Special Relativity

Read P98 to 105

The principle of special relativity: The laws of nature look exactly the same for all observers in
inertial reference frames, regardless of their state of relative velocity.

(Note: accelerated reference frames are not inertial since the Newtonʼs law of inertia are not
satisfied.)
 Galilean Transformation
(Rohlf P99)


v


u
xʼ

S Sʼ

Position in S′ compared to position in S.

x ′ = x − vt y′ = y t′ = t
 Galilean Transformation

Position
x ′ = x − vt y′ = y z′ = z t′ = t

Velocity
dx ′ dx dy′ dy dz ′ dz
u x′ = = −v u y′ = = = uy uz′ = = = uz dt ′ = dt
dt dt dt dt dt dt

u x′ = u x − v u y′ = u y uz′ = uz dt ′ = dt

Acceleration
du x′ du x du y′ du y duz′ duz
ax′ = = = ax ay′ = = = ay az′ = = = az
dt dt dt dt dt dt

ax′ = ax ay′ = ay az′ = az

 Newtonʼs second law is invariant under
Galilean Transformation

 
F = ma ⇒ Fi = mai

Perform Galilean Transformation

ai → ai′ = ai

∴ Fi = mai → Fi = mai′ = Fi = mai

 Invariance of Maxwellʼs Equations
(Rohf p104-105)

The electromagnetic wave equation is not invariant

under Galilean Transformation?

The wave equation for an electric field in a vacuum.


 ∂ ∂ Ei
2 2
E
∇ E − µ 0 ε 0 2 = 0. ⇒ 3 equations: ∇ Ei − µ 0 ε 0 = 0.
2 2

∂t ∂t
2

∂ 2 Ei ∂ 2 Ei ∂ 2 Ei ∂ 2 Ei
+ 2 + 2 − µ0 ε 0 2 =0
∂x 2 ∂y ∂z ∂t

∂ ∂Ei ∂ ∂Ei ∂ ∂Ei ∂ ∂Ei

+ + − µ0 ε 0 =0
∂x ∂x ∂y ∂y ∂z ∂z ∂t ∂t
 In Class Exercise
Show that this is not invariant with respect to a Galilean transformation.

Orient the axes so that the wave travels along the x axis

Then show:

∂ 2 Ei ∂ 2 E i ∂ 2 Ei ∂ 2 Ei
− µ0 ε 0 ≠ 2 − µ0 ε 0 2 ≠ 0
∂x ′ 2 ∂t ′ 2 ∂x ∂t
 Evaluate the first derivatives
using general chain rule.

First derivatives: space dependent part.

∂Ei ∂Ei ∂x ′ ∂Ei ∂t ′

= +
∂x ∂x ′ ∂x ∂t ′ ∂x

x ′ = x − vt t′ = t

∂Ei ∂Ei
Show: =
∂x ∂x ′
 Evaluate the first derivatives
using general chain rule.

First derivatives: space dependent part.

∂Ei ∂Ei ∂x ′ ∂Ei ∂t ′

= +
∂x ∂x ′ ∂x ∂t ′ ∂x

x ′ = x − vt t′ = t

∂x ′ ∂t ′
=1 =0
∂x ∂x

∂Ei ∂Ei
=
∂x ∂x ′
First derivatives: time dependent part.

x ′ = x − vt t′ = t
 
∂Ei ∂Ei ∂E
Show:          = −v i
∂t ∂t ′ ∂x ′
 First derivatives: time dependent part.

x ′ = x − vt t′ = t
 
∂Ei ∂Ei ∂x ′ ∂Ei ∂t ′
= +
dt ∂x ′ ∂t ∂t ′ ∂t

∂x ′ ∂t ′
= −v = 1,
∂t ∂t

∂Ei ∂Ei ∂E
= −v i
∂t ∂t ′ ∂x ′

Finally,

∂Ei ∂Ei ∂E ∂E ∂E
=            i = i − v i
∂x ∂x ′ ∂t ∂t ′ ∂x ′
 Summary of first derivatives

∂Ei ∂Ei ∂Ei ∂Ei ∂Ei

=                 = −v
∂x ∂x ′ ∂t ∂t ′ ∂x ′

Second derivatives: space dependent part.

∂2 Ei ∂2 Ei
Show: =
∂x 2 ∂x ′ 2
 Summary of first derivatives

∂Ei ∂Ei ∂E ∂E ∂E
=                 i = i − v i
∂x ∂x ′ ∂t ∂t ′ ∂x ′

Second derivatives: space dependent part.

∂ ∂Ei ∂2 Ei ∂x ′ ∂2 Ei ∂t ′
= +
∂x ∂x ∂x ′ 2 ∂x ∂t ′∂x ′ ∂x

∂2 Ei ∂2 Ei ∂2 Ei ∂2 Ei
= (1) + (0) =
∂x 2 ∂x ′ 2 ∂t ′∂x ′ ∂x ′ 2

∂2 Ei ∂2 Ei
=
∂x 2 ∂x ′ 2
 Second derivative: time dependent part.

∂2 Ei ∂2 Ei 2 ∂ Ei
2
∂2 Ei
Show: = +v − 2v
∂t 2
∂t ′ 2
∂x ′ 2
∂x ′∂t ′
 Second derivative: time dependent part.

∂ ∂f ∂x ′ ∂f ∂t ′
f = +
∂t ∂x ′ ∂t ∂t ′ ∂t

∂ ∂Ei ∂ ⎛ ∂Ei ⎞ ∂x ′ ∂ ⎛ ∂Ei ⎞ ∂t ′

= ⎜ ⎟ + ⎜ ⎟
∂t ∂t ∂x ′ ⎝ ∂t ⎠ ∂t ∂t ′ ⎝ ∂t ⎠ ∂t

∂Ei ∂Ei ∂E ∂t ′
substitute into above = −v i , =1
∂t ∂t ′ ∂x ′ ∂t
 Second derivative: time dependent part.

∂ ∂Ei ∂ ⎛ ∂Ei ⎞ ∂x ′ ∂ ⎛ ∂Ei ⎞ ∂t ′

= ⎜ ⎟ + ⎜ ⎟
∂t ∂t ∂x ′ ⎝ ∂t ⎠ ∂t ∂t ′ ⎝ ∂t ⎠ ∂t

∂Ei ∂Ei ∂E ∂t ′
substitute into above = −v i , =1
∂t ∂t ′ ∂x ′ ∂t

∂ ∂Ei ∂ ⎛ ∂Ei ∂Ei ⎞ ∂ ⎛ ∂Ei ∂Ei ⎞

= ⎜ − v ⎟ (−v) + ⎜ − v ⎟ (1)
∂t ∂t ∂x ′ ⎝ ∂t ′ ∂x ′ ⎠ ∂t ′ ⎝ ∂t ′ ∂x ′ ⎠

∂2 Ei ⎛ ∂2 Ei ∂2 Ei ⎞ ⎛ ∂2 Ei ∂2 Eii ⎞
=⎜ −v 2 ⎟
(−v) + ⎜ −v
∂t 2 ⎝ ∂x ′ ∂t ′ ∂x ′ ⎠ ⎝ ∂t ′ 2
∂t ′∂x ′ ⎟⎠
 Second derivative: time dependent part.

∂ ∂f ∂x ′ ∂f ∂t ′ ⎛ ∂E ⎞
f = + f =⎜ i ⎟
∂t ∂x ′ ∂t ∂t ′ ∂t ⎝ ∂t ⎠

∂ ∂Ei ∂ ⎛ ∂Ei ⎞ ∂x ′ ∂ ⎛ ∂Ei ⎞ ∂t ′

= ⎜⎝ ⎟⎠ + ⎜ ⎟
∂t ∂t ∂x ′ ∂t ∂t ∂t ′ ⎝ ∂t ⎠ ∂t

∂Ei ∂Ei ∂E ∂t ′
substitute into above = −v i , =1
∂t ∂t ′ ∂x ′ ∂t

∂ ∂Ei ∂ ⎛ ∂Ei ∂Ei ⎞ ∂ ⎛ ∂Ei ∂Ei ⎞

= ⎜ − v ⎟ (−v) + ⎜ − v ⎟ (1)
∂t ∂t ∂x ′ ⎝ ∂t ′ ∂x ′ ⎠ ∂t ′ ⎝ ∂t ′ ∂x ′ ⎠

∂2 Ei ⎛ ∂2 Ei ∂2 Ei ⎞ ⎛ ∂2 Ei ∂2 Eii ⎞
=⎜ −v 2 ⎟
(−v) + ⎜ −v
∂t 2
⎝ ∂x ′∂t ′ ∂x ′ ⎠ ⎝ ∂t ′ 2
∂t ′∂x ′ ⎟⎠

∂2 Ei ∂2 Ei 2 ∂ Ei
2
∂2 Ei
= +v − 2v
∂t 2 ∂t ′ 2 ∂x ′ 2 ∂x ′∂t ′
 The Full Equation:

∂ 2 Ei ∂ 2 Ei
− µ0 ε 0 2 =0
∂x 2 ∂t

∂ 2 Ei ∂ 2 Ei ∂ 2 Ei ∂ 2 Ei 2 ∂ Ei
2
∂ 2 Ei
= = −v − 2v
∂x 2
∂x ′ 2 ∂t 2
∂t ′ 2
∂x ′ 2
∂x ′∂t ′

∂ 2 Ei ⎛ ∂ 2 Ei 2 ∂ Ei
2
∂ 2 Ei ⎞
− µ0 ε 0 ⎜ +v − 2v ⎟ =0
∂x ′ 2
⎝ ∂t ′ 2
∂x ′ 2
∂x ′∂t ′ ⎠

Maxwellʼs equation for an electromagnetic wave is not invariant

under a Galilean Transformation. The problem is with the time dependence.

Either Maxwellʼs equations are not laws of physics or Galilean transformations are
not the correct transformations for which the laws of physics must be invariant.
 Luminiferous Ether
Rohlf P100-101

•  Medium of propagation-luminiferous ether

•  Ether may have mechanical properties which may be inferred

from the velocity of light relative to the etherʼs rest frame.

Velocity of light is very large and difficult to measure

Doppler effect. Interference effects on phases change with
respect to motion relative to the medium.
Michelson-Morley experiment
Rohlf P100-101

Albert Michelson

First American Nobel Prize -1907

Measured differences in detected
speed of two rays of light coming
from the same source, as measured
by an observer traveling on the earth
moving toward the source of light
relative to the ether, the other
perpendicular to the source of light,
which is not moving relative to the
ether.

Found no difference, which

contradicts expectations of
lumeniferous ether
 L L L L
taca = + = + =
′
cac ′
cca c + ve c − ve

L⎛ ve ve2 ve ve2 ⎞ 2L ⎛ ve2 ⎞

= ⎜1 + + + ⋅ ⋅ ⋅1 − + ≈ 1+
c ⎝ c c2 c c2 ⎟⎠ c ⎜⎝ c2 ⎟⎠

L L L L
taba = + = +
′
cab ′
cba c2 − ve2 c2 − ve2

2L 1 2L ⎛ ve2 ⎞ 2L ⎛ ve2 ⎞
=
c
=
c ⎜ 1 − 2 + ⋅ ⋅ ⋅⎟ ≈ c ⎜⎝ 1 − 2 c2 ⎟⎠
ve 1 − ve / c
2 2
⎝ 2c ⎠

Lve2
Δt = taca − taba = 3
c
 Lve2 Lve2
Δt = 3 ΔX = cΔt = 2
c c

ΔX Lve2
Δφ = =
λ λ c2

Rotate apparatus clockwise 90°

ve ΔX Lve2 2Lve2
Δφ = − =− 2 Total Δφ =
λ λc λ c2

L = 10 m ve = 4 × 10 4 m/s λ = 500 nm = 5 × 10 −7  m ⇒ Δφ = 0.4

Expect shift in interference pattern by 0.4 fringes.
Actually, no shift observed.
 Precursers to Einstein

Lorentz (1892) and independently Fitzgerald:

Bodies moving in the luminiferous ether are shorter in the direction of motion due to
their interactions with the ether.

Lx = γ (Lx 0 − vt) Ly = L0 y , L z = L0 z
v 1
β≡ γ ≡
c 1− β2
Larmor (1900)

Considered also time, and wrote down the “Lorentz Transformation”

v
x ′ = γ (x − vt) y ′ = y, z ′ = z t ′ = γ (t − x)
c2

Lorentz (1904)

Maxwellʼs equations in vacuum are invariant under the Lorentz transformation.

But, he didnʼt get the charge transformation right. The two systems are not exactly
equivalent.

Poincare (1906) was the first to coin the phrase “Lorentz Transformation”
What did Einstein do?
.
.
.
The most notable result of the the principle of special relativity
is that time intervals are not the same from one observer to another.
That is, the passage of time is relative.
A simple example of Einsteinʼs postulate
about the speed of light.
 S S′

v
D′ D′
D D

d s d s

L = vΔt ′

2 D′
Δt ′ =
2D c
Δt =
c
Since D′ > D Δt ′ > Δt

Δt
Show: Δt ′ = = γΔt
1− β 2
 S S′

v
D 2 + (L / 2)2 D 2 + (L / 2)2
D D

d s d s

L = vΔt ′
2D
Δt =
c L2
2 + D2
4 L2 + 4D 2 v 2 Δt ′ 2 + 4D 2
Δt ′ = = =
c c c

v2 v2 4D 2
c Δt ′ = v Δt ′ + 4D ,
2 2 2 2 2
Δt ′ c (1 − 2 ) = 4D 2 ,
2 2
Δt ' (1 − 2 ) = 2 = Δt 2
2

c c c

Δt 1 v Δt
Δt ′ = , γ ≡   ,       β ≡ , Δt ′ = = γΔt
v2
1− β2 c 1− β 2
1−
c2
 Homework 4
DueTues. Sept. 15.

Textbook, Foundations of Special Relativity: P130, Problems 2, 3

Derivation of the relativistic transformations.

not in Rohlf

optional material in lecture notes

 Galilean Transformation

x ′ = x − vt y ′ = y, z ′ = z t′ = t

More General Linear Transformation

x ′ = Ax + Bt y ′ = y, z ′ = z t ′ = Cx + Dt

Find A,B,C,D
 Case I: S is at rest, S˙moves with velocity v

S Sʼ x ′ = Ax + Bt
0 = Ax + Bt
x = vt
x = vt x′ = 0
0 = Avt + Bt
B = −Av
 So far: B = −Av

Case II: S˙ is at rest, S moves with velocity -v

   x ′ = Ax + Bt
−vt ′ = 0  + Bt
vt ′ = −Bt
Sʼ

t ′ = Cx + Dt
x=0 t ′ = 0 + Dt
x ′ = −vt ′
vt ′ = vDt, vt ′ = −Bt,
∴B = −vD
From Case I B = −vA
∴D = A
 Case I Case II

Sʼ S
S Sʼ

x = vt x′ = 0 x=0
x ′ = −vt ′

Case I x ′=0
Case II x=0
Viewed from S Viewed from Sʼ

x ′ = Ax + Bt t ′ = Cx + Dt
   x ′ = Ax + Bt
0 = Ax + Bt t ′ = 0 + Dt
−vt ′ = 0  + Bt
x = vt vt ′ = vDt, vt ′ = −Bt,
vt ′ = −Bt
0 = Avt + Bt ∴B = −vD
B = −Av From Case I B = −vA
∴D = A

Have B and D in terms of A

Need to get C in terms of A
 Case III: light viewed from S and S′

x ′ = Ax + Bt
x ′ = ct ′, x = ct
S Sʼ
1) ct ′ = Act + Bt

x ′ = ct ′ t ′ = Cx + Dt
x = ct t ′ = Cct + Dt

2) ct ′ = Cc2 t + Dct w

Equate1)and 2) using D = A and B = -Av

Act + Bt = Cc2 t + Dct
Act − vAt = Cc2 t + cAt
In summary, we have
Ac − vA = Cc2 + cA
v
B = −vA D=A C=− A −vA = Cc2
c2

x ′ = A(x − vt), t ′ = A(t −

v
x) C = − v2 A
c2 c
v
B = −vA D=A C=− A
c2
In summary, we have v
x ′ = A(x − vt), t ′ = A(t − x)
c2
 In summary, we have

x ′ = Ax + Bt y ′ = y, z ′ = z t ′ = Cx + Dt

v
B = −vA D=A C=− A
c2

v
x ′ = A(x − vt) t ′ = A(t − 2 x)
c

Need to get A
 v
x ′ = A(x − vt), t ′ = A(t − x) Need to obtain A
c2

Solve for x and t in terms of xʼ and t’ !

1 ⎛
1 v ⎞
x= ( x ′ +vt ′ ) t= ⎜ t ′ + x′ eq. 1
⎛ v2 ⎞ ⎛ v2 ⎞ ⎝ c 2 ⎟⎠
A⎜1- 2 ⎟ A⎜1- 2 ⎟
⎝ c ⎠ ⎝ c ⎠

The inverse transformation must be obtained by letting v-v

v
x = A( x ′ + vt ′ )        t = A(t ′ + 2 x ′)
eq. 2
c

Equate the coefficients of eq. 1) and eq. 2) to obtain

1 1 1
= A,     A= = =γ
⎛ v2 ⎞ v2 1− β 2
A ⎜1 − 2 ⎟ 1− 2
⎝ c ⎠ c
 Lorentz Transformation

⎛ v ⎞
x ′ = γ (x − vt) y ′ = y z ′ = z t′ = γ ⎜t − x⎟
⎝ c2 ⎠

⎛ v ⎞
x = γ ( x ′ + vt ′ ) y = y ′ z = z ′ t = γ ⎜t′ + x′
⎝ c 2 ⎟⎠

Galilean Transformation

x ′ = x − vt y′ = y z′ = z t′ = t

x = x ′ + vt ′ y = y′ z = z′ t = t′
Homework 5. Due. Tues. Sept 18.

Textbook: Space-time. Lorentz Trans: P130-131,

Problems 6,9,11,12

Show that Maxwellʼs wave equation is invariant

under a Lorentz transformation along the x axis for a
wave moving in the x direction .

Use:
∂Ei ∂Ei ∂x ′ ∂Ei ∂t ′ ∂E ∂E ∂x ′ ∂Ei ∂t ′
= +          i = i +
∂x ∂x ′ ∂x ∂t ′ ∂x ∂t ∂x ′ ∂t ∂t ′ ∂t

⎛ v ⎞
x ′ = γ (x − vt)       t ′ = γ ⎜ t − x⎟
⎝ c2 ⎠

∂x ′ ∂t ′ v ∂x ′ ∂t ′
=γ = −γ 2 = −γ v =γ
∂x ∂x c ∂t ∂t
Some Consequences of Special Relativity
 Exercise

An event occurs in coordinate system S at x=0, and t=0.

A second event occurs at x=0 and time t=2 sec.

An observer in Sʼ moving with velocity β = 0.9 relative to x synchronizes her clock

so that she also sees the first event at xʼ=0 and tʼ=0.

1.  What will be the time tʼ for the second event, as measured in Sʼ?

2.  What will be position of the second event as seen in Sʼ?

 Exercise

An event occurs in coordinate system S at x=0, and t=0.

A second event occurs at x=0 and time t=2 sec.

An observer in Sʼ moving with velocity β = 0.9 relative to x synchronizes her clock

so that she also sees the first event at xʼ=0 and tʼ=0.

What will be the time tʼ for the second event, as measured in Sʼ?

⎛ v ⎞ 1 1
t′ = γ ⎜t − x⎟ γ = = = 2.3
⎝ c2 ⎠ 1− β 2
1 − 0.9 2

⎛ 0.9c ⎞
t ′ = 2.3 ⎜ 2.0 − × 0 ⎟ = 4.6 sec
⎝ c2 ⎠

What will be position of the second event as seen in Sʼ?

x ′ = γ (x − vt) = γ (0 − β ct) = −2.3(0.9)(3 × 10 8 )(2.0) = −12.4 × 10 8 m = −12.4 × 10 5 km

Note: Distance from earth to moon  4 × 10 5 km

 Velocity Transformation

⎛ v ⎞
x ′ = γ (x − vt) y′ = y z′ = z t′ = γ ⎜t − x⎟
⎝ c2 ⎠

⎛ v ⎞
dx ′ = γ (dx − vdt) dy′ = dy dz ′ = dz dt ′ = γ ⎜ dt − dx
⎝ c2 ⎟⎠

⎛ dx ⎞
dx ′ γ (dx − vdt) ⎜⎝ dt − v⎟⎠
u x′ = = =
dt ′ ⎛ v ⎞ ⎛ v dx ⎞
γ ⎜⎝ dt − c 2 dx ⎟⎠ ⎜⎝ 1− c 2 dt ⎟⎠

(u x − v) dy ′ uy uz
u x′ = u y′ = = uz′ =
⎛ v ⎞ dt ′ ⎛ v ⎞ ⎛ v ⎞
⎜⎝ 1− c 2 u x ⎟⎠ γ ⎜ 1− 2 u x ⎟ γ ⎜ 1− 2 u x ⎟
⎝ c ⎠ ⎝ c ⎠
 Exercise:

 Sʼ S
v

u


u = u x = 0.9c Find ux′
v = −0.9c


u = ux = c
Find ux′
v = −0.9c
 Solution:

 Sʼ S
v

u

 ux − v 0.9c − (−0.9c) 1.8c 1.8c

u = u x = 0.9c u x′ = = = = = 0.99c
⎛ v ⎞ ⎛ −0.9c ⎞ (1 + 0.81) 1.81
v = −0.9c ⎜⎝ 1 − ux ⎜⎝ 1 − 0.9c ⎟⎠
c2 ⎟⎠ c2

 ux − v c − (−0.9c) 1.9c 1.9c

u = ux = c u x′ = = = = =c
⎛ v ⎞ ⎛ −0.9c ⎞ (1 + 0.9 ) 1.9
v = −0.9c ⎜⎝ 1 − ux ⎜⎝ 1 − c2 c⎟⎠
c2 ⎟⎠
 Simultaneity

S Sʼ
β

1 2

Two events happen simultaneously in S.

⎛ v ⎞ ⎛ v ⎞
t2 = t1 t1′ = γ ⎜ t1 − x                  t 2′ = γ t − x2
c2 ⎟⎠ ⎜ 2
c2 ⎟⎠
1
⎝ ⎝

t2′ − t1′ = γ (t2 − t1 )  − γ

v
c2
( x2 − x1 ) Δt ′ = γΔt   − γ
v
c2
Δx

v v
Δt ′ = γ 0   − γ Δx = − γ Δx
c2 c2
 Exercise

Two events happen simultaneously at x1=0 m and x2=1000 m

Suppose Sʼ is moving to the right at 0.9 c. Which event occurs first an by how much?

Event 1 occurs at t=0 µs, and event 2 occurs at t=2 µs.

When does event 2 occur in Sʼ?
 Solution

Two events happen simultaneously at x1=0 m and x2=1000 m

Suppose Sʼ is moving to the right at 0.9 c. Which event occurs first an by how much?

v 0.9c
Δt ′ = γΔt   − γ 2
Δx = − 2.3 2
1, 000 = −6.9 × 10 −6 s = − 6.9 µs
c c

Event 1 occurs at t=0 µs, and event 2 occurs at t=2 µs.

When does event 2 occur in Sʼ?

= 2.3( 2 ×10 −6 − 3 ×10 −6 ) = −1µs

v ⎞ ⎛ −6 0.9c ⎞
Δt ′ = γ ⎛⎜ Δt   − Δx ⎟ = 2.3 ⎜ 2 ×10 − 1,000 ⎟
⎝ c 2 ⎠ ⎝ c 2 ⎠

The order of the events is reversed.

Does this violate causality?
 No. Events can be causally connected only if they can communicate.
The fastest communication is at the speed of light.

For event 2 to be influenced by event 1, a signal from event 1 must travel

at a speed at least
Δx 1000
= −6 = 0.5 × 10 m/s ≈ 1.5c
9
Δt 2 × 10

It would require a signal between the 2 events to travel faster than the speed of light.

v v v
Δt ′ = γ ⎛ Δt   − 2 Δx ⎞ > 0 Δt   > Δx (timelike) Δt   < Δx (spacelike)
⎝ c ⎠ c2 c2
 Space - Time

Since space and time are not independent, define a new

4-dimensional space-time, with coordinates:

x0 ≡ ct,   x1 ≡ x,    x2 ≡ y,    x3 ≡ z,           or simply xµ

This is called Minkowski space-time.

The evolution of a body is a continuum of points which form
a curve, called a world line, in space time.

ct timelike
world line

light speed
For 1-space
world line
and time dimension:
x=-ct x=ct

x
 Minkowski Space-Time:
2 spatial and 1 time dimensions.

World line