Journal of Rock Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering: Amin Manouchehrian, Ming Cai
Journal of Rock Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering: Amin Manouchehrian, Ming Cai
Journal of Rock Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering: Amin Manouchehrian, Ming Cai
a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t
Article history: The presence of geological structures such as faults, joints, and dykes has been observed near excavation
Received 11 January 2017 boundaries in many rockburst case histories. In this paper, the role of discontinuities around tunnels in
Received in revised form rockburst occurrence was studied. For this purpose, the Abaqus explicit code was used to simulate dy-
25 June 2017
namic rock failure in deep tunnels. Material heterogeneity was considered using Python scripting in
Accepted 26 July 2017
Available online 5 October 2017
Abaqus. Rockbursts near fault regions in deep tunnels under static and dynamic loads were studied.
Several tunnel models with and without faults were built and static and dynamic loads were used to
simulate rock failure. The velocity and the released kinetic energy of failed rocks, the failure zone around
Keywords:
Rockburst
the tunnel, and the deformed mesh were studied to identify stable and unstable rock failures. Compared
Numerical modeling with models without discontinuities, the results showed that the velocity and the released kinetic energy
Geological structure of failed rocks were higher, the failure zone around the tunnel was larger, and the mesh was more
Static load increase deformed in the models with discontinuities, indicating that rock failure in the models with disconti-
Dynamic disturbance nuities was more violent. The modeling results confirm that the presence of geological structures in the
Tunnel vicinity of deep excavations could be one of the major influence factors for the occurrence of rockburst. It
can explain localized rockburst occurrence in civil tunnels and mining drifts. The presented methodology
in this paper for rockburst analysis can be useful for rockburst anticipation and control during mining
and tunneling in highly stressed ground.
Ó 2017 Institute of Rock and Soil Mechanics, Chinese Academy of Sciences. Production and hosting by
Elsevier B.V. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/
licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
1. Introduction et al., 1981; Ghose and Rao, 1990; Hedley, 1992; Young, 1993;
Gibowicz and Lasocki, 1997; Blake and Hedley, 2003; Zhang et al.,
Mankind’s life is very dependent on the Earth’s materials. 2012; Andrieux et al., 2013). In some cases, these violent unstable
Continuous mining over the past years has depleted most surface failures have resulted in loss of life and total collapse of mine panels
and shallow reserves and forced us to go deeper inside the Earth for (Chen et al., 1997; Whyatt et al., 2002; Zhu et al., 2009; Zhang et al.,
more natural resources. Mining conditions are difficult in deep 2013). Violent rock failure can occur locally in isolation, which may
grounds; it is harder and more risky to mine at depth. One of en- not affect the general stability of a mine, but poses a great threat to
gineering hazards of mining at depth is rockburst. A rockburst is an personnel in the area. Modern mining operations take available
unstable failure of rock associated with a sudden release of energy, measures to reduce the likelihood of unstable rock failures, but
and it imposes a great danger on the safety of workers and complete elimination of unstable rock failures is difficult in practice
investment. due to the uncertainty in rock stress, strength, stiffness, and other
Case histories in mining have documented violent rock failures mechanical properties (Cai, 2013). Over the past five decades, re-
that were accompanied by rapid ejection of debris and broken searchers have studied unstable rock failure and rockbursting using
rocks into working areas of mine openings and tunnels (Shepherd various means such as analytical, numerical, experimental, and
statistical approaches (Sun et al., 2007; He et al., 2010, 2012; Li
et al., 2012, 2013, 2014; Tao et al., 2012; Zhu et al., 2014; Zhao
and Cai, 2014; Xiao et al., 2016). However, many conditions lead-
* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: [email protected] (M. Cai).
ing to rockburst occurrence are not fully understood and further
Peer review under responsibility of Institute of Rock and Soil Mechanics, Chi- studies are needed to understand the mechanisms of rockbursting
nese Academy of Sciences. so as to control and mitigate rockburst risk.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jrmge.2017.07.001
1674-7755 Ó 2017 Institute of Rock and Soil Mechanics, Chinese Academy of Sciences. Production and hosting by Elsevier B.V. This is an open access article under the CC BY-
NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
1032 A. Manouchehrian, M. Cai / Journal of Rock Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering 9 (2017) 1031e1040
Ortlepp (1997) classified rockbursts into five types (strainburst, with implicit and explicit solvers, making it applicable for solving a
buckling, face crush/pillar burst, shear rupture, and fault-slip large variety of physical and engineering problems (Dassault-
burst). In a broad sense, they can be grouped into three rockburst Systems, 2010). Manouchehrian and Cai (2016a) simulated uniax-
types, i.e. strainburst, pillar burst, and fault-slip burst. Strainbursts, ial and poly-axial compression tests using the Abaqus explicit tool
which are due to stress concentration and strain energy accumu- and demonstrated the suitability of the tool for simulating unstable
lation and release, can be assessed based on stress or energy or dynamic rock failure. In this study, Abaqus explicit tool is used to
consideration (Mitri et al., 1999). Pillar bursts can be assessed by simulate rockburst in deep tunnels.
comparison of local mine stiffness to pillar’s post-peak stiffness A key characteristic of geomaterials is material heterogeneity,
(Zipf, 1996). Fault-slip bursts, which are larger seismic events in which cannot be readily modeled in Abaqus through GUI. Fortu-
general, can be assessed based on potential movement (slip) of the nately, Abaqus provides scripting capability for introducing mate-
fault, slip rate, and seismic moment (Sainoki and Mitri, 2014). rial heterogeneity into models. In this section, a simulation of rock
Rockburst case histories reveal that rockburst damage is often failure processes in compression using homogeneous material
localized and not uniform. In other words, the damage extent in a models is presented first, followed by a simulation of rock failure
tunnel caused by a rockburst varies at different locations. The processes in compression using a heterogeneous material model.
localized rockburst damage originates from the complex mecha-
nisms that drive rockbursts and the contribution of influence fac- 2.1. Homogeneous model
tors on rockburst occurrence. Many factors influencing rockburst
damages have been identified, but no one knows the exact condi- To study rock failure using Abaqus, the laboratory tested me-
tion for the occurrence of a rockburst in a complex underground chanical parameters of T2b marble (Table 1) are used as the base
setting (Kaiser and Cai, 2012). case. T2b marble is the host rock of the diversion tunnels at the
It has been recognized that a deep underground opening is more Jinping II hydropower station in China (Zhang et al., 2012).
burst-prone when it approaches a geological discontinuity such as Unconfined and confined compression tests are simulated to
fault, dyke, and contact (Hedley et al., 1992; Snelling et al., 2013). investigate the failure mechanism of homogeneous rocks. An
Some studies have been conducted to explain the influence of elastoplastic Mohr-Coulomb strain-softening model with homo-
structural planes on rockburst. For example, Zhang et al. (2013) geneous material properties is used to model the strength of the T2b
conducted a numerical study that considered a fault near the marble. Table 2 presents the calibrated parameters for defining the
drainage tunnel of the Jinping II hydropower station in China to strain-softening behavior of the rock in the homogeneous model. A
explain a rockburst that occurred in the drainage tunnel. They rectangular specimen with a height of 250 mm and a width of
showed that the presence of the fault near the tunnel could affect 100 mm is used for simulation. A plane strain model is used. In the
the rock failure. However, they could not estimate failure intensity unconfined compression test simulation, one end of the specimen
(in terms of ejection velocity of broken rocks and released kinetic is fixed in the maximum stress direction and the other direction is
energy). In another study, Zhou et al. (2015) conducted some lab- free (roller constraint), and a constant velocity of 0.03 m/s is
oratory experiments to explore the role of weak planes on rock- applied directly to the other end to load the specimen. The same
burst damage in tunnels. In their study, the role of weak planes on end boundary conditions are applied to the specimens in the
rockburst damage observed in the intake tunnels of the Jinping II confined compression test simulations and the confinements
hydropower station was explained by their observations from applied are 5 MPa, 10 MPa, 20 MPa, and 40 MPa. In the developed
laboratory shear test results. They stated that weak planes could homogeneous model, a uniaxial compressive strength (UCS) of
induce rockburst in tunnels with three possible mechanisms 113.6 MPa, a friction angle of 30 , and a cohesion of 32.9 MPa are
including fault-slip, shear rupture, and buckling. Manouchehrian calculated, which are similar to the reported laboratory test data
(2016) used numerical models to study rockbursts near fault re- (Table 1).
gions in deep tunnels. It shows in this study that weak planes Fig. 1 shows the failure pattern in the homogeneous models
around a tunnel may change the loading system stiffness of the indicated by the plastic shear strain. The figure shows that
failed rocks and induce rockbursts because when there is a weak confinement does not affect the failure patterns in the homoge-
plane near an underground opening, a large volume of rock is able neous model because all of them show distinct shear failure.
to move more freely than that without a weak plane. Despite that the mechanical parameters of the T2b marble are
In this paper, the influence of geological weak planes on rock- captured by the homogeneous model, it fails to capture the splitting
burst occurrence in tunnels that are subjected to static load in- failure under low confinement.
crease and dynamic disturbance is investigated using Abaqus2D
explicit models. In Section 2, model responses between homoge- 2.2. Heterogeneous model
neous and heterogeneous materials are studied. In Section 3,
simulation of rockburst in tunnels without and with a nearby weak In order to overcome the deficiency of the homogeneous
plane or fault is conducted. Static load increase and dynamic models, Manouchehrian and Cai (2016b) introduced heterogeneity
disturbance are considered in the models and the mechanism of
rockburst in each loading condition is explained. A comparison of
results between the models with and without a weak plane is also
Table 1
presented. Physico-mechanical properties of the T2b marble (Zhang et al., 2014).
Table 2 Fig. 1a shows the photographs of the failed T2b marble speci-
Strain-softening parameters of the homogeneous model. mens in laboratory tests (Zhang et al., 2014) and Fig. 1c presents the
Cohesion Tension cut-off snapshots of the plastic strain obtained by numerical models. It is
Cohesion yield Shear plastic Tension cut-off Tensile plastic
seen that in the heterogeneous model, the failure modes change
stress (MPa) strain stress (MPa) strain from splitting failure at zero confinement to shear failure at high
confinements. The homogeneous material models cannot capture
32.2 0 5.5 0
0.01 0.2 0.1 0.001 axial splitting at zero confinement but the heterogeneous material
model successfully captures this failure mode. Hence, the hetero-
geneous material model in Abaqus enhances its capability for
into Abaqus models. In the following simulation, the material solving geotechnical engineering problems.
properties E, c, and 4 of each element were assigned randomly,
following normal distribution functions. The coefficient of variation 3. Rockburst simulation
(COV) associated with each variable is 5%. The heterogeneous
model was used to simulate the mechanical properties of the T2b Tunnels in deep grounds are usually subjected to large static and
marble (Table 1). A UCS of 113.5 MPa, a friction angle of 29.7, and dynamic loads. In this condition, tunnels are more prone to failure.
cohesion of 32.7 MPa were estimated from the heterogeneous Rockburst case histories have shown that rockburst can be trig-
model, which were similar to the laboratory test results. gered by either static load increase or dynamic disturbances
Fig. 1. Failure patterns at different confinements from (a) laboratory tests (Zhang et al., 2014), (b) homogeneous model, and (c) heterogeneous model (modified from
Manouchehrian and Cai (2016b)).
1034 A. Manouchehrian, M. Cai / Journal of Rock Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering 9 (2017) 1031e1040
(Salamon, 1983; Udd and Hedley, 1987; Young, 1993; Ortlepp and Table 3
Stacey, 1994; Kaiser et al., 1996; Ortlepp, 1997; Andrieux et al., Rock mass physico-mechanical properties.
2013). The possibility of rockburst occurrence is increased when a Density, Young’s Poisson’s UCS Cohesion, Friction
geological weak plane exists near a tunnel (Hedley, 1992). Being r (kg/ modulus, ratio, n (MPa) c (MPa) angle, 4
able to simulate rockburst triggered by static and dynamic loads is m3) E (GPa) ( )
important for rock support design. In this paper, rockbursts in 2500 20 0.2 69.3 20 30
tunnels triggered by static load increase and dynamic disturbance
are simulated.
Table 4
Parameters with COV ¼ 5% for defining the post-peak behavior of the rock mass.
3.1. Rockburst triggered by static load increase Cohesion Tension cut-off
Fault
d
θ
σx σ x = 30 MPa
Tunnel
(r = 5 m )
0 10 m
0 10 m
Fig. 5. Failure development around the tunnel with a nearby fault in various steps: (a) Shear failure, and (b) Tensile failure.
1036 A. Manouchehrian, M. Cai / Journal of Rock Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering 9 (2017) 1031e1040
Fig. 6. Influence of fault length on (a) V max and (b) KEmax. The black solid circles and triangles indicate numerical simulation results and the dash lines indicate trends of the data
extending beyond l/r ¼ 0 to 8.
system (Wawersik and Fairhurst, 1970). A soft loading system is 3.2. Rockburst triggered by dynamic disturbance
capable of storing more strain energy than a stiff loading system.
Thus, when a rock specimen fails, the failure is stable under a stiff Slab buckling has been identified as a mechanism of rockburst
loading system and unstable under a soft loading system. In spite of (Nemat-Nasser and Horii, 1982; Bardet, 1990; Ortlepp, 1993). Weak
the loading condition difference in the field and in the laboratory, planes parallel to the tunnel boundaries and the maximum prin-
we can see that an increase of l decreases the mine system stiffness cipal in situ stress may allow buckling type rockburst. When the
and as a result, unstable rock failure can occur around the tunnel. rocks in a slab are highly stressed, a small increase of stress due to
This can be clearly seen from the results presented in Figs. 6 and 7. tunnel advance or dynamic disturbance from nearby blasting or a
Reduced mine system stiffness can be considered as a main effect of remote seismic event may trigger a rockburst.
weak planes near openings in deep underground mines, which can Dynamic disturbance due to activities, such as explosion, vi-
potentially lead to rockburst (Manouchehrian, 2016). bration, and stress impact from nearby rockbursts, does influence
l/r = 12 l/r = 16
Fig. 7. Displacement around the tunnel in models with different fault lengths.
A. Manouchehrian, M. Cai / Journal of Rock Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering 9 (2017) 1031e1040 1037
σ z = 35 MPa that the dynamic disturbance is generated due to blasting near the
tunnel. In order to apply the blast load to the numerical model, a
time history of load has to be defined. A blast hole with a radius of
0.5 m at a distance of 30 m away from the tunnel is generated in the
Host rock model (Fig. 8), and then the blast load is applied to the blast hole
(150 m × 150 m) wall (Fig. 9a). A triangular blast load function is selected (Fig. 9b).
The peak stress of the compressive pulse and pulse duration are
Point A 200 MPa and 3 ms, respectively.
Fault The model has a finite domain and quiet boundary conditions
Blast σ x = 17.5 MPa are often used to absorb the outward propagating waves. However,
σx
as the duration of the blasting is very short and the initial structure
d' response is the major concern, boundaries can be set at a sufficient
Tunnel
distance away from the tunnel and this will result in no reflected
(r = 5 m )
waves within the duration of interest or the amount of reflected
waves is so small that it can be ignored (Yang and Hung, 1997). In
the present study, the finite element model is large enough to avoid
the influence of wave reflection on the modeling results. Fig. 10
illustrates the blast wave propagation (in terms of ground motion
σz velocity) in a model without any geological structure. This figure
shows that the reflected waves within the model running time
Fig. 8. Geometry and boundary conditions in the model subjected to dynamic (25 ms) do not reach the tunnel and hence will not affect the
disturbance. results.
Firstly, a tunnel without any adjacent geological structure is
modeled. Because the stress level is lower than the rock strength,
rockburst damage. Studies have shown that external disturbances no failure occurs around the tunnel due to tunnel excavation. Then,
during underground mining can induce rockbursts (Blair, 1993; the dynamic disturbance is applied to the model and the model
Kaiser et al., 1996; Zhu et al., 2010). In this section, the influence response is recorded and analyzed. Fig. 11 illustrates the shear and
dynamic disturbance on rockburst occurrence near fault regions in tensile failures around the tunnel after the dynamic waves pass
deep tunnels is investigated. A circular tunnel with a radius of through the tunnel completely. Failure around the tunnel is in the
r ¼ 5 m is considered. As shown in Fig. 8, the model size is form of small tensile fractures at the tunnel wall. Shear failure is not
150 m 150 m (width height) and there is a fault near the tunnel noticeable under this condition. Fig. 12 shows the ground motion
at a distance of d’. The same elastoplastic Mohr-Coulomb strain- velocity at a reference point at the position of 9 o’clock, indicated as
softening model used in Section 3.1 is used. The horizontal (sx) and “point A” in Fig. 8. The velocity drops to near zero as soon as the
vertical (sz) in situ stresses are assumed to be 17.5 MPa and 35 MPa, blast waves pass the tunnel. It should be noted that this velocity is
respectively to avoid any significant rock failure due to static load the ground motion velocity, not the ejection velocity. The ground
increase as a result of tunnel advance. Gradual excavation of the motion velocity distribution at t ¼ 15 ms in the model without any
tunnel is simulated by stress reduction at the tunnel boundary in geological structure is shown in Fig. 13a. At this time, the wave front
ten steps, using the modeling procedure explained in Section 3.1. has passed the tunnel and the ground motion velocity at the tunnel
Dynamic disturbance in ground can be produced by different wall is very small.
sources such as explosion, vibration, earthquake, and adjacent Next, a vertical fault with a length of l ¼ 20 m and at a distance of
mining activities. Specific modeling techniques are needed to d’ ¼ 0.5 m from the tunnel wall is added to the model (see Fig. 8). A
model different dynamic disturbances. In this study, it is assumed Coulomb model with a friction coefficient of 0.4 and zero cohesion
Blast load (MPa)
Blast
hole
200
Blast
load
0 1.0 m
0
0 0.5 3.0 Time (ms)
(a) (b)
Fig. 9. (a) The blast hole and (b) the triangular blast load function.
1038 A. Manouchehrian, M. Cai / Journal of Rock Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering 9 (2017) 1031e1040
Fig. 10. Ground motion velocity distribution in a model without any geological structure.
is used to model the fault. Fig. 14 illustrates shear and tensile fail- advance or dynamic disturbance from nearby blasting or remote
ures around the tunnel. Tensile fractures parallel to the tunnel wall seismic events may trigger rockburst.
are formed due to the blast wave. In addition, pushing action from Tunneling near a fault with different blasting loads is simulated
the blast wave resulted in slab buckling and created some shear to understand the influence of blast load on rockburst damage. The
failures. The energy stored in the slab is released when failure oc- blasting loads are varied at 100 MPa, 150 MPa, 200 MPa, and
curs due to the slab flexure (Qiu et al., 2014). This energy is added to 250 MPa. The same modeling procedure described above is used.
the amount of released energy due to failure at the tunnel wall and The influence of the blasting loads on the ground motion velocity at
makes the failure more violent. However, the dominant failure “point A” is illustrated in Fig. 15, showing that the ground motion
mode under this condition is axial splitting. Fig. 12 indicates that velocity is higher when the blasting load is larger. This implies that
the ground motion velocity at “point A” increases to 5.14 m/s after rock failure triggered by large dynamic disturbance is more violent
the blast wave passes the tunnel wall. It implies that the failed rocks than that by smaller dynamic loads.
might be ejected due to violent rock failure.
It can be understood from Figs. 11e14 that the rock failure is
more violent if weak planes create slabs that are facing the
incoming dynamic waves near the tunnel. When the rocks in the 6
No Structure
slabs are highly stressed, a small increase of stress due to tunnel
With Structure
5
Ground motion velocity (m/s)
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (ms)
Fig. 11. Failure zones around the tunnel subjected to dynamic disturbance in the Fig. 12. Ground motion velocity at “point A” in the models with and without a
model without a nearby geological structure: (a) Shear failure, and (b) Tensile failure. geological structure.
A. Manouchehrian, M. Cai / Journal of Rock Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering 9 (2017) 1031e1040 1039
(a) (b)
Fault
Velocity (m/s)
0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5 5.0 5.5 6.0
Fig. 13. Ground motion velocity at t ¼ 15 ms in models (a) without and (b) with a geological structure.
5 netic energy and this can be useful for dynamic rock support
design.
4
Conflict of interest
3
The authors wish to confirm that there are no known conflicts of
2 interest associated with this publication and there has been no
significant financial support for this work that could have influ-
1 enced its outcome.
0 Acknowledgments
0 50 100 150 200 250 300
Blast load (MPa) Financial supports from the Natural Sciences and Engineering
Research Council (NSERC) of Canada (CRDPJ 418932-11), Vale, LKAB,
Fig. 15. Influence of blasting load on the ground motion velocity. CEMI, MIRARCO, and the Open Research Fund of the State Key
Laboratory of Geomechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Insti-
tute of Rock and Soil Mechanics, Chinese Academy of Sciences
4. Conclusions (Grant No. Z015001) for this work are gratefully acknowledged.
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Amin Manouchehrian obtained his Bachelor’s degree in
Nemat-Nasser S, Horii H. Compression-induced nonplanar crack extension with
Mining Engineering from Yazd University (Iran) in 2008
application to splitting, exfoliation, and rockburst. Journal of Geophysical
and his Master’s degree in Mining Engineering/Rock Me-
Research: Solid Earth 1982;87(B8):6805e21.
chanics from Sahand University of Technology (Iran) in
Ortlepp W. High ground displacement velocities associated with rockburst damage.
2010. He joined Yazd University’s Geomechanic Research
In: Rockbursts and seismicity in mines. Rotterdam: A.A. Balkema; 1993. p. 101e
Group in 2011 as a Research Engineer, where he involved
6.
in researching on “crack propagation mechanism under
Ortlepp W, Stacey T. Rockburst mechanisms in tunnels and shafts. Tunnelling and
various loading conditions”. He received his PhD degree in
Underground Space Technology 1994;9(1):59e65.
Mining Engineering/Rock Mechanics from Laurentian
Ortlepp WD. Rock fracture and rockbursts: an illustrative study. South African
University (Canada) in 2016. Amin’s recent research in-
Institute of Mining and Metallurgy 1997.
terest has been on the application of finite element
Qiu S, Feng X, Zhang C, Xiang T. Estimation of rockburst wall-rock velocity invoked
method for rockburst modeling in deep tunnels which
by slab flexure sources in deep tunnels. Canadian Geotechnical Journal
constitutes his PhD research work at Laurentian
2014;51(5):520e39.
University.
Sainoki A, Mitri HS. Dynamic modelling of fault-slip with Barton’s shear strength
model. International Journal of Rock Mechanics and Mining Sciences 2014;67:
155e63.
Salamon M. Rockburst hazard and the fight for its alleviation in South African gold
mines. In: Rockbursts: prediction and control IMM. London; 1983. p. 11e36. Dr. Ming Cai is a full professor and Geomechanics
Shepherd J, Rixon L, Griffiths L. Outbursts and geological structures in coal mines: a Research Chair in the Bharti School of Engineering, Lau-
review. International Journal of Rock Mechanics and Mining Sciences & Geo- rentian University, Canada. He obtained his Bachelor and
mechanics Abstracts 1981;18(4):267e83. Master’s degrees from Tsinghua University in Beijing,
Snelling PE, Godin L, McKinnon SD. The role of geologic structure and stress in China and his PhD in 1992 from the University of Tokyo,
triggering remote seismicity in Creighton mine, Sudbury, Canada. International Japan. He is a registered Professional Engineer in Ontario,
Journal of Rock Mechanics and Mining Sciences 2013;58:166e79. Canada, an editorial member of International Journal of
Sun JS, Zhu QH, Lu WB. Numerical simulation of rock burst in circular tunnels under Georesources and Environment (IJGE), Tunnelling and Un-
unloading conditions. Journal of China University of Mining and Technology derground Space Technology, Rock Mechanics and Rock En-
2007;17(4):552e6. gineering, and Canadian Geotechnical Journal. He is the
Tao M, Li X, Wu C. Characteristics of the unloading process of rocks under high author and co-author of more than 150 scientific publica-
initial stress. Computers and Geotechnics 2012;45:83e92. tions and the inventor of 4 patents.