3 Relativity
3 Relativity
3 Relativity
The principle of special relativity: The laws of nature look exactly the same for all observers in
inertial reference frames, regardless of their state of relative velocity.
(Note: accelerated reference frames are not inertial since the Newtonʼs law of inertia are not
satisfied.)
Galilean Transformation
(Rohlf P99)
v
u
xʼ
S Sʼ
Position
x ′ = x − vt y′ = y z′ = z t′ = t
Velocity
dx ′ dx dy′ dy dz ′ dz
u x′ = = −v u y′ = = = uy uz′ = = = uz dt ′ = dt
dt dt dt dt dt dt
u x′ = u x − v u y′ = u y uz′ = uz dt ′ = dt
Acceleration
du x′ du x du y′ du y duz′ duz
ax′ = = = ax ay′ = = = ay az′ = = = az
dt dt dt dt dt dt
F = ma ⇒ Fi = mai
ai → ai′ = ai
∂t ∂t
2
∂ 2 Ei ∂ 2 Ei ∂ 2 Ei ∂ 2 Ei
+ 2 + 2 − µ0 ε 0 2 =0
∂x 2 ∂y ∂z ∂t
Orient the axes so that the wave travels along the x axis
Then show:
∂ 2 Ei ∂ 2 E i ∂ 2 Ei ∂ 2 Ei
− µ0 ε 0 ≠ 2 − µ0 ε 0 2 ≠ 0
∂x ′ 2 ∂t ′ 2 ∂x ∂t
Evaluate the first derivatives
using general chain rule.
x ′ = x − vt t′ = t
∂Ei ∂Ei
Show: =
∂x ∂x ′
Evaluate the first derivatives
using general chain rule.
x ′ = x − vt t′ = t
∂x ′ ∂t ′
=1 =0
∂x ∂x
∂Ei ∂Ei
=
∂x ∂x ′
First derivatives: time dependent part.
x ′ = x − vt t′ = t
∂Ei ∂Ei ∂E
Show: = −v i
∂t ∂t ′ ∂x ′
First derivatives: time dependent part.
x ′ = x − vt t′ = t
∂Ei ∂Ei ∂x ′ ∂Ei ∂t ′
= +
dt ∂x ′ ∂t ∂t ′ ∂t
∂x ′ ∂t ′
= −v = 1,
∂t ∂t
∂Ei ∂Ei ∂E
= −v i
∂t ∂t ′ ∂x ′
Finally,
∂Ei ∂Ei ∂E ∂E ∂E
= i = i − v i
∂x ∂x ′ ∂t ∂t ′ ∂x ′
Summary of first derivatives
∂2 Ei ∂2 Ei
Show: =
∂x 2 ∂x ′ 2
Summary of first derivatives
∂Ei ∂Ei ∂E ∂E ∂E
= i = i − v i
∂x ∂x ′ ∂t ∂t ′ ∂x ′
∂ ∂Ei ∂2 Ei ∂x ′ ∂2 Ei ∂t ′
= +
∂x ∂x ∂x ′ 2 ∂x ∂t ′∂x ′ ∂x
∂2 Ei ∂2 Ei ∂2 Ei ∂2 Ei
= (1) + (0) =
∂x 2 ∂x ′ 2 ∂t ′∂x ′ ∂x ′ 2
∂2 Ei ∂2 Ei
=
∂x 2 ∂x ′ 2
Second derivative: time dependent part.
∂2 Ei ∂2 Ei 2 ∂ Ei
2
∂2 Ei
Show: = +v − 2v
∂t 2
∂t ′ 2
∂x ′ 2
∂x ′∂t ′
Second derivative: time dependent part.
∂ ∂f ∂x ′ ∂f ∂t ′
f = +
∂t ∂x ′ ∂t ∂t ′ ∂t
∂Ei ∂Ei ∂E ∂t ′
substitute into above = −v i , =1
∂t ∂t ′ ∂x ′ ∂t
Second derivative: time dependent part.
∂Ei ∂Ei ∂E ∂t ′
substitute into above = −v i , =1
∂t ∂t ′ ∂x ′ ∂t
∂2 Ei ⎛ ∂2 Ei ∂2 Ei ⎞ ⎛ ∂2 Ei ∂2 Eii ⎞
=⎜ −v 2 ⎟
(−v) + ⎜ −v
∂t 2 ⎝ ∂x ′ ∂t ′ ∂x ′ ⎠ ⎝ ∂t ′ 2
∂t ′∂x ′ ⎟⎠
Second derivative: time dependent part.
∂ ∂f ∂x ′ ∂f ∂t ′ ⎛ ∂E ⎞
f = + f =⎜ i ⎟
∂t ∂x ′ ∂t ∂t ′ ∂t ⎝ ∂t ⎠
∂Ei ∂Ei ∂E ∂t ′
substitute into above = −v i , =1
∂t ∂t ′ ∂x ′ ∂t
∂2 Ei ⎛ ∂2 Ei ∂2 Ei ⎞ ⎛ ∂2 Ei ∂2 Eii ⎞
=⎜ −v 2 ⎟
(−v) + ⎜ −v
∂t 2
⎝ ∂x ′∂t ′ ∂x ′ ⎠ ⎝ ∂t ′ 2
∂t ′∂x ′ ⎟⎠
∂2 Ei ∂2 Ei 2 ∂ Ei
2
∂2 Ei
= +v − 2v
∂t 2 ∂t ′ 2 ∂x ′ 2 ∂x ′∂t ′
The Full Equation:
∂ 2 Ei ∂ 2 Ei
− µ0 ε 0 2 =0
∂x 2 ∂t
∂ 2 Ei ∂ 2 Ei ∂ 2 Ei ∂ 2 Ei 2 ∂ Ei
2
∂ 2 Ei
= = −v − 2v
∂x 2
∂x ′ 2 ∂t 2
∂t ′ 2
∂x ′ 2
∂x ′∂t ′
∂ 2 Ei ⎛ ∂ 2 Ei 2 ∂ Ei
2
∂ 2 Ei ⎞
− µ0 ε 0 ⎜ +v − 2v ⎟ =0
∂x ′ 2
⎝ ∂t ′ 2
∂x ′ 2
∂x ′∂t ′ ⎠
Either Maxwellʼs equations are not laws of physics or Galilean transformations are
not the correct transformations for which the laws of physics must be invariant.
Luminiferous Ether
Rohlf P100-101
Albert Michelson
L L L L
taba = + = +
′
cab ′
cba c2 − ve2 c2 − ve2
2L 1 2L ⎛ ve2 ⎞ 2L ⎛ ve2 ⎞
=
c
=
c ⎜ 1 − 2 + ⋅ ⋅ ⋅⎟ ≈ c ⎜⎝ 1 − 2 c2 ⎟⎠
ve
1 − ve / c
2 2
⎝ 2c ⎠
Lve2
Δt = taca − taba = 3
c
Lve2 Lve2
Δt = 3 ΔX = cΔt = 2
c c
ΔX Lve2
Δφ = =
λ λ c2
ve
ΔX Lve2 2Lve2
Δφ = − =− 2 Total Δφ =
λ λc λ c2
Bodies moving in the luminiferous ether are shorter in the direction of motion due to
their interactions with the ether.
Lx = γ (Lx 0 − vt) Ly = L0 y , L z = L0 z
v 1
β≡ γ ≡
c 1− β2
Larmor (1900)
Lorentz (1904)
Poincare (1906) was the first to coin the phrase “Lorentz Transformation”
What did Einstein do?
.
.
.
The most notable result of the the principle of special relativity
is that time intervals are not the same from one observer to another.
That is, the passage of time is relative.
A simple example of Einsteinʼs postulate
about the speed of light.
S S′
v
D′ D′
D
D
d s d s
L = vΔt ′
2 D′
Δt ′ =
2D c
Δt =
c
Since D′ > D Δt ′ > Δt
Δt
Show: Δt ′ = = γΔt
1− β 2
S S′
v
D 2 + (L / 2)2 D 2 + (L / 2)2
D
D
d s d s
L = vΔt ′
2D
Δt =
c L2
2 + D2
4 L2 + 4D 2 v 2 Δt ′ 2 + 4D 2
Δt ′ = = =
c c c
v2 v2 4D 2
c Δt ′ = v Δt ′ + 4D ,
2 2 2 2 2
Δt ′ c (1 − 2 ) = 4D 2 ,
2 2
Δt ' (1 − 2 ) = 2 = Δt 2
2
c c c
Δt 1 v Δt
Δt ′ = , γ ≡ , β ≡ , Δt ′ = = γΔt
v2
1− β2 c 1− β 2
1−
c2
Homework 4
DueTues. Sept. 15.
not in Rohlf
x ′ = x − vt y ′ = y, z ′ = z t′ = t
x ′ = Ax + Bt y ′ = y, z ′ = z t ′ = Cx + Dt
Find A,B,C,D
Case I: S is at rest, S˙moves with velocity v
S
Sʼ
x ′ = Ax + Bt
0 = Ax + Bt
x = vt
x = vt x′ = 0
0 = Avt + Bt
B = −Av
So far:
B = −Av
x ′ = Ax + Bt
−vt ′ = 0 + Bt
vt ′ = −Bt
Sʼ
t ′ = Cx + Dt
x=0 t ′ = 0 + Dt
x ′ = −vt ′
vt ′ = vDt, vt ′ = −Bt,
∴B = −vD
From Case I B = −vA
∴D = A
Case I
Case II
Sʼ
S
S
Sʼ
x = vt x′ = 0 x=0
x ′ = −vt ′
Case I x ′=0
Case II x=0
Viewed from S Viewed from Sʼ
x ′ = Ax + Bt t ′ = Cx + Dt
x ′ = Ax + Bt
0 = Ax + Bt t ′ = 0 + Dt
−vt ′ = 0 + Bt
x = vt vt ′ = vDt, vt ′ = −Bt,
vt ′ = −Bt
0 = Avt + Bt ∴B = −vD
B = −Av From Case I B = −vA
∴D = A
x ′ = Ax + Bt
x ′ = ct ′, x = ct
S
Sʼ
1) ct ′ = Act + Bt
x ′ = ct ′ t ′ = Cx + Dt
x = ct t ′ = Cct + Dt
2) ct ′ = Cc2 t + Dct w
x ′ = Ax + Bt y ′ = y, z ′ = z t ′ = Cx + Dt
v
B = −vA D=A C=− A
c2
v
x ′ = A(x − vt) t ′ = A(t − 2 x)
c
Need to get A
v
x ′ = A(x − vt), t ′ = A(t − x) Need to obtain A
c2
1 1 1
= A, A= = =γ
⎛ v2 ⎞ v2 1− β 2
A ⎜1 − 2 ⎟ 1− 2
⎝ c ⎠ c
Lorentz Transformation
⎛ v ⎞
x ′ = γ (x − vt) y ′ = y z ′ = z t′ = γ ⎜t − x⎟
⎝ c2 ⎠
⎛ v ⎞
x = γ ( x ′ + vt ′ ) y = y ′ z = z ′ t = γ ⎜t′ + x′
⎝ c 2 ⎟⎠
Galilean Transformation
x ′ = x − vt y′ = y z′ = z t′ = t
x = x ′ + vt ′ y = y′ z = z′ t = t′
Homework 5. Due. Tues. Sept 18.
Use:
∂Ei ∂Ei ∂x ′ ∂Ei ∂t ′ ∂E ∂E ∂x ′ ∂Ei ∂t ′
= + i = i +
∂x ∂x ′ ∂x ∂t ′ ∂x ∂t ∂x ′ ∂t ∂t ′ ∂t
⎛ v ⎞
x ′ = γ (x − vt) t ′ = γ ⎜ t − x⎟
⎝ c2 ⎠
∂x ′ ∂t ′ v ∂x ′ ∂t ′
=γ = −γ 2 = −γ v =γ
∂x ∂x c ∂t ∂t
Some Consequences of Special Relativity
Exercise
1. What will be the time tʼ for the second event, as measured in Sʼ?
What will be the time tʼ for the second event, as measured in Sʼ?
⎛ v ⎞ 1 1
t′ = γ ⎜t − x⎟ γ = = = 2.3
⎝ c2 ⎠ 1− β 2
1 − 0.9 2
⎛ 0.9c ⎞
t ′ = 2.3 ⎜ 2.0 − × 0 ⎟ = 4.6 sec
⎝ c2 ⎠
⎛ v ⎞
x ′ = γ (x − vt) y′ = y z′ = z t′ = γ ⎜t − x⎟
⎝ c2 ⎠
⎛ v ⎞
dx ′ = γ (dx − vdt) dy′ = dy dz ′ = dz dt ′ = γ ⎜ dt − dx
⎝ c2 ⎟⎠
⎛ dx ⎞
dx ′ γ (dx − vdt) ⎜⎝ dt − v⎟⎠
u x′ = = =
dt ′ ⎛ v ⎞ ⎛ v dx ⎞
γ ⎜⎝ dt − c 2 dx ⎟⎠ ⎜⎝ 1− c 2 dt ⎟⎠
(u x − v) dy ′ uy uz
u x′ = u y′ = = uz′ =
⎛ v ⎞ dt ′ ⎛ v ⎞ ⎛ v ⎞
⎜⎝ 1− c 2 u x ⎟⎠ γ ⎜ 1− 2 u x ⎟ γ ⎜ 1− 2 u x ⎟
⎝ c ⎠ ⎝ c ⎠
Exercise:
Sʼ
S
v
u
u = u x = 0.9c Find ux′
v = −0.9c
u = ux = c
Find ux′
v = −0.9c
Solution:
Sʼ
S
v
u
S
Sʼ
β
1 2
⎛ v ⎞ ⎛ v ⎞
t2 = t1 t1′ = γ ⎜ t1 − x t 2′ = γ t − x2
c2 ⎟⎠ ⎜ 2
c2 ⎟⎠
1
⎝ ⎝
v v
Δt ′ = γ 0 − γ Δx = − γ Δx
c2 c2
Exercise
v 0.9c
Δt ′ = γΔt − γ 2
Δx = − 2.3 2
1, 000 = −6.9 × 10 −6 s = − 6.9 µs
c c
It would require a signal between the 2 events to travel faster than the speed of light.
v v v
Δt ′ = γ ⎛ Δt − 2 Δx ⎞ > 0 Δt > Δx (timelike) Δt < Δx (spacelike)
⎝ c ⎠ c2 c2
Space - Time
ct
timelike
world line
light speed
For 1-space
world line
and time dimension:
x=-ct
x=ct
x
Minkowski Space-Time:
2 spatial and 1 time dimensions.
World line