Oracle Database PDF

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Oracle Database/Print version
Contents
1 Introduction
1.1 Installing Oracle
1.1.1 Starting script
1.1.2 Identifying system requirements
1.2 References
2 Database Interfaces
2.1 SQL*Plus
2.2 Web interface
2.3 Oracle SQL Developer
2.4 DBCA
2.5 Hello world
2.6 References
3 Tables
3.1 Architecture
3.2 Create tablespaces
3.3 Create schemas
3.4 List tables
3.5 Create tables
3.6 Available data types
3.7 Reviewing the table structure
3.8 Modify tables structure
3.9 Drop tables
3.10 Insert rows
3.11 Read a table
3.12 Update rows
3.13 Delete rows
3.14 Partitioning
3.14.1 Range
3.14.2 Hash
3.14.3 List
3.14.4 Interval
3.15 Explaining how constraints are created at the time of table creation
3.16 References
4 SELECT Statement
4.1 Listing the capabilities of SQL SELECT statements
4.2 Executing a basic SELECT statement
4.3 Describing various types of conversion functions that are available in SQL
4.4 Using the TO_CHAR, TO_NUMBER, and TO_DATE conversion functions
4.5 Applying conditional expressions in a SELECT statement
4.6 Describing various types of functions available in SQL
4.7 Using character, number, and date functions in SELECT statements
4.8 Identifying the available group functions
4.9 Describing the use of group functions
4.10 Grouping data by using the GROUP BY clause
4.11 Including or excluding grouped rows by using the HAVING clause
4.12 Writing SELECT statements to access data from more than one table using equijoins and nonequijoins
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4.13 Joining a table to itself by using a self-join

4.14 Viewing data that generally does not meet a join condition by using outer joins
4.15 Generating a Cartesian product of all rows from two or more tables
5 Restricting and Sorting Data
5.1 Limiting the rows that are retrieved by a query
5.2 Sorting the rows that are retrieved by a query
5.3 Using ampersand substitution to restrict and sort output at runtime
6 Controlling
6.1 Start and stop iSQL*Plus
6.2 Start and stop Enterprise Manager (EM) Database Control
6.3 Start and stop the Oracle Listener
6.4 Start up and shut down Oracle Database 10g
6.5 Startup and shutdown options for Oracle Database
6.6 Handling parameter files
6.7 Locating and viewing the Database alert log
7 Storage Structures
7.1 The purpose of tablespaces and datafiles
7.2 Creating tablespaces
7.3 Managing tablespaces (alter, drop, generate DDL, take offline, put on line, add data files, make
read-only/read-write)
7.4 Obtaining tablespace information from EM and the data dictionary views
7.5 Dropping tablespaces
7.6 The default tablespaces
8 Administering Users
8.1 Creating and managing database user accounts
8.1.1 Adding users
8.1.2 Removing users
8.2 Creating and managing roles
8.3 Granting and revoking privileges
8.4 Controlling resource usage by users
9 Managing Schema Objects
9.1 Creating and modifying tables
9.2 Defining constraints
9.3 Viewing the attributes of a table
9.4 Viewing the contents of a table
9.5 Creating indexes and views
9.6 Naming database objects
9.7 Selecting appropriate datatypes
9.8 Creating and using sequences
9.9 Adding constraints
9.10 Creating indexes
9.11 Creating indexes using the CREATE TABLE statement
9.12 Creating function-based indexes
9.13 Dropping columns and set column UNUSED
9.14 Performing FLASHBACK operations
9.15 Creating and using external tables
10 Managing Data
10.1 Manipulating data through SQL using INSERT, UPDATE, and DELETE
10.2 Using Data Pump to export data
10.3 Using Data Pump to import data
10.4 Loading data with SQL*Loader
10.5 Creating directory objects
11 Views
11.1 Creating simple and complex views
11.2 Retrieving data from views
11.3 Creating, maintaining, and using sequences
11.4 Creating and maintaining indexes
11.5 Creating private and public synonyms
11.6 Dictionary views
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11.6.1 Explaining the data dictionary

11.6.2 Finding table information
11.6.3 Reporting on column information
11.6.4 Viewing constraint information
11.6.5 Finding view information
11.6.6 Verifying sequence information
11.6.7 Understanding synonyms
11.6.8 Adding comments
12 SQL
12.1 Retrieving Data Using the SQL SELECT Statement
12.1.1 List the capabilities of SQL SELECT statements
12.1.2 Execute a basic SELECT statement
12.2 Restricting and Sorting Data
12.2.1 Limit the rows that are retrieved by a query
12.2.2 Sort the rows that are retrieved by a query
12.2.3 Use ampersand substitution to restrict and sort output at runtime
12.3 Using Single-Row Functions to Customize Output
12.3.1 Describe various types of functions available in SQL
12.3.2 Use character, number, and date functions in SELECT statements
12.4 Using Conversion Functions and Conditional Expressions
12.4.1 Describe various types of conversion functions that are available in SQL
12.4.2 Use the TO_CHAR, TO_NUMBER, and TO_DATE conversion functions
12.4.3 Apply conditional expressions in a SELECT statement
12.5 Reporting Aggregated Data Using the Group Functions
12.5.1 Identify the available Group Functions
12.5.2 Describe the use of group functions
12.5.3 Group data by using the GROUP BY clause
12.5.4 Include or exclude grouped rows by using the HAVING clause
12.6 Displaying Data from Multiple Tables
12.6.1 Write SELECT statements to access data from more than one table using equijoins and
nonequijoins
12.6.2 Join a table to itself by using a self-join
12.6.3 View data that generally does not meet a join condition by using outer joins
12.6.4 Generate a Cartesian product of all rows from two or more tables
12.7 Using Subqueries to Solve Queries
12.7.1 Define subqueries
12.7.2 Describe the types of problems that the subqueries can solve
12.7.3 List the types of subqueries
12.7.4 Write single-row and multiple-row subqueries
12.8 Using the Set Operators
12.8.1 Describe set operators
12.8.2 Use a set operator to combine multiple queries into a single query
12.8.3 Control the order of rows returned
12.9 Manipulating Data
12.9.1 Describe each data manipulation language (DML) statement
12.9.2 Insert rows into a table
12.9.3 Delete rows from a table
12.9.4 Update rows in a table
12.10 Using a set operator to combine multiple queries into a single query
12.11 Controlling the order of rows returned
12.12 Defining subqueries
12.13 Describing the types of problems that the subqueries can solve
12.14 Listing the types of subqueries
12.15 Writing single-row and multiple-row subqueries
12.16 Controlling transactions
12.17 Using DDL Statements to Create and Manage Tables
12.17.1 Categorize the main database objects
12.17.2 Review the table structure
12.17.3 List the data types that are available for columns
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12.17.4 Create a simple table

12.17.5 Explain how constraints are created at the time of table creation
12.17.6 Describe how schema objects work
12.18 Creating Other Schema Objects
12.18.1 Create simple and complex views
12.18.2 Retrieve data from views
12.18.3 Create, maintain, and use sequences
12.18.4 Create and maintain indexes
12.18.5 Create private and public synonyms
12.19 Controlling User Access
12.19.1 Differentiate system privileges from object privileges
12.19.2 Grant privileges on tables
12.19.3 View privileges in the data dictionary
12.19.4 Grant roles
12.19.5 Distinguish between privileges and roles
12.20 Managing Schema Objects
12.20.1 Add constraints
12.20.2 Create indexes
12.20.3 Create indexes using the CREATE TABLE statement
12.20.4 Create function-based indexes
12.20.5 Drop columns and set column UNUSED
12.20.6 Perform FLASHBACK operations
12.20.7 Create and use external tables
12.21 Managing Objects with Data Dictionary Views
12.21.1 Explain the data dictionary
12.21.2 Find table information
12.21.3 Report on column information
12.21.4 View constraint information
12.21.5 Find view information
12.21.6 Verify sequence information
12.21.7 Understand synonyms
12.21.8 Add comments
12.22 Manipulating Large Data Sets
12.22.1 Manipulate data using sub-queries
12.22.2 Describe the features of multi-table inserts
12.22.3 Use the different types of multi-table inserts
12.22.4 Merge rows in a table
12.22.5 Track the changes to data over a period of time
12.23 Managing Data in Different Time Zones
12.23.1 Use data types similar to DATE that store fractional seconds and track time zones
12.23.2 Use data types that store the difference between two date-time values
12.23.3 Practice using the multiple data-time functions for globalize applications
12.24 Retrieving Data Using Sub-queries
12.24.1 Write a multiple-column sub-query
12.24.2 Use scalar sub-queries in SQL
12.24.3 Solve problems with correlated sub-queries
12.24.4 Update and delete rows using correlated sub-queries
12.24.5 Use the EXISTS and NOT EXISTS operators
12.24.6 Use the WITH clause
12.25 Write a multiple-column sub-query
12.26 Use scalar sub-queries in SQL
12.27 Solve problems with correlated sub-queries
12.28 Update and delete rows using correlated sub-queries
12.29 Use the EXISTS and NOT EXISTS operators
12.30 Use the WITH clause
12.31 Hierarchical Query
12.32 Regular Expression Support
12.32.1 List the benefits of using regular expressions
12.32.2 Use regular expressions to search for, match, and replace strings
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13 PL/SQL
13.1 PL/SQL
13.1.1 Introduction
13.1.2 Advantages of PL/SQL
13.1.3 Limitation
13.1.4 Basic Structure
13.1.5 PL/SQL Placeholders
13.1.5.1 PL/SQL Variables
13.1.5.2 PL/SQL Records
13.1.5.3 Scope of Variables and Records
13.1.5.4 PL/SQL Constants
13.1.6 PL/SQL Conditional Statements
13.1.7 PL/SQL Iterative Statements
13.1.8 PL/SQL Cursors
13.1.8.1 Implicit cursor:
13.1.8.2 Explicit cursor:
13.1.9 PL/SQL Exception Handling
13.1.10 PL/SQL Procedures
13.1.11 PL/SQL Functions
13.1.12 Parameters-Procedure, Function
13.1.13 PL/SQL Triggers
14 Multimedia Databases
14.1 Description
14.2 Utilization
14.3 References
15 Spatiotemporal Databases
15.1 Spatial data
15.2 Objects
15.3 Spatiotemporal data
15.4 Indexation
15.5 Link with the GIS
15.6 Examples
15.7 References
16 10g Advanced SQL
17 Joins
17.1 NATURAL JOIN
17.2 INNER JOIN
17.3 OUTER JOIN
17.3.1 FULL OUTER JOIN
17.3.2 LEFT OUTER JOIN
17.3.3 RIGHT OUTER JOIN
18 Subqueries
18.1 Operators
18.1.1 UNION [ALL]
18.1.2 MINUS
18.1.3 INTERSECT
19 Case Statements
19.1 Basic Usage
19.2 Searched Case
20 Regular Expression Support
20.1 List the benefits of using regular expressions
20.2 Use regular expressions to search for, match, and replace strings
20.2.1 REGEXP_LIKE
20.2.2 REGEXP_INSTR
20.2.3 REGEXP_SUBSTR
20.2.4 REGEXP_COUNT
21 Security
21.1 Applying the principle privilege
21.2 Managing accounts
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21.3 Implementing standard password security features

21.4 Auditing database activity
21.5 Registering for security updates
21.6 Differentiating system privileges from object privileges
21.7 Granting privileges on tables
21.8 Viewing privileges in the data dictionary
21.9 Granting roles
21.10 Distinguishing between privileges and roles
22 Net Services
22.1 Using Database Control to create additional listeners
22.2 Using Database Control to create Oracle Net service aliases
22.3 Using Database Control to configure connect time failover
22.4 Using Listener features
22.5 Using the Oracle Net Manager to configure client and middle-tier connections
22.6 Using TNSPING to test Oracle Net connectivity
22.7 Describing Oracle Net Services
22.8 Describing Oracle Net names resolution methods
23 Shared Servers
23.1 Identifying when to use Oracle Shared Servers
23.2 Configuring Oracle Shared Servers
23.3 Monitoring Shared Servers
23.4 Describing the Shared Server architecture
23.5 References
24 Performance Monitoring
24.1 Troubleshooting invalid and unusable objects
24.2 Gathering optimizer statistics
24.3 Viewing performance metrics
24.4 Reacting to performance issues
25 Proactive Maintenance
25.1 Setting warning and critical alert thresholds
25.2 Collecting and using baseline metrics
25.3 Using tuning and diagnostic advisors
25.4 Using the Automatic Database Diagnostic Monitor (ADDM)
25.5 Managing the Automatic Workload Repository
25.6 Describing server-generated alerts
26 Undo Management
26.1 Monitoring and administering undo
26.2 Configuring undo retention
26.3 Guaranteeing undo retention
26.4 Using the Undo Advisor
26.5 Describing the relationship between undo and transactions
26.6 Sizing the undo tablespace
27 Monitoring and Resolving Lock Conflicts
27.1 Detecting and resolving lock conflicts
27.2 Managing deadlocks
27.3 Describing the relationship between transactions and locks
27.4 Explaining lock modes
28 Backup and Recovery Concepts
28.1 Describing the basics of database backup, restore, and recovery
28.2 Describing the types of failure that can occur in an Oracle database
28.3 Describing ways to tune instance recovery
28.4 Identifying the importance of checkpoints, redo log files, and archived log files
28.5 Configuring ARCHIVELOG mode
28.6 Configuring a database for recoverability
29 Backups
29.1 Creating consistent database backups
29.2 Backing up your database without shutting it down
29.3 Creating incremental backups
29.4 Automating database backups
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29.5 Monitoring the Flash Recovery area

29.6 Describing the difference between image copies and backup sets
29.7 Describing the different types of database backups
29.8 Backing up a control file to trace
29.9 Managing backups
30 Recovery
30.1 Recovering from loss of a control file
30.2 Recovering from loss of a redo log file
30.3 Recovering from loss of a system-critical datafile
30.4 Recovering from loss of a non–system-critical datafile
31 XML Cheatsheet
32 DBMS_XMLGEN
32.1 Overview
32.2 Functions
32.2.1 getXML()
32.2.2 setRowSetTag()
32.2.3 setRowTag()
32.3 Examples
32.3.1 Dumping a Query Result as XML
33 SQL Cheatsheet
33.1 SELECT
33.2 SELECT INTO
33.3 INSERT
33.4 DELETE
33.5 UPDATE
33.6 SEQUENCES
33.6.1 CREATE SEQUENCE
33.6.2 ALTER SEQUENCE
33.7 Generate query from a string
33.8 String operations
33.8.1 Length
33.8.2 Instr
33.8.3 Replace
33.8.4 Substr
33.8.5 Trim
33.9 DDL SQL
33.9.1 Tables
33.9.1.1 Create table
33.9.1.2 Add column
33.9.1.3 Modify column
33.9.1.4 Drop column
33.9.1.5 Constraints
33.9.1.5.1 Constraint types and codes
33.9.1.5.2 Displaying constraints
33.9.1.5.3 Selecting referential constraints
33.9.1.5.4 Setting constraints on a table
33.9.1.5.5 Unique Index on a table
33.9.1.5.6 Adding unique constraints
33.9.1.5.7 Deleting constraints
33.9.2 INDEXES
33.9.2.1 Create an index
33.9.2.2 Create a function-based index
33.9.2.3 Rename an Index
33.9.2.4 Collect statistics on an index
33.9.2.5 Drop an index
33.10 DBA Related
33.10.1 User Management
33.10.1.1 Creating a user
33.10.1.2 Granting privileges
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33.10.1.3 Change password

33.10.2 Importing and exporting
33.10.2.1 Import a dump file using IMP
33.11 PL/SQL
33.11.1 Operators
33.11.1.1 Arithmetic operators
33.11.1.1.1 Examples
33.11.1.2 Comparison operators
33.11.1.2.1 Examples
33.11.1.3 String operators
33.11.1.4 Date operators
33.11.2 Types
33.11.2.1 Basic PL/SQL Types
33.11.2.2 %TYPE - anchored type variable declaration
33.11.2.3 Collections
33.11.3 Stored logic
33.11.3.1 Functions
33.11.3.2 Procedures
33.11.3.3 anonymous block
33.11.3.4 Passing parameters to stored logic
33.11.3.4.1 Positional notation
33.11.3.4.2 Named notation
33.11.3.4.3 Mixed notation
33.11.3.5 Table functions
33.11.4 Flow control
33.11.4.1 Conditional Operators
33.11.4.2 Example
33.11.4.3 If/then/else
33.11.5 Arrays
33.11.5.1 Associative arrays
33.11.5.2 Example
33.12 APEX
33.12.1 String substitution
33.13 External links
33.14 More Wikibooks
Introduction
Oracle RDBMS is one of the most used relational database system[1]. Its request language is called the PL/SQL.
Installing Oracle
As with most software products, it must be installed; Windows, Linux and Unix versions are available for use, and there are
four editions available.
Express Edition (XE)download (http://www.oracle.com/technetwork/database/database-technologies/express-edition/downloads

/index.html) is free but uses a slightly older version of the Oracle database engine, and has upper RAM and storage limits
of 4 GB in mono-processor. It is not available for Unix and needs to register online.
Standard Edition One removes the basic limitations for storage, and will support multi-cpu systems.
Standard Edition (SE) provides additional features pertaining to cluster management (Oracle Real Application
Clusters, alias Oracle RAC), and may be run on systems containing additional CPUs.
Enterprise Edition has no limitations, and may also include optional features that are suitable to large corporations.
Once downloaded, the .zip file(s) must be extracted, if they are two their folders must be merged (they are named "database"),
and launch to install:
In Linux, runInstaller.sh.
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In Windows, setup.exe.
Starting script
Oracle Database launches automatically at each boot, which slows the system significantly. To avoid this:
In Linux : check /etc/init.d.

In Windows : execute services.msc, and toggle the services OracleServiceXE and OracleXETNSListener in manual
start. When you need to use Oracle, launch as an administrator, the following script Oracle.cmd:
For the XE version:
net start OracleServiceXE

net start OracleXETNSListener
pause
net stop OracleXETNSListener
net stop OracleServiceXE
For the SE version:
net start OracleServiceORCL

net start OracleDB12Home1TNSListener
pause
net stop OracleDB12Home1TNSListener
net stop OracleServiceORCL
If the message "Access denied" occurs, relaunch the script with a right click, as an administrator.
Identifying system requirements
The database server needs at least[2]:
1. 1 GB free space on a hard drive for XE, 3.5 for SE.

2. 1 GB RAM.
3. Windows, Linux, Oracle Solaris, or IBM AIX.
Since the version 12c, a 64 bits processor is mandatory.
The environment variables settings are automatic.
The system objects naming follows the Optimal Flexible Architecture (OFA). [3]
References
1. http://db-engines.com/en/ranking
2. https://docs.oracle.com/html/B13614_01/preinsta.htm#i1067829
3. https://docs.oracle.com/cd/E11882_01/install.112/e47689/appendix_ofa.htm#LADBI1381
Database Interfaces
SQL*Plus
SQL*Plus is a command interface provided with the DBMS. On Windows it can be launched either from:
The start menu, Oracle folder, Run SQL Command Line shortcut.
The path C:\oraclexe\app\oracle\product\11.2.0\server\bin\sqlplus.exe.
But the best is to use the environment variable and to connect to the DBMS at the same time, with a shell console. By
default it can be done with:
sqlplus / as sysdba
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Otherwise if you already have an account, the syntax is:
sqlplus MyAccount/MyPassword@localhost
The first step is to create a user (eg: root):
CREATE USER root IDENTIFIED BY MyPassword;
The second to confer him the necessary privileges:
GRANT sysdba to root;
Web interface
A second interface is provided with the DBMS: the web interface. It can be accessed from:
For SE 12c :
https://localhost:5500/em/shell
For XE 11g :
The start menu, Oracle folder, Get Started shortcut.
The URL http://localhost:8080/apex/f?p=4950.
For XE 10g :
The start menu, Oracle folder, Database control.
http://localhost:1158/em/console/logon/logon.
Then we must connect to the DBMS:
User name: sys (sometimes sysman)

Password: the one chosen during the installation.
Connect as: SYSDBA.
The console appears after, allowing to modify the database configuration (service restart, architecture, performances,
backups...).
By clicking on Application Express, we can optionally create a new connection user account, which will be used to connect to
Oracle. Once logged, it can access to some the database manipulation tools, for example SQL Workshop\SQL Commands to
enter some SQL code.
Attention: if you create a first account with the GUI, they will need the default SQL*Plus account for GRANT.
Oracle SQL Developer

Oracle SQL Developer is an IDE developed in Java. It's provided with SE, but for XE the rich client must be downloaded on
http://www.oracle.com/technetwork/developer-tools/sql-developer/overview/index.html.
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Once installed and launched, we have to set a connection to let it be authenticated on the Oracle databases. Just fill the
account created on the web interface, to access to the data manipulation options.
For example by clicking on the top left on New (the plus icon or CTRL + N), we can open an SQL file to begin to execute
some code.
DBCA
Database Configuration Assistant (DBCA) is a graphical interface[1] available on Windows or the *nixes[2] .
Hello world
Once one SQL console of those seen previously launched, it becomes possible to execute some PL/SQL (Procedural
Language/Structured Query Language): the procedural language created by Oracle, and specific to its relational database.
BEGIN
DBMS_OUTPUT.put_line ('Hello World!');
END;
References
1. http://www.snapdba.com/2013/05/creating-an-oracle-11g-database-using-dbca-non-asm/
2. http://docs.oracle.com/cd/B16351_01/doc/server.102/b14196/install003.htm
Tables
Architecture
The Oracle architecture considers one database per server, in which we can find several tablespaces, equivalent to the MySQL
and MS-SQL databases objects, containing tables and stored procedures.
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In the Windows Express version, these data are stored into C:\oraclexe\app\oracle\oradata\XE.
These variables and keywords are not sensible to casing.
Create tablespaces
Once connected, it's possible to begin to create some tables directly, in the default tablespace. However before, we can add
some tablespaces in some defined files:
CREATE TABLESPACE Wikibooks

DATAFILE 'C:\oraclexe\app\oracle\oradata\XE\Wikibooks.dbf' size 10M reuse
DEFAULT STORAGE (INITIAL 10K NEXT 50K MINEXTENTS 1 MAXEXTENTS 999)
ONLINE;
Create schemas
A schema is a permission accorded to a set of elements[1], like tables and stored procedures. The keyword AUTHORIZATION
specifies the user name:
CREATE SCHEMA AUTHORIZATION root

CREATE TABLE table1...
CREATE TABLE table2...
;
List tables
SELECT owner, table_name FROM all_tables;
Create tables
Example:
CREATE TABLE client1 (last VARCHAR(10), first VARCHAR(10), address VARCHAR(20) );
Table created.
In SQL Developer, with a right click on the tables, New table..., we can generate and execute this creation in an array, which is
translated into PL/SQL in the DDL tab:
CREATE TABLE client1

( id INT NOT NULL
, last VARCHAR2(50)
, first VARCHAR2(50)
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, address VARCHAR2(255)
, CONSTRAINT client1_PK PRIMARY KEY (ID) ENABLE
) TABLESPACE Wikibooks;
We can also set the table tablespace, by selecting it into the GUI, or with the keyword TABLESPACE in the creation clause.
Available data types

The possible column types are:[2]
1. Characters:
1. CHAR: 2 kB.
2. VARCHAR: 4 kB.
3. VARCHAR2: 4 kB, synonymous of VARCHAR.
4. NCHAR: 2 kB.
5. NVARCHAR2: 4 kB.
2. Numeric:
1. NUMBER.
2. BINARY_INTEGER.
3. BINARY_FLOAT.
4. BINARY_DOUBLE.
3. Date:
1. DATE.
2. TIMESTAMP.
4. RAW.
5. LONG RAW.
6. BLOB.
7. CLOB.
8. NCLOB.
9. ROWID.
10. UROWID.
11. BFILE.
12. XMLType.
13. UriType.
Reviewing the table structure

The table ALL_TAB_COLUMNS can provide any table column type:
SELECT * FROM ALL_TAB_COLUMNS WHERE TABLE_NAME = "client1"
Modify tables structure

Example of renaming:
ALTER TABLE client1 RENAME to client2
First field values constraint addition:
ALTER TABLE client1 CHECK id > 1;
Primary key addition:
ALTER TABLE client1 ADD CONSTRAINT client1_pk PRIMARY KEY (id);
Primary key removal:
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ALTER TABLE client1 ADD PRIMARY KEY (id) DISABLE;
Foreign key addition:
ALTER TABLE client1

ADD CONSTRAINT fk_client2
FOREIGN KEY (client2_id)
REFERENCES client2(id);
Drop tables
DROP TABLE client1;
Insert rows
INSERT INTO client1 (last, first, address) VALUES ('Doe', 'Jane', 'UK'), ('Doe', 'Jane', 'UK');
1 line created.
Read a table
To get its structure:
desc client1;
Name NULL Type

------- -------- -------------
ID NOT NULL NUMBER(38)
LAST VARCHAR2(10)
FIRST VARCHAR2(10)
ADDRESS VARCHAR2(20)
If the table doesn't exist, the error which occurs is: ORA-00923: FROM keyword not found where expected.
To get its content:
SELECT * from client1;
LAST FIRST ADDRESS

---------- ---------- --------------------
Doe Jane UK
The number of dashes represents the field size.
Update rows
UPDATE client1 SET address = 'US' WHERE id = 1;
Delete rows
DELETE client1 WHERE ID = 2;
Partitioning
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The Oracle partitioning is a process to split a huge table into several smaller ones in order to increase its performance.
Range
Example:
CREATE TABLE t_range

( t1 VARCHAR2(10) NOT NULL,
t2 NUMBER NOT NULL,
t3 NUMBER
)
PARTITION BY RANGE (t2)
( PARTITION part1 VALUES LESS THAN (1),
PARTITION part2 VALUES LESS THAN (11),
PARTITION part3 VALUES LESS THAN (MAXVALUE)
);
Hash
Example:
CREATE TABLE t_hash

( t1 VARCHAR2(10) NOT NULL,
t2 NUMBER NOT NULL,
t3 NUMBER
PARTITION BY HASH (t2)
PARTITIONS 4
;
List
Example:
CREATE TABLE t_list

( ort VARCHAR2(30) NOT NULL,
t2 NUMBER,
t3 NUMBER
)
PARTITION BY LIST(ort)
( PARTITION part_nord VALUES IN ('Hamburg','Berlin'),
PARTITION part_sued VALUES IN ('Muenchen', 'Nuernberg'),
PARTITION part_west VALUES IN ('Koeln','Duesseldorf'),
PARTITION part_ost VALUES IN ('Halle'),
PARTITION part_def VALUES (DEFAULT)
);
Interval
Example:
CREATE TABLE t_interval

( buchungs_datum DATE NOT NULL,
buchungs_text VARCHAR2(100),
betrag NUMBER(10,2)
)
PARTITION BY RANGE (buchungs_datum)
INTERVAL(NUMTOYMINTERVAL(1, 'MONTH'))
( PARTITION p_historie VALUES LESS THAN (TO_DATE('2014.01.01', 'YYYY.MM.DD')),
PARTITION p_2014_01 VALUES LESS THAN (TO_DATE('2014.02.01', 'YYYY.MM.DD')),
PARTITION p_2014_02 VALUES LESS THAN (TO_DATE('2014.03.01', 'YYYY.MM.DD'))
);
Explaining how constraints are created at the time of table creation

Concept In essence, constraints safeguard and validate the data.
Primary Key and Unique constraints both ensure the data is not duplicated. Primary Key also ensure the data is not null.
Oracle will automatically generate index for Primary Key and Unique constraints. A table can only have one Primary Key, but
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it can have multiple unique constraints.
Foreign Key ensure the data exists in the column of the parent table it refer to. Each parent record can have multiple child
records, but each child can relate to ONLY one parent record. A column with Foreign Key may not necessary to have an
index.
Foreign Key can only refer to column with Primary Key or Unique Constraint
create table tblA (colX number, colY char);

create table tblB (colX number);
alter table tblB add (constraint colX_FK foreign key (colX) references tblA(colX));
-- ORA-02270: no matching unique or primary key for this column-list
alter table tblA add (constraint colX_PK primary key (colX));

-- alter table success.
A table can ONLY have one Primary Key, but it can have multiple UNIQUE key. if the child table(s) require to referencing
column other than primary key, the column on the parent table must have UNIQUE constraint.
alter table tblA add (constraint colY_PK primary key (colY));

-- ORA-02260: table can have only one primary key
Cannot create PK or Unique on a column contains duplicate data
insert into tblA values(1,'A');

alter table tblA add (constraint colY_UK unique (colY));
-- ORA-02299: cannot validate (HR.COLY_UK) - duplicate keys found
delete from tblA where colx = 2;

create table tblC (colY char);

alter table tblC add (constraint colY_FK foreign key (colY) references tblA(colY));
Insert data into a column with FK, the value must already exist in the column that the FK reference to.
insert into tblC values ('B');

-- ORA-02291: integrity constraint (HR.COLY_FK) violated - parent key not found
insert into tblC values ('A');

-- 1 rows inserted
As long as a foreign key exist, the parent table can truncate/delete the data or disable the PK or Unique constraint
truncate table tblA;

-- ORA-02266: unique/primary keys in table referenced by enabled foreign keys
Find out the constraint information in Oracle
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desc all_constraints;
select
a.owner, a.table_name, a.constraint_name,
a.constraint_type, a.status, a.r_owner, a.r_constraint_name,
b.table_name as r_table_name, b.status as r_status
from all_constraints a
left join all_constraints b on a.owner = b.owner and a.r_constraint_name = b.constraint_name
where a.table_name like 'TBL%';
select *
from all_cons_columns
where table_name like 'TBL%';
Disable constraint that have foreign key refer to is not allowed, in order to do this, you have to disable the foreign key first.
alter table tblA disable constraint colX_PK;

-- ORA-02297: cannot disable constraint (HR.COLX_PK) - dependencies exist
alter table tblA disable constraint colY_UK;
-- ORA-02297: cannot disable constraint (HR.COLY_UK) - dependencies exist
alter table tblC disable constraint colY_FK;

alter table tblB disable constraint colX_FK;

If the data in parent table is deleted, re-enable the foreign key that contain data reference to the missing data is not allowed.
select * from tblC;

alter table tblA enable constraint colY_UK;
alter table tblC enable constraint colY_FK;
-- ORA-02298: cannot validate (HR.COLY_FK) - parent keys not found
Generate a SQL statements to disable all the Foreign Key on a specified table
select
'alter table '||a.owner||'.'||a.table_name||
' disable constraint '||a.constraint_name||';' as STMT
from all_constraints a, all_constraints b
where a.constraint_type = 'R'
and a.r_constraint_name = b.constraint_name
and a.r_owner = b.owner
and b.table_name = 'TBLA';
References
1. https://docs.oracle.com/cd/B12037_01/server.101/b10759/statements_6013.htm
2. https://docs.oracle.com/cd/B28359_01/server.111/b28318/datatype.htm
SELECT Statement
Listing the capabilities of SQL SELECT statements
A SELECT statement retrieves data from database. With a SELECT statement, you can use the following capabilities:
Projection: Select the columns in a table that are returned by a query.

Selection: Select the rows in a table that are returned by a query using certain criteria to restrict the result
Joining: Bring together data that is stored in different tables by specifying the link between them
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Executing a basic SELECT statement

SELECT *|{[DISTINCT] column|expression [[AS] alias],...}
FROM table;
1. SQL statements are not case-sensitive.

2. SQL statements can be entered on one or more lines.
3. Keywords like SELECT, FROM cannot be abbreviated or split across lines.
4. In SQL Developer, SQL statements can optionally be terminated by a semicolon (;). Semicolons are required when you
execute multiple SQL statements.
5. In SQL*Plus, you are required to end each SQL statement with a semicolon (;).
Select All Columns
SELECT *
FROM hr.employees;
Select Specific Columns
SELECT employee_id, last_name, hire_date

FROM hr.employees;
Exclude duplicate rows
SELECT DISTINCT last_name

FROM hr.employees;
Use Arithmetic Operators

The operator precedence is the same as normal mathematics, (ie. / * + -)
Arithmetic expressions containing a null value evaluate to null
SELECT last_name, salary, (salary+100-20)*105/100

FROM hr.employees;
Use Column Heading Defaults

SQL Developer:
Default heading display: Uppercase
Default heading alignment: Left-aligned
SQL*Plus:
Default heading display: Uppercase
Character and Date column headings: Left-aligned
Number column headings: Right-aligned
Use Column Alias

Renames a column heading
AS keyword between the column name and alias is optional
Requires double quotation marks if it contains spaces, special characters, or case-sensitive
SELECT last_name AS name, commission_pct comm, salary*12 "Annual Salary"

FROM hr.employees;
Literal Character Strings

Date and character literal values must be enclosed within single quotation marks
Each character string is output once for each row returned
SELECT last_name || ' annually earns ' || salary*12

FROM hr.employees;
Escape the single quote character use two single quotes
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SELECT last_name || '''s employee no is ' || employee_id

FROM hr.employees;
Escape the single quote character use alternative quote (q) operator
SELECT last_name || q'<'s employee no is >' || employee_id

FROM hr.employees;
Learn the DESCRIBE command to display the table structure
DESC[RIBE] table
Describing various types of conversion functions that are available in SQL

Implicit data type conversion
Implicit conversion occurs when Oracle attempts to convert the values, that do not match the defined parameters of functions,
into the required data types.
Explicit data type conversion Explicit conversion occurs when a function like TO_CHAR is invoked to change the data type
of a value.
Using the TO_CHAR, TO_NUMBER, and TO_DATE conversion functions

Nest multiple functions
Apply the NVL, NULLIF, and COALESCE functions to data
Applying conditional expressions in a SELECT statement

Use conditional IF THEN ELSE logic in a SELECT statement
Describing various types of functions available in SQL

Describe the differences between single row and multiple row functions
Single row functions return one result per row.
Single row functions:
Manipulate data items

Accept arguments and return one value
Act on each row that is returned
Return one result per row
May modify the data type
Can be nested
Accept arguments that can be a column or an expression
Character functions
Case manipulation functions

LOWER
UPPER
INITCAP
Using character, number, and date functions in SELECT statements

Manipulate strings with character function in the SELECT and WHERE clauses
Manipulate numbers with the ROUND, TRUNC and MOD functions
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Perform arithmetic with date data

Manipulate dates with the date functions
Identifying the available group functions
Describing the use of group functions
Grouping data by using the GROUP BY clause
Including or excluding grouped rows by using the HAVING clause
Writing SELECT statements to access data from more than one table using
equijoins and nonequijoins
Joining a table to itself by using a self-join
Viewing data that generally does not meet a join condition by using outer joins
Generating a Cartesian product of all rows from two or more tables
Restricting and Sorting Data

SELECT *|{[DISTINCT] column|expr [[AS] alias],...}
FROM table
[WHERE condition(s)]
[ORDER BY {column, alias, expr, numeric_position} [ASC|DESC] [NULLS FIRST|NULLS LAST] ];
Limiting the rows that are retrieved by a query

Write queries that contain a WHERE clause to limit the output retrieved
Character strings and date values are enclosed with single quote
Character values are case-sensitive and date values are format-sensitive
The default date display format is DD-MON-YY
An alias cannot be used in the WHERE clause
SELECT last_name, department_id, hire_date

FROM hr.employees
WHERE department_id = 90;

FROM hr.employees
WHERE last_name = 'King';

FROM hr.employees
WHERE hire_date = '30-JAN-96';
List the comparison operators and logical operators that are used in a WHERE clause
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Operator Meaning
= Equal to
> Greater than
>= Greater than or equal to
< Less than
<= Less than or equal to
<> Not equal to (can also use != or ^=)
BETWEEN ... AND ... Between two values (inclusive)
IN (set) Match any value in a list
LIKE Match a character pattern '%' - zero or many; '_' - one character
IS NULL is a null value
AND returns TRUE if both conditions are true
OR returns TRUE if either condition is true
NOT returns TRUE if the condition is false
-- must specify the lower limit first

SELECT last_name, salary
FROM hr.employees
WHERE salary BETWEEN 4000 AND 5000;
-- can also use on character value

FROM hr.employees
WHERE last_name BETWEEN 'Abel' AND 'Bull'
ORDER BY last_name;

FROM hr.employees
WHERE salary in (4000,6000,8000);
-- last name start with 'A' and 2 characters at least

FROM hr.employees
WHERE last_name like 'A_%';
-- hire date at year 1999

SELECT last_name, salary, hire_date
FROM hr.employees
WHERE hire_date like '%99';
-- employee doesn't report to any manager

FROM hr.employees
WHERE manager_id is null;
-- use AND, OR, NOT operators

SELECT last_name, job_id, salary
FROM hr.employees
WHERE (job_id like 'AD%' OR job_id like 'IT%')
AND salary > 5000
AND NOT last_name = 'King';
-- use ESCAPE identifier

SELECT last_name, job_id
FROM hr.employees
WHERE job_id like 'A_\_P%' ESCAPE '\';
Describe the rules of precedence for comparison and logical operators
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Precedence Operators Description

1 parenthesis Expression within parenthesis always evaluate first
2 /, * Division and Multiplication
3 +, - Addition and subtraction
4 || Concatenation
5 =, <, >, <=, >= Equality and inequality comparison
6 [NOT] LIKE, IS [NOT] NULL, [NOT] IN Pattern, null, and set comparison
7 [NOT] BETWEEN Range comparison
8 <>, !=, ^= Not equal to
9 NOT NOT logical condition
10 AND AND logical condition
11 OR OR logical condition
Sorting the rows that are retrieved by a query

Write queries that contain an ORDER BY clause sort the output of a SELECT statement
* The default sort order is ascending

* Null values are displayed last for ascending sequences and first for descending sequence
* You can also sort by a column that is not in the SELECT list
SELECT employee_id, last_name, salary*12 annsal

FROM hr.employees
ORDER BY annsal DESC ;
Sort output in descending and ascending order
SELECT last_name, job_id, salary, commission_pct, salary*commission_pct "Comm"

FROM hr.employees
ORDER BY commission_pct NULLS FIRST, 2 DESC, salary, "Comm";
Using ampersand substitution to restrict and sort output at runtime

Use substitution variables to:
Temporarily store values with single-ampersand (&) and double-ampersand (&&) substitution
Use substitution variables to supplement the following:
WHERE conditions
ORDER BY clauses
Column expressions
Table names
Entire SELECT statements
--any &column_name after the &&column_name will not prompt for value again
SELECT employee_id, last_name, job_id, &&column_name
FROM hr.employees
ORDER BY &column_name ;
Controlling
Start and stop iSQL*Plus
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Start and stop Enterprise Manager (EM) Database Control
Start and stop the Oracle Listener
Start up and shut down Oracle Database 10g
Startup and shutdown options for Oracle Database
Handling parameter files
Locating and viewing the Database alert log
Storage Structures
The purpose of tablespaces and datafiles
Creating tablespaces
Managing tablespaces (alter, drop, generate DDL, take offline, put on line, add
data files, make read-only/read-write)
Obtaining tablespace information from EM and the data dictionary views
Dropping tablespaces
The default tablespaces
Administering Users
Within Oracle, users may be managed through the webpage under the administration section, and within the Database Users
subsection.
Creating and managing database user accounts

Adding users
New users can be created by an administrator or a user who has a "CREATE USER" privilege using Oracle Enterprise
Manager GUI by clicking on the "Create" link in the "Users" section . Enter the username and password for the new user. You
can also set the password to expire (where the user must change the password on the next login), and whether an account is
locked (to prevent a user from connecting to the system).
In most cases, users should belong to the Connect role. If the user needs to create tables or have more advanced capability, the
user should be placed within the Resource role. Database admins should appear in the DBA role. If desired, users may be
given individual permissions within Directly Grant Privileges section.
Alternatively, users can also be created using the "CREATE USER" SQL command.
Eg: CREATE USER test IDENTIFIED BY 'naveen123' DEFAULT TABLESPACE USER_DATA PASSWORD EXPIRE
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QUOTA UNLIMITED ON USER_DATA;
After creating the user CONNECT role needs to be granted for the user to connect to the database.
Eg: GRANT CONNECT TO test;
Removing users
When a user no longer needs to be present within the database, you click the drop button within the web interface.
Creating and managing roles
Granting and revoking privileges
Controlling resource usage by users
Managing Schema Objects

Creating and modifying tables
Defining constraints
Viewing the attributes of a table
Viewing the contents of a table
Creating indexes and views
Naming database objects
Selecting appropriate datatypes
Creating and using sequences
Adding constraints
Creating indexes
Creating indexes using the CREATE TABLE statement
Creating function-based indexes
Dropping columns and set column UNUSED
Performing FLASHBACK operations
Creating and using external tables
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Managing Data
Manipulating data through SQL using INSERT, UPDATE, and DELETE
Using Data Pump to export data
Using Data Pump to import data

SQL Dump should either Exports in CSV or Plain SQL Format.
Loading data with SQL*Loader
Creating directory objects
Views
Creating simple and complex views
Retrieving data from views
Creating, maintaining, and using sequences
Creating and maintaining indexes
Creating private and public synonyms
Dictionary views
Explaining the data dictionary
Finding table information
Reporting on column information
Viewing constraint information
Finding view information
Verifying sequence information
Understanding synonyms
Adding comments
SQL
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Retrieving Data Using the SQL SELECT Statement

List the capabilities of SQL SELECT statements
Selection, projection, join
Execute a basic SELECT statement
Select All Columns:
Select * from table_name;
Select Specific Columns:
Select column1, column2 from tables_name;
Use Column Heading Defaults

Use Arithmetic Operators:
Select 12 salary+100 from emp --sell value is 2.

Result: 12 * cell's value + 100 --i.e. 12 * 2 + 100= 124
Understand Operator Precedence

Learn the DESCRIBE command to display the table structure
Type- DESCRIBE table_name;

*NOTE: Your Oracle user and/or schema must have permissions/privaliages or be within the schema to describe the table.
You can use the data_dictionary views to get the table info.
Restricting and Sorting Data

Limit the rows that are retrieved by a query
1. Write queries that contain a WHERE clause to limit the output retrieved
2. List the comparison operators and logical operators that are used in a WHERE clause
3. Describe the rules of precedence for comparison and logical operators
4. Use character string literals in the WHERE clause
Sort the rows that are retrieved by a query
1. Write queries that contain an ORDER BY clause sort the output of a SELECT statement
2. Sort output in descending and ascending order
Use ampersand substitution to restrict and sort output at runtime
the ampersand operator is used to take the input at runtime( ex:-&employeename) and if ampersand is used twice i.e && then
it will take the input of single ampersand operator and is used to provide data to the query at runtime.
Using Single-Row Functions to Customize Output

Describe various types of functions available in SQL
* Describe the differences between single row and multiple row functions
Use character, number, and date functions in SELECT statements
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* Manipulate strings with character function in the SELECT and WHERE clauses
* Manipulate numbers with the ROUND, TRUNC and MOD functions
* Perform arithmetic with date data
* Manipulate dates with the date functions
Using Conversion Functions and Conditional Expressions

Describe various types of conversion functions that are available in SQL
Implicit data type conversion
Implicit conversion occurs when Oracle attempts to convert the values, that do not match the defined parameters of functions,
into the required data types.
Explicit data type conversion Explicit conversion occurs when a function like TO_CHAR is invoked to change the data type
of a value.
Use the TO_CHAR, TO_NUMBER, and TO_DATE conversion functions
* Nest multiple functions

* Apply the NVL, NULLIF, and COALESCE functions to data
Apply conditional expressions in a SELECT statement
* Use conditional IF THEN ELSE logic in a SELECT statement
Reporting Aggregated Data Using the Group Functions

Identify the available Group Functions
Describe the use of group functions
Group data by using the GROUP BY clause
Include or exclude grouped rows by using the HAVING clause
Displaying Data from Multiple Tables

Write SELECT statements to access data from more than one table using equijoins and nonequijoins
Join a table to itself by using a self-join
View data that generally does not meet a join condition by using outer joins
1. Join a table by using a self join
Generate a Cartesian product of all rows from two or more tables
Using Subqueries to Solve Queries

Define subqueries
Describe the types of problems that the subqueries can solve
List the types of subqueries
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Write single-row and multiple-row subqueries
Using the Set Operators

Describe set operators
Use a set operator to combine multiple queries into a single query
Control the order of rows returned
Manipulating Data
Describe each data manipulation language (DML) statement
Insert rows into a table
Inserting data in database is done through "insert" command in oracle.
Syntax:
INSERT INTO [table name][column1,column2,.....] values(value1,value2,....);
Example:
insert into employee values(1,'Rahul','Manager');
By the above query the employee table gets populated by empid:-1 , empname:-'Rahul' and empdesignation:-'Manager'.
Delete rows from a table
DELETE client1 WHERE ID = 2;
Update rows in a table
To update rows in a table, write:
update [table name] set [column name] = [your value];
It will update all the rows present in the table by the given value in the selected field.
We can also add queries to this command to make a real use for example,
update [table name] set [column name] = [value] where [column name]>=[value];
You can add your query after the where clause according to your need.
Example:
UPDATE client1 SET address = 'the middle of nowhere' WHERE id = 1;
Using a set operator to combine multiple queries into a single query
Controlling the order of rows returned
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Defining subqueries
Describing the types of problems that the subqueries can solve
Listing the types of subqueries
Writing single-row and multiple-row subqueries
Controlling transactions
1. Save and discard changes with the COMMIT and ROLLBACK statements
2. Explain read consistency
Using DDL Statements to Create and Manage Tables

Categorize the main database objects
Review the table structure
List the data types that are available for columns
Create a simple table
"Create table" comand is used to create table in database.
Syntax:- create table employee(empid number,empname varchar2(20),empdesignation(varchar2(20)));
The above Query will create a table named employee with which contain columns empid , empname , empdesignation
followed by their datatypes/
Explain how constraints are created at the time of table creation
Concept In essence, constraints safeguard and validate the data.
Primary Key and Unique constraints both ensure the data is not duplicated. Primary Key also ensure the data is not null.
Oracle will automatically generate index for Primary Key and Unique constraints. A table can only have one Primary Key, but
it can have multiple unique constraints.
Foreign Key ensure the data exists in the column of the parent table it refer to. Each parent record can have multiple child
records, but each child can relate to ONLY one parent record. A column with Foreign Key may not necessary to have an
index.
Foreign Key can only refer to column with Primary Key or Unique Constraint
create table tblA (colX number, colY char);

create table tblB (colX number);
-- ORA-02270: no matching unique or primary key for this column-list
alter table tblA add (constraint colX_PK primary key (colX));

A table can ONLY have one Primary Key, but it can have multiple UNIQUE key. if the child table(s) require to referencing
column other than primary key, the column on the parent table must have UNIQUE constraint.
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alter table tblA add (constraint colY_PK primary key (colY));

-- ORA-02260: table can have only one primary key
Cannot create PK or Unique on a column contains duplicate data

-- ORA-02299: cannot validate (HR.COLY_UK) - duplicate keys found
delete from tblA where colx = 2;

create table tblC (colY char);

alter table tblC add (constraint colY_FK foreign key (colY) references tblA(colY));
Insert data into a column with FK, the value must already exist in the column that the FK reference to.
insert into tblC values ('B');

-- ORA-02291: integrity constraint (HR.COLY_FK) violated - parent key not found
insert into tblC values ('A');

-- 1 rows inserted
As long as a foreign key exist, the parent table can truncate/delete the data or disable the PK or Unique constraint

-- ORA-02266: unique/primary keys in table referenced by enabled foreign keys
Find out the constraint information in Oracle
desc all_constraints;
select
a.owner, a.table_name, a.constraint_name,
a.constraint_type, a.status, a.r_owner, a.r_constraint_name,
b.table_name as r_table_name, b.status as r_status
from all_constraints a
left join all_constraints b on a.owner = b.owner and a.r_constraint_name = b.constraint_name
where a.table_name like 'TBL%';
select *
from all_cons_columns
where table_name like 'TBL%';
Disable constraint that have foreign key refer to is not allowed, in order to do this, you have to disable the foreign key first.

-- ORA-02297: cannot disable constraint (HR.COLX_PK) - dependencies exist
-- ORA-02297: cannot disable constraint (HR.COLY_UK) - dependencies exist
alter table tblC disable constraint colY_FK;

alter table tblB disable constraint colX_FK;
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If the data in parent table is deleted, re-enable the foreign key that contain data reference to the missing data is not allowed.
select * from tblC;

alter table tblA enable constraint colY_UK;
alter table tblC enable constraint colY_FK;
-- ORA-02298: cannot validate (HR.COLY_FK) - parent keys not found
Generate a sql statements to disable all the Foreign Key on a specified table
select
'alter table '||a.owner||'.'||a.table_name||
' disable constraint '||a.constraint_name||';' as STMT
from all_constraints a, all_constraints b
where a.constraint_type = 'R'
and a.r_constraint_name = b.constraint_name
and a.r_owner = b.owner
and b.table_name = 'TBLA';
Describe how schema objects work
Creating Other Schema Objects

Create simple and complex views
Retrieve data from views
Create, maintain, and use sequences
Create and maintain indexes
Create private and public synonyms
Controlling User Access

Differentiate system privileges from object privileges
Grant privileges on tables
View privileges in the data dictionary
Grant roles
Distinguish between privileges and roles
Managing Schema Objects

Add constraints
Create indexes
Create indexes using the CREATE TABLE statement
Create function-based indexes
Drop columns and set column UNUSED
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Perform FLASHBACK operations
Create and use external tables
Managing Objects with Data Dictionary Views

Explain the data dictionary
Find table information
Report on column information
View constraint information
Find view information
Verify sequence information
Understand synonyms
Add comments
Manipulating Large Data Sets

Manipulate data using sub-queries
Describe the features of multi-table inserts
Use the different types of multi-table inserts
Merge rows in a table
Track the changes to data over a period of time
Managing Data in Different Time Zones

Use data types similar to DATE that store fractional seconds and track time zones
Use data types that store the difference between two date-time values
Practice using the multiple data-time functions for globalize applications
Retrieving Data Using Sub-queries

Write a multiple-column sub-query
Use scalar sub-queries in SQL
SELECT * FROM TAB
Solve problems with correlated sub-queries
Update and delete rows using correlated sub-queries
Use the EXISTS and NOT EXISTS operators
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Use the WITH clause
Write a multiple-column sub-query
Use scalar sub-queries in SQL
Solve problems with correlated sub-queries
Update and delete rows using correlated sub-queries
Use the EXISTS and NOT EXISTS operators
Use the WITH clause
Hierarchical Query
Hierarchical Query allows you the transverse through a self-reference table and display the Hierarchical structure. eg. the
employee table contain the manager id the employee.
list out the whole hierarchical structure of the employees
SELECT LPAD(' ', 4*(level-1))||last_name "Last Name", salary, department_id

FROM hr.employees
CONNECT BY PRIOR employee_id = manager_id
START WITH manager_id is null
ORDER SIBLINGS BY last_name;
list out all the employees under manager 'Kochhar'
SELECT LPAD(' ', 4*(level-1))||last_name "Last Name",

salary,
department_id,
CONNECT_BY_ISLEAF
FROM hr.employees
CONNECT BY PRIOR employee_id = manager_id
START WITH last_name = 'Kochhar'
list out all the manager that 'Lorentz' report to
SELECT LPAD(' ', 4*(level-1))||last_name "Last Name", salary, department_id,

SYS_CONNECT_BY_PATH(last_name, '/') "Path", CONNECT_BY_ISLEAF
FROM hr.employees
CONNECT BY employee_id = PRIOR manager_id
START WITH last_name = 'Lorentz'
pseudocolumn LEVEL -> root = 1, next level=2,3,4,5...etc

SYS_CONNECT_BY_PATH(col, '/') shows the full path, 2nd parameter is seperator (9i)
CONNECT_BY_ROOT(col) return the value of the root node in the current hierarchy (10g)
pseudocolumn CONNECT_BY_ISLEAF return 1 if the return value is at the last node on the Hierarchy (ie. leaf) (10g)
order SIBLINGS by re-order the sequence of the output and preserve the hierarchical relationship (10g)
connect by NOCYCLE prior child = parent

NOCYCLE means stop tranverse the hierarchy at the level when the child reference back to the root. (10g)
pseudocolumn CONNECT_BY_ISCYCLE evaluate to "1" if the current row references a parent. (10g)
Regular Expression Support
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List the benefits of using regular expressions
Use regular expressions to search for, match, and replace strings
Regular Expression
Class Expression Description
Anchoring ^ Start of a line
Character -$ End of a line
* Match 0 or more times
+ Match 1 or more times
? Match 0 or 1 time
Quantifier
{m} Match exactly m times
Character
{m,} Match at least m times
{m, n} Match at least m times but no more than n times
\n Cause the previous expression to be repeated n times
Separates alternates, often used with grouping operator ()
Groups subexpression into a unit for alternations, for quantifiers, or for backreferencing (see
Alternative and ()
"Backreferences" section)
Grouping
Indicates a character list; most metacharacters inside a character list are understood as
[char]
literals, with the exception of character classes, and the ^ and - metacharacters
[:alnum:] Alphanumeric characters
[:alpha:] Alphabetic characters
[:blank:] Blank Space Characters
[:cntrl:] Control characters (nonprinting)
[:digit:] Numeric digits
[:graph:] Any [:punct:], [:upper:], [:lower:], and [:digit:] chars
Posix Character
[:lower:] Lowercase alphabetic characters
[:print:] Printable characters
[:punct:] Punctuation characters
[:space:] Space characters (nonprinting), such as carriage return, newline, vertical tab, and form feed
[:upper:] Uppercase alphabetic characters
[:xdigit:] Hexidecimal characters
An equivalence classes embedded in brackets that matches a base letter and all of its
Equivalence class = =
accented versions. eg, equivalence class '[=a=]' matches ä and â.
c Case sensitive matching
i Case insensitive matching
Match Option
m Treat source string as multi-line activating Anchor chars
n Allow the period (.) to match any newline character
PL/SQL
PL/SQL
Introduction
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PL/SQL stands for Procedural Language extension of SQL. It is a combination of SQL along with the procedural features of
programming languages and it enhances the capabilities of SQL by injecting the procedural functionality, like conditional or
looping statements, into the set-oriented SQL structure.
Advantages of PL/SQL
Procedural Language Capability: PL/SQL consists of procedural language constructs such as conditional statements (if
else statements) and loops like (FOR loops).
Block Structures: PL/SQL consists of blocks of code, which can be nested within each other. Each block forms a unit of
a task or a logical module. PL/SQL Blocks can be stored in the database and reused.
Better Performance: PL/SQL engine processes multiple SQL statements simultaneously as a single block, thereby
reducing network traffic.
Exception Handling: PL/SQL handles exceptions (or errors) effectively during the execution of a PL/SQL program.
Once an exception is caught, specific actions can be taken depending upon the type of the exception or it can be
displayed to the user with a message.
Limitation
PL/SQL can only use SELECT, DML(INSERT, UPDATE, DELETE) and TC(COMMIT, ROLLBACK, SAVEPOINT)
statements, DDL (CREATE, ALTER, DROP) and DCL(GRANT, REVOKE) cannot be used directly. Any DDL/DCL
however, can be executed from PL/SQL when embedded in an EXECUTE IMMEDIATE statement.
Basic Structure
Each PL/SQL program consists of SQL and PL/SQL statements which form a PL/SQL block. A PL/SQL Block consists of
three sections:
Declaration Section: This section is optional and it starts with the reserved keyword DECLARE. This section is used to
declare any placeholders like variables, constants, records and cursors, which are used to manipulate data in the execution
section.
Execution Section: This section is mandatory and it starts with the reserved keyword BEGIN and ends with END. This
section is where the program logic is written to perform any task. The programmatic constructs like loops, conditional
statement and SQL statements form the part of execution section.
Exception Section: The section is optional and it starts with the reserved keyword EXCEPTION. Any exception in the
program can be handled in this section, so that the PL/SQL Blocks terminates gracefully. If the PL/SQL Block contains
exceptions that cannot be handled, the block terminates abruptly with errors.
Every statement in the above three sections must end with a ; (semicolon). PL/SQL blocks can be nested within other PL/SQL
blocks. Comments can be used to document code.
This is how PL/SQL looks.
/* multi-lines comments */
-- single line comments
DECLARE
Variable declaration
BEGIN
Program Execution
EXCEPTION
Exception handling
END;
PL/SQL Placeholders
Placeholders are temporary storage area. Placeholders can be any of Variables, Constants and Records. Oracle defines
placeholders to store data temporarily, which are used to manipulate data during the execution of a PL SQL block.
Depending on the kind of data you want to store, you can define placeholders with a name and a datatype. Few of the
datatypes used to define placeholders are as given below.
Number(n,m), Char(n), Varchar2(n), Date, Long, Long Raw, Raw, Blob, Clob, Nclob, Bfile
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The placeholders, that store the values, can change through the PL/SQL Block.
PL/SQL Variables
The General Syntax to declare a variable is:
variable_name datatype [NOT NULL := value ];
variable_name is the name of the variable.

datatype is a valid PL/SQL datatype.
NOT NULL is an optional specification on the variable. If NOT NULL is specified, you must provide the initial value.
value or DEFAULT value is also an optional specification, where you can initialize a variable.
Each variable declaration is a separate statement and must be terminated by a semicolon.
The below example declares two variables, one of which is a not null.
DECLARE
emp_id varchar2(10);
salary number(9,2) NOT NULL := 1000.00;
The value of a variable can change in the execution or exception section of the PL/SQL Block. We can assign values to
variables in the two ways given below.
1) Directly assign value to variable.
variable_name:= value;
2) Assign values to variables directly from the database columns.
SELECT column_name
INTO variable_name
FROM table_name
[WHERE condition];
The example below will get the salary of an employee with id '12345' and display it on the screen.
DECLARE
var_emp_id varchar2(10) = 'A12345';
var_salary number(9,2);
BEGIN
SELECT salary
INTO var_salary
FROM employee
WHERE emp_id = var_emp_id;
dbms_output.put_line(var_salary);
dbms_output.put_line('Employee ' || var_emp_id || ' earns salary ' || var_salary);
END;
/
NOTE: The slash '/' indicates to execute the above PL/SQL Block.
PL/SQL Records
Records are composite datatypes, which contains a combination of different scalar datatypes like char, varchar, number etc.
Each scalar data types in the record holds a value. A record can store values of a row in a table.
TYPE record_name IS RECORD

(col_name_1 datatype,
col_name_2 table_name.column_name%type);
A datatype can be declared in the same way as you create a table, like col_name_1. If a field is based on a column from
database table, you can define the datatype as col_name_2. You can also use %type method to declare datatype of variable
and constant. Similar to %type, if all the fields of a record are based on the columns of a table, it can be declared by
using %rowtype method.
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record_name table_name%ROWTYPE;
For Example:
DECLARE
TYPE rec_employee IS RECORD
(emp_id varchar2(10),
emp_last_name employees.last_name%type,
emp_dept employees.dept%type,
salary number(9,2)
);
DECLARE
rec_employee employees%ROWTYPE;
Declaring the record as a ROWTYPE Advantages: 1) Do not need to explicitly declare variables for all the columns in a table.
2) If the column specification in the database table is altered, the code does not need to update.
Disadvantage: 1) When a record is created as a ROWTYPE, fields will be created for all the columns in the table and memory
will be used to create the datatype for all the fields.
Assign values to record Similar to variable, you can assign value to record either by direct assign or through the SELECT
statements
record_name.col_name := value;
SELECT col_1, col_2

INTO record_name.col_name_1, record_name.col_name_2
FROM table_name
[WHERE condition];
If the records is declared as ROWTYPE, SELECT * can be used to assign values.
SELECT * INTO record_name

FROM table_name
[WHERE condition];
The column value of the record can be retrieved as below syntax
var_name := record_name.col_name;
Scope of Variables and Records
PL/SQL allows the nesting of Blocks within Blocks i.e, the Execution section of an outer block can contain inner blocks.
Variables which are accessible to an outer Block are also accessible to all nested inner blocks; however, the variables declared
in the inner blocks are not accessible to the outer blocks.
Based on their declaration we can classify variables into two types.
Local variables - These are declared in a inner block and cannot be referenced by outer blocks.
Global variables - These are declared in an outer block and can be referenced by its itself and by its inner blocks.
In the below example, two variables are created in the outer block and assigning their product to the third variable created in
the inner block. The variables 'var_num1' and 'var_num2' can be accessed anywhere in the block; however, the variable
'var_result' is declared in the inner block, so it cannot be accessed in the outer block.
DECLARE
var_num1 number;
var_num2 number;
BEGIN
var_num1 := 100;
var_num2 := 200;
DECLARE
var_result number;
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BEGIN
var_result := var_num1 * var_num2;
END;
/* var_result is not accessible to here */
END;
/
PL/SQL Constants
As the name implies a constant is a value used in a PL/SQL Block that remains unchanged throughout the program. A
constant is a user-defined literal value. You can declare a constant and use it instead of actual value.
constant_name CONSTANT datatype := VALUE;
For example:
DECLARE
comm_pct CONSTANT number(3) := 10;
You must assign a value to the constant while declaring it. If you assign a value to the constant later, Oracle will prompt
exception.
PL/SQL Conditional Statements
PL/SQL supports programming language features like conditional statements, iterative statements.
The syntax of conditional statements:
IF condition_1 THEN
statement_1;
statement_2;
[ELSIF condtion_2 THEN
statement_3;]
[ELSE
statement_4;]
END IF;
Note: be aware of the keyword ELSIF, there is no 'E' before 'IF'.
PL/SQL Iterative Statements
An iterative statements are used when you want to repeat the execution of one or more statements for specified number of
times. There are three types of loops in PL/SQL:
1. Simple Loop A Simple Loop is used when a set of statements is to be executed at least once before the loop terminates. An
EXIT condition must be specified in the loop, otherwise the loop will get into an infinite number of iterations. When the EXIT
condition is satisfied the process exits from the loop.
LOOP
statements;
EXIT;
{or EXIT WHEN condition;}
END LOOP;
Note: a) Initialize a variable before the loop body. b) Increment the variable in the loop. c) Use a EXIT WHEN statement to
exit from the Loop. If you use a EXIT statement without WHEN condition, the statements in the loop is executed only once.
2. While Loop A WHILE LOOP is used when a set of statements has to be executed as long as a condition is true. The
condition is evaluated at the beginning of each iteration. The iteration continues until the condition becomes false.
WHILE <condition>
LOOP statements;
END LOOP;
Note: a) Initialize a variable before the loop body. b) Increment the variable in the loop. c) EXIT WHEN statement and EXIT
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statements can be used in while loops it is seldom used.
3. FOR Loop A FOR LOOP is used to execute a set of statements for a pre-determined number of times. Iteration occurs
between the start and end integer values given. The counter is always incremented by 1. The loop exits when the counter
reaches the value of the end integer.
FOR counter IN start_val..end_val

LOOP statements;
END LOOP;
Note: a) The counter variable is implicitly declared in the declaration section, so it's not necessary to declare it explicitly. b)
The counter variable is incremented by 1 and does not need to be incremented explicitly. c) EXIT WHEN statement and EXIT
statements can be used in FOR loops but it is seldom used.
PL/SQL Cursors
A cursor contains information on a select statement and the rows of data accessed by it. This temporary work area is used to
store the data retrieved from the database, and manipulate this data. A cursor can hold more than one row, but can process
only one row at a time. The set of rows the cursor holds is called the active set.
There are two types of cursors in PL/SQL:
Implicit cursor:
When you execute DML statements like DELETE, INSERT, UPDATE and SELECT..INTO statements, implicit statements are
created to process these statements.
Oracle provides few attributes called as implicit cursor attributes to check the status of DML operations. The cursor attributes
available are %FOUND, %NOTFOUND, %ROWCOUNT, and %ISOPEN.
For example, When you execute INSERT, UPDATE, or DELETE statements the cursor attributes tell us whether any rows are
affected and how many have been affected. When a SELECT... INTO statement is executed in a PL/SQL Block, implicit
cursor attributes can be used to find out whether any row has been returned by the SELECT statement. PL/SQL returns an
error when no data is selected.
The status of the cursor for each of these attributes are defined in the below table.
Attribute Return Value

The return value is TRUE, if the DML statements like INSERT, DELETE and UPDATE affect at
least one row and if SELECT ….INTO statement return at least one row.
SQL%FOUND
The return value is FALSE, if DML statements like INSERT, DELETE and UPDATE do not affect
row and if SELECT….INTO statement do not return a row.
The return value is FALSE, if DML statements like INSERT, DELETE and UPDATE at least one
row and if SELECT ….INTO statement return at least one row.
SQL%NOTFOUND
The return value is TRUE, if a DML statement like INSERT, DELETE and UPDATE do not affect
even one row and if SELECT ….INTO statement does not return a row.
SQL%ROWCOUNT Return the number of rows affected by the DML operations INSERT, DELETE, UPDATE, SELECT
SQL%ISOPEN Always return FALSE
uses implicit cursor attributes:
DECLARE var_rows number(5);

BEGIN
UPDATE employee
SET salary = salary + 2000;
IF SQL%NOTFOUND THEN
dbms_output.put_line('None of the salaries where updated');
ELSIF SQL%FOUND THEN
var_rows := SQL%ROWCOUNT;
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dbms_output.put_line('Salaries for ' || var_rows || 'employees are updated');

END IF;
END;
In the above PL/SQL Block, the salaries of all the employees in the 'employee' table are updated. If none of the employee's
salary are updated we get a message 'None of the salaries where updated'. Else we get a message like for example, 'Salaries for
100 employees are updated' if there are 100 rows in 'employee' table.
Explicit cursor:
An explicit cursor is defined in the declaration section of the PL/SQL Block. It must be created when you are executing a
SELECT statement that returns more than one row. Even though the cursor stores multiple records, only one record can be
processed at a time, which is called as current row. When you fetch a row the current row position moves to next row.
There are four steps in using an Explicit Cursor.
DECLARE the cursor in the declaration section.

OPEN the cursor in the Execution Section.
FETCH the data from cursor into PL/SQL variables or records in the Execution Section.
CLOSE the cursor in the Execution Section before you end the PL/SQL Block.
Declaration
CURSOR cursor_name IS select_statement;
For example:
DECLARE
CURSOR cur_emp IS
SELECT *
FROM employees
WHERE salary > 10000;
Using Cursor When a cursor is opened, the first row becomes the current row. When the data is fetched it is copied to the
record or variables and the logical pointer moves to the next row and it becomes the current row. On every fetch statement,
the pointer moves to the next row. If you want to fetch after the last row, the program will throw an error. When there is more
than one row in a cursor we can use loops along with explicit cursor attributes to fetch all the records.
OPEN cursor_name;
FETCH cursor_name INTO record_name|variable_list;
CLOSE cursor_name;
Note:
We can fetch the rows in a cursor to a PL/SQL Record or a list of variables created in the PL/SQL Block.
If you are fetching a cursor to a PL/SQL Record, the record should have the same structure as the cursor.
If you are fetching a cursor to a list of variables, the variables should be listed in the same order in the fetch statement as
the columns are present in the cursor.
When we try to open a cursor which is not closed in the previous operation, it throws exception.
When we try to fetch a cursor after the last operation, it throws exception.
For Example:
DECLARE
rec_emp employees%rowtype;
CURSOR cur_emp IS
SELECT *
FROM employees
WHERE salary > 10000;
BEGIN
OPEN cur_emp;
FETCH cur_emp INTO rec_emp;
dbms_output.put_line (rec_emp.first_name || ' '
|| rec_emp.last_name);
CLOSE emp_cur;
END;
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Oracle provides some attributes known as Explicit Cursor Attributes to control the data processing while using cursors. We use
these attributes to avoid errors while accessing cursors through OPEN, FETCH and CLOSE Statements.
Attributes Return Values

TRUE, if fetch statement returns at least one row.
Cursor_name%FOUND
FALSE, if fetch statement doesn’t return a row.
TRUE, , if fetch statement doesn’t return a row.

Cursor_name%NOTFOUND
FALSE, if fetch statement returns at least one row.
The number of rows fetched by the fetch statement.

Cursor_name%ROWCOUNT
If no row is returned, the PL/SQL statement returns an error.
TRUE, if the cursor is already open in the program.

Cursor_name%ISOPEN
FALSE, if the cursor is not opened in the program.
Cursor with a Simple Loop:
DECLARE
CURSOR cur_emp IS
SELECT first_name, last_name, salary FROM employees;
rec_emp cur_emp%rowtype;
BEGIN
IF NOT cur_emp%ISOPEN THEN
OPEN cur_emp;
END IF;
LOOP
FETCH cur_emp INTO rec_emp;
EXIT WHEN cur_emp%NOTFOUND;
dbms_output.put_line(cur_emp.first_name || ' ' ||cur_emp.last_name
|| ' ' ||cur_emp.salary);
END LOOP;
END;
/
The cursor attribute %ISOPEN is used to check if the cursor is open, if the condition is true the program does not open the
cursor again. The cursor attribute %NOTFOUND is used to check whether the fetch returned any row. If there is no row
found, the program would exit. Typically, when the cursor reach the last row, no more row can be fetched.
Cursor with a While Loop:
DECLARE
CURSOR cur_emp IS
BEGIN
IF NOT cur_emp%ISOPEN THEN
OPEN cur_emp;
END IF;
FETCH cur_emp INTO sales_rec;
WHILE cur_emp%FOUND THEN
LOOP
FETCH cur_emp INTO sales_rec;
END LOOP;
END;
/
Using %FOUND to evaluate if the first fetch statement returned a row, if TRUE, the program moves into the while loop. Inside
the loop, use fetch statement again to process the next row. If the fetch statement is not executed once before the while loop,
the while condition will return false in the first instance and the while loop is skipped.
Cursor with a FOR Loop: When using FOR LOOP, you do not need to declare a record or variables to store the cursor values,
do not need to open, fetch and close the cursor. These functions are accomplished by the FOR LOOP automatically.
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DECLARE
CURSOR cur_emp IS
BEGIN
FOR rec_emp in cur_emp
LOOP
END LOOP;
END;
/
When the FOR loop is processed a record 'rec_emp' of structure 'cur_emp' gets created, the cursor is opened, the rows are
fetched to the record 'rec_emp' and the cursor is closed after the last row is processed. By using FOR Loop, you can reduce
the number of lines in the program.
PL/SQL Exception Handling
PL/SQL Procedures
When calling store procedure from the PL/SQL Block, you simply use the store procedure name to call. If you prefix the
'EXECUTE' keyword in front of the store procedure name, you will receive an error.
my_sproc;
EXECUTE my_sproc;
PLS-00103: Encountered the symbol "my_sproc" when expecting one of the following:
:= . ( @ % ; immediate
The symbol ":=" was substituted for "my_sproc" to continue.
EXECUTE IMMEDIATE my_sproc;
PLS-00222: no function with name exists in this scope
PL/SQL Functions
Parameters-Procedure, Function
PL/SQL Triggers
Multimedia Databases
Description
Oracle Multimedia is a services suite provided with Oracle Database (excluding the Express version where it can't be
added[1]) since the version 8 (in 1997), to manage the multimedia databases.
It's composed by the package ORDSYS ("ORD" for object-relational data) allowing the multimedia objects management into
the database[2]. This package includes several classes[3]:
ORDMultimedia: abstract superclass storage the common attributes and methods to the classes ORDAudio, ORDImage,
and ORDVideo[4].
ORDAudio: sound properties storage.
ORDDoc: heterogeneous properties storage.
ORDImage: images properties storage.
ORDVideo: videos properties storage.
ORDSource: multimedia BLOB or BFILE (accessible in HTTP) properties storage[5].
DICOM (Digital Imaging and Communications in Medicine[6]).
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Attributes
ORDAudio[7] ORDDoc[8] ORDImage[9] ORDVideo[10]
description source source description
source format height source
format mimeType width format
mimeType contentLength contentLength mimeType
comments comments fileFormat comments
encoding contentFormat width
numberOfChannels compressionFormat height
sampleSize mimeType frameResolution
compressionType frameRate
audioDuration videoDuration
numberOfFrames
compressionType
numberOfColors
bitRate
Utilization
CREATE TABLE MyImages (
id INTEGER PRIMARY KEY,
image ORDSYS.ORDImage
);
Oracle HTTP ServerDownload (http://www.oracle.com/technetwork/middleware/webtier/downloads/index.html) allows to execute PL/SQL

requests from a navigator.
References
1. "Managing Oracle Multimedia Installations". http://www.comp.dit.ie/btierney/Oracle11gDoc/appdev.111/b28415
/ap_instl_upgrd.htm.
2. "Gestion avancée d'image sous Oracle avec Java" (in French). http://fildz.developpez.com/tutoriel/oracle-
java/ordimage/.
3. "Common Methods and Notes for Oracle Multimedia Object Types". https://docs.oracle.com/cd/E11882_01/appdev.112
/e10776/ch_comref.htm#AIVUG3000.
4. "Common Methods and Notes for Oracle Multimedia Object Types". https://docs.oracle.com/html/A67296_01
/im_mmref.htm#998184.
5. Lynne Dunckley, Larry Guros (8 avril 2011). Digital Press. ed. Oracle 10g Developing Media Rich Applications.
https://books.google.fr/books?id=-dbeFbCswAYC&pg=PA60&
dq=ORDSYS++ORDAudio+ORDDoc+ORDImage+ORDVideo+ORDSource&hl=fr&
sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwj7z9jC5OPKAhVHMhoKHXsYCr8Q6AEIJjAB#v=onepage&q=ORDSYS
%20%20ORDAudio%20ORDDoc%20ORDImage%20ORDVideo%20ORDSource&f=false.
6. "Medical Imaging and Communication". https://docs.oracle.com/database/121/IMDCM/ch_intro.htm#IMDCM1100.
7. "ORDAudio". https://docs.oracle.com/cd/B19306_01/appdev.102/b14297/ch_audref.htm.
8. "ORDDoc". https://docs.oracle.com/cd/B28359_01/appdev.111/b28414/ch_docref.htm.
9. "ORDImage". https://docs.oracle.com/cd/B28359_01/appdev.111/b28414/ch_imgref.htm.
10. "ORDVideo". https://docs.oracle.com/cd/B28359_01/appdev.111/b28414/ch_vidref.htm.
"Multimedia User's Guide". http://docs.oracle.com/database/121/IMURG/toc.htm.
Spatiotemporal Databases
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Spatial data
When typing the fields, some represent graphical objects, and so are considered as "Spatial" (cf. spatial database).
Consequently, they are manipulated with different requests than for the text.
With Oracle, its implemented since the version 7, in an extension of the Enterprise EditionDownload (http://www.oracle.com
/technetwork/database/options/spatialandgraph/downloads/index-093371.html), provided objects with the prefix SDO for Spatial Data
Option.
Objects
To store the spatial objects, we use the field type SDO_GEOMETRY, and the seven methods to manipulate it[1]:
1. Get_Dims
2. Get_GType
3. Get_LRS_Dim
4. Get_WKB
5. Get_WKT
6. ST_CoordDim
7. ST_IsValid
Then the request operators[2]:
1. SDO_FILTER: list the objects which interact with the target.

2. SDO_JOIN: spatial join.
3. SDO_NN: target nearest neighbor.
4. SDO_NN_DISTANCE: distance with the nearest neighbor.
5. SDO_RELATE: list the objects which interact in a certain manner.
6. SDO_WITHIN_DISTANCE: returns true if two objects are within a certain distance from one to another.
Spatiotemporal data
We use a predicate to foresee the stored objects movement[3]. However, the spatiotemporal databases need frequent updates.
Indexation
Les modes d'indexation choisis par Oracle pour les données spatiales sont l'arbre R[4], l'arbre Q, et le Z-order[5].
Link with the GIS

To represent the data on maps, we use a geographic information system (GIS). For example:
GRASS GIS[6]
QGIS
If the software need an ODBC data source to access to the Oracle databases:
1. Launch %windir%\system32\odbcad32.exe.
2. Add a system source. The Oracle driver can be chosen in the list if the DBMS is installed.
3. Fill the TNS service name with the name which can be found into C:\oraclexe\app\oracle\product\11.2.0\server\network
\ADMIN\tnsnames.ora.
4. Then write the password of the connection created with SQL*Plus.
Examples
http://download.oracle.com/otndocs/products/spatial/pdf/au_melbourne06_start.pdf
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http://download.oracle.com/otndocs/products/spatial/pdf/GeocodingInOracleUsing_HERE_MapContent.pdf
References
1. "SDO_GEOMETRY Object Type". https://docs.oracle.com/cd/B19306_01/appdev.102/b14255
/sdo_objrelschema.htm#i1004087.
2. "Spatial Operators". https://docs.oracle.com/cd/B19306_01/appdev.102/b14255/sdo_operat.htm.
3. "Authorizing Access to Dynamic Spatial-Temporal Data". http://www.oracle.com/technetwork/articles/vanvelden-
spatial-095837.html.
4. "Spatial Concepts". https://docs.oracle.com/html/A88805_01/sdo_intr.htm.
5. "ZOrder Method". http://docs.oracle.com/cd/E20213_01/doc/win.112/e17727/dcmethods006.htm.
6. "Geographic Resources Analysis Support System (GRASS): More Than a Mapping Tool". http://www.oracle.com
/technetwork/articles/mitasova-grass-092663.html.
"Spatial Developer's Guide". http://docs.oracle.com/cd/E11882_01/appdev.112/e11830/toc.htm.
10g Advanced SQL

This documentation details the usage of the latest query methodology on the Oracle 10g DBMS.
Joins
Join queries combine rows from two or more tables, views, or materialized views. If multiple tables are listed in the query's
FROM clause the Oracle Database performs a join. Columns from any of the tables may be listed in the select list. Columns
that exist in both tables, however, must be qualified, in order to avoid ambiguity.
The following query returns the mortgage information for all payments received from customers during the year 2007.
SELECT customer.account_no, mortgage.mortgage_id, payment.payment_id, payment.amount

FROM customer
JOIN mortgage ON mortgage.customer_id = customer.customer_id
JOIN payment ON payment.mortgage_id = mortgage.mortgage_id
WHERE payment.year = 2007;
The other way of writng the same query can be
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SELECT customer.account_no, mortgage.mortgage_id, payment.payment_id, payment.amount

FROM customer,
mortgage,
payment
WHERE mortgage.customer_id = customer.customer_id
AND payment.mortgage_id = mortgage.mortgage_id
AND payment.year = 2007;
NATURAL JOIN
The NATURAL JOIN joins two tables which contain a column or multiple columns with the same name and data-type.
The following query joins the customer table to the invoice table with a natural join, the natural join utilizes the customer_id
that is present on both the customer table and the invoice table. It returns the customer and invoice data for invoices that have
not had any payments made on them.
SELECT customer_id, invoice_id, customer.first_name, customer.last_name

FROM CUSTOMER
NATURAL JOIN invoice
WHERE invoice.amount_paid = 0;
INNER JOIN
Most of the commonly used joins are actually INNER JOINs. The INNER JOIN joins two or more tables, returning only the
rows that satisfy the JOIN condition. Here are some examples of INNER JOINs.
This joins the customer and order table, connecting the customers to their orders. The result contains a combined list of
customers and their orders, if a customer does not have an order, they are omitted from the result.
SELECT customer_id, order_id

FROM customer c
INNER JOIN order o ON c.customer_id = o.customer_id;
The Other way of writing query is
SELECT c.customer_id, o.order_id

FROM customer c, order o
WHERE c.customer_id = o.customer_id;
OUTER JOIN
The OUTER JOIN joins two or more tables, returning all values whether or not the join condition is met. When a value exists
in one table but not the other, nulls are used in the place of the columns that are joined to a record without a JOIN companion.
There are three specific types of outer joins: FULL OUTER JOIN, LEFT OUTER JOIN and RIGHT OUTER JOIN.
FULL OUTER JOIN
With the FULL OUTER JOIN the query will return rows from either of the tables joined, whether or not there is any matching
data on the table joined. If no matching data exists, nulls are placed into the fields where data would have otherwise existed.
In the following example, the data in a table is synced with the data that is regularly imported into a data import table via SQL
Loader. A stored procedure is then used to see if anything was added, updated or removed and the rows are merged
accordingly.
SELECT p.name, p.status, p.description, p.qty, i.name, i.status, i.description, i.qty

FROM product p FULL OUTER JOIN import_product i
ON p.product_code = i.product_code;
LEFT OUTER JOIN
With the LEFT OUTER JOIN the query will return rows only if the row exists in the table specified on the left side of the join.
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When no matching data is found from the table on the right side of the join, nulls are placed into the fields where the data
would have otherwise existed.
The following example will return all of the customers and their associated cases if they have one. If the customer has no case
then it will only return the data for the customer.
SELECT cust.customer_id, case.case_id, case.description

FROM customer cust LEFT OUTER JOIN casefile case
ON cust.case_id = case.case_id;
RIGHT OUTER JOIN
With the RIGHT OUTER JOIN the query will return rows only if the row exists in the table specified on the right side of the
join. When no matching data is found from the table on the left side of the join, nulls are placed into the fields where the data
would have otherwise existed.
The following example will return a list of trucks and their cargo. If a truck has no cargo then a null will be put in place of the
field specifying the cargo's load_id.
SELECT truck.truck_id, cargo.load_id, cargo.description

FROM cargo RIGHT OUTER JOIN truck
ON truck.load_id = cargo.load_id;
Subqueries
Operators
UNION [ALL]
The UNION operator outputs the items that exist in both result sets. The UNION ALL operator outputs all of the items in the
two sets, whether or not both sets contain the item.
The following query returns all customers from San Francisco whose balance is 100000 and 500000.
SELECT customer_id FROM customer WHERE city = 'SAN FRANCISCO'

UNION
SELECT customer_id FROM accounts WHERE balance BETWEEN 100000 AND 500000;
MINUS
The query after the MINUS operator is removed from the result set of the queries before the operator.
In the following example, the first part of the query gets all of the customers. In the second part of the inactive customers are
taken out. Finally, in the third part of the query, customers with zip codes between 80000 and 90000 removed from the set.
SELECT customer_id FROM customer

MINUS
SELECT customer_id FROM customer WHERE status = 'I'
MINUS
SELECT customer_id FROM customer WHERE zip BETWEEN 80000 AND 99000;
INTERSECT
The INTERSECT operator only returns the results that are present in both of the queries.
The following example returns all of the customers who have a balance due in Los Angeles.
SELECT customer_id FROM customer WHERE city = 'LOS ANGELES'

INTERSECT
SELECT customer_id FROM orders WHERE balance_due > 0;
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Case Statements
The following queries are equivalent, they return all of the customers from Switzerland. The CASE statement translates the
single character status flags "A" and "I" to "ACTIVE" and "INACTIVE" If a value is NULL then it returns the string "NULL"
Basic Usage
The simplest form of a CASE statement specifies the variable and then the possible values to check for.
SELECT customer_id,
CASE status
WHEN 'A' THEN 'ACTIVE'
WHEN 'I' THEN 'INACTIVE'
ELSE 'NULL'
END
FROM customer
WHERE country_name = 'SWITZERLAND';
Searched Case
The searched CASE expression is the more advanced form of case. Instead of specifying the value to be checked at the
beginning, each WHEN statement has a comparison that is checked.
SELECT customer_id,
CASE
WHEN status = 'A' THEN 'ACTIVE'
WHEN status = 'I' THEN 'INACTIVE'
ELSE 'NULL'
END
FROM customer
WHERE country_name = 'SWITZERLAND';
Regular Expression Support

List the benefits of using regular expressions
Use regular expressions to search for, match, and replace strings
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Regular Expression
Class Expression Description
Anchoring ^ Start of a line
Character $ End of a line
* Match 0 or more times
+ Match 1 or more times
? Match 0 or 1 time
Quantifier
{m} Match exactly m times
Character
{m,} Match at least m times
{m, n} Match at least m times but no more than n times
\n Cause the previous expression to be repeated n times
| Separates alternates, often used with grouping operator ()
Groups subexpression into a unit for alternations, for quantifiers, or for
Alternative and ()
backreferencing (see "Backreferences" section)
Grouping
Indicates a character list; most metacharacters inside a character list are understood
[char]
as literals, with the exception of character classes, and the ^ and - metacharacters
[:alnum:] Alphanumeric characters
[:alpha:] Alphabetic characters
[:blank:] Blank Space Characters
[:cntrl:] Control characters (nonprinting)
[:digit:] Numeric digits
[:graph:] Any [:punct:], [:upper:], [:lower:], and [:digit:] chars
Posix Character [:lower:] Lowercase alphabetic characters
[:print:] Printable characters
[:punct:] Punctuation characters
Space characters (nonprinting), such as carriage return, newline, vertical tab, and
[:space:]
form feed
[:upper:] Uppercase alphabetic characters
[:xdigit:] Hexidecimal characters
An equivalence classes embedded in brackets that matches a base letter and all of its
Equivalence class = =
accented versions. eg, equivalence class '[=a=]' matches ä and â.
c Case sensitive matching
i Case insensitive matching
Match Option
m Treat source string as multi-line activating Anchor chars
n Allow the period (.) to match any newline character
ignore white space
x
characters
REGEXP_LIKE
REGEXP_LIKE performs complex regular expression pattern matching and supports much greater range of string patterns
than LIKE. this function is introduced in 10g.
last name begin with T and the 2nd character is either 'o' or 'u'
SELECT last_name
FROM hr.employees
WHERE REGEXP_LIKE(last_name, '^T[ou]');
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last name begin with 'T' and end with 'r'
select last_name
from hr.employees
where REGEXP_LIKE( last_name, '^T.*r$' );
first name is either 'Steven' or 'Stephen'
SELECT first_name
FROM hr.employees
WHERE REGEXP_LIKE (first_name, '^Ste(v|ph)en$');
last name contain double vowel characters (ie. 'aa', 'ee', 'ii', 'oo', 'uu') and the matching is non-case sensitive
SELECT last_name
FROM hr.employees
WHERE REGEXP_LIKE (last_name, '([aeiou])\1', 'i');
REGEXP_INSTR
REGEXP_INSTR performs complex regular expression pattern matching and supports much greater range of string patterns
than INSTR. this function is introduced in 10g.
show the position of the 1st lowercase vowel characters
SELECT last_name, REGEXP_INSTR(last_name, '[aeiou]')

FROM hr.employees;
REGEXP_SUBSTR
REGEXP_SUBSTR performs complex regular expression pattern matching and supports much greater range of string patterns
than SUBSTR. this function is introduced in 10g.
extract the 1st character if the last name start with 'A' or 'C'
SELECT last_name, REGEXP_SUBSTR(last_name, '^[AC]')

FROM hr.employees;
Start at 3rd position, extract 2 characters from the last name
SELECT last_name, REGEXP_SUBSTR(last_name, '..',3)

FROM hr.employees;
REGEXP_COUNT
REGEXP_COUNT performs count against a value and it is different from the aggregate COUNT function. This function is
introduced in 11g.
find the occurrences of the vowel pattern in the last name
SELECT last_name, REGEXP_COUNT( last_name, '[aeiou]' )

FROM hr.employees;
Security
Applying the principle privilege
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Managing accounts
Implementing standard password security features
Auditing database activity
Registering for security updates
Differentiating system privileges from object privileges
Granting privileges on tables
Viewing privileges in the data dictionary
Granting roles
syntax:GRANT role TO user example: GRANT dba TO scott
Distinguishing between privileges and roles
Net Services
Using Database Control to create additional listeners
Using Database Control to create Oracle Net service aliases
Using Database Control to configure connect time failover
Using Listener features
Using the Oracle Net Manager to configure client and middle-tier connections
Using TNSPING to test Oracle Net connectivity
Describing Oracle Net Services
Describing Oracle Net names resolution methods
Shared Servers
Identifying when to use Oracle Shared Servers
A shared server can treat several users processes. [1]
Configuring Oracle Shared Servers
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Monitoring Shared Servers
Describing the Shared Server architecture
References
1. https://docs.oracle.com/cd/B28359_01/server.111/b28310/manproc001.htm
Performance Monitoring
On the oracle database Web administration tool, there is a usage monitor shown on the right-hand side of the screen. This
displays both the Storage used by Oracle and the current Memory in use. It also lists the total sessions and users.
For a more detailed view of server settings, Enter the Administration section, and open the Monitor.
Sessions displays a list of users currently connected to the database.

System Statistics displays the current resources used by the database. It can also be set to display changes within the
statistics from a given reference point.
Top SQL displays a list of previous SQL statements that are the most resource intensive.
Long Operations displays the status of operations that are taking more than 6 seconds.
Troubleshooting invalid and unusable objects
Gathering optimizer statistics
Viewing performance metrics
Reacting to performance issues
Proactive Maintenance
Setting warning and critical alert thresholds
Collecting and using baseline metrics
Using tuning and diagnostic advisors
Using the Automatic Database Diagnostic Monitor (ADDM)
Managing the Automatic Workload Repository
Describing server-generated alerts
Undo Management
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Monitoring and administering undo
Configuring undo retention
Guaranteeing undo retention
Using the Undo Advisor
Describing the relationship between undo and transactions
Sizing the undo tablespace
Monitoring and Resolving Lock Conflicts

Detecting and resolving lock conflicts
Managing deadlocks
Describing the relationship between transactions and locks
Explaining lock modes
Backup and Recovery Concepts

Describing the basics of database backup, restore, and recovery
Describing the types of failure that can occur in an Oracle database
Describing ways to tune instance recovery
Identifying the importance of checkpoints, redo log files, and archived log files
Configuring ARCHIVELOG mode
Configuring a database for recoverability
Backups
Creating consistent database backups
Backing up your database without shutting it down
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Creating incremental backups
Automating database backups
Monitoring the Flash Recovery area
Describing the difference between image copies and backup sets
Describing the different types of database backups
Backing up a control file to trace
Managing backups
Recovery
Recovering from loss of a control file
Using RMAN:
If flash recovery area is configured and control file auto backup is on then:
RMAN> connect target /
RMAN> startup nomount;
RMAN> restore controlfile from autobackup;
This will restore the control file to the location specified by the initialization parameter CONTROL_FILES mentioned in
initialization parameter.
If flash recovery area is configured and control file auto backup is off then:
RMAN> restore controlfile from 'C:\FRA\DBNAME\backupset\date_of_backup\backupset_name';
If restoration is being done using recovery catalog then:
RMAN> connect catalog catalog_database_user/password@recovery_catalog_service;
RMAN> restore controlfile;
If no flash recovery area is configured, no recovery catalog is available and RMAN backup piece is available at default
location then:
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RMAN> set dbid 1234567890;
RMAN> restore controlfile from autobackup;
Recovering from loss of a redo log file
Recovering from loss of a system-critical datafile
Recovering from loss of a non–system-critical datafile
XML Cheatsheet
Oracle XML Reference
Oracle possesses a variety of powerful XML features. A tremendous amount of documentation exists regarding Oracle's XML
features. This resource is intended to be a cheat sheet for those of us who don't have time to wade through the hundreds of
pages of documentation, but instead wish to quickly understand how to create simple XML output and input XML into a
database.
Other Oracle References
Oracle PL/SQL Reference
DBMS_XMLGEN
Overview
See also:
Generating XML from Oracle9i Database Using DBMS_XMLGEN (http://download-west.oracle.com/docs/cd

/B10501_01/appdev.920/a96620/xdb12gen.htm#1025388): Official Oracle Documentation.
Functions
getXML()
Gets the XML document by fetching the maximum number of rows specified. It appends the XML document to the CLOB
passed in. Use this version of GETXML Functions to avoid any extra CLOB copies and to reuse the same CLOB for
subsequent calls. Because of the CLOB reuse, this GETXML Functions call is potentially more efficient.
Syntax:
DBMS_XMLGEN.GETXML (
ctx IN ctxHandle,
tmpclob IN OUT NCOPY CLOB,
dtdOrSchema IN number := NONE)
RETURN BOOLEAN;
Generates the XML document and returns it as a temporary CLOB. The temporary CLOB obtained from this function must be
freed using the DBMS_LOB.FREETEMPORARY call:
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ctx IN ctxHandle,
RETURN CLOB;
Converts the results from the SQL query string to XML format, and returns the XML as a temporary CLOB, which must be
subsequently freed using the DBMS_LOB.FREETEMPORARY call:
sqlQuery IN VARCHAR2,
RETURN CLOB;
Example:
The following procedure parses the fields in the employee table into XML and saves the XML as CLOB rows in a table.
CREATE OR REPLACE procedure dump_pcd AS

qryCtx DBMS_XMLGEN.ctxHandle;
result CLOB;
BEGIN
qryCtx := dbms_xmlgen.newContext ('SELECT * from employees;');
DBMS_XMLGEN.setRowTag(qryCtx, 'EMPLOYEE'); DBMS_XMLGEN.setMaxRows(qryCtx, 5);
LOOP
-- save the XML into the CLOB result.

result := DBMS_XMLGEN.getXML(qryCtx);
EXIT WHEN DBMS_XMLGEN.getNumRowsProcessed((qryCtx)=0);
-- store the data to a temporary table

INSERT INTO temp_clob_tab VALUES(result);
END LOOP;
END dump_pcd;
setRowSetTag()
Sets the name of the root element of the document. The default name is ROWSET. Setting the rowSetTag to NULL will stop
this element from being output. An error is produced if both the row and the rowset are NULL and there is more than one
column or row in the output. The error is produced because the generated XML would not have a top-level enclosing tag.
Syntax:
DBMS_XMLGEN.setRowSetTag (
ctx IN ctxHandle,
rowSetTag IN VARCHAR2);
Example:
DBMS_XMLGEN.setRowSetTag ( ctxHandle, 'ALL ROWS' );
Sample output:
This encloses the entire XML result set in the tag specified by the second parameter.
<ALL ROWS>
<ROW>
<NAME>John Doe</NAME>
</ROW>
<ROW>
<NAME>Jane Doe</NAME>
</ROW>
...
</ALL ROWS>
setRowTag()
This function sets the name of the element each row. The default name is ROW. Setting this to NULL suppresses the ROW
element itself. This produces an error if both the row and the rowset are NULL and there is more than one column or row in
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the output. The error is returned because the generated XML must have a top-level enclosing tag.
Syntax:
DBMS_XMLGEN.setRowTag (
ctx IN ctxHandle,
rowTag IN VARCHAR2);
Example:
This tells the XML generator to enclose the columns of each row in an AUTHOR tag.
DBMS_XMLGEN.setRowTag ( ctxHandle, 'AUTHOR' );
Sample output:
Every row output is now enclosed inside the AUTHOR tag.
<ROWSET>
<AUTHOR>
<NAME>John Doe</NAME>
</AUTHOR>
<AUTHOR>
<NAME>Jane Doe</NAME>
</AUTHOR>
...
</ROWSET>
Examples
Dumping a Query Result as XML
Sample procedure for dumping the results of an SQL query as XML.
CREATE OR REPLACE procedure dump_pcd AS

qryCtx DBMS_XMLGEN.ctxHandle;
result CLOB;
BEGIN
qryCtx := dbms_xmlgen.newContext ('SELECT * from employees;');
DBMS_XMLGEN.setRowTag(qryCtx, 'EMPLOYEE'); DBMS_XMLGEN.setMaxRows(qryCtx, 5);
LOOP
result := DBMS_XMLGEN.getXML(qryCtx);
EXIT WHEN DBMS_XMLGEN.getNumRowsProcessed((qryCtx)=0);
INSERT INTO temp_clob_tab VALUES(result);
END LOOP;
END dump_pcd;
The returned XML results will look similar to the following:
<?xml version=''1.0''?>
<ROWSET>
<EMPLOYEE>
<EMPLOYEE_ID>30</EMPLOYEE_ID>
<LAST_NAME>SCOTT</LAST_NAME>
<SALARY>20000<SALARY>
</EMPLOYEE>
<EMPLOYEE>
<EMPLOYEE_ID>31</EMPLOYEE_ID>
<LAST_NAME>MARY</LAST_NAME>
<AGE>25</AGE>
</EMPLOYEE>
</ROWSET>
SQL Cheatsheet
This "cheat sheet" covers most of the basic functionality that an Oracle DBA needs to run basic queries and perform basic
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tasks. It also contains information that a PL/SQL programmer frequently uses to write stored procedures. The resource is
useful as a primer for individuals who are new to Oracle, or as a reference for those who are experienced at using Oracle.
A great deal of information about Oracle exists throughout the net. We developed this resource to make it easier for
programmers and DBAs to find most of the basics in one place. Topics beyond the scope of a "cheatsheet" generally provide a
link to further research.
Other Oracle References
Oracle XML Reference—the XML reference is still in its infancy, but is coming along nicely.
SELECT
The SELECT statement is used to retrieve rows selected from one or more tables, object tables, views, object views, or
materialized views.
SELECT *
FROM beverages
WHERE field1 = 'Kona'
AND field2 = 'coffee'
AND field3 = 122;
SELECT INTO
Select into takes the values name, address and phone number out of the table employee, and places them into the variables
v_employee_name, v_employee_address, and v_employee_phone_number.
This only works if the query matches a single item. If the query returns no rows it raises the NO_DATA_FOUND built-in
exception. If your query returns more than one row, Oracle raises the exception TOO_MANY_ROWS.
SELECT name,address,phone_number
INTO v_employee_name,v_employee_address,v_employee_phone_number
FROM employee
WHERE employee_id = 6;
INSERT
The INSERT statement adds one or more new rows of data to a database table.
insert using the VALUES keyword
INSERT INTO table_name VALUES ('Value1', 'Value2', ... );

INSERT INTO table_name( Column1, Column2, ... ) VALUES ( 'Value1', 'Value2', ... );
insert using a SELECT statement
INSERT INTO table_name( SELECT Value1, Value2, ... from table_name );

INSERT INTO table_name( Column1, Column2, ... ) ( SELECT Value1, Value2, ... from table_name );
DELETE
The DELETE statement is used to delete rows in a table.
deletes rows that match the criteria
DELETE FROM table_name WHERE some_column=some_value

DELETE FROM customer WHERE sold = 0;
UPDATE
The UPDATE statement is used to udpate rows in a table.
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updates the entire column of that table
UPDATE customer SET state='CA';
updates the specific record of the table eg:
UPDATE customer SET name='Joe' WHERE customer_id=10;
updates the column invoice as paid when paid column has more than zero.
UPDATE movies SET invoice='paid' WHERE paid > 0;
SEQUENCES
Sequences are database objects that multiple users can use to generate unique integers. The sequence generator generates
sequential numbers, which can help automatically generate unique primary keys, and coordinate keys across multiple rows or
tables.
CREATE SEQUENCE
The syntax for a sequence is:
CREATE SEQUENCE sequence_name

MINVALUE value
MAXVALUE value
START WITH value
INCREMENT BY value
CACHE value;
For example:
CREATE SEQUENCE supplier_seq

MINVALUE 1
MAXVALUE 999999999999999999999999999
START WITH 1
INCREMENT BY 1
CACHE 20;
ALTER SEQUENCE
Increment a sequence by a certain amount:
ALTER SEQUENCE <sequence_name> INCREMENT BY <integer>;

ALTER SEQUENCE seq_inc_by_ten INCREMENT BY 10;
Change the maximum value of a sequence:
ALTER SEQUENCE <sequence_name> MAXVALUE <integer>;

ALTER SEQUENCE seq_maxval MAXVALUE 10;
Set the sequence to cycle or not cycle:
ALTER SEQUENCE <sequence_name> <CYCLE | NOCYCLE>;

ALTER SEQUENCE seq_cycle NOCYCLE;
Configure the sequence to cache a value:
ALTER SEQUENCE <sequence_name> CACHE <integer> | NOCACHE;

ALTER SEQUENCE seq_cache NOCACHE;
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Set whether or not to return the values in order
ALTER SEQUENCE <sequence_name> <ORDER | NOORDER>;

ALTER SEQUENCE seq_order NOORDER;
LTER SEQUENCE seq_order
Generate query from a string
It is sometimes necessary to create a query from a string. That is, if the programmer wants to create a query at run time
(generate an Oracle query on the fly), based on a particular set of circumstances, etc.
Care should be taken not to insert user-supplied data directly into a dynamic query string, without first vetting the data very
strictly for SQL escape characters; otherwise you run a significant risk of enabling data-injection hacks on your code.
Here is a very simple example of how a dynamic query is done. There are, of course, many different ways to do this; this is
just an example of the functionality.
PROCEDURE oracle_runtime_query_pcd IS
TYPE ref_cursor IS REF CURSOR;
l_cursor ref_cursor;
v_query varchar2(5000);
v_name varchar2(64);
BEGIN
v_query := 'SELECT name FROM employee WHERE employee_id=5';
OPEN l_cursor FOR v_query;
LOOP
FETCH l_cursor INTO v_name;
EXIT WHEN l_cursor%NOTFOUND;
END LOOP;
CLOSE l_cursor;
END;
String operations
Length
Length returns an integer representing the length of a given string. It can be referred to as: lengthb, lengthc, length2, and
length4.
length( string1 );
SELECT length('hello world') FROM dual;

this returns 11, since the argument is made up of 11 characters including the space
SELECT lengthb('hello world') FROM dual;

SELECT lengthc('hello world') FROM dual;
SELECT length2('hello world') FROM dual;
SELECT length4('hello world') FROM dual;
these also return 11, since the functions called are equivalent
Instr
Instr returns an integer that specifies the location of a sub-string within a string. The programmer can specify which
appearance of the string they want to detect, as well as a starting position. An unsuccessful search returns 0.
instr( string1, string2, [ start_position ], [ nth_appearance ] )
instr( 'oracle pl/sql cheatsheet', '/');

this returns 10, since the first occurrence of "/" is the tenth character
instr( 'oracle pl/sql cheatsheet', 'e', 1, 2);

this returns 17, since the second occurrence of "e" is the seventeenth character
instr( 'oracle pl/sql cheatsheet', '/', 12, 1);

this returns 0, since the first occurrence of "/" is before the starting point, which is the 12th character
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Replace
Replace looks through a string, replacing one string with another. If no other string is specified, it removes the string specified
in the replacement string parameter.
replace( string1, string_to_replace, [ replacement_string ] );

replace('i am here','am','am not');
this returns "i am not here"
Substr
Substr returns a portion of the given string. The "start_position" is 1-based, not 0-based. If "start_position" is negative, substr
counts from the end of the string. If "length" is not given, substr defaults to the remaining length of the string.
substr( string, start_position [, length])
SELECT substr( 'oracle pl/sql cheatsheet', 8, 6) FROM dual;
returns "pl/sql" since the "p" in "pl/sql" is in the 8th position in the string (counting from 1 at the "o" in "oracle")
SELECT substr( 'oracle pl/sql cheatsheet', 15) FROM dual;
returns "cheatsheet" since "c" is in the 15th position in the string and "t" is the last character in the string.
SELECT substr('oracle pl/sql cheatsheet', -10, 5) FROM dual;
returns "cheat" since "c" is the 10th character in the string, counting from the end of the string with "t" as position 1.
Trim
These functions can be used to filter unwanted characters from strings. By default they remove spaces, but a character set can
be specified for removal as well.
trim ( [ leading | trailing | both ] [ trim-char ] from string-to-be-trimmed );

trim (' removing spaces at both sides ');
this returns "removing spaces at both sides"
ltrim ( string-to-be-trimmed [, trimming-char-set ] );

ltrim (' removing spaces at the left side ');
this returns "removing spaces at the left side "
rtrim ( string-to-be-trimmed [, trimming-char-set ] );

rtrim (' removing spaces at the right side ');
this returns " removing spaces at the right side"
DDL SQL
Tables
Create table
The syntax to create a table is:
CREATE TABLE [table name]

( [column name] [datatype], ... );
For example:
CREATE TABLE employee

(id int, name varchar(20));
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Add column
The syntax to add a column is:
ALTER TABLE [table name]

ADD ( [column name] [datatype], ... );
For example:
ALTER TABLE employee

ADD (id int)
Modify column
The syntax to modify a column is:

MODIFY ( [column name] [new datatype] );
ALTER table syntax and examples:
For example:

MODIFY( sickHours s float );
Drop column
The syntax to drop a column is:

DROP COLUMN [column name];
For example:

DROP COLUMN vacationPay;
Constraints
Constraint types and codes
Type Code Type Description Acts On Level

C Check on a table Column
O Read Only on a view Object
P Primary Key Object
R Referential AKA Foreign Key Column
U Unique Key Column
V Check Option on a view Object
Displaying constraints
The following statement shows all constraints in the system:
SELECT
table_name,
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constraint_name,
constraint_type
FROM user_constraints;
Selecting referential constraints
The following statement shows all referential constraints (foreign keys) with both source and destination table/column
couples:
SELECT
c_list.CONSTRAINT_NAME as NAME,
c_src.TABLE_NAME as SRC_TABLE,
c_src.COLUMN_NAME as SRC_COLUMN,
c_dest.TABLE_NAME as DEST_TABLE,
c_dest.COLUMN_NAME as DEST_COLUMN
FROM ALL_CONSTRAINTS c_list,
ALL_CONS_COLUMNS c_src,
ALL_CONS_COLUMNS c_dest
WHERE c_list.CONSTRAINT_NAME = c_src.CONSTRAINT_NAME
AND c_list.R_CONSTRAINT_NAME = c_dest.CONSTRAINT_NAME
AND c_list.CONSTRAINT_TYPE = 'R'
GROUP BY c_list.CONSTRAINT_NAME,
c_src.TABLE_NAME,
c_src.COLUMN_NAME,
c_dest.TABLE_NAME,
c_dest.COLUMN_NAME;
Setting constraints on a table
The syntax for creating a check constraint using a CREATE TABLE statement is:
CREATE TABLE table_name

(
column1 datatype null/not null,
...
CONSTRAINT constraint_name CHECK (column_name condition) [DISABLE]
);
For example:
CREATE TABLE suppliers

(
supplier_id numeric(4),
supplier_name varchar2(50),
CONSTRAINT check_supplier_id
CHECK (supplier_id BETWEEN 100 and 9999)
);
Unique Index on a table
The syntax for creating a unique constraint using a CREATE TABLE statement is:
CREATE TABLE table_name

(
...
CONSTRAINT constraint_name UNIQUE (column1, column2, column_n)
);
For example:
CREATE TABLE customer

(
id integer not null,
name varchar2(20),
CONSTRAINT customer_id_constraint UNIQUE (id)
);
Adding unique constraints
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The syntax for a unique constraint is:

ADD CONSTRAINT [constraint name] UNIQUE( [column name] ) USING INDEX [index name];
For example:

ADD CONSTRAINT uniqueEmployeeId UNIQUE(employeeId) USING INDEX ourcompanyIndx_tbs;
Deleting constraints
The syntax for dropping (removing) a constraint is:

DROP CONSTRAINT [constraint name];
For example:

DROP CONSTRAINT uniqueEmployeeId;
See also: Oracle Constraints (http://www.psoug.org/reference/constraints.html)
INDEXES
An index is a method that retrieves records with greater efficiency. An index creates an entry for each value that appears in
the indexed columns. By default, Oracle creates B-tree indexes.
Create an index
The syntax for creating an index is:
CREATE [UNIQUE] INDEX index_name

ON table_name (column1, column2, . column_n)
[ COMPUTE STATISTICS ];
UNIQUE indicates that the combination of values in the indexed columns must be unique.
COMPUTE STATISTICS tells Oracle to collect statistics during the creation of the index. The statistics are then used by the
optimizer to choose an optimal execution plan when the statements are executed.
For example:
CREATE INDEX customer_idx

ON customer (customer_name);
In this example, an index has been created on the customer table called customer_idx. It consists of only of the
customer_name field.
The following creates an index with more than one field:

ON supplier (customer_name, country);
The following collects statistics upon creation of the index:

ON supplier (customer_name, country)
COMPUTE STATISTICS;
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Create a function-based index
In Oracle, you are not restricted to creating indexes on only columns. You can create function-based indexes.
The syntax that creates a function-based index is:
CREATE [UNIQUE] INDEX index_name

ON table_name (function1, function2, . function_n)
[ COMPUTE STATISTICS ];
For example:

ON customer (UPPER(customer_name));
An index, based on the uppercase evaluation of the customer_name field, has been created.
To assure that the Oracle optimizer uses this index when executing your SQL statements, be sure that
UPPER(customer_name) does not evaluate to a NULL value. To ensure this, add UPPER(customer_name) IS NOT NULL to
your WHERE clause as follows:
SELECT customer_id, customer_name, UPPER(customer_name)

FROM customer
WHERE UPPER(customer_name) IS NOT NULL
ORDER BY UPPER(customer_name);
Rename an Index
The syntax for renaming an index is:
ALTER INDEX index_name

RENAME TO new_index_name;
For example:
ALTER INDEX customer_id

RENAME TO new_customer_id;
In this example, customer_id is renamed to new_customer_id.
Collect statistics on an index
If you need to collect statistics on the index after it is first created or you want to update the statistics, you can always use the
ALTER INDEX command to collect statistics. You collect statistics so that oracle can use the indexes in an effective manner.
This recalcultes the table size, number of rows, blocks, segments and update the dictionary tables so that oracle can use the
data effectively while choosing the execution plan.
The syntax for collecting statistics on an index is:
ALTER INDEX index_name

REBUILD COMPUTE STATISTICS;
For example:
ALTER INDEX customer_idx

REBUILD COMPUTE STATISTICS;
In this example, statistics are collected for the index called customer_idx.
Drop an index
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The syntax for dropping an index is:
DROP INDEX index_name;
For example:
DROP INDEX customer_idx;
In this example, the customer_idx is dropped.
DBA Related
User Management
Creating a user
ggOracle Database/Print version The syntax for creating a user is:
CREATE USER username IDENTIFIED BY password;
For example:
CREATE USER brian IDENTIFIED BY brianpass;
Granting privileges
The syntax for granting privileges is:
GRANT privilege TO Gulfnet_krishna(user);
For example:
GRANT dba TO brian;
Change password
The syntax for changing user password is:
ALTER USER username IDENTIFIED BY password;
For example:
ALTER USER brian IDENTIFIED BY brianpassword;
Importing and exporting
There are two methods of backing up and restoring database tables and data. The 'exp' and 'imp' tools are simpler tools geared
towards smaller databases. If database structures become more complex or are very large ( > 50 GB for example) then using
the RMAN tool is more appropriate.
Import a dump file using IMP
This command is used to import Oracle tables and table data from a *.dmp file created by the 'exp' tool. Remember that this a
command that is executed from the command line through $ORACLE_HOME/bin and not within SQL*Plus.
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The syntax for importing a dump file is:
imp KEYWORD=value
There are number of parameters you can use for keywords.
To view all the keywords:
imp HELP=yes
An example:
imp brian/brianpassword FILE=mydump.dmp FULL=yes
PL/SQL
Operators
(incomplete)
Arithmetic operators
Addition: +
Subtraction: -
Multiplication: *
Division: /
Power (PL/SQL only): **
Examples
gives all employees from customer id 5 a 5% raise
UPDATE employee SET salary = salary * 1.05

WHERE customer_id = 5;
determines the after tax wage for all employees
SELECT wage - tax FROM employee;
Comparison operators
Greater Than: >

Greater Than or Equal To: >=
Less Than: <
Less Than or Equal to: <=
Equivalence: =
Inequality: != ^= <> ¬= (depends on platform)
Examples
SELECT name, salary, email FROM employees WHERE salary > 40000;
SELECT name FROM customers WHERE customer_id < 6;
String operators
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Concatenate: ||
create or replace procedure addtest( a in varchar2(100), b in varchar2(100), c out varchar2(200) ) IS begin C:=concat(a,'-',b);
Date operators
Addition: +
Subtraction: -
Types
Basic PL/SQL Types
Scalar type (defined in package STANDARD): NUMBER, CHAR, VARCHAR2, BOOLEAN, BINARY_INTEGER,
LONG\LONG RAW, DATE, TIMESTAMP(and its family including intervals)
Composite types (user-defined types): TABLE, RECORD, NESTED TABLE and VARRAY
LOB datatypes : used to store an unstructured large amount of data
%TYPE - anchored type variable declaration
The syntax for anchored type declarations is
<var_name> <obj>%type [not null][:= <init-val>];
For example
name Books.title%type; /* name is defined as the same type as column 'title' of table Books */
commission number(5,2) := 12.5;
x commission%type; /* x is defined as the same type as variable 'commission' */
Note:
1. Anchored variables allow for the automatic synchronization of the type of anchored variable with the type of <obj>
when there is a change to the <obj> type.
2. Anchored types are evaluated at compile time, so recompile the program to reflect the change of <obj> type in the
anchored variable.
Collections
A collection is an ordered group of elements, all of the same type. It is a general concept that encompasses lists, arrays, and
other familiar datatypes. Each element has a unique subscript that determines its position in the collection.
--Define a PL/SQL record type representing a book:

TYPE book_rec IS RECORD
(title book.title%TYPE,
author book.author_last_name%TYPE,
year_published book.published_date%TYPE);
--define a PL/SQL table containing entries of type book_rec:

Type book_rec_tab IS TABLE OF book_rec%TYPE
INDEX BY BINARY_INTEGER;
my_book_rec book_rec%TYPE;
my_book_rec_tab book_rec_tab%TYPE;
...
my_book_rec := my_book_rec_tab(5);
find_authors_books(my_book_rec.author);
...
There are many good reasons to use collections.
Dramatically faster execution speed, thanks to transparent performance boosts including a new optimizing compiler,
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better integrated native compilation, and new datatypes that help out with number-crunching applications.
The FORALL statement, made even more flexible and useful. For example, FORALL now supports nonconsecutive
indexes.
Regular expressions are available in PL/SQL in the form of three new functions (REGEXP_INSTR,
REGEXP_REPLACE, and REGEXP_SUBSTR) and the REGEXP_LIKE operator for comparisons. (For more
information, see "First Expressions" by Jonathan Gennick in this issue.)
Collections, improved to include such things as collection comparison for equality and support for set operations on
nested tables.
see also:
Taking Up Collections (http://www.oracle.com/technology/oramag/oracle/03-sep/o53plsql.html)

Oracle Programming with PL/SQL Collections (http://www.developer.com/db/article.php/3379271)
Stored logic
Functions
A function must return a value to the caller.
The syntax for a function is
CREATE [OR REPLACE] FUNCTION function_name [ (parameter [,parameter]) ]

RETURN [return_datatype]
IS
[declaration_section]
BEGIN
executable_section
return [return_value]
[EXCEPTION
exception_section]
END [function_name];
For example:
CREATE OR REPLACE FUNCTION to_date_check_null(dateString IN VARCHAR2, dateFormat IN VARCHAR2)

RETURN DATE IS
BEGIN
IF dateString IS NULL THEN
return NULL;
ELSE
return to_date(dateString, dateFormat);
END IF;
END;
Procedures
A procedure differs from a function in that it must not return a value to the caller.
The syntax for a procedure is:
CREATE [OR REPLACE] PROCEDURE procedure_name [ (parameter [,parameter]) ]

IS
[declaration_section]
BEGIN
executable_section
[EXCEPTION
exception_section]
END [procedure_name];
When you create a procedure or function, you may define parameters. There are three types of parameters that can be
declared:
1. IN - The parameter can be referenced by the procedure or function. The value of the parameter can not be overwritten
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by the procedure or function.

2. OUT - The parameter can not be referenced by the procedure or function, but the value of the parameter can be
overwritten by the procedure or function.
3. IN OUT - The parameter can be referenced by the procedure or function and the value of the parameter can be
overwritten by the procedure or function.
Also you can declare a DEFAULT value;
CREATE [OR REPLACE] PROCEDURE procedure_name [ (parameter [IN|OUT|IN OUT] [DEFAULT value] [,parameter]) ]
The following is a simple example of a procedure:
/* purpose: shows the students in the course specified by courseId */
CREATE OR REPLACE Procedure GetNumberOfStudents

( courseId IN number, numberOfStudents OUT number )
IS
/* although there are better ways to compute the number of students,

this is a good opportunity to show a cursor in action */
cursor student_cur is
select studentId, studentName
from course
where course.courseId = courseId;
student_rec student_cur%ROWTYPE;
BEGIN
OPEN student_cur;
LOOP
FETCH student_cur INTO student_rec;
EXIT WHEN student_cur%NOTFOUND;
numberOfStudents := numberOfStudents + 1;
END LOOP;
CLOSE student_cur;
EXCEPTION
WHEN OTHERS THEN
raise_application_error(-20001,'An error was encountered - '||SQLCODE||' -ERROR- '||SQLERRM);
END GetNumberOfStudents;
anonymous block
DECLARE
x NUMBER(4) := 0;
BEGIN
x := 1000;
BEGIN
x := x + 100;
EXCEPTION
WHEN OTHERS THEN
x := x + 2;
END;
x := x + 10;
dbms_output.put_line(x);
EXCEPTION
WHEN OTHERS THEN
x := x + 3;
END;
Passing parameters to stored logic
There are three basic syntaxes for passing parameters to a stored procedure: positional notation, named notation and mixed
notation.
The following examples call this procedure for each of the basic syntaxes for parameter passing:
CREATE OR REPLACE PROCEDURE create_customer( p_name IN varchar2,

p_id IN number,
p_address IN varchar2,
p_phone IN varchar2 ) IS
BEGIN
INSERT INTO customer ( name, id, address, phone )
VALUES ( p_name, p_id, p_address, p_phone );
END create_customer;
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Positional notation
Specify the same parameters in the same order as they are declared in the procedure. This notation is compact, but if you
specify the parameters (especially literals) in the wrong order, the bug can be hard to detect. You must change your code if the
procedure's parameter list changes.
create_customer('James Whitfield', 33, '301 Anystreet', '251-222-3154');
Named notation
Specify the name of each parameter along with its value. An arrow (=>) serves as the association operator. The order of the
parameters is not significant. This notation is more verbose, but makes your code easier to read and maintain. You can
sometimes avoid changing code if the procedure's parameter list changes, for example if the parameters are reordered or a new
optional parameter is added. Named notation is a good practice to use for any code that calls someone else's API, or defines an
API for someone else to use.
create_customer(p_address => '301 Anystreet', p_id => 33, p_name => 'James Whitfield', p_phone => '251-222-3154');
Mixed notation
Specify the first parameters with positional notation, then switch to named notation for the last parameters. You can use this
notation to call procedures that have some required parameters, followed by some optional parameters.
create_customer(v_name, v_id, p_address=> '301 Anystreet', p_phone => '251-222-3154');
Table functions
CREATE TYPE object_row_type as OBJECT (

object_type VARCHAR(18),
object_name VARCHAR(30)
);
CREATE TYPE object_table_type as TABLE OF object_row_type;
CREATE OR REPLACE FUNCTION get_all_objects

RETURN object_table_type PIPELINED AS
BEGIN
FOR cur IN (SELECT * FROM all_objects)
LOOP
PIPE ROW(object_row_type(cur.object_type, cur.object_name));
END LOOP;
RETURN;
END;
SELECT * FROM TABLE(get_all_objects);
Flow control
Conditional Operators
and: AND
or: OR
not: NOT
Example
IF salary > 40000 AND salary <= 70000 THEN() ELSE IF salary>70000 AND salary<=100000 THEN() ELSE()
If/then/else
IF [condition] THEN
[statements]
ELSEIF [condition] THEN
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[statements}
[statements}
[statements}
[statements}
[statements}
[statements}
[statements}
ELSE
[statements}
END IF;
Arrays
Associative arrays
Strongly typed arrays, useful as in-memory tables
Example
Very simple example, the index is the key to accessing the array so there is no need to loop through the whole table
unless you intend to use data from every line of the array.
The index can also be a numeric value.
DECLARE
-- Associative array indexed by string:
-- Associative array type

TYPE population IS TABLE OF NUMBER
INDEX BY VARCHAR2(64);
-- Associative array variable
city_population population;
i VARCHAR2(64);
BEGIN
-- Add new elements to associative array:
city_population('Smallville') := 2000;
city_population('Midland') := 750000;
city_population('Megalopolis') := 1000000;
-- Change value associated with key 'Smallville':

city_population('Smallville') := 2001;
-- Print associative array by looping through it:

i := city_population.FIRST;
WHILE i IS NOT NULL LOOP

DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE
('Population of ' || i || ' is ' || TO_CHAR(city_population(i)));
i := city_population.NEXT(i);
END LOOP;
-- Print selected value from a associative array:

DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE('Selected value');
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE('Population of
END;
/
-- Printed results:
Population of Megalopolis is 1000000
Population of Midland is 750000
Population of Smallville is 2001
More complex example, using a record
DECLARE
-- Record type
TYPE apollo_rec IS RECORD
(
commander VARCHAR2(100),
launch DATE
);
-- Associative array type
TYPE apollo_type_arr IS TABLE OF apollo_rec INDEX BY VARCHAR2(100);
-- Associative array variable
apollo_arr apollo_type_arr;
BEGIN
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apollo_arr('Apollo 11').commander := 'Neil Armstrong';

apollo_arr('Apollo 11').launch := TO_DATE('July 16, 1969','Month dd, yyyy');
apollo_arr('Apollo 12').commander := 'Pete Conrad';
apollo_arr('Apollo 12').launch := TO_DATE('November 14, 1969','Month dd, yyyy');
apollo_arr('Apollo 13').commander := 'James Lovell';
apollo_arr('Apollo 13').launch := TO_DATE('April 11, 1970','Month dd, yyyy');
apollo_arr('Apollo 14').commander := 'Alan Shepard';
apollo_arr('Apollo 14').launch := TO_DATE('January 31, 1971','Month dd, yyyy');
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE(apollo_arr('Apollo 11').commander);
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE(apollo_arr('Apollo 11').launch);
end;
/
-- Printed results:
Neil Armstrong
16-JUL-69
APEX
String substitution
* In SQL: :VARIABLE
* In PL/SQL: V('VARIABLE') or NV('VARIABLE')
* In text: &VARIABLE.
External links
PSOUG reference (http://www.psoug.org/reference/)
More Wikibooks
Introduction to SQL
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Oracle Database/Print version - Wikibooks, open books for an open world https://en.wikibooks.org/w/index.php?title=Oracle_Database/Print_ver...

Oracle Database/Print version

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4.13 Joining a table to itself by using a self-join

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11.6.1 Explaining the data dictionary

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12.17.4 Create a simple table

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21.3 Implementing standard password security features

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29.5 Monitoring the Flash Recovery area

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33.10.1.3 Change password

Express Edition (XE)download (http://www.oracle.com/technetwork/database/database-technologies/express-edition/downloads

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In Linux : check /etc/init.d.

net start OracleServiceXE

For the SE version:

net start OracleServiceORCL

Identifying system requirements

The database server needs at least[2]:

1. 1 GB free space on a hard drive for XE, 3.5 for SE.

Since the version 12c, a 64 bits processor is mandatory.

The environment variables settings are automatic.

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Otherwise if you already have an account, the syntax is:

The first step is to create a user (eg: root):

CREATE USER root IDENTIFIED BY MyPassword;

The second to confer him the necessary privileges:

GRANT sysdba to root;

Then we must connect to the DBMS:

User name: sys (sometimes sysman)

Oracle SQL Developer

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These variables and keywords are not sensible to casing.

CREATE TABLESPACE Wikibooks

CREATE SCHEMA AUTHORIZATION root

CREATE TABLE client1 (last VARCHAR(10), first VARCHAR(10), address VARCHAR(20) );

CREATE TABLE client1

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Available data types

Reviewing the table structure

SELECT * FROM ALL_TAB_COLUMNS WHERE TABLE_NAME = "client1"

Modify tables structure

ALTER TABLE client1 RENAME to client2

First field values constraint addition:

ALTER TABLE client1 CHECK id > 1;

Primary key addition:

ALTER TABLE client1 ADD CONSTRAINT client1_pk PRIMARY KEY (id);

Primary key removal:

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ALTER TABLE client1 ADD PRIMARY KEY (id) DISABLE;

Foreign key addition:

ALTER TABLE client1

Name NULL Type

To get its content: