Digital Images and Commentary courtesy of Wolf Kuehn

Canadian Institute of Gemmology (Vancouver)

Commentary by Joan Irvin
Research pulled from various sources including:
- Green Fever: The Colombian Emerald (video from Discovery Channel’s Stones
of Fate & Fortune series)
- ed. Brooks, John. The South American Handbook
- Smithsonian. Rock & Gem
- The Emerald Deposits of Muzo, Colombia, by Joseph E. Pogue, PhD., Evanston.
Illinois, Transactions of the American Institute of Mining Engineers, Vol. LV, 1917
(Arizona Meeting, September 1916.)
Additional Commentary and Post Presentation Discussion by Holger
Hartmaier
Maps provided by:
Map of South America: Honor the Earth website – www.honorearth.org
Map of Colombia: Information Please website – www.infoplease.com

1
Introduction

Emeralds are found in relatively few countries around the world. Recent
deposits have been found in Canada’s north. Historical sources are few
and far between -- Pakistan, Russia’s Ural Mountains, Zambia &
Zimbabwe in Africa, and Brazil & Colombia in South America.

Colombia reputedly boasts the best emeralds in the world, at one time
producing 80-90% of the world’s production. Current production is
estimated to be about 60%. Most of the emeralds come from two major
mining districts Muzo and Chivor located respectively north and east
northeast of Bogotá. The images we will be seeing here are from the
mines near Muzo; Colombia’s largest and most famous mine. It is
located in the province of Boyaca, north of Bogotá, Colombia’s capital.
All images were taken by Wolf Kuehn of the Canadian Institute of
Gemmology in Vancouver during a trip to Colombia in the summer of
2005.

2
Colombia is the fourth largest country in South America, with coast lines
on both the Atlantic and Pacific. Its lowlands are largely uninhabited,
whereas the narrow valleys and high basins between its mountains
support over 90% of the population. The climate is hot, resulting in a
daily cycle of evaporation from the marshy lands, followed by torrential
rainfalls and fog. The lushly forested landscape is punctuated with
crops such as maize, potatoes, sugar cane, coffee, and cacao (from
which chocolate is derived).

3
The human population in Colombia is almost as colourful as its
butterflies. You will find descendants of the indigenous Indian
population, along with those of the conquistadors and black slaves.
Intermarriage adds to this rainbow.

4
The flora and fauna of Colombia are also colourful and exotic. This is a
land of parrots, lizards, and the occasional jaguar.

5
Mineral treasures also abound. Quartz may occur as well formed,
colourless to greenish (rare) crystals in the emerald veins. Inclusions of
pyrite and emerald have been noted, indicating that the quartz crystals
formed after the emeralds.

6
Emeralds were prized by the natives of Colombia, long before the Conquistadores
arrived. The Indians treasured them as symbols of fertility and immortality,
incorporated them into their gold work, and used them as currency in barter. Over
the years these stones have caused much strife. The Muzo area came under
Spanish control in 1567, when the natives were enslaved by the Conquistadors and
put to work in the mines. The power struggle for control of this resource continues
to this day.

Let’s take a look at the last half of the 20th century. Up until 1947, the mines of
Muzo were administered by the Bank of the Republic. Looting was rampant. In
1968, the state created a mining corporation (Esmeralda of Colombia) to take
control. They doled out claims and contracts to private families, but the robberies
and violence continued until the army was forced to close the mines in 1973. In
1976, private consortia picked up the reins, but a free-for-all ensued, featuring rival
guerrilla groups, and even drug cartels. (Note: per gram, uncut emeralds are worth
fifty times more than drugs. Even on the streets of Bogotá, 1,500 carats of rough
crystals will fetch a quarter million dollars). The ensuing “Green Wars” claimed
thousands of lives. It wasn’t until 1991, when Pablo Escobar and another big drug
lord were killed by the army, that “relative peace” returned to the region. That said,

7
security remains tight around Muzo today. And while this may
discourage outside attacks, it does little to address the problem of
workers swallowing stones to smuggle them offsite.

7
The Muzo emerald mining district covers an area of about 360 square
km, centered about 105 km north-northwest of Bogotá, in the western
foothills of the eastern branch of the Andes at about 700 metres above
sea level. Local relief is less than 500 metres. It consists of three major
mining centres, Muzo, Coscuez and Penas Blancas. The Muzo mine is
located about 8 km west of the village of Muzo.

The Chivor district is located on the eastern slopes of the Andes about
75 km east-northeast of Bogotá. The district occupies about 100
square km in very rugged country, cut by canyons 1000 metres or more
deep. The Chivor mine is located at an elevation of 2300 metres above
sea level. The two currently active and most important mines in the
Chivor district are the Chivor and the Gachala.

8
The town of Muzo is located along the valley of Rio Minero. The mine is
located within a steep walled valley of Quebrada del Desaguadero. The
dashed area outlines the Muzo mining preserve. The mining area is
composed of many individual “cortes” or mines which are on long term
leases from the Colombian government.

9
These next few shots are of the town of Muzo, in the province of
Boyaca. They’ll give you an idea of the Colombian landscape. The
emerald mining district is within 16 km of the town.

10
The emerald deposits around Muzo were originally worked by the Incas
up to 2000 years ago and were “rediscovered” by the Spanish in 1559.
There has been a long history of intermittent production from these
mines continuing to the present day.

11
The mines have been owned by the government since 1871 and have
been leased to various operators since then. Five year leases were
instituted in 1977 and discontinued in 1982 due in part to poor recovery
brought about by rapid mining techniques (dynamite and bulldozers).
Ten year leases were most recently held by two companies Tecminas
and Coesminas, who developed underground workings.

12
While the best way to avoid ambush enroute to the mine is to travel by
helicopter, this just isn’t an option for most workers. Here we have a
shot taken along the road to the Muzo mine, located about 8 km west of
the town of Muzo.

13
We are now in emerald country.... The region around the deposits is
characterized by intense tropical jungle and excessive heat. Jungle
growth quickly obscures abandoned workings and makes exploration
very difficult and costly.

“It is a 4 hour gruesome four-wheel drive for the 80 kms from

Chiquichira at 2,200 m down into the valley. I was the only "tourist" and
many of the locals on the jeep got sick. The scenery is absolutely
spectacular. But most emerald dealers use the helicopter and "miss
out" on the adventure.” – Wolf Kuehn

14
…and have arrived at the mine.

15
While the Muzo mine covers an area the size of a small city, this shot
will give you an idea of the traditional open-cast mine, in combination
with newer technologies (if you look part way up the slope, perhaps you
will note a shaft). The Muzo Mine was worked long before the arrival of
the conquistadors. Little is known about the early history of the mine.
Local lore states that it was found by the Spanish when a horseman
riding around the town of Muzo noticed a green stone wedged between
the hoof and shoe of his steed. Upon investigation and questioning the
local Indians he learned that these green stones could be found just
outside of town.

16
Traditional mining methods are used that differ little from those used by
the Spaniards in the 16th century. Nearly all work is by hand. The
bedrock is a soft shale and explosives are rarely used to break the rock,
only when it is free of emerald bearing veins. The emerald bearing
strata on steep mountainsides are cut into steps about 2 m high and 3-4
m wide by gangs of miners using picks and crowbars. Using this open
cut method, literally every cubic metre of rock is examined and emerald
recovery approaches 100%. The broken waste rock is removed mostly
by flushing with water. Large reservoirs are located in the hills above
the workings and are filled directly by streams or by water diverted long
distances by dug canals. The force of the water effectively washes
away all the broken rock into the valley below.

17
The broken waste rock washed from the mine accumulates in the valley
bottom below the mine. Here there is no shortage of peasant
“shovellers” eager to eke out a living in the sludge. They sift through
thousands of tons of rock, and if they are lucky may find a few handfuls
of emeralds per day.

18
It has been estimated that the grade of the emerald bearing rock is
about 1 carat for every 15 cubic metres of rock. Assuming a bulk
density of 2.2 g/cubic cm, the ratio of emerald to rock is 1:165 million,
making the overall emerald grade of the ore 0.0000006%! This is more
than 10 times leaner than the grade of South African diamond bearing
kimberlites.

19
The great value of the emerald makes security at the mines a problem.
Members of the National Police guard and oversee operations at all
legally worked emerald mines. Bonuses are paid to miners who spot
smears of emerald (moralla) in the rock that lead to discovery of a
productive vein or pocket.

20
In the mines, a month or more of mining commonly separates
discoveries which may contain in volume not more than a soft ball,
gems worth from a few thousand to several million dollars.

21
Annual production of emeralds from Colombia is not known with any
degree of accuracy due to clandestine operations. Average yearly
production from 1964-1967 was 325,000 carats, much of it low grade
stones.

22
New technologies, such as underground mining, have been introduced
by players such as Rio Verde (Green River), a Vancouver company.
Further up the mountain we can see what looks like power generators,
probably for the pneumatic drills that will be used to dig into the thin
white calcite veins that contain the emeralds, when a pocket can be
found.

23
The advantage of underground mining is that the amount of waste rock
mined may be reduced, assuming that a productive vein can be
followed. The disadvantage of this method is the need to use
explosives, which damage the emeralds. Also the underground
openings need to be supported and ventilated. As you can see, mining
methods are rather primitive and potentially unsafe.

24
...and these next few shots are inside the hot muggy mine. In the dark,
it is difficult to see much at all. The large pipes deliver ventilation to the
working face.

25
Here we can see the poorly lit and wet conditions in the adit leading to
the working face.

An “adit” is a mining term for a horizontal opening into the ground that
only has one entrance, as opposed to a tunnel which is open at both
ends. In mining terms a shaft is a vertical opening into the ground.

26
Relatively few timbers are noted here, indicating good ground
conditions.

27
Here we see one of the calcite veins that emeralds are often found in.
The host rock is a black carbonaceous and calcareous shale. The
calcite vein material would be brought to the surface and broken up by
hand to remove any emerald crystals present.

28
…and here we see a miner with a handful of stones – probably the fruits
of an entire day’s labour. Only the most trusted employees are allowed
near the working face of the mine. In some mines, the best stones are
placed into leather pouches for protection after extraction.

29
Here we get a closer look at some raw emeralds.

30
...and this is Wolf Kuehn on the left (Director of the Canadian Institute of
Gemmology, the gentleman who took these photos) and Jesus Tajeado,
his Muzo guide.

“I will say the trip was one of my greatest adventures and I will go back
as soon as I can. However, I would not recommend an excursion to
Muzo for group travel or inexperienced tourists. Spanish and familiarity
with local customs are an absolute must.” - Wolf Kuehn

J. Wolf Kuehn, C.I.G. Director of Education, is a Fellow of the Gemmological Association of

Germany. He is a professional member of the "British Columbia College of Teachers" and holds a
Master's degree in Marketing (University of Augsburg). As the founder of the Canadian Institute of
Gemmology (Instituto de Gemologia del Pacifico - Pacific Institute of Gemology) he has been
involved in gemology for over 30 years. Among his publications the Gem Colour Manual and the
Gemstone Inclusion Library has been widely recognized as a valuable tool for colour grading and
serious gem identification

31
At last we leave the mine behind.

32
…and return to Muzo. But let’s have a closer look at some emeralds.

33
Here we can see a lovely emerald crystal in calcite. Note the prismatic
crystal, which is hexagonal in structure. Emeralds are a member of the
beryl family, obtaining their unique colour from trace amounts of
chromium and vanadium. They can be green or blue green, but
Colombian emeralds are unique in that they exhibit a complete lack of
iron. (The pyrite often found nearby seems to have attracted it all.)

34
Again – another specimen

Emeralds can be transparent to translucent. Their value is primarily in

their colour, which is enhanced by their natural fluorescence in daylight.
The famous “emerald cut” further enhances a stone’s colour and
richness.

35
Another shot... Emeralds have a hardness of 7 ½ to 8, with imperfect
cleavage. Fractures are uneven to conchoidal.

36
Here we have multiple specimens...

37
...and more of the same, with a finished faceted stone.

38
…the same thing again, and a word about inclusions. The inclusions in
emeralds add to their interest. These “growth features” tell us how the
stones grew in nature, and provide us with information on what
temperatures they were formed at, what solutions they were formed
from, and so on.

39
Here we see a faceter at work. As most of you know, a cutter can add
to the value of a stone -- or take it away in one false move! Emeralds
are usually cut in the…guess what… the emerald cut!

40
Here we have a lovely sampling of cut stones. Emerald is the birthstone for May.
Colour and clarity are highly variable and are major factors in valuation. Nearly all
stones have inclusions, and the best coloured usually have the most inclusions. The
term “jardin” (meaning garden) is used for mossy appearing, densely included
stones. Good stones of high clarity and colour are extremely rare in sizes above 2-3
carats. Colour is highly prized with large carat, but weakly coloured stones up to
five carats being worth less than smaller included stones of better colour. Most
natural stones are “oiled” to improve clarity. Traditional oils include Canada Balsam
and cedarwood oil. This treatment is used to seal the cracks in the crystals. Seven
times rarer than diamonds, these stones will fetch a small fortune once they leave
the country. Commercial grade emeralds will cost buyers approximately
$1,000/carat in Colombia. Exceptional stones of 5 carats or more have been sold for
as much as $25,000/carat! Before they leave the country, these stones must be
registered, appraised, and approved for export (for a fee, of course). Moving
emeralds is still risky business. The possibility of Colombian gangs following a
dealer to Canada or the US is not unheard of, but unscrupulous customs agents
enroute can be equally devastating to a gem dealer. Perhaps that is one justification
for the twenty-fold price jump that occurs between the Colombian emerald mine and
the North American jewellery store.

41
Emerald is the gem variety of beryl.

42
The gem varieties of beryl are all the same composition, but owe their
colours to trace amounts of different elements that substitute for the
Aluminum in the crystal lattice and act as chromophores.

43
The rocks hosting the Muzo emerald deposits are of middle Cretaceous age, based chiefly on the
abundant ammonites that are found with them.

The geology of the Muzo emerald deposits is still poorly understood, due to its checkered history
and poor exposures of bedrock in the region. The best exposures are in the working mine faces,
as abandoned workings are quickly covered by jungle vegetation. The emerald formation (see
slide) consists of thin beds of carbonaceous shale and limestone. There is an angular
unconformity between the emerald bearing rock units and the barren rock units of early
Cretaceous age below. It is believed that the younger emerald bearing rock units were thrust on
top of the older, steeply dipping strata by large scale tectonic displacements. At the same time
as this deformation was taking place, hydrothermal fluids were being injected along the fault
zone, bringing in the emerald bearing solutions. Calcite veins were formed in both the barren
and emerald bearing rock units, however, it is believed that gases emanating from the solution
rose into the rock units above the fault and were responsible for depositing the emeralds
preferentially. The barren rock units called the “cambiado” (Spanish for changed-
metamorphosed) were only subjected to the hot hydrothermal fluids and were not affected by the
gases. The rock units between the emerald formation and the cambiado were literally cooked to
a crumbly ash-like unit called the cenizero (Spanish for ash), which forms a marker between the
emerald and non-emerald bearing rocks. Obviously, more investigative work is required to fully
understand the geology of these deposits.

44
Here’s a list of the other minerals that are found in association with the
emeralds at Muzo. Many of them are well formed and good specimens
in their own right. They are no doubt of particular chemical interest in
understanding the origin and formation of the emerald deposits.

45
46