What Are Super Alloys
What Are Super Alloys
What Are Super Alloys
ME Mechanical Team
Last updated: Apr 5, 2016
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Super alloys are important in high temperature applications; hence, they are also known as heat-
resistant or as high-temperature alloys.
Applications:
Major applications of this alloys are in reciprocating engines, in rocket engines, in tools and dies for
hot-working of metals and in the nuclear, chemical and photochemical industries.
Properties:
They generally have good resistance to corrosion, to mechanical and thermal fatigue, to mechanical
and thermal shock, to creep and to erosion at higher temperatures.
Composition:
These alloys are referred to as iron-base, cobalt-base or nickel-base super alloys. They contain nickel,
chromium, cobalt and molybdenum as major alloying elements; Most super alloys have a maximum
service temperature of about 1000°C for non-load bearing components.
Iron base super alloys generally contain composition of 32% to 67% iron, from 15% to 22%
chromium and from 9% to 38% nickel.
Cobalt-base super alloys generally contain composition of 35% to 65% cobalt, 19% to 30%
chromium and up to 35% nickel. Cobalt (Co) is white-colored metal that resembles nickel. These
super alloys are not as strong as nickel-base super alloys in this they retain their strength at higher
temperatures.
Nickel-base super alloys are the most common of the supper alloys and they are available in a variety
of compositions. The composition of nickel is from 38% to 76%; they also contain up to 27%
chromium and 20% cobalt. Common alloys in this group are the Hastelloy, Inconel, Nimonic, Rene,
Udimet, Astroloy and Waspaloy series
The Ni-Al-Ti ternary phase diagrams show the γ and γ' phase field. For a
given chemical composition, the fraction of γ' decreases as the temperature is
increased. This phenomenon is used in order to dissolve the γ' at a sufficiently
high temperature (a solution treatment) followed by ageing at a lower
temperature in order to generate a uniform and fine dispersion of
strengthening precipitates.
The γ-phase is a solid solution with a cubic-F lattice and a random distribution
of the different species of atoms. Cubic-F is short for face-centred cubic.
By contrast, γ' has a cubic-P (primitive cubic) lattice in which the nickel atoms
are at the face-centres and the aluminium or titanium atoms at the cube
corners. This atomic arrangement has the chemical formula Ni3Al, Ni3Ti or
Ni3(Al,Ti). However, as can be seen from the (γ+γ')/γ' phase boundary on the
ternary sections of the Ni, Al, Ti phase diagram, the phase is not strictly
stoichiometric. There may exist an excess of vacancies on one of the
sublattices which leads to deviations from stoichiometry; alternatively, some of
the nickel atoms might occupy the Al sites and vice-versa. In addition to
aluminium and titanium, niobium, hafnium and tantalum partition preferentially
into γ'.
The γ phase forms the matrix in which the γ' precipitates. Since both the
phases have a cubic lattice with similar lattice parameters, the γ' precipitates
in a cube-cube orientation relationship with the γ. This means that its cell
edges are exactly parallel to corresponding edges of the γ phase.
Furthermore, because their lattice parameters are similar, the γ' is coherent
with the γ when the precipitate size is small. Dislocations in the γ nevertheless
find it difficult to penetrate γ', partly because the γ' is an atomically ordered
phase. The order interferes with dislocation motionand hence strengthens the
alloy.
The small misfit between the γ and γ' lattices is important for two reasons.
Firstly, when combined with the cube-cube orientation relationship, it ensures
a low γ/γ' interfacial energy. The ordinary mechanism of precipitate
coarsening is driven entirely by the minimisation of total interfacial energy. A
coherent or semi-coherent interface therefore makes the microstructure
stable, a property which is useful for elevated temperature applications.
The magnitude and sign of the misfit also influences the development of
microstructure under the influence of a stress at elevated temperatures. The
misfit is said to be positive when the γ' has a larger lattice parameter than γ.
The misfit can be controlled by altering the chemical composition, particularly
the aluminium to titanium ratio. A negative misfit stimulates the formation of
rafts of γ', essentially layers of the phase in a direction normal to the applied
stress. This can help reduce the creep rate if the mechanism involves the
climb of dislocations across the precipitate rafts.
The transmission electron micrographs shown below illustrate the large
fraction of γ', typically in excess of 0.6, in turbine blades designed for
aeroengines, where the metal experiences temperatures in excess of 1000oC.
Only a small fraction (0.2) of γ' is needed when the alloy is designed for
service at relatively low temperatures (750oC) and where welding is used for
fabrication.
Ordinary slip in both γ and γ' occurs on the {111}<110>. If slip was confined to
these planes at all temperatures then the strength would decrease as the
temperature is raised. However, there is a tendency for dislocations in γ' to
cross-slip on to the {100} planes where they have a lower anti-phase domain
boundary energy. This is because the energy decreases with temperature.
Situations arise where the extended dislocation is then partly on the close-
packed plane and partly on the cube plane. Such a dislocation becomes
locked, leading to an increase in strength. The strength only decreases
beyond about 600oC whence the thermal activation is sufficiently violent to
allow the dislocations to overcome the obstacles.
To summarise, it is the presence of γ' which is responsible for the fact that the
strength of nickel based superalloys is relatively insensitive to temperature.
The yield strength of a particular
superalloycontaining only about 20%
of γ'. The points are measured and
the curve is a theoretical prediction.
Notice how the strength is at first
insensitive to temperature.
When greater strength is required at lower
temperatures (e.g. turbine discs), alloys can be
strengthened using another phase known as γ''.
This phase occurs in nickel superalloys with
significant additions of niobium (Inconel 718) or
vanadium; the composition of the γ'' is then Ni3Nb
or Ni3V. The particles of γ'' are in the form of discs
with (001)γ''||{001}γ and [100]γ''||<100>γ
Electron Diffraction
The figures below show a superimposed electron diffraction pattern from γ, γ'
and M23C6 carbide. The γ and γ' phases have their cubic-lattice edges
perfectly aligned.
Alloy Compositions
Commercial superalloys contain more than just Ni, Al and Ti. Chromium and
aluminium are essential for oxidation resistance small quantities of yttrium
help the oxide scale to cohere to the substrate. Polycrystalline superalloys
contain grain boundary strengthening elements such as boron and zirconium,
which segregate to the boundaries. The resulting reduction in grain boundary
energy is associated with better creep strength and ductility when the
mechanism of failure involves grain decohesion.
There are also the carbide formers (C, Cr, Mo, W, C, Nb, Ta, Ti and Hf). The
carbides tend to precipitate at grain boundaries and hence reduce the
tendency for grain boundary sliding.
There are, naturally, limits to the concentrations that can be added without
inducing precipitation. It is particularly important to avoid certain embrittling
phases such as Laves and Sigma. There are no simple rules governing the
critical concentrations; it is best to calculate or measure the appropriate part of
a phase diagram.
Alloying element effects in
nickel based superalloys. The
"M" in M23C6 stands for a
mixture of metal atoms. Click
on chart to enlarge.
The single-crystal superalloys are often classified into first, second and third
generation alloys. The second and third generations contain about 3 wt% and
6wt% of rhenium respectively. Rhenium is a very expensive addition but leads
to an improvement in the creep strength. It is argued that some of the
enhanced resistance to creep comes from the promotion of rafting by
rhenium, which partitions into the γ and makes the lattice misfit more negative.
Atomic resolution experiments have shown that the Re occurs as clusters in
the γ phase. It is also claimed that rhenium reduces the overall diffusion rate
in nickel based superalloys.
Turbine Blades
Superalloy blades are used in aeroengines and gas turbines in regions where
the temperature is in excess of about 400oC, with titanium blades in the colder
regions. This is because there is a danger of titanium igniting in special
circumstances if its temperature exceeds 400oC.
Turbine Discs
Turbine blades are attached to a disc which in turn is connected to the turbine
shaft. The properties required for an aeroengine discs are different from that
of a turbine, because the metal experiences a lower temperature. The discs
must resist fracture by fatigue. Discs are usuallycast and then forged into
shape. They are polycrystalline.
One difficulty is that cast alloys have a
large columnar grain structure and
contain significant chemical
segregation; the latter is not completely
eliminated in the final product. This can
lead to scatter in mechanical properties.
One way to overcome this is to begin
with fine, clean powder which is then
consolidated. The powder is made by
atomisation in an inert gas; the extent of
chemical segregation cannot exceed
the size of the powder. After
atomisation, Some discs are made from
powder which is hot-isostatically
pressed, extruded and then forged into
the required shape. The process is
difficult because of the need to avoid
undesired particles introduced, for
example, from the refractories used in
the atomisation process, or impurities
picked up during solidification. Such
particles initiate fatigue; the failure of an
aeroengine turbine disc can be
catastrophic.
Powder metallurgical aeroengine
disc. Image provided by M. Hardy of
Rolls-Royce.
Turbochargers
Melt Processing
The diagram for electroslag refining looks similar to that for vacuum arc
remelting, except that the melt pool is covered by a 10 cm thick layer of slag
(lime, alumina and flourite). The ingot is again an electrode in contact with the
slag. The slag has a high electrical resistivity and hence melts, the
temperature being in excess of the melting point of the metal electrode. The
tip of the electrode melts, allowing metal to trickle through the slag into the
liquid sump at the bottom. This refines the alloy.
Acknowledgment