shop-type services for daily needs 1 per 35 m2 sales area
Office services, doctor's surgery 0.2 per simultaneously present customers
Sport grounds, halls, indoor pool 0.5 per cloakroom place
Assembly place with wide usage 1 per 20 visitor places
Other assembly places 1 per 7 visitor places ROADS
Urban public house 1 per7 seats
Street spaces
Beer garden 1 per 2 seats
Types of road
If more than one use occurs in one building at the same time, then the values should Motorways
1.90-2.00 1.80 1.90-2.00
1.50 1.50-1.80 1.50 Traffic space
be added together.

f) Alternating heights, straight e Alternating heights, slanting (0 Guideline values for determining the capacity of bicycle parking
Inter-urban roads
Cross-sections
Intersections
Footpaths and
cycle ways
30 x 35 x 35 4 spaces Bicycle traffic/
55 x 58 x 39 3 spaces storage

~~ T Size of locking system Traffic calming

Noise protection
,,,.~:;:ili;i,i;i.:±':i'f~Z~'::n:'.l1~£~,;:,;g;;££'"'oiL\c2'···' •
~

1.60 1.60 1.60 1.60 1.60 l-42-1

G Bicycle parking space with stands (D) Overlapping bicycles f) Overlapping front wheels with @) Locking system
central passage

383
 H
53 53
f----1
ROADS
Bicycle Traffic/Storage

Space required by bicycles: brisk riding in one direction from 1.40 m

width, better 1.60 m; overtaking and meeting oncoming bicycles at
reduced speed 1.60-2.00 m width; widths of 2.0Q-2.50 m are better,
if bicycles with trailers also use the cycle way.
The basic dimensions for the traffic space of bicycles can be
3.70
deduced from the basic width of 0.60 m plus the height of the cyclist
Q Cycleracks f) Parallel lntermeshed
---7 0 and the required margin of movement in various situations.

Passages between cycle stands should not be made too narrow:

passage width min. 1.50 m (preferably 2.00 m) up to a length of
10m, 1.80 m width up to 15 m, 2.20 m width up to 25 m. Interrupt
3.50
with a passage every 15m. Passage width between multi-storey
stands min. 2.50 m. The longer the stands, the wider the passage.
Bike-Safe 1-3 storeys, 15-42 bicycles. Ground area 4 x 4 m height
above ground level 5 m ---7 4D

-t-
i
double arrangement 0.70 1.00-2.00 ~1.50

freestanding road cycle path footpath

~·"·'fu
1.50
tz2.5%

,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,l'1.65
' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' 't' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' '
safety strip: natural stone or
concrete paving (dark grey)
l cycle path:
red concrete paving
red concrete slabs
red asphalt

e Tilted racks Q With frame holder 0 Road-cycle way-pavement

2.50
2.50
~·
2.20

f~~
U)
N
.,; U)
0
<'i

Lstrip foundation

0 Weather protection roof f) Double racks e Tubular profile roof structure 8 Roofed cycle stands

--------....,
I
II
I
I
ROADS I
Street spaces
I
Types of road
Motorways
Traffic space
Inter-urban roads
Cross-sections
4Ii) Cycle way width, normal cross-section Two lane Limited space Minimum cross-section
Intersections
Footpaths and
cycle ways
Bicycle traffic/
storage
Traffic calming
Noise protection

m Grass strips between cycle way and

road. Good solution
fD Optimal solution G Grass strips are necessary for two-
way traffic
0 Bike-Safe

384
 +-' c ROADS
Q; c c 0 key to measures
desired 0 ~
-a E
Q)
(,) ·~ c:0 A- traffic system
Traffic Calming
effects ....0 c [': Q) tE Q)
"'0 ',P
"' ....o:E
0 '- > ~ ·-~ "' B- detailed layout
ctj:
(,)
·-g c.S::
0 (,) >en
(,)
.Q 0 ....
E 0 .~
C- traffic control
::::> c Q) oc;
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0 "'
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en ·.;:::;
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~ '(i) co ·c "'a.entl't:"'
no. measures
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Q)

•
0
probable effect
possible effect
en o en Q) ~ Q) Q. Q) Q. '- c m-3-

A
1
blind alleys
culs de sac •• 0 0
• I II I
2 crescents
• 0
n n
3
one way
streets • 0
I : I
~
B change of road

1
surface
material
•
~E·M-:71-•.W.j

2
narrowing of
road section • •• • • ~~

visual
3 rearrangement
of road space • • •• • • • ~Z4ttt'ln~ individual measures:
B1 +B2+B3+
(where appropriate, B4 + B6} + C1 + C2;
driving and pedestrian areas separated,
reduction in road size in favour of wider

~
pavements, speed reduction by
dynamic
4 obstacles
(humps)
• •• • narrowing the road and partial use of
raised paving;
this gives more space and greater safety
for pedestrians - improved layout
through space subdivision
reorganisation []J...'J--- p~ e 0
5 of stationary
traffic •• • __.~;a --'C p
Road layout proposal A->

a•
6 raised paving
• •• •• • •• • •• '
I

c sign: traffic signs

1
'Residential
area'
• • •• •• • • 325/326 StVO
(road traffic regulations)

2 speed 30 km/h
• • • 0
3
change of
priority for
drivers
0
• 0 y
0 Traffic calming of roads in residential areas: overview of measures and effects
ROADS
Street spaces
Types of road
Motorways
grass and trees (play and sports area) Traffic space
Inter-urban roads
Cross-sections
Intersections
footpath area only
of> Footpaths and
cycle ways
Bicycle traffic/
storage
Traffic calming
area with priority given Noise protection
to slow traffic;
alternatively equal
priority or priority for
pedestrians and
cyclists areas
(A3} + B1 + B2 + B3 + B4 + B5 + B6 + C1;
layout for driving, parking and walking in
a common (mixed) area so multiple use
of the whole road area is possible;
speed is limited to 'walking pace' (or 20
km/h max.};
area with priority for total reorganisation of the whole layout,
motor traffic taking into consideration the primarily
residential needs

f) Schematic diagram of the spatial layout of traffic management priorities G Road layout proposal B -> 0

385
 65dB(A) ROADS
~
/60dB(A) Noise Protection

Guidelines for road noise protection

Increased environmental awareness has made noise mitigation
ever more important, especially in traffic spaces. In particular,
the intensity of noise caused by greater traffic load, and denser
building, demands effective protection in the form of earth walls,
50 - - - - - 1 noise reduction walls and noise reduction pyramids --7 0 - 8.
Road traffic noise should be reduced by about ~25 dB (A) on the
0 lsophone diagram. The effect on noise level on earth wall or noise mitigation wall
other side of the noise reduction wall. This reduction is described as
!'!. LA, R, STR. and is a modified noise reduction value for road traffic
housing noise. Noise reduction walls can be reflecting !'!. LA, a, STR. <4 dB
road wall (A), absorbing 4 dB (A) ~LA a STR. <8 dB (A), highly absorbing
8 dB (A) ~LA a STR. The relevant standard and the Guidelines for
T
H Road Noise Protection (RLS- 81) give detailed calculation methods.
1 The mitigation effect of a wall is not dependent on the construction
material, but mostly on the height of the wall. The effect against road
traffic noise is based on the creation of a noise shadow, but this, in
road width for I H max. I=~ contrast to a visual shadow, is not fully effective. Bending of the noise
f--- at ------i a,
allows a part to reach the shadow zone. The proportion is smaller,
f) Determining the required height of a noise mitigation wall the higher the wall and the longer the bypass route of the deflected
noise. A multitude of pre-cast concrete elements are available from
the industry, and also noise reduction walls of glass, timber and steel.

a~'=1fJ
day night
residential zone, 50 35
weekend homes
::::.·:::::::::::::::::::::::.·::::::::::::::::::. general residential area, 35 40

=~~~ """j[S
small housing estate
village, 60 45
mixed area
town centre, 65 50
commercial area
:::::::::::::::::::::::::.·:.·::::::::::::::::.·::
industrial estate 70 70
bank of earth _...--.

--·--lfl' ,__-/o
by sound .. ,_.......-·3[')
buildings not affected --""'
special area 45-70 35-70

~\
planned sound levels (dB{A))
~·c ~ a~
0

-
:.·:::::::::::::::::::::.·::::::::::::::::::.·::::. ::::::::::::::::.·::::::::::::::::::::::::.·:::::
wall wall in garden of house '0.2 0.5 1

8 effective screen height h.,.1 (m)

Noise mitigation measures on a main road
e Reduction of noise level

e Reduction of noise with distance

Barrier or wall, height {m)

Reduction in dB (A)

(I!) Reduction of road traffic noise with height of barrier

Traffic loading both Assignment of road types to traffic Distance of emissions Noise
directions daytime, loading location from centre of level
vehicles/h roadlm\ ran_g_e
ROADS <10 residential road 0
Street spaces 10-50 residential road (2-lane) >35 0
Types of road 26-35 I
Motorways
Traffic space
Inter-urban roads
G Standard arrangement of noise
barriers on roads
e Protection wall of concrete blocks
H "'1.19
11-25
<10
II
Ill
Cross-sections >50-200 residential feeder road (2-lane) >100 0
Intersections 36-100 I
Footpaths and 26-35 II
cycle ways !-- 1.12 ---1 Ill
11-25
Bicycle traffic/
<10 IV
storage r- 62 - j T
Traffic calming 38 >200-1000 built-up section of rural road and 101-300 I
Noise protection
t
50
residential feeder road (2-lane) 36-100
11-35
II
Ill
see also: <10 v
Windows
pp. 97, 100
+
50 rural road outside residential area 101-300 II
or in industrial zone (2-lane) 36-100 Ill
Glass pp. 105,
107 + 11-35
<10
IV
v
>1000-3000 urban main traffic road or road in 101-300 IV
industrial zone (2-lane) 36-100 IV
<35 v
f 2 5 l - 1.50 -----1251 f25 ;- 50 -+25i >3000-5000 motorway link/main road, motorway 101 300 IV
e Pyramid noise barrier (precast
concrete elements)
f) Noise barrier wall
CD
114-lane) <100

Approx. estimation of existing or expected road traffic noise

v

386
 .-1.70-1.90-1 1--60--f I - - - - 2.25 -------1 l-75-t
PARKING FACILITIES
Vehicles - Cars

Dimensions, turning circles and weights of typical vehicles

regarding space requirements and regulations for garages, parking
0 Bicycle f) Motorcycle spaces, and access and exit driveways.
~3.05~ 1-1.41---+-95--t f---4.15---------j 1-1.72-11.111

T
·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·~·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·
1.35~
I~
:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·: :·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·: .·:·:·:·::.:l:.:.:.;.:a:m.:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:
1--------- radius 4.8 - - - 1 - - - radius 5 . 4 5 -
8 Mini @) AudiA3
f--3.52---------j 1- 1.64+1.13-1 []]I] 1--4.48---1 f-1.73-t981

·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·~:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:· :·:·:·:·:·~f.~:·:·:·;W·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:.:.:.:·:·: :·:·:·:·:·:·:·:~:·:·:·:·:·:·:-:.:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:3~:·:·:·:~:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·

r---- radius 4.92 ------j 1---- radius 5.58 ---1
8 VWLupo 4) AudiA4
1--3.71----1 l-1.65+1.1oi lo.92tl 1----- 4.48 ---1 f-1.73-t981

:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:~:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·: ·:·:·:·:·;};,:.:·:~·:·:.:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:.:.:.: 1---- radius 5.45 ----l

·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·gqS.·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:· ·:·:·:LI:·:·:·:·:et::·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·
f----- radius 5.58 - - - 1
0 VWPolo ~ Audi A4 estate
1--- 4.08---------4 H .72-+94 -1 I::J]I] 1------- 4. 79 -------1 H.81-t96-J c::8jJ

T~
1.49 ~

:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·.·.·:·:·:·:·:.·.·.·.·.
I : =
:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:<·:.:-: :·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:::::::·:·:·:·:·:·:·:
f----- radius 5 . 4 5 - f----- radius 5.84---1
0 NewBeetle 0 AudiA6
f------4.15 ---1 l--1.73 +90 -1 1------- 4. 79 -------1 f--1.81-t 96-j [J]jJ

·:·:·:·:·~·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:· :·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·~:·:·:·:·:·:·:·: T~
T~
1.44 1.45
I I
·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:-:-:-:........ :-:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:
1---- radius 5 . 4 5 - 1---- radius 5.84---1

f) VWBora 0 Audi AS estate

f--4.15- ----1 1--1.73-11.101 1------- 4 . 4 3 -

·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:-:.:.:-:-:-:-:-:-:-:.:-:- :·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:
1---- radius 5.45 ------j
:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·~·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·: ·:·:·:·:·: !:;.:·:·:~.:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:· 1---- radius 5.19 ------j

e VWGolf
1---4.67------1
Ci) BMW 3 series
l-1.74-f-961 l1.25tl f------ 4 . 4 3 - I- 1.70+92-1 l1.36tl
PARKING
FACILITIES

:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·~:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:· :·:·:·:·:·;I:~:·:·:Y.f.!t.K.:·:·:-:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:
T
1.49 ~ Vehicles- cars
Vehicles- turning
I
:-:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:.:-:-:-:-:-:-:-:-:-:-:-:-: Parking spaces
I - radius 5 . 7 0 - 1---- radius 5.19---1 Multi-storey car

0 VWPassat e BMW 3 series Touring

parks
Ramps
Multi-storey car
1--- 4.67 ------1 f-1.74-t96~ 1-------4.77-------1 f--1.80 -+96--1 [J]jJ park regulations
Parking systems

:.:.:·:·:·:·:·:~·.·:.-:·:·:·: 1:1~
Vehicles- trucks
1~9 ~ Trucks- parking
and turning
..:.:.:·:·:·!·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·: . !·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:.:.:.:.:·:·:·:.:·:·: Service areas
f----- radius 5.70---1 1---- radius 5 . 5 0 - Petrol stations
Car wash
41!) VW Passat estate 4i) BMW 5 series
f------ 4.61------j f-1.81 -t79-l l1.56tl 1------- 4 . 8 0 - f--1.80-t-96-j l1.57tl

TI ~
f:·:·:·:·: i~.:·:·:~·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·
1.73

·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·S:.:.:.:.:·:·:·:·:·:·:· :·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:<·
f------ radius 5.85 ----1
t·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:f
1---- radius 5.50 ------j

(D Sharan ~ BMW 5 series Touring

387
 PARKING FACILITIES
Vehicles - Cars
f-------- 5.17 ----1 f-1.90-t98-j 1-----4.74-5.22 ---i t-1.90-+96-j

·········································
.·:.·:.·::::.·:.·::::.·:.·::.·.·:.·.·:.·::.·::::::.·:.·.· :·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·.·:·:·:·:·:·:·::·:·:·:.
f - - - radius 5.83 ------1
·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:~-:-:-. :-:-:-:-:-.... :-:·:·:·:·:-:-:-:-:-:-:-:·~~~~;~:;-~:~~~-~

0 BMW 7 series m Mercedes Vito

f-1.70-+99;
,_____ 4.56 ----1
1--- 4.02 ---l l--1.69-t-94-l

····---~---·······
·:::::::.·::.·::.·:.·::::.·.·::.·:.·::.·:::.·:::::.· -:-:-:-:-::1-:.:-:E:-:-:-:-.. .:-:·:·:·:·:·:·:·.
1 - - radius 4.90---1 1------- radius 6.50 - - 1

f) Z3 Roadster BMW 4!.} Mercedes station wagon, long, five-door

t--------5.35~ I- 1.9-+1.04
1--- 4.51 ---1 f-1.72-t89-l

....... ~ ........
·.·.·:.·::.·.·:.·.·.·.·:.·.·:.·.·:.·.·.·:::::.·.·.·.·.·.·:.·:.·.·: ·:-:-:-:-;.l~:-:-:-:-~-:-:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·: :-:-.
!-----radius 5.37------1
:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·!·:·:·:·:·:·:·:::·.-:·:·:
~------------radius 6.35----;

8 Mercedes C 180 G) Rolls-Royce

5.7---- 2.0 -+-1 ,0-1
1--- 4.51 ---i t-t.72-t89-j ~--- 1--

....... ~........ .
·.·:.·:.·.·::.·.·.·.·:.·.·::.·::::.·:.·.·::.·::.·.·.·.·.·.·::.· :·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:.:.:·:·:·!
l--- radius 6.5 - - - - - 1

0 Mercedes C 180 estate 0 American car

1--- 4.79 ---1 l-1.80-+93-l 1---- 4.25 ----1 f-1.65-f91-l

l1.68tl

ffit-3
·:·:·:·:·:-:-:-~-:-:-:-:-:-:-:-:- . . ~}. . i.i2.! . . . . . . .. -:-:-:-:-:-:-:-~.-
T
1.30
I
·.·:.·:.·.·.·::.·.·:.·.·::::.·::.·:.·:.·.·:::::.·::.·.·::.·. ....:-:-:-:-:-:-:-:-:-:· :·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:.J
1 - - radius 5.67 ---1 1 - - radius 5.87 ---1
0 Mercedes E 430 e Porsche 911
1--- 4.81 ---i 1----- 4.52 ------1 f-1.89-f 1.05-j

05
:-:·:-:-:-:-:-:~....
1.28
T

-:-:-:-5::-:-:-:E. :-:-.-.-:-.-. .-.. :-:·

1---- radius 5.67------1
:-:-:-:-:-:·:·
I
·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·
1--- radius 5.85 ---1
0 Mercedes E 430 estate e Porsche 928

~
1--- 4.78 ---i j-2.12-j1.08l
.57

T~
I ITJc:JCJ~

·:-:-:-:-:-:-:d........-..:-:-...·
1.81
I e--e
:-:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·
f-------- radius 5.75---1 ~--radius 5.35/syncro 5.65---~

f) MercedesM Ci) VWJoker

t-------4.90- t--1.85--<1.12>

PARKING 1----- 3.57---1 f-1.71-t89-j l1.09tl

FACILITIES

~ :I.:.:-:-:~-:.·.·.·:·::·:·::.·:
Vehicles- cars

.·.·:.·.·.·.·.·:.·::.·:.·:::::.·.·:.·.·.·::.·::. ::.·::.·::: .. . . .
Vehicles- turning
Parking spaces
Multi-storey
........ :·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:-:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·::
car parks
Ramps
Multi-storey car
e Mercedes A 140
1 - - radius 5 . 3 5 -
e VW Karman-Cheetan, Gipsy
1--- radius 5.35/syncro 5.65---1

park regulations f-2.50--j 1--- 4.60 ------1 i-4.60-t- -1

Parking systems

~~~---~ ............ .
Vehicles - trucks
Trucks- parking
and turning
11s fjf/ ................................ .....
Service areas
Petrol stations
·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:-:-:-:-:-:-:·:·:·:·:· -:-:-:-:-:-:-!-:-:-:-:-:-:-:-:-:-:-:-:-:-:-:-:-:-:-:-:-:-:-:-:-:-:-:-:-:-:-:-:-:-
1---- radius 4.35---1
·········································
········································ ·.·.·.·.·.·:.·:.·:.·:.·:.·:.·:.·.·:.·:.·:::.·:.·:.·.·.·:.·.·:.·:.
1---- radius 5.35 ---1
Car wash
C) Smart 4D VWKombl
1----- 5.55 ------1651
1----- 4.56 ---1 1-1.72-j-1.371

-:·:·:·:·:·:·:-~·:.·.·.·:·::.·::-:-:- :::.j·~::.-~. . . . . . . . . . . . .. ············~;~di~~·;;·,;;;~ 1 - - radius 6.40---1

41!) Mercedes CLK f!j) Ambulance

388
 PARKING FACILITIES
Vehicles- Turning

The type, size and design of a place where vehicles can turn depend
on the particular use of an area, the vehicles and the urban planning
function. It is difficult to make generally valid recornrnendations
for the selection of the correct turning place. The requirements of
the fire services and refuse disposal trucks have to be considered
in turning place decisions. Some authorities responsible for waste
disposal decline to rernove rubbish from dead-end streets where
t-1.40;
refuse disposal trucks can only perform a three-point turn or have to
t-1.76-; drive backwards for considerable distances.
0 Standard car
Turning places can be formed as hammerheads -7 G - 0,
turning circles or turning loops -7 0 - 0. Hammerheads demand
manoeuvres such as three-point turns, so turning circles and loops
are preferable as they allow trucks to turn in one swing.
clearance limit 0.5 m
Turning places should for practical reasons be laid out
asymmetrically to the left -7 0 - 0. The perimeter of turning
places should allow sufficient space without fixed objects being
endangered by the overhanging parts of vehicles. The centre of
turning loops can be planted -7 0. Hammerhead turning places
-7 G are only suitable for cars. They are not necessary where
the road is more than 6 m wide, which can also include garage
forecourts or footpath crossings.
f) Turning circle of a car f) Entrance drive, car turning circle
radius ;;,5--6.50 m
External dimensions
Overhang length External turning
Type of vehicle Length Wheelbase Front Back Width Height circle radius
clearance distance 1.00 [m] [m] [m] [m] [m] [m] [mJ
Bicycle 1.90 0,60 1.00
Moped 1.80 0.60 1.00

T
ril
Motorcycle
Car
HGVs;
2.20
4.74 2.70 0.94 1.10
0.70
1.76
1.00
1.51 5,85

6.89 3.95

I
Van/campervan 0.96 1.98 2.17 2.70 7.35
HGV (2 axtes) 9.46 5.20 1.40 2.86 2.29 3.80 9.77
HGV (3 axle~ I 10.10 5.30 1) 1.48 3.32 2.5o'l 3,80 10.05
HGVs with trailer; 18.71
shown without Towing vehicle (3 axles)11 9.70 5.28 1) 1.50 2.92 2.so4l 4.00 10.30
t3.0()l3.00j Traile!l_2 axles) 7.45 4.84 1.353) 1.26 2.50 4.00 10.30
footpaths
i---12.75-----4 f--s.oo--j Articulated HGVs; 16.50

8 Hammerhead turning place for Hammerhead turning place for cars

Tractor unit (2 axles)
Semi-trailer (3 axles)1l
6.08
13.61
3.80
7.75'11.61
1.43
4.25
0.85
2.50
2.5o'l
4.00
4.00
7.90
7.90

cars and HGVs up to 8 m length (refuse Buses:

collection vehicle, fire engine, Coach, bus 12.00 5.80 2.85 3.35 2.504) 3.706) 10.50
HGV6t) Coach, bus 2l 13.70 6.352) 2.87 4.48 z.so 4l 3.706) 11.25
Coach, bus 2l 14.95 6.952) 3.10 4.90 2.504) 3.706) 11.95
Articulated bus 18.75 5.98/5.99 2.65 3.37 z.so4l 2.95 11.80
Refuse collection
vehicles:
f---6.00---1 2 axles (2 MO) 9.03 4.60 1.35 3.08 2.5o4> 3.55 9.40
3 axles (3 MO) 9.90 4.77 11 1.53 3.60 2.5o 41 3.55 10.25
...--==-R-="\ 3 axtes (3 MON?I 9.95 3.90 1.35 4.70 2.504) 3.55 8,60
1.~.oo I Highest values
permitted In Germany:
\I HGV 12.00
Trailer 12.00 2.55 4)5) 4.oo6l 12.50
I
HGV with trailer 18.75
I Articulated HGV 16.50
I Articulated bus 18.00
1
Notes: l for vehicles with 3 axles, the rear tandem axle is 3) without tow bar length PARKING
integrated to a middle axle 4) without external mirror FACILITIES
21for 3-axle vehicles with a trailing axle, the 51additional equipment for
wheelbase corresponds to the distance between alr-<:onditloned HGVs up to Vehicles- cars
f------20.00-----j
the front axle and the forward axle of the rear 2.60m Vehicles-
Turning place for HGVs up to 10m tandem axle 61as double-decker bus 4.00 m turning
Parking spaces
and 22 t (3-axle refuse collection
vehicle)
41!) Basic vehicle data--> p. 397-398 Multi-storey
car parks
Ramps
Type of road Use of zone Design vehicle R{m) Notes Multi-storey car
3.73 11.70 3.73 9.00 park regulations
residential car -turning circle for cars
Parking systems
access road
to houses, - special provision for refuse collection
Vehicles - trucks
Trucks- parking
residential road vehicles (e.g. link road connection via
with little traffic lanes with limited traffic acces~
and turning
residential road predominantly cars, 2-axle refuse turning circle for small buses and most Service areas
residential collection vehicle refuse collection vehicles Petrol stations
- possibflity for aU permissible vehicles to Car wash
perform three-point turn
residential road residential, car, waste disposal, 10 adequate turning circle for great majority
also 3-axle HGV, of permissible HGVs
considerably standard bus, 11 -turning circle for newer buses
28.16
commercial articulated bus 12.5 -turning circle for articulated buses
(21.40)
predominantly lorry wilh trailer, 12.5 -adequate turning circle for all

8 Turning loop for HGVs with trailer Turning circle for 2-axie refuse
commercial articulated bus ____e_ermissible HGVs
An additionai1.00 m width should be kept free at the outside of turning laces for vehicle overhangs.
and articulated buses collection vehicle (r ~ 9) or for vans
(r ~ 7), values In brackets m Recommendations for determination of external turning circle radius (R)

389
 I
I
PARKING FACILITIES
I
Parking Spaces
i:,..
Il ~~
I"' -<y
I ,..L
2.50 Parking spaces are usually outlined by 12-20 mm wide yellow or
I
I
I
1
l
'
I
safety
strips
white painted lines. When parking is facing a wall, these lines are
often painted at a height of up to 1 m for better visibility. Guide
I
rails in the floor along the side have also proved popular for
I
u 3,5{)
2.00 2.00
demarcation of parking limits, and can be about 50-60 em long,
20 em wide and 10 em high.
Where vehicles are parked in lines facing walls or at the edge of
0 Parking parallel to 30" oblique parking 8 45" oblique parking, the parking deck in a multi-storey car park, it is common practice
the road and exiting Is simple, one-way traffic only to provide buffers, restraining bars or railings up to axle height to
but one-way traffic only
prevent cars from going over the edge. Where cars are parked
face to face, transverse barriers about 10 em high can be used to
act as stops at the front. Overhang on vehicles must be taken into
account --7 e. For lining up in front of a wall, a stop rail or rubber
buffer will be sufficient --7 e.

Parking arrangement Space No. No.

requirement places in places on
per place 100m2 100m of
incl. access area road (one
(m') side only)

t-s.ss+4.4oh.5s~ }s.oo+s.oo+s.oo+ -> 0 0" parallel to road. Difficult parking 22.5 4.4 17
e 60" oblique parking, one-way
traffic only
e 90" parking and exiting is possible in
both directions. Access width 5.50 m
and exiting -good for narrow roads

for increased manoeuvring

-> 0 30" oblique to road. Simple parking 30.8 (27.6) 3.2 (3.6) 20 (21)
and exiting. Area busy
15.50
-> 0 45" oblique to road. Good parking 24 (21.7) 4.2 (4.6) 29 (31)
and exiting. Area per place relatively low.
Normal type of layout

}2.30
-; Q 60" oblique to road. Relatively good 22.5 (20.5) 4.4 (4.9) 34(37)
parking and exiting. Area per place low.
Frequently used layout

-> 0 and 0 90" right angle to road. Low 20 (19.0) 5 (5.3) 40 (44)
area per place. Considerable turning of
vehicle necessary
The given values are for a parking space 2.50 m wide.
fs.oot-s.so-ts.oo+ The values in brackets (parking place width 2.30 m) should be used only in justified and
0 90" parking and exiting is possible 0 Parking spaces and access widths exceptional cases.
in both directions. Parking space
width2.30 m
f) Space requirements

Arrangement of garage parking Required access width (in m) for a garage

spaces to the access. At an parking space width of:
angle of:
2.30 2.40 2.50

90" 6.50 6.00 5.50

75" 5.50 5.25 5.00

60" 4.50 4.25 4.00

45" 3.50 3.25 3.00

Vehicles- cars up to 30" 3.00 3.00 3.00

Vehicles- turning
Parking spaces 1-5.16+3.50+---8.70-+3.50+5.164 f-5.16+3.50+---10.32--l-3.50+ 5.16 -l
Multi-storey car f------26.02------; 1-----27.64-----1 0 Access width. (Parking space 2.50 m wide is standard. This value should if
parks
Ramps
Multi-storey car
e 45" parking, one way traffic only 8 Parking, one way traffic only (leaves
space for planting)
possible always be complied with in public areas)

park regulations
Parking systems
Vehicles -trucks

~f20-30
Trucks- parking
and turning
Service areas
Petrol stations - - 40-50
Car wash -
I
2.:so I
I

1-5.48-+4.50+--10.39-+4.50+- 5.48-i
30.35-------;
-5.00+-5.50+5.00+5.00+-5.50+5.00-
-----31.00-----
f--

f-5.16 -<3.501--8. 70 ----13.501-5.16-1

f-----26.02-----1
~~10~ J.-1.10+1.10-i
41!) 60" parking, one way traffic only CD 90" parking, access 5.50 m wide, 0 Oblique parking layout 0 Transverse bumpers and impact
parking space 2.50 m wide buffers

390
 PARKING FACILITIES
Parking Spaces

If individual parking spaces are bor-

dered by pillars, walls or columns,
then the width of the parking space
on the relevant side is increased by
0.10 m --7 0 - e. (This does not,
Disabled
however, apply to mechanical lift-
2.85 ing platforms or automatic garages.)
2.50 2.60 3.50 2.50 I 1.40 I 2.90
If parking spaces are bounded by
0 If parking spaces are bordered by pillars or walls, then the width Is increased a footpath, cycle way or separation
strip on the facing side via a kerb,
Column only In every 2nd parking space
then the kerb will be used to esti-
e.g. facade H ;;!12.5 H ;;;2o mate the border of the parking space

::fl
Overhang strip
--7 0 + Ci). The examples show how
. ~e•b
~~t]~lr r;
10 -;r· u-f-. parking spaces can be integrated

~
j_
II into their surroundings by design

1 ,,~ Y r H,
50 elements without impairing their func-
tion --7 0- 0.
!:.: '
To increase open areas, parking
spaces can be partly or completely
lowered or provided with green roofs.
2.65 2,30 2.85 I 2.5o 2.30 I 2.5o
The greening not only has design
8 Reductions are possible in private
buildings
e Comfortable parking and exiting e With kerb border value but also provides shadow and
improves the ecological situation
(dust absorption) --7 0.

Hedge as visual screen Protected by a planted pergola

Low-lying area

~
(J Parking behind an earth wall f) With earth covering e
I 4.30 FP 4.30
Block layout
I 5.50

'<.IV
""'
""' ·I'-'>' 2.50 T
2511.0
2.50 5.0
1-::= 12.50 2.50 2.50 t
2.50
±
15
' 2.50 2.50 5.50
:1 8: 2.50

.15
2.50
2.50
2.50
+
~
1-.1- 2.50

PARKING
FACILITIES
1fl 5.0 I 5.50 15.0H 5.0 I 1.0 5.0 5.50 5.0 5.0
Vehicles- cars
II I I I Vehicles- turning
25 25 25 25
Parking spaces
C) Car park with planting 4Ii) Planting at right angles to the access Lowered parking area -> 0- 0 C!) Parking next to the road Multi-storey car
passage parks
Ramps
\
\ --,~~ Multi-storey car
\ \ I park regulations
f=~~~~~~~r-.~~~
Parking systems
0
Vehicles- trucks
70-'f 2l
4.30 ~ Trucks- parking
t 8"
and turning
Service areas
6f "'~
Petrol stations
Car wash

T
6.0
8"

+
5.0
.L
"'
~

H H H
4.0 2.81 4.0

CD Example: car park 0 Variant: oblique layout in car park

391
 area
in m2
PARKING FACILITIES
Multi-storey Car Parks

For multi-storey car parks the requirements for the layout of

parking spaces and access are in principle the same as for open
car parks. The Garage (multi-storey car park) Regulations require
a minimum width for parking spaces of 2.30 m. The Research
Company for Roads and Traffic (FGSV), however, recommends
a minimum width of 2.50 m for all publicly accessible parking
spaces on account of the increasing size of cars.
All structural elements (ceilings, walls, columns, reinforcements)
of multi-storey car parks must be fire resistant. The recommended
clear access height for car parks above and below the ground is
2.20 m. An addition of 25 em is practical for the direction signage
for cars and pedestrians, plus a further 5 em for later resurfacing.
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30 This gives a total height of 2.50 m plus construction over the access
number of vehicles ways, thus a storey height of 2. 75-3.50 m, depending on the chosen
0 Space requirement of car parks including access areas ~ p. 390 0 method of construction. A relatively close spacing of columns can
reduce building cost without impairing function if the construction

rc=1:+~
height is carefully chosen ---7 f) - 8. Wide-spanning column-free
constructions have 7-12% less column area on plan ---7 e.

~h
f) Longitudinal ramp, for exact 0 Transverse ramp
Underground car parks result in considerably higher costs for
construction and operation than those above ground.
Uphill sections and ramps must be designed and built in line with
dimensions see p. 390 the above ---7 e. Straight or spiral car park ramps are created
by sloping the floor slab ---7 p. 393, or forming spirals ---7 e. with
vehicles both sides of the access way. The areas, including access
access lane
areas, on which a certain number of vehicles can be parked can
be determined for preliminary design from ---7 0. The examples
---7 p. 393 and p. 394 show layouts of multi-storey car parks and
ramp arrangements. Reinforced concrete construction (in in-situ
concrete, pre-cast elements or a combined form) comply best
with the fire-resistance requirements. Steel structures are normally
designed as a main beam/secondary beam system and mostly
have to be clad with concrete or fire protection boards, or sprayed,
lf---2.30-fi
I I
for fire resistance reasons. Car parks catering for passenger cars
t--2.60-i should be designed for a live loading of 3.5 kN/m 2 and the ramps
e Possible column arrangement for
right-angled parking
9 45° oblique parking for 5 kN/m 2 for design purposes, for greened roofs 10 kN/m 2 •

~EE~
PARKING
---~--------~---
---·- ---- ----- ---- -·---- -----~
FACILITIES ___ ·----- ------ ------
Vehicles - cars

---~----ffi ~
Vehicles- turning
Parking spaces
Multi-storey
car parks
Ramps
Multi-storey car
park regulations
Parking systems
Vehicles- trucks
Q Possible column layouts f) Minimum width of straight ramps e Spiral car park ramp

Trucks- parking
and turning
Service areas
Petrol stations s~O(%)
Car wash Public road

At changes of gradient, gradient differences over 8% should be

7 gon HK ~ Crest vertical radius rounded or flattened in order to prevent vehicles grounding.
++--~~~~~~--+ T" ~ Crest tangent length Vertical curves at crest should be designed with a radius of
Tw ~Trough tangent length H";;;15 m and at troughs of Hw;;;2o m. At gradient changes of
up to 15%, it is sufficient to provide a flattening at the
Tw ~Trough vertical radius
half-gradient with a length of 1.5 m at crest and 2.5 m at trough.

C) Ramps- changes of slope

392
 PARKING FACILITIES
Ramps
Full ramp
There are various systems of ramps to overcome height differences

Storey ramps
~Section in open air, 10%
and to access the various storeys of multi-storey car parks. The
gradient of ramps should not exceed 15%, for small car parks 20%.
Between public roads and ramps with more than 5° gradient, there
must be a horizontal run of ~5 m length, or in the case of ramps for
cars the run should be ~3 m long, with ramps at up to 10% gradient.
Possible arrangements of ramps can be divided into four groups:
Straight, parallel and continuous multi-storey ramps with
intermediate landing, access and exit opposite---+ 0.
~6%
Sloping floor levels (no-loss full ramp system). The entire area with
parking spaces is on a slope, a space-saving system. Slope ~6%.
Full ramps without
loss of space,
--------- Half-storey offset levels (D'Humy ramps). Parking spaces are on
Section
gradient ;2!6% half-storeys and the height difference is overcome by short ramps.
This is a space-saving system but not very smooth to drive around
and therefore only intended for smaller car parks---+ 0. and e e.
Spiral ramps. This system is relatively expensive yet has poor
~6%
visibility, and the circular form leads to residual areas, which are

_:z:=:'~- F:: :"t:==m,..P:4 hard to exploit---+ 0- 0. The spiral ramps must have a transverse
gradient of ~3%. The radius of the inner road edge is ~5 m. In
large multi-storey car parks, ramps also used by pedestrians
Plan must have a ~80 em wide raised pavement, unless routes for

ii!
Full ramp variant
pedestrians are provided elsewhere.

__ ra_m,_o ~;,
~,10%
Section
Plan
Half-storey ramps
(D'Humy system) --7 0 Section

Minimum ramp widths Minimum ramp widths in curve

D'Humy ramp variants
with minimum radius

~iral ramps --=-- PARKING

FACILITIES

Spiral ramps
-
,__ Plan
Vehicles- cars
Vehicles- turning
Parking spaces
Section Multi-storey car

0 Ramp systems
0 Half-ramp with one-way traffic f) Access control parks
Ramps
Multi-storey car
park regulations
Parking systems
Vehicles - trucks
Trucks- parking
10.00 d' t and turning
~ 13%gra1en Service areas
Petrol stations

z----:~-~
Car wash

- - ------ :
~-------
@ ® ca.3.00

1.00-1.50
1---l

Separate spiral ramp towers at

the corners of the building
e Schematic plan ---. f) Basic forms of D'Humy ramps.
Ramps with 13-15% gradient
Dovetailing of half-storeys--> 0

393
 PARKING FACILITIES
Multi-storey Car Park Regulations

According to the Garage (multi-storey car park) Regulations, small

car parks are of 6100 m2 , medium car parks 100-1000 m2 and
large car parks 61000 m2 usable area. Underground car parks
are defined as having the floor level 61.30 m below ground level.
Large multi-storey car parks must have separate access and
exits. They are located near large traffic concentrations like those

/] il===============~~l _____ _
I~----------------------~---- - - -
at stations, airports, shopping centres, theatres, cinemas, offices,
administrative buildings and large residential buildings. Medium
and large multi-storey car parks must be in easily accessible areas.
Street view

Such car parks must have a clear height of min. 2.0 m in areas
accessible on foot, also under support beams, ventilation ducts
and other building elements. The ground floor is generally higher,
I I I I I I I I I I I I as it usually has other uses.
I I I I I I I I I I I I
-~~-~~~~-~~~-~~~-LL~
Escape routes of max. 30 m are required to the stairs or exits.
For vans the clear height is 2.50 m. Floor loadings according to
-:nTnTI
-+-+--i-1--+-t-t-
1 I I I I I I
the relevant standard. Open multi-storey car parks have apertures,
which cannot be closed, leading directly into the open air, with a
I I I I I I I size of one third of the total area of the envelope wall, with the
-----·-----
opposite wall at a maximum distance of 70 m. These provide
transverse ventilation even with weather protection measures.
Concerning the minimum dimensions for access, exits and internal
routes, these must include no space for starting to drive round a
curve. Particularly where ramps join to internal routes at right angles,
additional room must be provided for the start of driving round the
corner and the relevant minimum radii must be complied with. It
0 Multi-storey car park with additional use: offices incorporated in the favade must also be possible for larger cars to drive in and out without
Arch.: Kister Scheithauer Gross manoeuvring processes -7 p. 393 0. The planned traffic routeing
must always be checked against the relevant swept curves.
Criteria for the quality of multi-storey car parks:
The scale of the fa9ades of multi-storey car parks should fit into
their surroundings. The fa9ade elevation can also be used for other
functions, for example as offices -7 0. Further criteria: integration
into urban planning coherence, natural lighting and ventilation,
greening, uncomplicated system for charging fees, good access
1-7.95-t-7.95-f-7.95-+5.00-j
_/}
to public transport- Park and Ride.
Safe operation
f!_,____ Video surveillance, glass areas in lobbies (observe fire protection
requirements), visual contact with the outside, visibility through
the longest possible column spacing, light colours differentiating
the storeys, distinctive marking of parking spaces to help visitors
; find them again.
.f Indication of sanitary facilities

liijj~~~m~~~~~umm~~~~~~mEiw & 11 supervisory and maintenance staff: 1 we. 1 washbasin, 1 bucket sink
FACILITIES
PARKING ;:~:m:~;f!!:f:::t~ . Iii 50-100 parking spaces ladies: 1 we, 1 washbasin
gents: 1 we, 1 washbasin
Vehicles - cars 1-2 urinals
Vehicles- turning
Parking spaces f) Multi-storey car park with access route ramps 8 Guidelines for sanitary facilities in large multi-storey car parks
Multi-storey car
parks
Ramps
Multi-storey car
park regulations ~
Parking systems

I
Vehicles- trucks
Trucks- parking
and turning
Service areas
Petrol stations
Car wash

four rows two offset sets

of two rows
six rows right-angled layout
ramps in direction of traffic
I
multi-storey car-park
with ramps
with spiral ramps

G Examples of the layout of parking spaces and ramps

394
 1---------5.30-5.40----l PARKING FACILITIES
Parking Systems

Parking systems are mostly

used for private parking. The
selection and specification of
0 Dependent parking of two vehicles f) Dependent parking, Inclined, 8 Plan the system should also take
without a pit larger than normal vehicles into
account (e.g. off-road vehicles,
vans and sports utility vehicles
-SUVs).
Two cars can be parked one
above 'the other in single
garages on movable platforms
---7 0 - f). The operation is
electric, or in case of power cuts,
I------5.3Q--5.40 - - - - 1 1----------- 5.30-5.40----l >----- 7.5Q--7.85-8.15 ________, with a hand pump. A parking lift
0 Independent parking of two (four) 9 Space-saving parking on an incline 0 Plan
can handle up to three cars ---7
e
0 - as a row of garages in
vehicles above each other
a courtyard or parking garages,
and operated by the doorman

I
0
0
.,;
r----- -------------,
I
I
I
I
with a control panel. Loading
per parking space is 2500 kg.
The gradient on driving into and
out of the garage ;;;;14%.
Parking platform systems ---7
'Ii> - 4D enable space-saving
parking for various amounts of
room. Cars stand on parking
platforms, which are moved
via a control desk to clear the
I
I
access route.
I
f---5.3Q--5.40-----< f---5.3Q--5.40-----< I
--------------------I

f) Three parking spaces, accessible

horizontally
e Accessible on an incline Parking lift double
system-. 0-0
Parking platforms- lengthways
movement: parking platforms
are moved at the touch of
a button ---7 $. Unoccupied
parking platforms can be driven
over. Sideways movement ---7 'Ii>
is used where greater available
depth could provide two, three
or more rows of places but too
much area would otherwise
be lost for access. Therefore,
in front of a stationary row
: of places, sideways-moving
~ ..
2.14-2.24-2.34
l
r----------4.50-------<
l parking platforms are provided,
which can be moved so that the
'~!) Parking platform- sideways
movement
4D Parking platform -lengthways
movement
m Turntable rotating 360°
places behind can be reached. PARKING
FACILITIES
Parking platform/parking lift ---7 Vehicles- cars
0 - 0 dependent parking: in Vehicles- turning
Parking spaces
the open air parking systems Multi-storey car
can be built only with horizontal parks
Ramps
platforms ---7 0 see also p. 396. Multi-storey car
park regulations
Parking systems
Vehicles- trucks
Trucks- parking
and turning
Service areas
>-----5.50 (5.70)-----; r----5.40 (5.70)-----; Petrol stations
f---------5.50 (5.70)------1 Car wash
pper
~~orey
EJA S' t~t~r:~
tfl: EIA_i:~:J ElAJ EJA ~ Ground
floor
........_.Ground
"-~====--=--:a...-fi,oor
J I. .1.~.1. l~round
nder~
I· ---+---1----+-----------+-·----1
2.6Q-- 2.5Q-- 2.5Q-- 2.5Q-- 2.6Q--
2.80 2.70 2.70 2.70 2.80
2.6Q-- 2.5Q-- 2.5Q-- 2.5Q-- 2.6Q-- 2.60- 2.5Q-- 2.5Q-- 2.5Q-- 2.6Q--
2.80 2.70 2.70 2.70 2.80 2.80 2.70 2.70 2.70 2.80 LP =empty space EJA = Entry, exit

4) Combilift with three parking levels (9 Combilift with two parking levels 0 Combilift with two parking levels 0 Parking systems should consider the
and pit and pit heights of different cars

395
 PARKING FACILITIES

~ tiiZi"fl I
shaft

Drainage
~
Parking Systems

Car lift - parking lift --7 0

A simple mechanical parking mechanism
r--5.30-----+t---i that can be installed in multi-storey car
1.0
parks to replace the function of ramps,

~f-eU
l"' normally because they are impossible
due to lack of space. The lift transports

~--------------;Maintenance
1 the vehicle with driver to the chosen level.
Horizontal transport is usually by driving
3 cars also possible
as normal. The average number of parking
0 Parking with a car lift f) Parking without ramps, Underground garage (Wohr) spaces is 8-30 on one or more levels.
section-> 0 The fully mechanical parking tower --7
0 - 41!) creates additional parking space
!b],~
not horizontally but mainly vertically.
l-3.o+2.5t2.3t2.3t2.3t2.3t2.7-l Vehicles are no longer moved horizontally;
J---6.30-1 l-3.85-l
65!-l-3.0-1120 ±I
C')
. I ('")

_l_ the lift transports the vehicles to levels

"' with a parking bay to the left and right.
"' l---6.30-1
Parking towers are ideal for providing 10-
40 parking spaces in building gaps, and
can be underground or overground.
Parking shelves --7 0 provide vertical and
horizontal transport of vehicles. This is an
expensive system and only suitable for
large installations. Theoretically, it can be
I---5.80--!1.7H1.7H1.7tl1.7t-3.0-1 extended in height and length as required.
60 60 60 1---------B-----1 1-
The circulating parker --7 8 - 0 can
8 Floor parker (Wohr) e Cross-section -> 0 e Longitudinal section-> 0 be delivered in vertical and horizontal
versions, usually with 20-40 parking
Entrance & Exit
1----1 platforms. The platforms circulate until a
free platform or the requested car arrives
at the entrance. The advantage of the
vertical circulating parker is its small
ground area of approx. 50 m2 for about
20 cars. Horizontal circulating parkers are
more suitable for underground parking.
Parking cylinder --7 G- CD Internal parking
spaces are arranged in a circle with approx.
10 vehicles per storey. 1D-12 levels are usual,
1--6.0--l 1 - - - - - - - - - - 2 8 . 5 5 =25 vehicles-------------1 mostly underground. The parking spaces are
0 Circulating parker e Cross-section-> 8 (Pristinger) accessed by a rotating lift, or rotating parking
spaces are delivered by a vertical lift.
Sliding parker/floor parker --7 0 - 0.
Lengthways and sideways sliding on one
l-2.80-l or more levels provides 6-24 places per
0
floor. There must be two ernpty spaces per
" floor for manoeuvring. A car lift provides
vertical transport.

l--------18.0-19.0 --------1 1-----26.0------j

PARKING
FACILITIES
Vehicles - cars
Vehicles- turning
Parking spaces
Multi-storey car
parks
Ramps
Multi-storey car
park regulations
Parking systems
G Cross-section -> Cf) G) Cross-section -> CD
Vehicles - trucks Cars up to
Trucks- parking height of
Parking Parking
and turning A= 175 em
Service areas levels spaces
8=188cm
Petrol stations
C=208cm
Car wash
2 5 646 em
3 7 854 em
4 9 1042 em
5 11 1230 em
6 13 1438 em
7 15 1626 em
8 17 1814cm Plan
e Cross-section of Parksaf (Wohr) (!) Cross-section -> 0 'i) Parking cylinder: 10 vehicles/floor (Meyer) G) Parking cylinder: 24 vehicles/floor

396
 1---4.37----; 1-1.64---i PARKING FACILITIES

~
Vehicles- Trucks

;.;.;.;.;.;.;.;.;.9. :.;.;.;.;.;.;.;.;.;.:.:~8.:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:
......
f - - - - - - - - - - 14.80-------------<

0 Caddy pickup

f-----5.63---! f-.---. 2.14---;

4D Articulated silo truck

f) Flatbed truck

t--2,37 ----i

e Flatbed truck
@) Skiptruck

r--6.21.-----; l--2.34--1

:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:;·:·:·:·:·:·~·:;·~:~g~·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:
8 Unimog G) Truck with tipping body

e Two-axle truck e Refuse collection vehicle

0 Three-axle truck 4i Concrete pump truck I~ 11.80 m

PARKING
FACILITIES
Vehicles- cars
Vehicles- turning
Parking spaces
Multi-storey car

e Articulated lorry with semi-trailer I ~ 16.50 m

parks
Ramps
Multi-storey car
park regulations
Parking systems
Vehicles-
trucks
Trucks- parking
and turning
Service areas
Petrol stations
0 Long-distance double-decker bus Car wash

4D Standard articulated bus, w ~ 2.50 m

397
 PARKING FACILITIES
Trucks- Parking and Turning

~- ==="
..
1-c...
//'.,.. ... ~ Owing to the large variation in the
,',/'"
It ,/' T
-- J-...----1 size of trucks, it is not worth marking
r / 4.oo out permanent lanes or bays on the
(' .L 1------1 ground. The basic measurements
I for space and actual requirements

'
I

+-+---11.25--+---+ +--t---15.50 --1---+ '5.00 +--13.00 -+ 5.00~ t--12.00--+--- 12.00 --l for the manoeuvring and parking of
5.75 5.75 6.50 6.50 trucks are taken from the vehicle
0 45• parking, HGVs and buses f) 30° parking, truck with 8 go• parking, dimensions and whether driving

·'
45° parking, articulated buses and lorries trailer 12m bus
straight, cornering, or entering or
driving out of the parking place.
Especially while cornering, the

II~t
T swept curve of the trailing inner rear
wheels must be taken into account.

The turning circle for the largest

\ 10.00 vehicles permitted under the road
' 'I
1 traffic regulations is an outer turning

i
circle radius of 12m. An outer turning
. circle radius of 10 m is nevertheless
. considered sufficient for the vast
H 5.00-20.00-+-16.00-22.00 -l 1--7.50-4
. majority of trucks which come within
1---18.00----l the scope of the regulations -7
e goo parking, truck with trailer 0 Parking, Jess than 45° e Loss of space, parking
parallel to kerb
p. 389.

·-- '. , T

~
4.25 8.00
1-- A'~
\ >Ki:[{:};j 1 .
''\ ,1 <!' .
\

f +¥
'""- Q)·
\

fA I
I
I
I .

I
vehicle length A I
10.70m 7.60 I
12.20m 8.50 I
I
13.70m 10.40 I
I
1-4.25-! 1---16.00 - - - 1 1-7.50-+--10.00--! ~.,3.50-1

f) Space needed at street corners e Turning possibilities in

restricted locations
0 Hammerhead turn In
very restricted space
(!) Access

I
8,00 I

I' 10.00
I
+--......../!
Tki41li\<'H
I.
,I

r
PARKING -----::.....
.,..,/ :
/j

FACILITIES 'I>, I
\ I
Vehicles - cars
1: 10.00 f I
Vehicles- turning
Parking spaces
Multi-storey car
I
I
1 I :
I
I
parks I t-- -l
j--10.00--+-8.00-l 1-7.50-l 1-7.50-; 3.00 5.00
Ramps
Multi-storey car
park regulations
m Further turning places: options for delivery trucks

Parking systems
Vehicles- trucks
Trucks- parking .
and turning Free zone for entry and exit of: Vehicle length a Parking space Keep free
Service areas
Petrol stations
width b zone c
Car wash

see also: Supply

I I HGV22t 10.00 3.00
3.65
4.25
14.00
13.10
11.go
and disposal
pp. 461 ff.
Il HGV single vehicle 12.00 3.00
3.65
14.65
13.50

\
4.25 12.80
articulated articulated lorry 15.00 3.00 17.35
truck 3.65 15.00
,_ 4.25 14.65

Cf) Single parking 0 Parking In a row 0 Table for 0 and 0

398
 External~
stores~
)\ I Utility yard r-----1
Staff
c=Jparking
PARKING
Service Areas

~
rn~~~ The increased capacity of HGV transport and the required rest

~:~~~;:_ _ _ _ ,~~;:~~~:",,~Jq:· "J

times for the drivers have resulted in a great demand for service
areas featuring parking facilities of generous dimensions and
corresponding infrastructure.

~-~l_ _~_-:::::~:::]1~~!;1111
Service areas
Service areas (Raststatte) on autobahns in Germany are
administered by the company Tank und Rast. The facilities are
situated directly on the autobahn with access by slip roads. In
addition to the petrol station, further service units are operated
...
Entrance
by leaseholders. According to the size of the facilities, this
can be fast snack bars, restaurants, sales areas or overnight
0 Functional scheme for a service area for 100 people accommodation.

CUSTOMER AREA approx. m2

Sales rooms 345.0 Stores area 70.6
Autohofs are service areas which are next to the autobahn, but
1 Variably assigned 12 Cold store cell 2.7 also accessible through normal junctions.
according to tenant structure 245.0 13 Cool room cell 8.8
Customer wet rooms 94.8 14 Cool room ceU 8.3
we corridor 24.8 21 Washing up 13.0
Baby changing room 3.4 23 Preparation 13.7
Many other countries have arrangements for service areas similar
Truck drivers' showers 8.4 22124/25 Stores 26.1 to those described above.
GentsWC 22.3
Cleaner 6.9 Administration/staff 57.4
7 Ladies WC 22.5 15
8 Disabled we 6,5
Office 25.6 Service stations
16/17 Changing rooms
Ladiesfgents 18.1 In urban areas, mostly in industrial zones, petrol stations are
BUILDING SERVICES AREA 18 Staff rest room 69
9 Corridor building services area 39.5 20 StaffWCs
· combined with car washes. The care of cars is the main business.
Building services 25.9 Gents/ladies 6.8
10 Electricity 7.3
11 Heating 5.3
19 Media 3.3 Net floor area 633.2

PARKING

•
FACILITIES

In smaller service stations, petrol supply and service areas are combined In one Toilet facilities in service areas are leased like the other services. Vehicles - cars
Vehicles- turning
building Charging is made possible by a turnstile
Parking spaces
Multi-storey car
parks
Ramps
Multi-storey car
park regulations
Parking systems
Vehicles- trucks
Trucks- parking
and turning
Service areas
Petrol stations
Car wash

Q Layout of a petrol and service area Design: Autobahn Tank u. Rast AG

399
 PARKING FACILITIES
Petrol Stations

Petrol stations supply fuel and lubricants, mostly in combination

with maintenance and care services. Because petrol station shops
in Germany are excepted from the shop closing time regulations,
the proportion of sales area devoted to car accessories and goods
0 Petrol pump: the multi-product dispenser usual today offers up to five types
of fuel at one unit with simultaneous operation from both sides. Single- and
required daily has increased considerably.

double-fuel pumps are now mainly found in company yards. Important regulations and technical rules:
In addition to the relevant building regulations:
WHG (water management law) applies, on account of the storage
of fuel and associated water, fire and explosion hazards.
VAwS (regulation of requirements for the handling of substances
harmful to groundwater) mostly concerns specialist firms and
testing duties.
TRwS (technical rules for substances harmful to water)
TRbF (technical rules for flammable liquids)
-(f-$5~ -E+o/--!---$t~)!?
~~ 2.85 2.85
Petrol stations must be erected by certified specialist firms (WHG).
State regulations control:
5 3.62 4.20 (2.10 (2.10 ~.20
(3. 75) 5.00 (3.45) 1. Parking space size (2.50 x 5.00 m = 12.50 m2)
(4.25) 10.00 2. Required number of parking spaces (e.g. depending on the
(8.50)
extent of premises, and the number of petrol pumps and
f) Petrol pump island dimensions (minimum dimensions)
people working at the station).
3. Required queuing space for automatic car wash (e.g. area
sufficient for 50% of the hourly washing capacity).
r--., For design purposes, dimensions specific to cars should be
I I
I I considered:
1 I Turning circle: car 12.50 m HGV 26.00 m
I I
I I Vehicle width: car 1.85 m HGV 2.50 m
I I
I
L __ J
I Vehicle length: car 5.00 m HGV 18.00 m with trailer
These data can be used to derive the dimensions of pump islands
r--1
I I
r--,
I I
and passage widths ---t 0 -e.
1 I I :
I
1
I
I
D I
I
I
I
The paving around the petrol pumps must be impervious to liquids
I I 1 I and the run-off channelled into side kerbs and/or a downward
I
L __ J
I l:J i
L __ J
/ slope. These areas (length of the petrol hose + 1 m) must drain
7.50 11.201 through a suitable liquid interceptor or be roofed over. Reduced
(1.00) dimensions for the surfaced area impervious to liquids and the
0 Two long islands parallel to the road, requiring disciplined driving behaviour siting of the tanks apply to private petrol stations, categorised as
(minimum dimensions) petrol stations for private use with low consumption (the quantities
are regulated by the states).

Petrol pumps must have protection against vehicle impact with at

least 20 em spacing and 12 em height ---t f).

Each petrol pump should if possible dispense all the fuels on

offer (multi-dispenser petrol pump). For private petrol stations,
there are simple petrol pumps with electronic control systems
for personalised control of access and quantity ---t 0. Autogas
PARKING (LPG) filling stations require their own dispensers. There are no
FACILITIES
requirements concerning surfacing, because autogas is not
Vehicles- cars
Vehicles - turning
classed as a liquid hazardous to groundwater. Measures should
Parking spaces be taken to ensure rapid distribution of any leaking gas (earth wall
Multi-storey car
or dip into which the gas can be blown by the wind).
parks
Ramps
Multi-storey car
8 Two short islands at angle less than 60" to the road (minimum dimensions)
park regulations
Parking systems
Vehicles - trucks
Trucks- parking

~
and turning
Service areas )----- 5.0 ----1 Air, water etc.
Petrol stations

t• D1
Car wash "'!
~

11 ( Air, water etc. )

1
2
I +-3.7---t
e Two short islands parallel to the road (minimum dimensions) (t Service points for self-service o!l change, air, water etc.

400
 PARKING FACILITIES
Petrol Stations

Area required
For a simple petrol station, an area
of approx. 800 m2 is sufficient, with
additional services normally approx.
1000 m2 , and for large service
stations 2000 m2 and more --7 e.
Services and location
Car drivers should be able to
fill up with petrol; check the oil
level, radiator water level and
tyre pressures (and top them
up if necessary) and fill up the
windscreen washer water; clean
the windscreen, headlight glasses
and their hands; buy goods; use
the WCs; and carry out various car
care tasks (car washing, vacuum

/:- /.

···...
/~
··~
·· .. ··..
cleaner etc.). Petrol stations should
be easy to drive into, clearly laid
out, easily recognisable from a
distance and as near to the road as
possible.
The location should be on the left
hand side of the road on the way
out of town and not in the queuing
area in front of traffic lights. Also
unfavourable are road crossings,
in which case a better solution is a
0 Plan of petrol station with sales, food and car wash. Allguth Station, Unterfohring Architects: Haack+ Hopfner, Munich location before the corner with an
exit into the side street.

guidelines for secondary road junctions

1----'e"'x'-"it'-'la~n~

J-~2> 30.00---t?
transition

45° ...__.... ao~ --------edge

roa~~~:;.~~~
f) Petrol station access and exit on a clear road 8 Without slowing and accelerating lanes

for one~way traffic (only needed on access side)

~ 20 m for 2 pump islands parallel to road. This must be
correspondingly greater for additional islands an&; 16 m
when pump islands are staggered further into the site sufficient number
If the street is one-way, then only necessary
of parking bays on the entrance side.
diesel fuel
for trucks * !?: 16.00 when pump islands are staggered on the plot PARKING
~30.00 for diesel vehicles f;3.5 t. FACILITIES
** ~ 8.50 if the street and/or petrol
station carries two-way traffic. over 3.5t, Vehicles - cars
0~6m Vehicles -turning
canopy Parking spaces
i?;4.20m high
Multi-storey car
parks
Ramps
Multi-storey car
park regulations
Parking systems
Vehicles - trucks
Trucks- parking
and turning
Service areas
Petrol stations
Car wash

fuel tanker delivery point, sited

well away from the access lanes

e Petrol station with angled position of the pump islands in an urban area
(primarily for traffic in one direction)
9 Petrol station for petrol and possibly diesel (HGV "'3.5 t) in an urban area

401
 PARKING FACILITIES
Car Wash

Car wash facilities

These are used for the environmentally friendly washing of cars
and are installed as a public service business, also for trucks
on the premises of the haulage company. Mobile tyre-washing
equipment is available for building sites, tips and landfill sites.
As with petrol stations, the groundwater protection regulations
0 Self-service car wash stalls, protected by splash guard walls are to be observed. Car washes require, according to system,
100-600 I of water per car. This must be reprocessed and at least
80% recycled. For closed systems (no drainage connection), there
is a simplified approval process under groundwater protection
regulations. A car wash needs about 40-50 m3 for settling and silt
retention basins (underground tank 0 3 m). Fresh water is required
to cover evaporation losses, to reduce the salt content in winter, to
rinse off and for the application of liquid waxes.
Self-service car wash stalls
These are mostly roofed parking spaces, on which cars can be
cleaned by the customer with a high-pressure cleaner and hand
washing brushes. Small installations have one or two places,
larger installations up to 12 places, which can be served by a
central services room --7 0-0.

t--4.8---+ +-3.7---t Portal car wash

This takes up little space. The customer has to get out and the
Dimensions for a self-operated car wash 0
operating with separating walls and
a central services room f) minimum dimensions for an open-air installation
entire washing equipment in the portal then travels over to the
parked car. This type of car wash can be installed in the open
air, but is better indoors, ideally enabling the customer to drive
through. Because the portal stops in front of the car parking space
when not in operation, the building is min. 9-10 m long, width min.
4.60 m, height min. 3 m (for portals for cars up to 2.1 m in height).
The clear space at the side between portal and building elements
is min. 50 em.
A portal car wash can wash about 5000-50 000 cars per year or
5-18 vehicles per hour --7 0.
Tunnel car wash
The vehicles are carried on a conveyor through fixed washing and
after-care portals. This technology enables a high capacity and
various washing programmes in the same pass time. The length of
e Portal car wash with two sides and a roof brush, and double car wash with four
sides and a roof brush
the car wash is 20-60 m. A tunnel car wash can process 30-100
vehicles per hour or 20 000-200 000 per year. -) e.

PARKING
FACILITIES
Vehicles - cars ,.,, """
Vehicles- turning
Parking spaces
Multi-storey car
parks
Ramps
Multi-storey car
park regulations
Parking systems
Vehicles - trucks
Trucks- parking
and turning
Service areas
Petrol stations
Car wash

Q Plan and section of the Allguth car wash, Gennering. The surrounding glazing of the side wings (one side for staff and equipment, the other for customers, each approx.
2.8 m wide) permits the functioning of the car wash to be seen. Architects: Haack+ HGpfner, Munich

402
 Underground/urban rail (m) Tram/bus (m) PUBLIC TRANSPORT
Large urban centre
core zone 400 300
Conditions, Means of Transport
zone with high-density use 600 400
zone with low-density use 1000 600
Medium-sized urban centre Legal basis: General Railway Law (AEG), Passenger Transport
central zone 400 300
Law (PBefG), Regulations for the Construction and Operation of
zone with high-density use 600 400
zone with low-density use 1000 600 Trams (BOStrab), state public transport laws.
Subsidiary urban centre
Each residential, commercial or industrial area should be accessible
central area 600 400
remaining area 1000 600 by public transport. Accessible means that the distance (as the
Community 1000 600 crow flies) to a transport stop complies with the values in 0.
for urban railways, the value
All areas with contiguous building development and more than
for tram or underground
applies, depending on transport 200 inhabitants (or a corresponding number of commuters
function and/or students), should be accessible, as should comparable
establishments in terms of traffic generation (locations with
0 Distances to public transport stops and stations 0fDV-; refs)
special functions).
city bus 15()--300 f) Average distance to a public In addition to the bus, there are various types of rail vehicle that
bus, tram 25()--600 transport stop in metres (approx.,
depends on local condttions)
can make public transport quicker, more convenient and more
underground 400-1500
0/DV-; refs) attractive than individual travel:
urban railway 600-2500
- Rapid urban transit railways: predominantly electric,
Bus Tram Underground, Underground Urban
(e.g. small- (e.g. Munich) rail independent rail systems within an urban area (overground and
profile, Berlin) underground - subway in USA) or region, sometimes with at-
vehicle single bus 8-15 m; single car 25.7 m up 114m ET 423: grade crossings but with absolute priority
lengths, articulated bus 15--45 m; to 4 double one non- 67.4m
trainsets 18.75 m; double trainsets train sets separable up to 3 - Urban railways: as underground railways partially independent
articulated bus 25 m; up to 75 m train trainsets from road traffic, or above ground on dedicated permanent tracks
bus+ trailer 25 m (according or with at-grade crossings with road traffic without absolute
to BOStrab)
priority
width 2.55m 2.20-2.65 m 2.30m 2.90 m 3.02m
height approx. 2.90 up to approx. 3.40 3.20m 3.45 m 4.30m' - Trams: on track beds integrated into roads or dedicated; when
4.10 m (double- m• trams make use of the public street space, they are subject to
decker) road traffic regulations (StVO).
platform 0.12-0.24 m 0.20-1.00 m 0.90 m 1.00 m 0.96 m
height Mixed systems are also possible, e.g. urban railways and trams
• height w1thout pantograph extended to overhead on the same permanent track or trams using rail tracks (e.g. in
0 Important capacity data for means of transport 0/DV-> refs)
Karlsruhe). The use of the permanent track by buses is feasible,
resulting in better integration of different transportation elements

i1;~T s9R~~
(stops, bus/tram stations) and priority switching at traffic lights.
Of great importance is the spatial and scheduling integration of
1

2 i
"'..J-
~~ :: ~18~
::J::I t- i,. ~
~'
various means of public transport with each other and also with
road and cycle traffic (P(ark) + R(ide), B(icycle) + R(ide) etc.) and
appropriate design of changing points -) 0.
Overhead line systems
e Rail profiles e Live rail (underground)
(Fiedler -; refs)
Power supply is normally provided by overhead wire and pantograph
on the roof, although underground railways and some urban railways
Shelters, weather protection can also use live third rails at the side (approx. 20 em above the
Shelters are required to protect passengers from the weather at running rails) -) 0.
transport stops. These are mostly standardised systems made up Rail profiles
of basic elements or supplementary modules, often in combination Wide-base rails of various dimensions are normally employed
with advertising materials (City Light Posters, for example) as part (urban rapid transit or urban rail 49 E 1, trams 41 E 1, dimensions PUBLIC
of the street furniture. Shelters should also attend to customers' TRANSPORT
-) G). In street space, grooved rails (59 Ri 1, 60 Ri 1) are used,
safety needs by being transparent. Conditions,
which can be joint-sealed to the paving at the sides. Open track means of
beds are sometimes greened. transport
Stops and
stations
Traffic spaces
Bus stations

AEG
PBefG
BOStrab
6PNVIaws

-Exit
=Arrival
~ ________ _. ________\ \._
\~---

'---~-

0 Waiting shelter for public transport f) Linkage of urban rail and trams at terminus (Fiedler-; refs)

403
 PUBLIC TRANSPORT
Stops and Stations

The design of public transport stops is important. Railway systems

are normally designed very specifically for the location. Therefore,
platform and floor heights in the vehicle have to be matched in order
{OJ]]} Fixed stairs to ensure passenger-friendly and accessible entrances and exits.

~ Escalators Platform layout

The layout of central and side platforms depends on construction,
operational and transport considerations, especially for platforms
in tunnels.
Stairs within the usable length of platform Central platforms are simpler for the passengers to navigate, but
two-way carriages are necessary. If stations are lower and an
intermediate storey is required, then this can be used as a grade-

~
Centr:l
00
separated road crossing by general pedestrian traffic. When the
platfor~ I
Side I platforms are on one side, then twice the number of accesses,
stairs and installations (kiosks, timetables etc.) are needed. One-
platford
Stairs at the platform end way carriages are possible because doors are required on the
0 Stair layout for side and central platforms (Fiedler--> refs) right-hand side only. When stops are located on viaducts, side
platforms are preferable because platforms can be projected,
so no surface is lost apart from the supports. Successive stops
should if possible have the same platform layout (for passenger
No. people/potential hindrance Width x Depth (m) Capacity (kg) orientation).
8/suitable for disabled 1.10x 1.40 630
13/suitable for carrying loads 1.10x2.10 1000 Platform length
19/suitable for cycles 1.40x2.10 1450
This depends on the length of the longest train intended to stop
f) Minimum size of lifts (Fiedler--> refs) at the station. In the case of underground and urban rapid transit,
platform length is the train length plus 5 m (to allow for imprecise
braking). Double stops are also possible for trams.

Platform width
The platform width depends on the number of passengers and the
location, type and width of the access and exit routes. Platform,
stairs and exits should be designed so that the platform can
be cleared, without queues, before the next train arrives. The
minimum widths are, in general:
- side platforms 3 m
- central platforms with stairs at the end of the platform 6 m
-with stairs within the usable platform length 7 m.
C) Cross-section through platforms (Fiedler--> refs)
Stairs
Staircases can be located at the end of the platform or within
the usable platform length. The width of fixed stairs should be
Tram stops: platform min. 3.50 m or, to provide space for waiting a multiple of 0.60 m (at least 2.40 m) plus width for handrail and
shelters and two-sided platforms, min. 5.50 m. The permissible cleaning channel. Provide a handrail both sides and additionally in
minimum width in the road space (according to BOStrab) of 1.50 m the middle of stairs wider than 6.00 m -7 0.
should be improved on out of consideration for the passengers (where Escalators provide extra comfort for passengers, and accelerate
PUBLIC space is restricted, 2 m is the minimum for a side exit). Safety space: and canalise the traffic flow; they should be used for medium
TRANSPORT 0.85 m wide from the vehicle gauge on the door side of the rail vehicle, and high passenger numbers. 1-1 %-track, or preferably 2-track,
Conditions, which can also lie on the road pavement. escalators should be used (800/1 000 mm step width). Construction
means of widths vary between 1.40 and 1.65 m, according to manufacturer.
transport
Stops and
Dynamic stop: if there is no transport stop island, a traffic light
stations should be placed further back along the road to protect the Lifts
Traffic spaces passengers getting in and out.
Bus stations Additional passenger lifts should be installed (possibly as a refit)
in above-ground and underground railway stations to aid the
journeys of disabled people and others with restricted mobility
(due to pushchairs, luggage etc.) -7 f). Lifts should be easily
recognisable with waiting areas outside the main traffic flow.

Platform surfacing
To improve drainage, this should have a camber of at least 1%
(max. 3-5% in tunnel stops and 2-3% in open-air stops). Platform
edges should be slip-resistant and made of profiled and clearly
coloured material (if appropriate with a broad white band) to help
those with poor eyesight. Contrasting guide strips, which can be
felt with a white stick, should also be provided for visually impaired
people.
Q Dynamic stop (Fiedler--> refs)

404
 Underside of
overhead wire
PUBLIC TRANSPORT
Working space for in traffic space
pantograph 5 00
rrmrrmimrTITlr__+:_:::·:::: of public roads Traffic Spaces
!0.20 Maximum vehicle
:(l!!!j#tjTTHfJt@jjjjtJJ:I;bl!tt::r- ~=~8 height (without
Vehicle limit line Distance between track centre-lines: depending on the type of
L. d + 3.4 0 pantograph) transport and its dimensions, min. 2.60 m or 2.95 m, or preferably
...:¥.imm~rr-:"""'
3.1 0 m to compensate for the sideways movement of carriages
in medium-sized curve radii. Width of clearance = width of the
carriage body, geometrical carriage curvature and extra width for
Distance from overtaking and oscillation (min. 2 x 0.15 m).
fixed objects
(stairs etc) Distance of kerb from carriage body: for special track beds 0.5
Platform m, in exceptional cases also 0.30 m.
±0.00 (SO) Track radii: if possible>180 m, in forks and turning loops min. 25 m.
Gradient: maximum 25%o, exceptionally 40%o.
a) in open sections b) at stops and protection islands
Camber: max. 1:10, camber max. 165 mm for normal gauge, 1.20 m
0 Minimum spacing of tracks in the carriageway of a public road for metre gauge. If possible, there should be a transition curve before
Working space
a circular curve, which should coincide with a camber ramp (here
for pantograph Underside of
greatest slope 1:6 x V).
Vehicle limit line overhead wire
in traffic space
Distance limitation of public roads
line for fixed or
movable objects
(also the distance
limitation line to
other rail vehicles)

Limitation at
niches and safety
spaces
Rail level ± 0.00
(SO)

a) in open sections b) at stops and proiection islands

f) Minimum spacing of tracks on a special track bed within the traffic space of a
(t Tunnel cross-section: In a running tunnel and in a station (Stadt Bochum --> refs)
public road

Type A
0.50 2.65 0.40 2.65 0,50
I I II I I
~~~0~»~~m«w0~~m0w»~~m~w0~~~.~~~--~6.7~0~--~~~~)~~~~:~0~.~,~
..~~~~~~~~·~.~~::.~~~~,~·::
No masts

o.lfc>2.65cf.l3o
1-3.25--l
f) Space requirement for a tram in the road space

Underside of overhead Distance

limitation line
l Edge of the
8 Standard widths for special track beds in m : structure gauge
: of the carriageway
....
Type A I
I

:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:.:.,.~~~oc~::::rr=~Jt::=~~~==
I
Lowest
overhead
wire
No masts position
when
B 0.50 passing
~~pe. . 1111 II, w~~---'._!_.EJ_i__,___~.!lr-~.b:,d-~,.,.,.,.,.,.,.,. below
buildings PUBLIC
TRANSPORT
~~~~~~·(~·~~;~·:::::.·.··~------'='-----------' ±0.00
___L :B/2 B/2:
I I
Conditions,
0.50.40.5
lin~~~~- ~x~~~~i~,:; In
TypeC I I means of
I!U Vehicle limitation I I
-~<LB = 4.Q.b_m transport
Stops and
························
·:::::::::::::::::.·.·.·.·.·:.
Side masts ~------~~----------~
cases 0.30 m

Delineation of the clearances of road

0.50 0.15 0.15

Track bed crossing location for

stations
Traffic spaces
0 _, 0 One-sided stops vehicle and tram pedestrians wrrhout crossing lights Bus stations

see also: Stairs

Type A
3.50 0.05 2.65 0.40 2.65 0.05 3.50 pp. 120 If.
I1 '==T jl , II . I[ '==':! Lifts pp. 128 If.
:-:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·~ Waiting room War....... r:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:· Railways
pp. 408 fl.
No masts
TypeB

:-:-:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:
Central masts
3.50 0.05 2.65 0.40 2.65 0.05 3.50
TypeC II
1

·:•:•:•:•:•:•:•:•:•:•:•:•:,' G 12,80 , J !':.:.:.:•:•:•:•:•:•:•:•:•:•:• I

~-----------=~----------~ I
Side masts

9 Two-sided stops _, 0 Track crossing controlled by crossing lights G _,4I!)

405
 PUBLIC TRANSPORT
Bus Stations

Special widening of curves and turning circles has to be taken into

account ~ 8 - CD. Stops require special dimensions. Bus stop
bays are provided only on main feeder roads and roads with heavy
traffic loads ~ 0. It is desirable for the bus stop to be covered.
The many possible platform layouts are shown ~ 0 - 0. Ramps
should be provided at the front to allow easy access up a step
height of 30 em ~G)- 0.
Provide space for temporary parking of cars (Park and Ride).

I L l:
bus 12.00 40.50 47.62 (49.05)
two buses 25.00 53.50 60.62 (62.05)
articulated bus 18.00 55.50 61.50 (62.70)

for 3m wide bus stop bays

*) 25m for bus stop bays for articulated buses
0 Dimensions of widely used low-floor buses, entry height 30-35 em, or with
kneeling technology approx. 10 em less
~
16.00*)~ ~---~-+--12.50
L'

~ ~ 4.00 4.00
(2.81)(2.81) (2.4)(2.4) (4.80) (4.80)

13.00 waiting room/shelter

e
l
The line drawn Busstop
by the rear wheel Follows the
gives the inner radius outside of the Layout of Parallel At45° At90°
Platform Without With passing
bumper shape passing lane lane arrival line
A a Ab Ac Ba Bb Be length of 32 12 24 12 24

]
parking
layout of ]i ]i
:;, :;, space(m)
arrival line ~
(ll
c. n;
... b
"'n; ~
(ll
c.
... b"'n;
n; possible 5 5 5
parking for.
length of 24 24 24 36- 36- 36- "'
::> "'::> "'::>
platform(m) 60 60 60 "'"'
tJ
t~
<1l "'"'
~ .n~ .n~ ~ ~
.c "'
width of 3 3 3 3.5- 3.5- 3.5- ro.n "'
::>
.n (ll (ll.C

f) 90° turning circle for rigid, 12m long

vehicles
e 180° turning circle for rigid, 12 rn
long vehicles
platform(m)
no. parking
places
4.0 4.0 4.0
width of
one parking
~N ~ ~N~ ~N

space 3.5 3.5 3.5 3.5 3.5

a)forbuses 2 2 2 2-3 2-3 2-3
width of
b)forartic. 1 1 1 1-2 1-2 1-2 arrival lane
buses 4.0 8.0 8.0 14 14
lim)
f----30.00--1 area of 138 176 189 293 296 313 parking
platform, area inc.
roadway

I
roadway
and arrival area(m2)
Fortified lane(m2)

I
a) per bus 88 135 89 140 91
area a) per bus

f b) per artie.
bus
276 340 378 439 444 470
b)per
articulated
bus 176 178 182

'i
~I
Ci) Space required for platforms (!) Space required for parking places

w-'~"1'"
R ~ 22.50
// (-- 12.0-+-- 20.0 --;--12.0 ---j

J::~~Ei1~1:~~~~~~!~:i::;~_r:-:.:-~-=."':'i!iva~s---
~-------
PUBLIC
TRANSPORT
Conditions, 7.0
means of
transport
0 180° turning circle for articulated, 0 Turning area
l - - - 32m per artie. bus ----1
Stops and 17 m long vehicles
stations
Traffle spaces
4D Layout of parking spaces, parallel to direction of approach
Bus stations

4) Semi-circular platform outside loop;

Terminal no crossing of road necessary
building

- -
0 Small turnaround station f) Platform outside turning loop 4!) Platform inside turning loop 0 Semi-circular platform inside loop;
accessible only by crossing road

406
 PUBLIC TRANSPORT
Bus Stations

Ji-
________ ! JL-~.-----;!~---
T\~!~1
l
~I
I
iR'
J I I
!
0

··~'-'"::I[JH. _ -J-
I .f

0
_______ i~________ _r~_
For buses and articulated buses f) Parking spaces for buses and Large drive-through bus station with adjacent parking area
articulated buses

1 drivers'
restroom
2 maintenance
workshop
3 filling station
4 equipment
5 supervisor
6 mail office

0 Large drive-through bus station with separate arrival and departure platforms

main road

PUBLIC
TRANSPORT
Conditions 1
-+-- from parking place means of
transport

f) Long platform at angle e Right-angled departure, oblique

arrival, oblique departure
C) Drive-through bus station with separate arrival and departure platforms, oblique
layout and distant parking area
Stops and
stations
Traffic spaces
Bus stations

1 WCmen
1 entrance for departing passengers 2 WCwomen
2 exit for arriving passengers 3 nursery
3 concourse 4 cloakroom
4 baggage despatch 5 kitchen
5 entrance for arriving passengers 6 canteen staff
6 entrance for arriving baggage 7 drivers' restroom
7 exit for departing passengers 8 meter cupboard and
8 baggage office storeroom
9 baggage deposit 9 filing room
10 office manager 10 pump room
11 office
12 information and air tickets
13 waiting room

41!) Ground floor of KLM bus station 4D Basement __, 41!)

407
 RAILWAYS
For other tracks
For through main Tracks
tracks and other b b
entry and exittrac~~
of passenger trains 350 1450

"}
/.
t
#Y
/
L """

1706
1010

i
1075,00

."
1587
,~I
~

'\~
The key standard distances (d) between track centre-lines are:
• On open stretches of track 4.00 m (3.50 m on
older lines)

~"' 'I
/If 1862 1755 - where signals installed 4.50m
/
I Large edge line j Small edge line I - as safety space after every 2nd track 5.40 m
,------(
I'IT
I - newly built stretches, V >200 km/h 4.50m
. I
I I
I

,- ~ ~ ~ ~
I I
I I 1 I a • In stations 4.50 m (4.75 m)
I I I i:l
I I - main lines, straight through 4.00 m
I I I
I
~
1736 1690
I - in sets of 5-6 lines 6.00m
I
I
1711 1665 lI - for brake inspection/test tracks 5.00 m

~tf ~
1683 1656

/
Lti - I
N

g
- in sidings for carriage cleaning 5.00 m

i
2500
I

a) working height pantograph= 5.60 m minimum,

1275
1583
j 1275
1583,00
2200
_I

'I Q)

~~
E ;!: ~
8 °1
Distance between
centres (d)
~g
Q)

"E ;!::
18 °
depending on type of electricity 5.00-5.34 m
b) maximum 1.58 m b 1 c and d dependent on working W/40? ?ZpVPzJP&~ ~V? /VZZWZZ/1
height range of pantograph (EBO appendix 1) I I
0 Standard clearance space, according to the Railway Construction and Operation f) Track spacings
Regulation (EBO), valid on straight and curved lines with radius s250 m

iA I
l-6.7--i (-6.7--i Standard gauge of German Railways:

~2:::;:;T ~;~r 1 gauge (for 71% of the world's railways) 1.435 m

41E1~I 49E~ I 54E;A:

gauge tolerances:
-3/+30 mm on main lines
-3/+35 mm on branch lines
l---12.5 ---1 l---12.5---j l---12.5---l
(other gauges: Russia 1.520 m; Spain and Portugal 1.668 m,
l-7--i f--7.2--1 t--13.5---j
South Africa 1.067 m, Chile, Argentina, India 1.673 m)

~-=5~ ~n
54E

e
I l----14----l
"'·T
""
1 60~1
1---- 15 ---1
Sections of common types of rail (the first number is the rail weight in kg/m)
"'~I1---- 18 ---I
Lifetime of sleepers:
- timber sleepers impregnated with creosote
(ROping process)
- timber sleepers, not impregnated
- steel sleepers
- concrete sleepers, estimated
25-40
3-15
about 45
min. 40
years
years
years
years

f151
Trench depth in cuttings ~0.4-0.6 m under ground level
Slope of the trench 3-1 0% according to the type of consolidation
of the trench floor. Groundwater at retaining walls is to be drained
G Concrete sleeper B 70 through pipes or drainage holes.

The longitudinal gradient of open stretches of main line ~12.5%o,

f15i
on branch lines and urban railways ~40%o and on station tracks
RAILWAYS kEF:: I 1~~ ~2.5%o. Gradients of up to 25%o are possible on main lines with
special approval.
Tracks
Freight transport 1-------------2.40 - - - - - - - - - - 1 I- 30 -j
Stations
Station buildings
Platforms
e Concrete sleeper B 58
Static wheel load = 9 t. On stretches with sufficiently strong track
and supporting structures, higher wheel loads (up to 11.25 t) are
Platform furniture possible.

e Standard track bed cross-section for single-track lines

1401-- L ----------1401 (401-- L --j401

f) Standard track bed cross-section for two-track lines

408
normal track normal track layout for rolling stock with
layout for an axle base of 4.5m (suitable for virtually RAILWAYS
rolling stock all rolling stock)
with an axle Tracks
base of 4.5m normal track layout for rolling stock with
an axle base under 4.5m (not suitable for
all rolling stock)
falling track with R <100m
Curved radii (to track centre-line) = R
main lines, direct main tracks ............................................ G:300 m
falling track for rolling stock with only two
axles, 6.5-8.0 m axle base station tracks ..................................................................... ;;;; 180 m
falling track for rolling stock with only two axles, branch lines with main line rolling stock ............................ G:180 m
up to 6.5 m axle base or wagons with bogies
without main line rolling stock ........................................... G:100 m
sidings used by main line engines ..................................... G:140 m
radii under 100m should be avoided where sidings not used by main line engines, preferably ............ G:1 00 m
possible on all new construction work
minimum .............................................................................. G:35 m
0 Track radius (turnability) of the connecting tracks
If 100m >R G:35 m, carriages should if possible only be pulled;
with radius >130 m not all carriage types can any longer be
I outer rail head driven.
h

inner rail head Radii for narrow-gauge railways

for 1.00 m gauge track .................................................... R G:50 m
for 0.75 m gauge track .................................................... R G:40 m
for 0.60 m gauge track .................................................... R G:25 m
offset rail
}
or track tn-J
centre·line I For tracks to be used at greater than shunting speed, a transitional
' II section of curve must be installed between the straight section and
the circular arc with radius R, with the curvature of the transition
I
curve increasing constantly from 1: = up to 1: R __. f). Circular
/'.
/ ongmal
/ curves may have to be canted in order to keep the centrifugal
force arising when travelling round the curve within reasonable
bounds (~0.65 m/sec). Canted curves and transition curves should
coincide.
A
f------- 1/2 V2 --j
f------- --l For details, see German Railways combined guideline KoRil 820/1.
8 Track cant ramp and transition curve Points
Sets of points are characterised according to the shape of the
R I m Ramp gradient rail, the turning track radius and the inclination of the frog, e.g.
180-200 40 0.370 1:320
0.333 1:320
49-190-1 :9.
250-350 30 0.1150 1:300 only use the points for carriages up to the limit sign __. 0
0.107 1:400
spacing of the track centreline at the warning sign G:3.5 m
400-2000 20 0.012 1:310
0.008 1: 1300 point length I length of the point blade __. 8
e Branch lines and normal sidings (m)
49-190-1:7.5 =25.222 m/12.611 m
49-190-1:9 = 27.138 m/1 0.523 m
wheel guide 49-300-1 :9 = 33.230 m/16.615 m
normal turntable = D
for axle turntable 2-3 m, for carriage turntable 3.5-10.0 m, for
locomotive turntable 12.5-23.0 m .
Traversers
Size= minimum axle spacing of the carriage to be pushed + 0.5 m

e Simple points

RAILWAYS

_ _ _ _ _-'1 Tracks
Freight transport
buffers -=.J set of points with outside curve, Stations
remotely controlled Station buildings

~-0 rz<::C Platforms

Platform furniture
~ track weighbridge
I
double set of point, remotely
loading gauge
controlled
f) Drawing symbols

8 Layout of points
double slip points, remotely
controlled

---+----<0~
simple set of points, hand operated

Set of Radius Pitch Overall

points (m) ratio length (m)
ABW49 215 1:4.8 22.100
EW49 190 1:7.5 30.039 double slip points, locally operated

0 Oblique crossing (wheel guide as example diameter 8- 4:)) e

EW49
DKW49
DW49
190
190
190
1:9
1:9
1:9r/1:91

Dimensions for sets of points

27.138
33.230
37.661
===-Y/11
8
crossing

Drawing symbols
UIA

=
409
 Standard gauge railways RAILWAYS
Typical Continental European Structure -
for main line tracks, intersecting for other tracks
with other tracks, carrying Gauging and Clearances
passenger trains

f<OOj
I I
I
I
:::I

n
3Q HI
1600
e H(
1600
I \
\
~--nr I I \
\
lI ~ ,:I
l1ooo 1
. I
---
I
\
\
\
\
\
I
i i 11 :
I I II ~ ~ I I
I
h--aL-f, I
I
II
§ 1_ I

1L_ _~_
rail
I lI
l~_j__ I__! --~........,====•-"=£. I I
I
I
clearance to be to be
- - - - - - space at the sides to be kept free observed by new I
constructions
e =widening of the gauge
I
A-8 for main lines on open stretches for all objects with the exception of
fabricated structures
C-D for station sidings and for open stretches of main lines with special structures
and signals between the tracks
E-F for fixed objects on passenger platforms

Q Standard clearance profiles (straight track plus curves with radii "'250 m)
for existing superstructures, tunnels and engine shed
doors when electrification takes place

0 Top limn of clearance for stretches with overhead conductor wire (15kV)

Half the radius of the curve (m) Dimensions of half the width a (mm)
a ~ 150mm for immovable objects which are not firmly connected to the rail
a ~ 135mm for immovable objects which are firmly connected to the rail up to 250 1445
b = 41 mm for devices guiding the wheel on the inside of the front sutiace 225 1455
b ~ 45 mm for level crossings 200 1465
b ~ 70 mm for all other cases 180 1475
Z = corners which have to be radiused 150 1495
120 1525
f) Standard structure gauging and clearances at low level
100 1555

Curve radius (m) Necessary increase in standard clearance on the

Inside of the curve (mm) Outside of the curve (mm)
9 Dimensions for half the width of the upper limit of the clearance

250 0 0
225 25 30
200 50 65 h
190 65 80
180 80 100 heavy superstructures up to 15 m wide and in tunnels 5500 mm
150 135 170 heavy superstructures over 15 m wide 6000 mm
120 335 365 light superstructures, such as footbridgesr sheds including doors 6000mm
100 .530 570 signal gantries and brackets 6300 mm

8 Necessary increase in the standard clearance for curves with radii <250 m 0 Minimum clearance under structures

Narrow gauge railways

Other dimensions: European standards (Germany)
RAILWAYS For entrance doorways the clear width should be ~3.35m and for
Tracks new structures ~4.00 m.
Freight transport
Stations For tunnels, the extra clearance needed beyond the trains'
Station buildings kinematic envelope clearance to the wall for a single-track stretch
Platforms
Platform furniture of line is 0.40 m; for a double-track stretch of line it is 30 em.
There are minimum distances required between buildings and
railway tracks for new structures. These vary according to
location. Typical examples are: a fire resistant structure with
suitable cladding must be separated by ~7.50 m from railway
land; the corresponding distance for soft covered structures that
gauge= 1.00m gauge= 0.75m
are not fire resistant is ~15m. The latter also applies to structures
in which combustible materials are stored.
f) Standard clearance profiles, straight line track
Platform heights vary from country to country, and can be as
1000 :------11----: 750 --1
I-:----2- small as 0.38 m. However, access to platforms must not involve
f-120-t--1 so . -2-· sot-t-120-j rail
passengers having to cross the track. This requires tunnels
-~~----lf;J,. '----~~ or bridges, which should have a width of 2.5-4.0 m. If there is
circulation in both directions, 4.00-8.00 m is desirable. Steps on
Z =corners which have to be radiused

e Standard structure gauging and clearances at low level

bridges or in tunnels should be the same width as the bridge or
tunnel.

410
 RAILWAYS
UK Structure -
Gauges and Clearances

Further information: Safety and Standards Board, Network

Rail, London
This information is based on the Railway Group Standard which
applied to all new design and new route clearances for railway
vehicles and loads from 3 February I 996.

1645 The purpose of this Railway Group Standard is to set down the
engineering requirements for the safe passage of rail vehicles and
their loads by reconciling their physical size and dynamic behaviour
with the opportunities offered by the railway infrastructure.

This standard applies to infrastructure owned by Network Rail

and any other infrastructure interfacing with it and affecting its
3040
physical clearances (e.g. private sidings or works into which, or
out of which, trains will work onto Network Rail lines).

It shall be complied with in the design, maintenance and alteration

of the railway infrastructure, in the design and modification of
traction and rolling stock and in the conveyance of out of gauge
loads.
1 All dimensions are in mm.
2 The kinematic envelope is the cross-sectional profile of a vehicle at any
position along its length, enlarged to include the effects of dynamic sway Standards are constantly evolving as faster trains are developed
and vertical movement caused by speed, (dynamic effects of) track
cuiVature and cant, track positional tolerances, rail wear, rail head/wheel and heavier loads are transported. The national rail administration
flange clearances, vehicle wear and suspension performance for the
particular track location under consideration. The determination of the should, therefore, always be contacted for the latest standards
kinematic envelope is the responsibility of the operator of the proposed and details.
vehicle and shall be in accordance with the Railway Group Standard.

0 UIC (International Union of Railways) reference profiles for kinematic gauges

(GA, GB, GB+, GC)

typical feeder
cantilever alternative feeder
arrangement contact wire position arrangement

contact wire
.c
0>
.~
·;;; E
0 .c 0
0
~
ru
·~ w I see nr• 61 lseerte6l
t5
.c
0>
I see note 8 I
g"' E
8 1'
~ 4167 * l ,I 4167 *
see note 7
RAILWAYS
"'"'
~
0
00
0
·~
ru Tracks
"' '0
ru Freight transport
~
Stations
Station buildings
Platforms
Platform furniture
platform

i~l------='c.:46::.:7 ____
1 This drawing is not applicable to viaducts and tunnels. 7 Platform clearances are subject to maintenance of HMRI
2 All dimensions are in mm. stepping distances and specific requirement shall be
3 Track centres for a mixed traffic railway. calculated from the chosen kinematic envelope with an
4 Applicable only to straight and level track. allowance made for structural clearance.
5 Refer to GC{fW496 Requirements for Constructional Work 8 This dimension shall be calculated from the dimensions
on or near Railway Operational Land for Non-Railtrack associated with the chosen kinematic envelope with an
Contracts for the design of supports for structures built over allowance made for passing clearance. At the time of
or close to railway lines. calculating the required dimension an assessment shall be
6 It may be possible in tight situations to reduce the dimension made of traffic proposed for the route such that
marked with an asterisk, but only where alternative access is aerodynamic effects can be taken into account.
available, via a route in a petition of safety, connecting with 9 This dimension accommodates full UIC GC reference profile
the walkways each side of the structure or where the railway and assumes train speeds up to 300 km/h. Commercial
operates on a 'no person' basis, whereby staff are only considerations will dictate whether it is necessary to amend
allowed on the track when special protection measures are this dimension and contact wire height for the actual type
in place, and speed of vehicles proposed for the route.

f) New construction gauge (derived from the UIC GC reference profile)

411
 ~ boundary fo rplatform RAILWAYS
~ ~~ d station
awnmgs an which
footbridges
ru~ caters for 2 5kV UK Structure-
~see notes! I
~E
.C<=
IJ ID electrificatio Gauges and Clearances
-ru
0"'
rum ~
' Network Rail shall give consider-
'' • 1906
~]
ru-
.,m
c>-
~1
~·~
''
''
''
'
·' 0
columns
and other
; - fixed
works on
ation to passenger safety by lim-
iting the maximum stepping dis-
see note 11 ~ tance from the top edge of the
.emO>
""'
(!)

ruro
E"'
'''
''
'
~ \1
~~
see no!Q!
clear area
platforms,
including
faces of
buildings
platform to the top edge of the
step board or floor of passenger
~"E ' see note 12
''
Hl ~~- rolling stock.
'''
"'"
E ro
:£~ ' 16~ 1432 §lr:J\1 'i'~ The following maximum dimen-

~ -----
E.E '' ('2490) :;:
~
' I I I ~
I 00 •
rail Ieve I
sions for stepping distances,
calculated from the centre of the
I as far as is practicable
2090
this space t o be kept bottom of the door opening, shall
I'
'
2185
2340
("3196)
1.
centre~ line
of track
3400

8080
.i.
centre-ltne
of t~ack
2340
('3196)
clear of permanent
obstruction s, but may
be used for signalling
apparatus a nd bridge
girders
apply unless dispensation has
been sought from HSV/HMRI
for site specific cases relating
(•9 7 92 )
to identified rolling stock. All
This diagram illustrates minimum lateral and overhead shall be 2500mm for speeds up to 165km/h and for such cases must be recorded in
clearances to be adopted in construction or speeds greater than 165km/h the minimum dimension
reconstruction and for alterations or additions to shall be 3000 mm. The minimum distance to the face of writing and maintained for future
existing track and structures for line speeds up to any column shall be 2000mm. reference.
165km/h (!OOmph). Nearest face of all other structures including masts
All dimensions are in mm. carrying overhead line equipment of electrified
* The dimension to be used when line speed exceeds railways. horizontal 275 mm
165 km/h (100 mph). Nearest face of signal posts and other isolated
The clearance dimensions given are valid for straight structures less than 2m in length but excluding masts vertical 250mm
and level track only and due allowance must be made carrying overhead line equipment on electrified diagonal 350mm
for the effects of horizontal and vertical curvature, railways.
including super-elevation (cant). 10 Vertical clearances to the canopy above the platform
The standard structure gauge allows for overhead shall be 2500mm up to 2000mm minimum from the
electrification with voltages up to 25kV. However, to platform edge or up to 3000mm where the line speed
permit some flexibility in the design of overhead exceeds 165km/h. At distances beyond 2000mm or
equipment, the minimum dimension between rail level 3000mm from the platform edge, as applicable, the
and the underside of the structures should be minimum headroom shall be 2300mm.
increased, preferably to 4780mm or more if this can be 11 Platform clearances are subject to the maintenance of
achieved with reasonable economy. The proximity of HMRI stepping distances and specific requirements
track features such as level crossings or OHE shall be calculated from the particular kinematic
sectioning may require greater than 4780mm. envelope with an allowance made for structural
Permissible infringements in respect of conductor rail clearance. The minimum lateral dimension is 730mm
equipment, guard and check rails, train stops and and is shown for guidance.
structures in the space between adjacent tracks are not 12 Where reasonably practicable these dimensions shall
shown. be increased by 300 mm to facilitate the provision of an
The minimum dimensions of a single face platform access walkway in accordance with CC/RT5203
measured from the edge of the platform to the face of Infrastructure Requirements for Personal Safety in
the nearest building structure or platform furniture Respect of Clearance and Access.

8 Standard structure gauge

A B
centre-line
of adjacent
tracks
1700 1&21
(for standard 6 foot)
centre-line
of track

RAILWAYS
Tracks
Freight transport
Stations
Station buildings
Platforms rail level
Platform furniture

All dimensions are in mm. The minimum dimension of a key

The dimensions shown are for single face platform shall be
straight alignment and 2500 mm for speeds up to A abutments, piers, stanchions etc.
appropriate adjustments must 165km/h and for speeds greater (clear of platform)

.-.
be made for curvature. Except than 165km/h the minimum 8 columns and other works on
for dispensation which allows distance shall be increased to platforms
station platforms on curves
with a radius greater than 360m
3000 mm. The minimum - ~~eaar~ f~~~~ductor rails and
distance to the face of any
to be placed at standard column shall be 2000 mm. areas for guard and check rails
dimensions (as shown), the Platform clearances are subject only
amount of platform set-back for to the maintenance of HMRI
curves with a radius less than stepping distances and specific areas available for dwarf
360m shall be determined by requirements shall be calculated signals, bridge girders and
Network Rail. from the particular kinematic other lineside equipment
Bridge girders, dwarf signals envelope with an allowance
and other lineside equipment made for structural clearance. CD unhatched areas so marked are
for permanent way, signal
up to a height of 915mm ARL The minimum lateral dimension fittings and fourth rail
may be positioned in the space is 730 mm and is shown for electrification
available for platforms. guidance.

e Standard structure gauge applicable at and below 1089 mm above rail level (ARL)

412
 effective length
RAILWAYS
side platform
Freight Transport

effective length
end platform
I ramp gradient
1:12-1:20

Today rail-borne freight transport is a part of international goods

transport. In order to remain competitive with road transport,
rationalised loading and unloading systems (combined transport)
0 Plan of a loading ramp with head and side ramps with a slope of 1:12-1:20
have been developed.

Loading ramps
These can be head or side ramps situated in or next to stores
or logistics warehouses. The length is approx. 700 m in order to
load and unload entire trains. Clear opening width of entry doors
~3.35 m or for new buildings= 4.00 m. Inside buildings the railway
structure gauge (p. 408 --7 0) and the clear profile and swept
curves for HGV traffic (p. 461 and p. 398) should be considered.
Loading ramps: see also Supply and disposal (pp. 461-462).

rail freight platforms for loading, Side ramps, at which goods wagons are unloaded and loaded
unloading and transfer loading
through outward-opening doors, may not be higher than 1.10 m.
f) Profile of a loading road (top of rail to road level) The height must not exceed 1.00 m if the outward-opening doors
of passenger carriages may also have to be opened. Otherwise,
side ramps for the loading and unloading of wagons may, except
on main lines, be up to 1.20 m above the top of the rail. Details
of safety distances (for workplaces) according to GUV-VD 30.1
are also to be complied with. Storage and logistics warehouses
should be designed for the goods to be handled. Goods are
normally transported on pallets, as these are easier to load. For
logistics reasons, Europool pallets (abbreviated to Europallet) are
type A
mostly used (--7 p. 269). They are standardised according to UIC
e Section through a loading warehouse
Bulletin 435-2 of the International Union of Railways.

Combined transport
Code Container length Combined transport denotes the transport of the goods in one
(mm) ft' in'~ and the same transport unit (exchangeable container, container,
1 2991 10' semi-trailer) or it can be transported in the same road vehicle with
2 6056 20'
one or more transport methods. Starting with shipping, containers
3 9125 30'
4 12192 40'
have become universal for the transport of unit goods and are also
A 7150 increasingly used for bulk materials. They enable short handling
B 7315 24' times between the various means of transport on water, road
c 7430 and rail.
D 7450 24'6"
E 7620
The logistics centre is described as a combined or inter-modal
F 6100
G 12500 41' transport terminal and is mostly part of a freight centre. Portal
H 13106 43' cranes stack the containers automatically for intermediate storage
K 13600 and load them onto other vehicles.
L 13716 45'
Type4 48'
M 14630
Containers
Type 1 I Type3
N
p
14935
16154
49'
Containers used for international transport are predominantly
Type2
only USA 53' ISO containers with a width of 8ft (2.44 m) and a length of either RAILWAYS
Type2
only 57' 20 ft (6.06 m) or 40ft (12.19 m), with the abbreviated descriptions: Tracks
Type2 Type 1 I Type 1
USA'
*only m some states
TEU (fwenty-foot Equivalent Unit) and FEU (Forty-foot Equivalent
Freight
transport
Unit). Other lengths --7 0. Standard containers are 8 ft 6 in high Stations
G Modular system of ISO containers 0 Codes for container lengths (2.59 m), and 'High-Cube' (also described as HQ 'High-Quantity') Station buildings
Platforms
containers are 9 ft 6 in (2.90 m). The dimensions are chosen so Platform furniture
that containers can also be transported in most countries by truck
Container External dimensions Permissible
gross mass
or rail. In European land traffic, containers with a width of 2.50 m
description
Length Width Height
or 2.55 m are used (inland containers). Containers are so robustly
mm ft' in" mm ft'in" mm ft' in" kg
constructed that they can be stacked up nine high (load-bearing
1AAA 12192 40' 2438 8' 2696 9'6" 30460 capacity min. 4 fully loaded containers).
1AA 2591 8'6"
1A 2438 8' There are various special types of containers, like refrigerated
1AX <2436 <8' containers for perishable freight, tank containers for liquid and
1CC 6056 19' 2436 8' 2591 6' 6" 24000 gas loads, car containers for car transport and living containers
1C 10.5" 2438 6' for temporary accommodation. Another combined transport
1CX <2436 <8' possibility is the loading of complete trucks or road trailers onto
special wagons. This 'rolling road' or piggyback transport requires
External dimensions and weights of common types of 20 and 40 foot
only a ramp at the end of the track, because the trucks can drive
containers. The construction size of a 20 foot container Is a joint smaller, so that
shorter and longer containers can be stacked together. onto the train under their own power.

413
 J l!l i
i i
i !
:I
I

I ::
----•- ...
!
I
i ! i
i ! !
.........
i I I
I
! i
I RAILWAYS
Stations

-i:f:l
i i i
--++-1-
·--ri+ --·
i . i
D + Stations can be halts with a platform located next to a line without
points, or stations with at least one point so the trains can bypass
! i I
the station or turn. Stations are described according to the layout
li of the tracks and the location of the station building (depot).
;+
i !
T.
i
!
I
i
I
!
!
!
"!
1. Through station (most frequent layout, e.g. Cologne main
i I ! ! ! I station, Hannover main station) -1 e.
2. Terminus (e.g. Leipzig or Munich main stations) -1 8.
~ ~ 3. Multi-level station (e.g. OsnabrOck main station, Berlin main
0 A stop at an existing level f) Access for passengers over the station)
crossing to change side of tracks, only possible for small stations 4. Island station (station building between the tracks, e.g. Halle/
platform without trains passing through Saale main station) -1 0.

i The approach line to the station through the city can be at street
i level, on banks with roads passing underneath or in cuttings
i
i or tunnels with the streets passing over. The route alignment
leads to the location of the station -1 0 - e. with a low-level
arrangement being the most acceptable variant for urban planning
(e.g. the design for Stuttgart 21, conversion of the terminus to
an underground through station while still using the old station
building).

Design basics
The following principles apply to new building and also

~ ~
refurbishment (in order according to importance):
1. Operational safety and accident prevention
8 Station building over the G Station building of a terminus, ideally 2. Feeling of security and well-being
tracks. Bridge for passengers at track level. This is suitable only for
3. Simple orientation
and luggage. stations with no through traffic at all,
because otherwise too much track
4. Simple building maintenance
area is needed 5. Brand recognition/formation
6. Attractiveness of form
! !
i
ilt. ·_:· ~ i iI ! Stations should be designed to achieve the shortest possible

I.
i. !!••t! !I i. I
i
i
I
! walking distances to other forms of transport. Urban rail and
!!1Hi1 ••
i '
I
I i I 'TS underground stations should be under the station building if
i::!! i il : ·I im:: possible. Local public transport should be available as near as
i ••• !
i L1
'l' I
I
;I: + possible to the platform. It should be possible to park long term

~lli
I and taxis and private cars should be able to draw up.
......._.II
~ I--··
!I 1'1!!
! ll!!
ii
i
I •

! ~~f.--~-;! i
The station building contains areas leased to external leaseholders
11
r +r t (normally shops or services) in addition to the services operated by
the railway company, like a TraveiCentre, a ServicePoint, waiting
areas, a lounge (at large stations) and luggage storage.

RAILWAYS
0 Station building centrally located
below the tracks. Short routes,
e Station building below track level.
Tunnel for passengers and luggage.
Pedestrian underpasses and bridges
The minimum width of underpasses and bridges is 2.50 m. Larger
Tracks good waiting area lighting, Popular and effective layout with
widths should assume a multiple of the walking width of 0.80 m.
Freight transport otherwise as before level access The clearance height should be at least 2.50 m, but has to be only
Stations 2.25 m under supplementary installations.
Station buildings
Platforms
Platform furniture
Accessibility
If more than 1000 passengers per day catch a train, then at least
one barrier-free access (i.e. convenient for disabled passengers)
should be provided. Ramps are always available and maintenance-
free. Lifts should be pass-through (Roll-On Roll-Off principle)
with glazed cabins. The minimum size is regulated by the state
building regulations. It should also be possible to transport prams,
pushchairs, luggage trolleys and cycles without problems. Access
to the platform is permissible only along the platform with a
1.5 m x 1.5 m waiting area in front of the lift.

~~ Tactile and colour-contrasted guide strips should be provided

8 e Station building at the side at
track level. Tunnel for passengers
Station building below and between
the tracks, generous forecourt, short
on the floor. On the platforms, these mark potentially dangerous
areas. At stairs and ramp handrails, the platform numbering
(with slope) routes, otherwise as before should be applied in Braille.

414
 RAILWAYS
Station Buildings

Station buildings (German Railways uses the term reception

buildings) serve to connect the railway network to other means of
transport. The services offered in-house by the railway company
are limited to essentials like sales of tickets and tours, information
and taking care of luggage. Other services and shops are operated
by leaseholders in the station area -----> 0- e.
TraveiCentre
The TraveiCentre is for personal advice and the sale of tickets.
The fitting out is modular on a metre grid, and the smallest unit, a
counter, is 2 m x 3 m. The elements are delivered completely pre-
installed. The adjustable legs enable adaptation of the installation
and compensation for the height difference between the seated
staff and the standing passengers. The system can be completed
with various supplementary elements -----> e.
A sufficiently large area should be provided for waiting customers
with a free space in front of the counter. If there is more than
one counter, organise one centralised queue if possible. Ticket
machines are also provided to relieve the workload at the
e.
counter----->
0 Station aisle, Hannover
ServicePoint
The ServicePoint is the central source of information between
customer and service staff and is the direct point of contact for
Fahrkarten [OJ travellers. In order to cover the different requirements and local
conditions, a product family has been developed with three basic
types:

[ill] Travel service of DB 1. Singular type ServicePoint: free-standing in the reception building,
DB lounge
TravelCentre various sizes, modular, different layouts for 1---4 employees (for
liTITI} Station service of DB two workplaces LWH: 3.00 m x 5.00 m x 3.50 m).
Luggage storage
Courier service 2. Integrated type ServicePoint: within a fagade or inside the
Federal border pollee station building, adjacent to the TraveiCentre, for 1---4 employees
Station mission
E:] Service providers (LWH: 2.00 m x 2.60 m x 3.10 m for one workplace, with each
Tenant areas further workplace elongating the fixture by 1.70 m.)
Cafe
3. Mobile type ServicePoint: a rolling stand for flexible use in
~
Sanitary (WC/showers) 90
Travel requisites
the station building and also on platforms, for one employee
ESS] Store & building services ~ each (LHB: 0.90 m x 0.80 m x 2.30 m). These sizes are at the
f) Station aisle, Hannover- key Dimensions of free-standing ticket design stage and could still alter.
machine; can also be installed.

Stairs
The usable stair width should be a multiple of 80 em (walking
passage width) but at least 2.40 m clear. The stair width can also
be determined from the expected passenger numbers according
to the formula:
RAILWAYS
np Tracks
~n= +W Freight transport
vx d xt Stations
Station
nP no. passengers at peak travel time buildings
v m/s average walking speed =0.65 Platforms
Platform furniture
d people/m 2 pedestrian traffic density =1.0
t s time to clear the platform =120-180s
wm walking width in the other direction =0.80 m
for local and urban traffic =0.60 m

Stair dimensions, see-----> p. 120 ff. The waiting space in front of the
stairs should be 1.5 times the stair width. The first and last steps
must, and all other steps should, be provided with a 6 em wide
contrasting strip.

Escalators
From a passenger density of more than 3000 people per hour or,
with a difference in levels of 8 m, more than 500 people, escalators
should be provided. The minimum width should be 1 m in order to
e Modular fitting out system for the Travel Centre (DB --> refs) be able to transport luggage trolleys -----> p. 126 ff.

415
 RAILWAYS
Platforms
~-------

Widths
Platforms can be described, according to their location, as central
platforms (between two tracks) or side platforms (with only one
platform edge). The width of a platform is essentially derived from
the number of passengers. The decisive factors are the waiting
zone, the walking route width of 0.80 m and the width of the safety
zone, which is determined from the permissible highest speed of
trains passing through --7 0. The details of distances to the track
aF Minimum distance of fixed objects (e.g. columns) from the track centreline bed always relate to the track centre-line.
on the platform = 3.00 m
at the end of the platform = 2.50 m
aA Distance between platform structures and platform edge taking into The minimum widths are:
consideration barrier-free access width and the danger area b5
Side platforms = 2.50 m -1.65 m + 2 x 0.80 m = 2.45 m
next to short structures (e.g. columns) min. aA = bs + 0.90 m
next to longer structures with min. 1 entrance min. aA= b8 + 1.20 m Central platforms = 2 x (2.50 m- 1.65 m) + 2 x 0.80 m = 3.30 m
a8 Distance of the platform edge from the track edge
bmle Minimum width of the platform
bs Width of the danger area Platform heights and lengths
V ;3160 km/h b8 = 2.50 m- 1.65 m (for straight tracks) The heights of platforms are related to the top of rail level.
160 > V ;3 200 kmh bs = 3.00 m- 1.65 m (for straight tracks) Common values are 76 em, for local transport also 55 em, and for
br Clear width of stairs or ramps between the strings
w Width of the stair string (including cladding) urban rapid transit 96 em. Old platforms may still be 38 em high.
The heights and lengths of platforms depend on the expected
operational schedule --7 f). These lengths can be extended to
Track centreline
meet local requirements for signalling equipment.

Platform roofing
Guide strip
Three standard types of platform roofing are available for selection
according to the status of the station and cost of building.
to mark the
Systems which need only a short construction time in the danger
safety area
zone and place less stringent requirements on their foundations
Guide strip (frame construction on the table principle) are good, because they
disrupt scheduled services only for a short time. These closures
have a high cost for safety staff, the securing of the overhead wire
system and closing tracks.
Track centreline
Roof construction is based on a multiple of the 30 em grid
0 Platform widths and danger zones (standard 9 m) of the platform paving. The clear height should be
Platform
min. 3.25 m in order that a free height of 2.50 m remains under
classification
A A1 A2 A3 B B1 B2 c D
the suspended information system. Attention should be paid
Platform to the necessary queuing and waiting areas and the specified
standard 405 m 370m 320m 280m 210m 170m 140m 120m 60m distances to the track. The design of structures and of elements
length
hanging from the roof construction needs to take into account the
f) Platform lengths (A express, B local, C and D less significant halts). A full additional loading from buffeting by passing trains.
Inter-City Express (ICE) high-speed train needs 405 m and a half ICE train
210m

RAILWAYS
'II' I [J, 1111
I~ 4¢
[)
Tracks I u I I I I !I I I!
Freight transport
Stations
Station buildings Cross-section
Platforms
Platform furniture

e Standard platform with 'Zwiesel' type roof, plan and section

416
 RAILWAYS
Platform Furniture

The federal railway authority (EBA) is the approval body for

f- 60-l
structures built on areas dedicated to the railway. Small buildings
1--- 2.20 ----1 l-45-l 1- 1.10 -j
under 100 m2 require no building permission. It is normally
0 Space required by passengers
obligatory to select structural and fitting out elements from a
listed product portfolio, which has been optimised and tested
with regard to safety, maintenance expense and corporate
design.

Raster22®
DB Station&Service AG has developed the product-independent
Raster22 (Grid22) for weather protection systems, wall elements,

~~1t1 u ~-1: I
display cases and seating furniture. This is a dimension and
interface system (90 and 150 em) derived from the paving slab
module of 30 em. 12.5 em construction space is provided for
columns and connection elements, so that the remaining fields
of 77.5 or 137.5 em can be filled with installed elements like wall
panels or display cases. The dimensions of the display cases
j I
i are derived from the maximum size of a CityLight poster of
approx. 200 x 136 em. The vertical dimensions are taken from
f) Seating variants, free-standing and weather-protected (DB -> refs)
the grid dimension of the route guidance elements of 12.5 em.
This grid system enables construction elements from various
manufacturers to be combined and simplifies the design of
connections and foundations. Two product families of seating
furniture are available, a bench and an individual seat system.
Various types of fixing and seating made of 4 mm wire (weather-
and vandalism-resistant), or plywood rails for indoors, offer
various possible uses.
8 Platform furnishings according to Raster22

-Hfr:;_:;:;:,,~
.. ,:; ;.,:;:;:., -=-::-::=.-::::ll.F===l- "'
:::::::::::: 1; lO ~
:-:-:-:-:-~:~:~ -;:;:;:;:;:;;:;:;:;::;:;:;jl· - - - - - +- ~ f)! ~
Q Variants of roofs for weather protection ············
....
-'-~'-'..:....0....0.'-'

············
............
············
............ ....
............
...

•
..
..
--+1.50
.....
=eye level ........... ...
············ ------f------- ~

Citylight poster Timetable Timetable Timetable

AO square AO landscape A1 portrait RAILWAYS

Display cases for various poster and timetable formats. In back-lit display 0 Raster22 vertical module
Tracks
Freight transport
cases, the gap to the paper dimensions is made up with transparent surrounds. Stations
The vertical dimensions should enable short people to read the posters Station buildings
(DB-> refs) Platforms
Platform
furniture

f---------7.50 ----------1

rr:.:.:~==.~
"' i I I
:-r~-r
i
·, - - -
i. - -- ii3:
i -
~•
"'

11 =:c - _;/~M"'t:::~;"""_ e=:.~=t =ell J

f-----------7.625 - - - - - - - - - - - 1

e Weather and wind protection type T-in-U for central platforms (DB -> refs) e Raster22 plan module (DB -> refs)

417
 National airport AVIATION
Basics

The aviation market

The wave of privatisation in aviation (airlines, airports, etc.) has
created a complex market with hard competition. The passenger
transport segment (business and holiday flights, either scheduled
or charter) is differentiated from the air freight sector, and each
is split into the geographical segments Germany, Europe and
outside Europe. Highly varied business strategies are pursued by
the airlines with the main differences being speed (flight times,
National flight durations, rapid transfers) and price~ 0. For example, the
feeder flight
'Hub-and-Spoke' model: major 'international' airports (hubs) are
connected by large planes and the spokes are represented by
the regional connections to national airports. In order to reduce
Cheap
flight waiting time for transfers, flights are bundled at certain times of
day into 'nodes' ~ 0.

The 'cheap flight' model: these use low-cost airports (few

runways) and cheap slots (unfavourable flight times) and are flown
with medium-sized planes.

0 Aviation as part of the inter-modal transport network The traditional income source for airports, their take-off and
landing fees, are becoming ever less significant in contrast to
rent received for commercial and office space at the airport. This
development is having a great influence on modern airport design
Elz iJtM and architecture.

ICAO Convention The design basis for the construction and operation
of airports is the provisions of annex 14, volume 1 of
the Convention of the International Civil Aviation
Organisation (ICAO) as the basis for national laws.
The International Civil Aviation Organisation (ICAO) is a
specialised agency of the United Nations responsible for
the planning of civil aviation. Over 180 countries belong
to the ICAO. Germany is represented by a permanent
delegation from the federal ministry of transport,
building and housing. The tasks of the ICAO include the
standardisation and safety of aviation, the development of
Aschaffenburg
infrastructures and the production of recommendations and

t~
guidelines. The ICAO also allots the ICAO codes.

Public planning law (National) public planning law includes approval

conditions for the construction of airports. This normally
Mlhl d affects large-scale projects with regional significance, for
c.e;t
0 which a regional planning procedure with additional
-@ Airtield conditions (e.g. environmental impact assessment,
landscape impact and mitigation) is required--> p. 56 .
.SAirport
~ Passenger airport Aviation noise law etc. Because of the environmental nuisance produced by an
airport (noise, emissions, etc., see below), the construction
and operation are subject to many further environmental
laws. (e.g. airport regulations, aviation noise law).

t) Planning basics
AVIATION
Basics
Airports Environmental aspects
Runways As part of the planning and approval process, the design of an
Terminals
Apron airport has to consider many aspects of environmental protection
Aeroplanes (environmental impact assessment, landscape impact and
Convention of
mitigation plan, etc.). In addition to the transport connection, the
the International 18:00 24:00 noise nuisance from the airport is a central evaluation criterion,
Civil Aviation
Organisation G Node system at a major airport (hub): no. flights I time of day with corresponding thresholds. The area on the ground where the
(ICAO), annex take-off or landing of a plane produces a certain level of noise
14, volume 1 specific to the plane is called the noise carpet.
Aviation Law
Building Law
(BauGB) In addition, the daily operation of an airport is connected with
15
Airport a range of environmental problems. This particularly concerns
regulations
Aviation Noise 10 noise reduction (e.g. through night flying restrictions, noise-
Law related fee structures, construction sound insulation measures),
groundwater protection (e.g. through rainwater retention basins
to control the surface water run-off from airside paving, sparing
120 110 100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 Planned use of environmentally harmful chemicals (de-icing agents for
Minutes before departure take-off time
planes and runways), energy- and environmental management
0 Arrival time of passengers before a scheduled flight and waste management).

418
 AVIATION
Airports

Urban railway

Runway Hotel
Terminal

Terminal

0 Scheme of an airport showing functional areas, based on Munich airport,

approx. scale 1 :4000 (Fiughafens Miinchen --> refs)
Categorisation of airfields
The term airport, according to Aviation Law, is a general term for:

- airports (with surrounding area subject to additional building

regulations)
- airfields (perhaps with a limited surrounding area subject to
additional building regulations)
- glider airfields, heliports

Airports and airfields are divided into transport and special

airports and airfields, either accessible for every aviator or
serving special purposes (e.g. airfields belonging to companies
or flying clubs).

Design parameters for an airport -7 0

Runway system: the number and arrangement (spacing) of the
(j) Terminal take-off and landing runways determines the possible number of
® Tank stores movements per unit of time -7 p. 420.
@ Aircraft maint.
@ Air freight Terminal: (handling, check-in and customs building) the capacity
®Industry of the handling system for passengers and baggage or the freight
® Residential area <l. -- 1022... 2000
flow per unit of time is determined by the following parameters:
f) Frankfurt am Main airport (Riehl --> refs)- not for navigational purposes connections to ground transport (main line trains, urban rail, car
parking, length of approach roads); passenger handling (number
of check-in counters); baggage handling (number of counters and AVIATION

capacity of the transport system); and the organisation of passport Basics

Airports
control, security controls, access controls before boarding (size of Runways
waiting rooms, number of gates) -7 p. 421. Terminals
Apron
Apron: the term apron includes parking ramps for planes with Aeroplanes