Australia’s

Sandalwood Industry
An overview and analysis of research needs

A report for the Rural Industries Research and Development Corporation

by Michael Clarke, AgEconPlus PtyLtd

December 2006

RIRDC Publication No 06/131

RIRDC Project No AGL-5A
© 2006 Rural Industries Research and Development Corporation.
All rights reserved.

ISBN 1 74151 394 4

ISSN 1440-6845

Australia’s Sandalwood Industry – An overview and analysis of research needs

Publication No. 06/131
Project No. AGL-5A

The information contained in this publication is intended for general use to assist public knowledge and discussion
and to help improve the development of sustainable industries. The information should not be relied upon for the
purpose of a particular matter. Specialist and/or appropriate legal advice should be obtained before any action or
decision is taken on the basis of any material in this document. The Commonwealth of Australia, Rural Industries
Research and Development Corporation, the authors or contributors do not assume liability of any kind
whatsoever resulting from any person's use or reliance upon the content of this document.

This publication is copyright. However, RIRDC encourages wide dissemination of its research, providing the
Corporation is clearly acknowledged. For any other enquiries concerning reproduction, contact the Publications
Manager on phone 02 6272 3186.

Researcher Contact Details

Michael Clarke
AgEconPlus Pty Ltd
44 Barons Crescent
Hunters Hill NSW 2110

Phone: 02 9817 5888

Fax: 02 9816 4840
Email: [email protected].
Web : http://www.AgEconPlus.com.au

RIRDC Contact Details

Rural Industries Research and Development Corporation
Level 2
15 National Circuit
BARTON ACT 2600
PO Box 4776
KINGSTON ACT 2604

Phone: 02 6272 4819

Fax: 02 6272 5877
Email: [email protected].
Web: http://www.rirdc.gov.au

Published in December 2006

ii
Foreword
Sandalwood includes a group of products whose research fits under the RIRDC Essential Oils and
Plant Extracts sub-program of the New Industries portfolio.

Historically RIRDC has invested lightly in this sector. Long lead times between plant establishment
and harvest were believed to render plantation production of the crop a non-economic proposition and
wild sourced Western Australian sandalwood was a mature industry. Work by the Government of
Western Australia and others has shown that the lag between plant establishment and harvest can be
reduced and that there are a range of other environmental, social and economic benefits associated
with growing sandalwood in Australia.

This research report provides a situation assessment for the two commercially dominant sandalwood
species – Indian sandalwood (Santalum album) and Western Australian sandalwood (Santalum
spicatum). Both species have expanded their area of plantation since 2000 and are forecast to
dominate world supply by 2020. RIRDC considered an independent audit on their production,
harvest, marketing and outlook to be both appropriate and opportune.

In addition to a sandalwood situation assessment, the report also provides a research needs analysis for
both commercially dominant species. Recommendations from the research needs analysis will inform
future priorities in the Essential Oils and Plant Extracts sub-program.

This project was funded from RIRDC Core Funds which are provided by the Australian Government.

This report, an addition to RIRDC’s diverse range of over 1500 research publications, forms part of
our Essential Oils and Plant Extracts R&D program, which aims to support the growth of a profitable
and sustainable essential oils and natural plant extracts industry in Australia.

Most of our publications are available for viewing, downloading or purchasing online through our
website:

• downloads at www.rirdc.gov.au/fullreports/index.html
• purchases at www.rirdc.gov.au/eshop

Peter O’Brien
Managing Director
Rural Industries Research and Development Corporation

iii
Executive Summary
What the report is about

This report is a scoping study on the sandalwood industry. It includes a research needs analysis. The
report has concentrated on two species within the sandalwood genus – Indian sandalwood (Santalum
album) and Western Australian sandalwood (Santalum spicatum). These two species currently
dominate commercial production.

Background

Indian Sandalwood Situation Assessment

Indian sandalwood oil is a prestige product sourced from wild stocks. Indian sandalwood oil is used
for a range of religious purposes and is a valuable fixature and base for luxury perfume manufacture.
Indian sandalwood oil is currently limited to a supply of between 170,000 and 220,000 kg of oil pa
and has undergone significant price increases in the period 1995 to 2005. Future price increases will
be limited by emerging buyer resistance.

In response to high Indian sandalwood oil prices and the Western Australian Government’s objective
of reducing natural harvest and replacing it with plantation sandalwood, an Indian sandalwood
plantation industry has emerged in Kununurra. Trial plantings have been established in other
Australian locations. Australia appears to be the world leader in plantation establishment. The
emerging Australian plantation industry is dominated by corporates using Managed Investment
Scheme principles. This study estimates that Australian plantations will produce an additional
130,000 kg pa of Indian sandalwood oil, equivalent to 60% of current world production, by 2023.

Western Australian Sandalwood Situation Assessment

Western Australian sandalwood oil has always traded at a price discount to Indian sandalwood oil and
like Indian sandalwood oil it is also currently sourced from wild stocks. Unlike Indian sandalwood
oil, Western Australian sandalwood oil is sourced from a sustainably managed supply.

Demand for WA sandalwood oil will be determined, in part, by luxury perfume house commitment to
the product and R&D appears to have overcome previous concerns with the product’s use in perfume
manufacture. In addition to sandalwood oil, the WA sandalwood tree also produces a fruiting body,
which is similar to a macadamia nut. Commercialisation of the WA sandalwood nut, which is
available four years after plantation establishment, may assist with the commercial viability of WA
sandalwood plantations.

The price of WA sandalwood oil is sustainable at current levels and until large areas of plantation
grown product are eligible for harvest from 2020. Plantations, which are dominated by a managed
investment scheme in the Western Australian wheat belt, are likely to increase the supply of WA
sandalwood from 12,000 kg of oil per annum in 2006 to more than 60,000 kg by 2023.

Research Needs

The research needs analysis reveals that:

1. There is an organised and active research community investigating sandalwood in Australia.
The research community includes agencies of the Western Australian government, the private
sector and universities.
2. Research outputs are channelled through a number of publications including the Sandalwood
Research Newsletter and the Avon Sandalwooder.

iv
 3. To date, Australian research has focussed on Indian sandalwood (S. album) and projects have
had a strong applied research focus.
4. Industry consultation revealed concern that much of the research being completed in Australia
is proprietary and not available to potential investors.
5. Strong support was recorded for additional investment in sandalwood R&D and a greater role
for RIRDC was requested.
6. Key research breakthroughs for both Indian and Western Australian sandalwood were
identified as faster maturing and higher yielding varieties and production systems. For
Western Australian sandalwood, product and market development, especially in relation to the
S. spicatum nut, was identified as a priority.
7. Industry constraints were a corollary of research breakthroughs with the length of time
between plantation establishment and harvest remaining the major barrier to profitable
production. The importance of plantation design for S. spicatum was also highlighted.
8. Least adequately researched areas for both species were markets and plant genetics.
9. Future Indian sandalwood research should target processing, plant physiology/genetics,
markets, communication and industry development and training.
10. Future Western Australian research should target market research, processing, plant
physiology/genetics and sustainability.

Key Findings and Recommendations

The Australian sandalwood industry is set to dominate world supply of sandalwood oil. Substantial
gaps in the industry’s knowledge in relation to processing, plant physiology, markets, sustainability
and industry development remain. There is a role for RIRDC in the provision of public good research
that fills the breach between industry need and non-proprietary research interests. The findings from
this report should inform future priorities in the Essential Oils and Plant Extracts sub-program.

v
Contents
Foreword ............................................................................................................................................... iii
Executive Summary ............................................................................................................................. iv
Contents................................................................................................................................................. vi
1. Introduction ................................................................................................................................... 1
Project Objectives................................................................................................................................ 1
Methodology ....................................................................................................................................... 1
2. RIRDC Essential Oils Research ................................................................................................... 2
The RIRDC Essential Oils and Plant Extracts Research Program ...................................................... 2
3. Indian Sandalwood (S. album) Situation Assessment ................................................................ 4
Natural Distribution, Harvest and Product Quality ............................................................................. 4
Supply Chain and Product Uses .......................................................................................................... 4
Alternatives ......................................................................................................................................... 5
Wild Source Supply and Reserves ...................................................................................................... 5
Plantation Production .......................................................................................................................... 7
World S. album Plantation Situation ............................................................................................... 7
Australian S. album Plantation Situation......................................................................................... 8
Plantation Oil Yield Trial Results ................................................................................................... 8
Forecast Plantation Production........................................................................................................ 9
Industry Outlook ............................................................................................................................... 10
4. Western Australian Sandalwood (S. spicatum) Situation Assessment.................................... 11
Source and Product Uses................................................................................................................... 11
Supply Chain and Reserves............................................................................................................... 11
Alternatives ....................................................................................................................................... 12
Plantation Production ........................................................................................................................ 12
Plantation Area .............................................................................................................................. 12
Trial Results and Anticipated Per hectare Oil Yield ..................................................................... 13
Production from S. spicatum Plantations ...................................................................................... 13
Industry Outlook ............................................................................................................................... 14
5. Research Needs ............................................................................................................................ 15
Research History and Trends ............................................................................................................ 15
RIRDC Investment ........................................................................................................................ 15
Sandalwood Research Newsletter ................................................................................................. 15
Other Sandalwood Research ......................................................................................................... 17
Historical Research Compendiums ............................................................................................... 17
Consultation Findings ....................................................................................................................... 17
Species Most Comfortable Addressing ......................................................................................... 18
The Appropriateness of Current Sandalwood R&D Funding Levels............................................ 18
Major Investors in Sandalwood R&D ........................................................................................... 18
Greater Role for RIRDC Warranted.............................................................................................. 19
Priority Species ............................................................................................................................. 20
Single Greatest Research Breakthrough ........................................................................................ 20
Single Greatest Constraint............................................................................................................. 21
Least Adequately Researched Area............................................................................................... 22
Research Priorities............................................................................................................................. 23
6. Study Conclusions and Recommendations ............................................................................... 24
7. References .................................................................................................................................... 25
Web Pages Visited............................................................................................................................. 26
Key Contacts ........................................................................................................................................ 27
Appendix 1: Research Completed...................................................................................................... 28

vi
Abbreviations

CALM Conservation and Land Management, WA

CPI Consumer Price Index
DAFF Australian Government Department of Agriculture Forestry and Fisheries
DPI Department of Primary Industries
EOPA Essential Oil Producers Australia
FPC Forest Products Commission
ISO International Standards Organisation
JCU James Cook University
KPIs Key Performance Indicators
MIS Managed Investment Schemes
PNG Papua New Guinea
SRN Sandalwood Research News
WA Western Australia

Acknowledgements

The Plan’s authors wish to acknowledge the assistance of RIRDC and the Australian sandalwood
industry. In particular we wish to thank the following individuals for their assistance with the report:
• Roslyn Prinsley and Tony Byrne, Essential Oils and Plant Extracts Program RIRDC
• Tony Page, School of Tropical Biology, James Cook University, Qld
• Peter Jones, Managing Director, Renew Environmental Services Pty Ltd, WA
• Tim Emmott and Lisa Grosskopf, Avon Sandalwood Network, WA
• Grant Pronk and Jon Brand, Forest Products Commission, WA

Naturally, all mistakes and omissions remain those of the report’s author, Michael Clarke.

vii
1. Introduction
The purpose of this study was to produce an overview of the Australian sandalwood industry and
scope industry research gaps and future research needs.

Project Objectives
The project was to provide an understanding of the current and future sandalwood industry situation
including an understanding of industry research gaps, and the role, if any, for the Rural Industries
Research and Development Corporation (RIRDC) in their provision.

There is currently widespread interest in the sandalwood industry including broad based interest from
the public following extensive marketing of sandalwood Managed Investment Schemes (MIS).
Provision of an independent scoping report on the sandalwood industry was seen by RIRDC to be both
appropriate and opportune.

The report provides:

• A sandalwood industry situation assessment detailing natural distribution, harvest and product
quality, supply chain, product uses, alternatives and the outlook for both Indian sandalwood
(Santalum album) and Australian sandalwood (Santalum spicatum); and
• A research needs analysis including research gaps and the role if any for RIRDC’s Essential Oils
and Plant Extracts R&D sub-program in research provision.

Methodology
The study was completed using desk-based research techniques including:
• Finalisation of the project scope and objectives with RIRDC;
• Review of the relevant Australian and available international literature;
• Consultation with Western Australian (WA) Forest Products Commission (FPC), sandalwood
researchers, Sandalwood Research News, manufacturers and marketers of essential oils, private
consultants and others working in the area;
• Situation assessment documentation for both the Indian sandalwood (S. album) and WA
sandalwood (S. spicatum) industries;
• Research needs analysis including preparation of a gaps analysis and assessment of the potential
RIRDC role in research funding;
• Draft report documentation and circulation to RIRDC and key industry stakeholders;
• Incorporation of comments received on the draft report; and
• Submission of a final report to RIRDC.

The research was completed between June and September 2006.

1
2. RIRDC Essential Oils Research
The RIRDC Essential Oils and Plant Extracts Research Program
Sandalwood industry R&D is managed under RIRDC Program 1: New and Emerging Industries sub-
program 1.4 Essential Oils and Plant Extracts (RIRDC 2006).

The objective of research in the Essential Oils and Plant Extracts sub-program is:

‘To support the growth of a profitable and sustainable essential oils and natural plant extracts
industry in Australia’.

Essential oils are largely used in the food flavouring, cosmetics and fragrance industries but their use
in aromatherapy and other health care areas is growing. Changing consumer preferences in favour of
natural over synthetic substances have had a strong impact on pharmaceutical and cosmetic industries,
which has translated into growing demand for essential oils and plant extracts.

There is increasing interest in essential oils in Australia and there are good opportunities for producing
plant extracts from both native and exotic species. The current value of production of essential oils
(excluding tea tree oil) is estimated to be approximately $10-11 million pa at the farm gate.

Essential oils include blackcurrant bud, boronia, chamomile, eucalyptus, fennel, lavender, mint,
parsley, sandalwood and tea tree. The Australian essential oils industry is made up of around 150
commercial producers, with production dominated by a few larger firms. Most essential oil production
takes place in Tasmania, Victoria and New South Wales. Most sandalwood oil production takes place
in Western Australia.

Medicinal herbs offer potential for Australian production of plant extracts. At present, about one-third
of the 250 tonnes used each year is supplied from Australia.

Australia has a comparative advantage as a reliable supplier of clean, good quality, unique oils and
extracts based on the use of high technology in both production and extraction. However the
Australian industry must understand the needs of processors and meet well-defined quality parameters.

Long-term strategies to deliver Essential Oils and Plant Extracts sub-program objectives are:
• Improve understanding by potential researchers and producers of markets for essential oils and
plant extracts;

• Improve existing products and encourage the development of new crops and products
(including uses for existing products);

• Support the development of sustainable and profitable production systems;

• Facilitate regulatory approvals for essential oils and plant extracts;

• Promote cost effective post harvest and extraction technology to improve yield and product
quality; and

• Encourage the development of essential oils and plant extracts by promoting industry
networks and the flow of information.

2
Key Performance Indicators (KPIs) for the Essential Oils and Plant Extracts sub-program are:
• Average industry oil yield per hectare;

• Availability of information for grower use;

• Availability of information on world production levels and trends;

• Extraction efficiencies;

• Levels of local production/import substitution;

• Harvest and extraction technology to improve yield and quality; and

• Encourage the development of essential oils and plant extract industries by promoting industry
networks and the flow of information.

These research objectives and KPIs have been used to guide the sandalwood research needs analysis.

3
3. Indian Sandalwood (S. album) Situation
Assessment
Natural Distribution, Harvest and Product Quality
Indian sandalwood oil is obtained from the heartwood of S. album. S. album occurs naturally
throughout India, Sri Lanka, South East Asia (Timor, Indonesia, Malaysia, Cambodia, Vietnam,
Burma and Thailand, China, the Pacific (Papua New Guinea, Fiji, Vanuatu, New Caledonia and
Hawaii) and even Australia (small naturalised area in the northwest of WA which is believed to have
been established through the activities of Mallacan traders).

Some 90% of the world’s S. album output is produced in India. Indonesia currently dominates the
balance of world production and export (www.plantcultures.org.uk). In India 80% of production is
sourced from the states of Tamil Nadu, Kerala and Karnataka (www.agricultureinformation.com). The
trade is centred on the southern city of Mysore. Most heartwood is harvested from wild stocks in
natural forests.

Historically sandal trees less than 100 cm in diameter and 60 years old were considered to be too
young to harvest. Heartwood volume, oil percentage and oil quality were considered to be inferior.
Officially it is illegal in India to harvest sandal trees at less than 30 years of age or any sandal trees
without government approval. Sandalwood poaching is commonplace and highly lucrative.

Poached sandalwood is a major contributor to overall Indian supply. Some estimate that output from
poaching may be four times larger than the official harvest.

Recoverable oil percentage in heartwood varies anywhere from 2% to 7% (www.newcrops.uq.edu.au).

Recoverable oil percentage is linked to the efficiency of extraction technique, the age of the tree, its
growing environment and, seemingly, to the individual plants genetic composition.

There is an international (ISO) standard for sandalwood oil and with increasing illegal harvest and the
product being diluted with lower value oils, the importance of the ISO standard for the measurement
of minimum free alcohols (one unit of product quality) has increased.

Reports in the literature from the mid-1990s were that ‘spike’ disease might be a greater long term
threat to Indian sandal supply than even poaching.

Supply Chain and Product Uses

Sandal heartwood is purchased by ‘powder men’ direct from Indian Government auctions. Powder
men on-sell powdered sandalwood to producers who distil the oil. Sandalwood oil is then traded
worldwide in liquid form via import-export agents. Normally quantities sold vary from 1 kg lots up to
200 kg lots. The oil is usually contained within aluminium flasks.

Only heartwood is powdered and distilled to produce oil. Sapwood is typically used in ornamental
carving, altars, furniture, or incense/agarbhatti industries. The sandalwood nut or fruiting body is
eaten as ‘bush tucker’ in some cultures and sandalwood is also used in the manufacture of chewing
tobacco in Asia and India. Spent heartwood powder is manufactured into joss/incense sticks after the
oil is extracted.

Sandalwood oil is widely used in religious ceremonies, medicines and perfume manufacture.
Muslims, Hindus, Buddhists and Parsis sanction sandalwood oil use in religious ceremonies. In the
perfume industry, sandalwood oil is used as both a fixature (for other fragrances) and a base. Prestige
perfumes that make use of sandalwood oil include Yves St Laurent, Chanel, Calvin Klein and
Christian Dior.

4
Additional interest in sandalwood oil has been linked to aromatherapy and the growth in consumption
of natural products.

France, the Middle East and the USA are the world’s largest sandalwood import markets. China is
increasing consumption in line with its increased prosperity. India is the world’s largest consumer
(agrof.net).

Alternatives
Santalum spicatum, a Western Australian native, and other Santalum spp from as far away as the West
Indies are considered to be lesser alternatives to Indian sandalwood. For example, sandalwood
sourced from Sri Lanka sold for $US160/kg in 2000 when Indian oil was selling for $US294/kg. See
Table 1 below.

Table 1 USA Import Prices and Volumes, 2000 ($US/kg for oil)
Country Volume (kg) Value ($US) $US/kg
India 2,296 674,064 293.58
Indonesia 3,650 885,562 242.62
Sri Lanka 25 4,018 160.72
Source: USDA data, FOB value country of origin

None of the natural alternatives to Indian sandalwood oil appear to be abundant or in a position to
‘flood the market’ with low cost product. The consensus in the literature is that there are few sandal
trees left in the Indonesian archipelago and recently discovered supplies in PNG and the South Pacific
are being harvested immature and squandered (www.american.edu.org). Hawaii, Haiti, South East
Asian and East Asian supplies are all limited.

Synthetic sandalwood oil was developed in the 1970s causing a ten-year period of steep decline in
Indian sandalwood prices. Synthetic sandalwood oil has similar properties to natural oil and
dominates low cost uses i.e. cheaper end perfumes and cosmetics.

Indian oil prices are sustained on the basis of the products ‘naturalness’, history and mystique.
However, the availability of alternatives, first world concerns about the sustainability/environmental
impact of harvest and the need to secure consistent supplies, in volume and of a suitable quality, will
cap the product’s ultimate price.

Wild Source Supply and Reserves

S. album oil production and consumption estimates 1990, 2004 and 2005 assembled from a variety of
sources are shown in the table below. The data should be interpreted with caution. The data does not
include product sourced illegally and consumed in India. For example an estimated 75% of the
sandalwood leaving the Indian state of Karnataka is estimated to be smuggled and the volume of
illegal production is believed to be four times legal estimates.

Furthermore, the estimates were prepared from heartwood harvest tonnages assuming a relatively
generous oil recovery rate of 6% (estimate supplied by www.American.edu.org). Some heartwood
harvested will yield less than 6%.

5
Table 2 Estimated S. album Supply and Demand Balance (kg of oil)
1990 2004 2005
Production – S. album
India – Tamil Nadu 60,000 75,000 125,000
India – Other 60,000 75,000 75,000
Indonesia 15,000 10,000 10,000
Other 5,000 10,000 10,000
Sub-total 140,000 170,000 220,000
Consumption – S. album
India 60,000 75,000 90,000
France 30,000 35,000 35,000
Saudi Arabia 20,000 30,000 35,000
USA 10,000 15,000 15,000
Other 20,000 15,000 45,000
Total 140,000 170,000 220,000
Source: AgEconPlus analysis and Tamil Nadu Statistical Handbook 2005

The government of Tamil Nadu, India is the world’s single largest supplier of legal S. album
heartwood from which sandalwood oil is extracted. The 2005 Government of Tamil Nadu Department
of Economics and Statistics, Statistical Handbook shows an increase in supply from 2004 to 2005. It
is not known whether this is a permanent increase in supply or a temporary response to increased
sandalwood price and the pressure to harvest wild stocks before they are poached 1.

The Government of Tamil Nadu reported that average auction prices increased from $US22,300/tonne
in 2004 to $US38,800/tonne in 2005. Tim Coakley of Wescorp International reports in the Avon
Sandalwooder in 2006 that resistance to ongoing price increases is being recorded in India and prices
have declined from recent peaks. Time series price data for S. album is reported in Table 3.

Table 3 Sandalwood Auction Prices Tamil Nadu (heartwood $US/t average)

Year Advisor Edge Investment Government of
Research (2005) Tamil Nadu
1995 10,000
1996 10,000
1997 11,000
1998 12,000
1999 15,000
2000 16,000
2001 17,000
2002 18,000 14,000
2003 20,000 22,500
2004 35,000 22,300
2005 58,000 38,800
Source: Advisor Edge Investment Research and Government of Tamil Nadu Statistical Hand Book various
additions

1
One report (Croakley in the Avon Sandalwooder, 2006) indicates that the spike in volume may be associated
with government disposal of material ceased from Indian poachers.

6
Factors working against further dramatic increases in the price of S. album include:
• The availability of low cost synthetic sandalwood oil;
• Limited and uncertain supply with high and rising prices relative to other perfume fixatures
and bases. Limited and uncertain supply with high and rising prices will cause perfume
manufacturers to seek out and commit to sandalwood alternatives when planning new prestige
product lines;
• First world concerns about the environmental responsibility and sustainability of harvest of
wild sandalwood supplies in India and other parts of Asia may limit the product’s future
appeal to some prestige perfume producers;
• The availability of Santalum spp worldwide. Lesser alternatives to S. album are available
from as far away as the West Indies. Hawaii, South East Asia and East Asia also have limited
supplies of S. album and alternative Santalum spp species. The consensus in the literature is
that none of these countries has the capacity to flood the world sandalwood market. However,
the presence of supplies of a high priced easily recovered commodity in mostly poor countries
provides a strong economic incentive for harvest and supply wherever possible; and
• The development of plantations. Plantations have been planned in India since at least the mid
1980s. However, disease and chronic poaching of immature trees appears to have limited their
success. Plantations in Australia of both S. album and S. spicatum are meeting with more
success.

Plantation Production
World S. album Plantation Situation

No accurate data on the area of S album plantation or its maturation date is available. The following
comments gleaned from the literature provide some insight:
‘In Indonesia, a 15 year programme of planting 30,000 ha of sandalwood was scheduled to
start in 1990 through Perum Perhutani (HTIs), the Forestry Service, and social forestry
programmes (Monk, de Fretes and Reksodiharjo-Lilley, 1997). Cultivation of sandal in India
has had limited success’ (United Nations Environment Programme www.unep-wcmc.org).

‘Of the traditional areas in Southeast Asia where sandalwood is found, only India has made a
strong effort to create plantations’
(Cindy Ramanathan, The Indian Sandalwood Trade www.american.edu/TED/sandalwd.htm).

In the south of India, in its natural zone of occurrence, sandalwood has been affected by spike
disease and other insect pests. In these areas large tracts of plantations have been wiped out
due to this disease. In the north no such disease has been found till date. Farmers of
Himachal Pradesh, Punjab, Uttar Pradesh and Uttaranchal can earn good money from
sandalwood farming (Vipan Guleria, Rakesh Mandraria and KS Verma, India Tribune 12
January 2004).

The Government of Tamil Nadu’s state owned Forestry Corporation establishes and manages
eucalyptus, cashew, nelli, teak and casuarina plantations along with a large-scale sandalwood distillery
producing up to 20,000 kg of oil per annum from wild sourced sandal. The corporation actively seeks
new plantation crops and is expanding its area under management. It is not planting sandalwood due
to a combination of agronomic (spike disease) and security (poaching) concerns.

Plantation production of sandalwood is a priority for India. Agronomic constraints and theft are
holding back plantation production.

Australia appears to be the world leader in S. album plantation establishment.

7
Australian S. album Plantation Situation

S. album was first grown experimentally in the Ord River Irrigation Area, Kununurra WA in 1983.
Results were sufficiently encouraging for a fulltime research officer to be appointed by the WA
government in 1992. The first private sector commercial plantations of S. album were established in
Kununurra in 1999.

The WA FPC estimates that the area of commercial S. album plantation in Kununurra is increasing at
an annual rate of 300 to 400 ha pa (pers comm. September 2005). Production in other parts of
Australia including Carnarvon WA, South Australia and NSW, remains at the large scale trial level.

Growth in Kununurra sandalwood plantations has been driven by corporate investment and three
separate MIS entities dominate Ord River planting. Table 4 summarises available information on
current and forecast S. album plantation area. Table 4 data was sourced from relevant company web
sites detailing planned S. album investments. Where possible this data was checked with company
representatives. With this said, the data should be treated as an approximate.

Table 4 Approximate Australian S. album Plantation Area – Historic and Forecast (ha)
1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008
F F F
Kununurra WA 50 150 300 500 700 930 1315 1695 2045 2545
Other 0 0 50 75 100 200 220 240 260 300
Industry Total 50 150 350 575 800 1130 1535 1935 2305 2845
Source: AgEconPlus using published and unpublished data
F = forecast and is based on reported company intentions June 2006

At 30 June 2006 the industry was forecast to be approaching 2,000 ha of S. album plantation. This
area was forecast to increase by almost 50% to 2,845 ha by 2008.

Plantation Oil Yield Trial Results

The following oil yield trial results are reported in Brand, Kimber and Streatfield (2006) and
summarised in an FPC WA Media Release of 27 March 2006.

Preliminary results of oil samples taken from young FPC S. album trees indicate that the FPC
plantation is producing good quality oil but in small amounts. The FPC indicate that the results are
encouraging as the trees, which come from the first S. album plantation on the Ord River Irrigation
Area Kununurra, WA were aged only 14 years. The FPC Media Release states that in December 2004
twenty trees were sampled for total oil yield and santalol content. ‘Chips’ (heartwood only) and
‘cores’ (heartwood plus sapwood) were taken from each sandalwood stem at 30 cm and 100 cm from
the base and were analysed using solvent extraction (FPC Media Release 27 March 2006).

The trees contained approximately 34% heartwood at 30 cm, and 29% heartwood at 100 cm. The
mean total extractable oil yields were 2.9-3.4% from chips and 1.8-2% from cores. These total
readings are approximately half that obtained from mature trees aged over 50 years growing in India,
which have an average oil yield of 5-7% (FPC Media Release 27 March 2006).

The heartwood oil contained 44.7%-46.7% α-santalol and 20.8-22.2% β-santalol. These santalol
levels meet the current ISO standards for S. album oil, which are 41-55% α-santalol and 16-24% β-
santalol. This implies that although the oil yield was low, the quality of the oil would meet
sandalwood oil requirements (FPC Media Release 27 March 2006).

Oil yields were highly valuable between trees, with some as high as 7.1%, while three trees had less
than 0.3%. These trees were all growing under the same conditions, which indicate that there could be
some genetic control that could be exploited. Until this is better understood, future plantings at

8
Kununurra should aim to use seeds or progeny from known superior oil producing parent trees (FPC
Media Release 27 March 2006).

These results from core samples provide evidence that the young S. album plantations at Kununurra
are producing oil. However, whole trees need to be harvested and the amount of heartwood and oil
content measured to estimate the value of the plantations (FPC Media Release 27 March 2006).

Forecast Plantation Production

From the above information and discussions with FPC anticipated per hectare oil yields were prepared.
Estimates were based on assumptions given the absence of empirical data. Naturally estimates should
be interpreted with considerable caution.

Preliminary results from trial FPC plantations indicate that heartwood and sapwood yields might be in
the order of 20 t/ha and 30 t/ha and that these yields will be available after 15 to 20 years. A rough
estimate of per hectare oil production from Kununurra might be:
• One third of total oil yield will be heartwood i.e. 8 t/ha 2;
• Estimated oil yield will be 3% (higher than achieved for wild harvest S spicatum but less than
realised for 50-year-old Indian S. album trees);
• Therefore per hectare oil yield will be approximately 240 kg.

From the plantation age and area information provided in Table 4 the following national S. album
plantation harvest estimates can be made.

Table 5 Approximate Australian S. album Annual Plantation Production

Year Established Area Established (ha) Year of Harvest Harvest Volume
(kg of oil)
1999 50 2014 12,000
2000 100 2015 24,000
2001 200 2016 48,000
2002 225 2017 54,000
2003 225 2018 54,000
2004 330 2019 79,200
2005 405 2020 97,200
2006 400 2021 96,000
2007 370 2022 88,800
2008 540 2023 129,600
Source: AgEconPlus analysis

Table 5 shows:
• The first commercial harvest of Australian plantation S. album is forecast to occur in 2014.
• By 2023 Australian plantation S. album production (129,600 kg) will account for 60% of
current world S. album production (220,000 kg).

2
Vernes and Robinson 2002 using data contained in Managed Investment Scheme commercial
prospectuses estimated yield as high as 14.95 t/ha after 15 years.
9
Industry Outlook
On the basis of the above analysis the following conclusions on industry outlook for Indian
sandalwood (S. album) are drawn:
• Wild source supply and reserves – constrained but no hard evidence of immediate exhaustion;
• Demand – robust demand for a prestige product whose buyers have capacity to pay.
Ultimately price increases linked to robust demand will be capped by the presence of natural
and synthetic alternatives, the need for assured supplies and concerns about the environmental
impact of Indian wild harvest;
• Price – current price hikes reflect supply constraints but further upward pressure on price is
likely to result in substitution of other products for Indian sandalwood oil; and
• Plantation production – dominated by Australian plantings in Kununurra WA. Plantation
production will double Australian sandalwood output (currently confined to S spicatum) by
2014 and account for 60% of current world supply by 2023.

10
4. Western Australian Sandalwood (S.
spicatum) Situation Assessment
Source and Product Uses
West Australian sandalwood oil is obtained from the heartwood of S. spicatum, an indigenous species
that covers a large proportion of the western half of the Australian continent.

S. spicatum oil has application in the perfume, incense and complementary medicines markets. It
would also appear to have some potential as a bactericide (Jones 2004). Significant volumes of S.
spicatum oil are purchased by the tobacco industry in India for flavouring chewing tobacco (Jones pers
comm.). The nuts from WA sandalwood are similar to macadamia nuts and offer the potential for a
saleable product earlier in the tree’s life, defraying the cost of long lead times in plantation harvest
(information sourced from the Avon Sandalwooder 2006).

WA sandalwood oil cannot be used as a direct substitute for Indian sandalwood oil and has its own
unique characteristics. WA sandalwood oil has always traded at a price discount on international
markets.

Supply Chain and Reserves

Like Indian sandalwood, WA sandalwood has historically been a wild-sourced product. The WA
government maintains strict control on WA sandalwood harvest. The FPC of WA manages the harvest
process and an annual quota of 2,000 tonnes pa is released. At least half this 2,000 tonne quota must
be deadwood, which is unsuitable for oil extraction. Mount Romance Australia, a WA based oil
extraction and marketing company, has an annual quota entitlement of 550 tonnes of heartwood ‘chip’.
Mount Romance Australia’s supply is secured by contract with the FPC of WA through to 2016.

The WA wild harvest of S. spicatum is understood to be sustainable at current levels and the WA
government has no plans to increase wild harvest quota. There are limited stands of S spicatum on
private land and there is only one other minor source of oil, originating from a private operation, in
WA. There are no known overseas growers of S. spicatum (Jones 2004).

Total production of West Australian sandalwood oil is approximately 12 t/yr (Jones 2004).

Table 6 Estimated S. Santalum Supply/Demand Balance (kg of oil)

2005
Production
Australia – Mt Romance 11,000
Australia – Other wild 1,000
Australia – Plantations 0
Overseas 0
Total 12,000
Consumption
Australia 9,000
Overseas 3,000
Total 12,000
Source: various published sources and project consultation

Most S. spicatum oil is consumed in Australia, and Mount Romance Australia is the dominant
producer of S. spicatum oil from the WA FPC harvest.
Mount Romance Australia indicate that the demand for WA sandalwood oil is very strong with a small
percentage of their output being directed into their own retail products, slightly more going directly to

11
India and most product going directly to luxury perfume manufacturers – the highest paying market
for sandalwood oil. R&D is understood to have addressed concerns from perfume houses about the
unfavourably high levels of some chemicals in S. spicatum.

WA sandalwood delivered to overseas markets achieves prices that range from $10,000/t for
heartwood to $3,000/t for sapwood 3. WA sandalwood prices are less than one third of prices achieved
for S. album. On the domestic market suppliers can receive between $A4,500/t and $5,500/t for S.
spicatum heartwood delivered to the buyer (Jones 2004).

WA sandalwood oil sells for $A350/kg to $700/kg, depending on the grade of oil. There has been
some upward movement in WA sandalwood oil prices over time as domestic ‘value added’ uses for
the product and overseas perfume sales have been achieved.

Alternatives
Trials are underway in Queensland, Northern Territory and WA to investigate the potential of other
Santalum species. In addition a number of small research trials and feasibility studies are underway in
the eastern states of Australia testing other native species. Some show fragrance/fixative potential. At
this stage none threatens the commercial dominance of WA sandalwood (S. spicatum).

Plantation Production
Since 1987, the FPC and its predecessor, the Department of Conservation and Land Management have
established S. spicatum plantations on farmland in the wheat belt of WA with an aim of supplementing
the harvest of natural stands with plantation timber. The FPC has successfully established S. spicatum
plantations mainly in the medium annual rainfall (400-600 mm) regions (south-western WA), but some
trial sites have also been successfully established in lower rainfall areas.

A low rainfall requirement makes S. spicatum an ideal plantation timber for large areas of cleared land
in the wheat belt, which are too dry to support other plantation timbers (Brand, Jones and Donovan
2004).

Plantation Area

FPC establishes WA sandalwood plantations in share farming agreements with private landholders.
Between 1999 and 2003, the FPC planted 50-150 ha of S. spicatum each year (Brand, Jones and
Donovan 2004). In 2005 and 2006 the FPC’s target was for 150 ha of new S. spicatum plantation
increasing to 300 ha in 2007. The FPC aims to maintain plantation establishment at around 300 ha pa.

In addition to FPC’s shareholder agreements there are a number of private individuals establishing S.
spicatum plantations in WA on a small scale and corporates with both private investment funds and
managed investment schemes planting Western Australian sandalwood.

A single managed investment scheme is the largest investor in S. spicatum plantations. Its most recent
sandalwood project offering was for 4,000 woodlots of 0.5 ha each and this offering builds on the
company’s current management of 2,700 ha of Australian sandalwood plantation.

S. spicatum is also suitable for plantation production in other parts of Australia, including southern
South Australia and the tablelands of NSW and Queensland. The total area outside WA was estimated
by this study at less than 200 ha in 2006.

Total current and forecast S. spicatum plantation area is shown in Table 7.

3
Jones (pers comm.) notes that these 2004 prices are now low against 2006 estimates.

12
Table 7 Approximate. S. spicatum Plantation Area – Historical and Forecast (ha)
1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008
F F F
FPC Share Farming Agreements 200 300 400 500 600 700 750 850 1150 1450
Private Landholder Plantations 50 60 65 70 75 80 85 90 95 100
Corporates incl. MIS companies 400 1000 1500 2000 2400 2800 3200 4200 5200 5500
Industry Total 650 1360 1965 2570 3075 3580 4035 5140 6445 7050
Source: AgEconPlus analysis
F = forecast and is based on reported intentions

There was an estimated 5,000 ha of S. spicatum in plantation at 30 June 2006.

Trial Results and Anticipated Per hectare Oil Yield

Trials to date indicate that 4-5 t of sandalwood can be produced per hectare over a 20-year period
(Brand et al 2004) 4 and while it is possible to harvest as early as 15 years the commercial returns are
significantly reduced. The market places early harvest product into lower price grades (Jones 2001).

The yield of oil from Western Australian sandalwood grown in plantation is forecast to be similar to
wild sourced product i.e. one tonne of Western Australian sandalwood averages 2% by weight. A
rough estimate of per hectare oil production from plantation grown S. spicatum might be:
• Saleable heartwood of 4.5 t/ha;
• Estimated oil yield of 2%;
• Therefore per hectare oil yield will be approximately 90 kg.

Production from S. spicatum Plantations

From the plantation age and area information provided in Table 7 and the above yield information, the
following S. spicatum plantation harvest estimates can be made. The estimates are at best
approximations.

Table 8 Approximate S. spicatum Annual Plantation Production

Year Established Area Established (ha) Year of Harvest Harvest Volume
(kg)
1999 650 2019 58,500
2000 710 2020 63,900
2001 605 2021 54,450
2002 605 2022 54,450
2003 505 2023 45,450
2004 505 2024 45,450
2005 455 2025 40,950
2006 1105 2026 99,450
2007 1305 2027 117,450
2008 605 2028 54,450
Source: AgEconPlus analysis

4
Geoff Woodall in the Avon Sandalwooder 2005 suggests yields of 3t of merchantable sandalwood per hectare
after 20 years may be optimistic in lower rainfall areas.

13
Table 8 shows:
• Plantation production will be in full swing by 2019 when Australian S. spicatum plantations
will yield almost 60,000 kg of oil. This is equivalent to around one quarter of current world
sandalwood production.
• Production will peak in the years 2026 and 2027 when the largest MIS company plantation is
eligible for harvest.

The simplistic analysis presented in Table 8 makes no allowance for holdover of stock to manage the
supply of S. spicatum entering the market place.

Industry Outlook
On the basis of the above analysis the following conclusions on industry outlook for WA sandalwood
(S. spicatum) are drawn:
• Wild source supply and reserves – sustainable at current levels;
• Demand – dependent on Australian marketing capacity. The strength of commitment by
luxury perfume houses to the product is the major determinant of its outlook;
• Price – sustainable at current levels at least until large areas of plantation grown product are
eligible for harvest from 2019;
• Plantation production – dominated by Australian managed investment scheme plantings in the
wheat belt of WA. Plantation production will potentially increase supply from 12,000 kg of
oil in 2006 to 60,000 kg of oil by 2019.

14
5. Research Needs
The sandalwood research needs analysis was completed for both S. album and S. spicatum. Research
needs were informed by a review of the research literature and industry consultation.

Research History and Trends

Key sources used to identify sandalwood research literature were the:
1. RIRDC’s Plant Extracts and Essential Oils Program project database;
2. Sandalwood Research Newsletter; and
3. Project consultation.

RIRDC Investment

To date RIRDC has funded only one sandalwood industry project, the project was:

‘Efficient sourcing and fractionation of sesquiterpenoid alcohols from Australian sandalwood’

The project was completed in 2003. The project was to address the impact of provenance on both oil
yield and fractionation. The report delivered most strongly on fractionation. Key findings were:

RIRDC and the Essential Oils and Plant Extracts R&D Committee have been reluctant to fund
sandalwood oil R&D in the past given concerns that long maturation times for both S. album and S
spicatum plantations would mean that industry development could not be accomplished as an
economic proposition. The wild sourced S. Spicatum industry was supply limited and effectively fully
mature. This current project was commissioned by RIRDC, in part, to review this paradigm.

Sandalwood Research Newsletter

The absence of RIRDC investment in sandalwood research in no way applies that the field has been
vacant.

The Sandalwood Research Newsletter (SRN), a web based periodical for the communication of
research, development and extension related to the genus Santalum, has been active since 1993. The
SRN publishes findings from both Australian and international research and is serviced from the
School of Tropical Biology at the James Cook University. The aim of the SRN is to increase public
awareness of the natural source of sandalwood products and the need for genus conservation and
plantation establishment. The SRN notes that increasing scientific awareness through the international
Santalum species literature can:
1. Promote Santalum species conservation;
2. Stimulate Santalum species plantation establishment;
3. Increase research and development linkages between interested organisations; and
4. Increase Santalum species literature exposure.

A catalogue of research publications listed in the twenty-one issues of the SRN prepared since its
commencement in 1993 is provided in Appendix 1. The catalogue excludes research publications
targeting Santalum acuminatum, the quandong. The quandong is primarily grown as a fruit and was
considered to be outside the essential oils focus of this project.

15
From Appendix 1 it can be seen that from the 56 projects identified in the SRN:
• 30 have been concerned with Australian research priorities while the balance have been
publications originating from overseas research projects, principally in India, East Timor and
the Pacific;
• 18 projects have focussed on S. album, 4 have focussed on S. spicatum and the balance are
either directed at other Santalum species (found in Queensland, the Pacific or Asia) or have
been of a general nature (eg the convening of a workshop on Santalum species);
• Research can be broadly classified into Stage 1, Stage 2 or Stage 3 investigations, with Stage 1
being concerned with pure research for the generation of knowledge, Stage 2 being concerned
with outcomes that can be implemented and Stage 3 being associated with communication of
those outcomes to potential adopters. Review of SRN projects indicates half the projects
reported in the SRN have been applied/Stage 2 research, 16 have been pure/Stage 1 research
and the balance have been concerned with extension.

The dominance of Australian, S. album projects that are stage 2/Development oriented implies an
increasingly commercial industry.

Analysis of Appendix 1 data using DAFF research classification criteria and RIRDC Essential Oils
and Plant Extracts Program KPIs is summarised in Table 9.

Table 9 Projects Reported in the Sandalwood Research Newsletter 1993 to 2006

Classification No of Projects Share of Total
Projects
Plant physiology and genetics 13 23%
Production - industry competitiveness 24 43%
Production – sustainability 5 9%
Processing - extraction efficiency 0 0%
Distribution, storage and transport 0 0%
Markets, supply forecasting 2 4%
Communication, technology transfer 11 20%
Industry Training and Development 1 2%
Total 56 100%
Source: SRN website and AgEconPlus analysis

From the table it can be seen that 66% of projects have been concerned with understanding Santalum
physiology and genetics and ‘what makes sandalwood grow’. For an industry with a short history of
plantation production this would seem to be an entirely appropriate research priority.

Analysis of projects reported in the SRN was provided to industry stakeholders as part of a research
priority setting survey. Survey results are reported in the Consultation Findings section below.

16
Other Sandalwood Research

In addition to RIRDC research and literature documented through the SRN, the Centre of Excellence
in Resource Management, University of Western Australia has produced the following research
reports:
• Pate JS, Woodall GS. Jeschke WD and Stewart GR. (1994) Root xylem transport of amino
acids in the root hemi parasitic shrub Olax phyllanthi and its multiple hosts. Plant Cell and
Environment 17 1263-1273.
• Woodall GS and Robinson CJ 2002 Same day plantation establishment of the root hemi
parasite sandalwood (Santalum spicatum (R. Br.) A.DC: Santalaceae) and hosts. Journal of
the Royal Society of Western Australia 85:37-42
• Woodall GS and Robinson CJ 2002 Direct seeding Acacias of different form and function as
hosts for Sandalwood (Santalum spicatum (R. Br.) A. DC). Conservation Science Western
Australia 4 (3)
• Woodall GS and Robinson CJ 2003 The natural diversity of Santalum spicatum host species in
south coast river systems and their incorporation into profitable biodiverse revegetation.
Australian Journal of Botany 51, 1-13
• Woodall GS 2004 Cracking the endocarp of Santalum spicatum nuts by wetting and rapid
drying improves germination. Australian Journal of Botany 52:163-169.

These research reports have not been incorporated into Table 9 or the stakeholder survey. Their
presence was revealed by the survey.

Historical Research Compendiums

Also revealed by the survey were two historical research compendiums. Conservation and Land
Management (CALM), WA and the Australian Sandalwood Company commissioned Joe Havel to
prepare a comprehensive review of sandalwood research, which was completed in 1993. In addition
O.W. Loneragan completed a Historical Review of Sandalwood Research in WA in 1990, published
by CALM (Research Bulletin N0.4).

Consultation Findings
A sandalwood research priority-setting questionnaire was prepared and distributed to known industry
stakeholders who were asked to complete the survey and nominate any additional relevant
stakeholders. Stakeholders identified included:
• The RIRDC Essential Oils and Plant Extract R&D Steering Committee;
• Commercial plantation growers, small scale growers and sandalwood oil processing and
marketing businesses; and
• Researchers, industry consultants and Government agencies.

In total eighteen complete data sets were collected and these data sets covered most known Australian
S. album and S. spicatum production.

17
Stakeholders were asked about:
• The species they were most comfortable addressing;
• The appropriateness of current sandalwood industry R&D funding levels;
• Who were the major investors in R&D in this sector;
• The role for RIRDC in sandalwood R&D;
• Which species was deserving of the greater share of R&D investment;
• Their perspective on the single greatest research breakthrough for the industry;
• The single greatest constraint to the industry;
• The least adequately covered research area; and
• Their priorities for future research.

Results are summarised in the text below.

Species Most Comfortable Addressing

Responses were relatively evenly split with:

• 10 stakeholders indicating they were most comfortable addressing S spicatum; and
• 8 Stakeholders indicating they were comfortable addressing either S. album or both species.

The Appropriateness of Current Sandalwood R&D Funding Levels

All but one respondent indicated the need for additional sandalwood R&D.

Major Investors in Sandalwood R&D

The WA Government was identified as the single greatest investor in both the S. spicatum and S.
album R&D. The private sector, especially the large managed investment firms and universities were
also noted for their contributions.

Comments included:
• Large scale managed investment scheme operators are preparing to invest heavily in industry
R&D. Evidence of this preparedness is already being seen in WA.
• The significant changes in Indian sandalwood silviculture have been driven by the managed
investment scheme industry. The WA Government is currently decreasing their expenditure
on R&D in this area.
• Private enterprise investment is OK but information is needed which can be shared amongst
the general community. Currently, in WA, State Government investment is through a
government trading enterprise and not all research originating from this body is made
available to landholders wishing to invest in sandalwood production.
• The WA Government has recently become a major plantation investor but has a clear conflict
of interest. A large proportion of the S. spicatum R&D has been funded through the state
government but the results are not freely available to the public.
• Private enterprise, WA Government and the universities have all contributed and are needed to
contribute in the future.
• In WA the state government is investing in R&D. However much of the R&D is covered by
intellectual property agreements and not freely available to investors.

18
Greater Role for RIRDC Warranted

Positive comments on a greater role for RIRDC included:

• Australia will be the major international supplier of sandalwood – both S. spicatum and S.
album by 2012, making this a significant Australian rural industry. It is time for RIRDC to
take a more active role in this industry.
• Producers of S. album face the difficult task of entering a fragmented industry previously
dominated by India. Indian sandalwood (S album) has never been harvested or processed in
Australia and support to develop industry specific technology is essential.
• Australian Indian Sandalwood may need assistance with market development similar to that
offered by RIRDC to other essential oils to stimulate the limited domestic demand and
constrained western market for Indian Sandalwood oil.
• Identification of markets and product development is critical eg uses for deadwood and
sandalwood nuts.
• Sandalwood is a diversification option for farmers but there is a strictly limited supply of
information available to farmers outside the work undertaken by the Avon Sandalwood
Network and the Centre for Excellence in NRM at the University of WA.
• Yes, better late than never. RIRDC can play an important role through the provision of funds
but needs to fund research that potentially benefits all players, not just a government agency
or a single private company.
• A valuable role for RIRDC would be funding workshops and communication processes in
addition to research projects.
• Currently there is no government research initiative. The industry lacks direction in oil yields
and growth rates. There is a good resource of old trees at Kununurra. The old CALM data
could be expunged from the archives and reassessed for papers, etc. Despite the level of
research investment over a decade or more, the amount of public information is poor.
• More specific R&D is required on the chemical aspects of sandalwood production.
• Yes, market development work is needed.
• Coordinate and assist research into nut oil and uses/properties, growth rates, oil quality under
irrigation.
• To date there has been no breeding focus in respect to the oily nut and little if any
consideration for the nuts as a viable crop.
• Yes, the current level of R&D is inadequate given the growth of this industry and its
potential.

A single negative comment was received on the question of a greater role for RIRDC:
• Due to the slow growth (maturation in 35-40 years) any R&D is a very long and low
returning process.

Recent changes in the nature of the sandalwood enterprise i.e. the establishment of large scale
plantations, use of the crop as a diversification option in the wheat belt and the potential of more rapid
income generation from earlier maturing irrigated production and nut harvest suggest a role for
RIRDC’s Essential Oils and Plant Extracts program in the future.

19
Priority Species

Nine stakeholders indicated that S spicatum was the priority species for research, two stakeholders
indicated S. album while seven stakeholders believed both species warranted priority attention. One
stakeholder indicated that an additional species, S. lanceolatum should also receive research priority.

Comments received included:

• Australian sandalwood requires greater investment as it is one of the few viable tree cropping
options for low rainfall farmers in the wheat belt.
• A well-developed WA sandalwood (S. spicatum) industry can deliver many more
environmental and social benefits than the S. album industry offers. There are more gaps in
our knowledge of S. spicatum. I estimate that there has been about ten times more investment
in S. album R&D than in S. spicatum, yet over 5,000ha of S. spicatum have been established.
• Spicatum is a dryland crop yielding nuts after 4 years. S. album is a much longer risky crop
to grow. Spicatum is suited to a much larger acreage of land.
• Spicatum plantation development will deliver triple bottom line outcomes for rural Australia,
and address a range of NRM issues, mainly salinity/water quality and biodiversity. Also it
will provide a risk management and drought proofing for current dryland agricultural
systems.
• Both species warrant additional research. There is a worldwide shortage in sandalwood oil
and the projects need to be long term because of the decades of delay needed between
planting and harvest.
• Both species require investment. The two species are likely to end up in different markets so
should be viewed differently.
• Both, plantations are developing rapidly for both species in WA. End use of products requires
investigation.
• The Northern Sandalwood (S. lanceolatum) has the potential to be planted across the dry
tropics of Australia (Qld, NT and WA) and with recent discoveries of forms with exceptional
oil quality and yield there needs to be some investment into developing a plantation industry
on this species and hybrids.

Comments tend to favour the further development of the plantation S. spicatum industry.

Single Greatest Research Breakthrough

Consultation findings on the single greatest research breakthrough are presented separately for S.
album and S. spicatum.

Single greatest S. album research breakthrough comments included:

• Work on the rate of heartwood synthesis.
• Understanding factors and mechanisms that limit growth – it’s not all genetics!
• Reducing the time required between planting out and harvest for plantations.
• Successful nursery propagation techniques for S. album.
• Cracking nursery protocols for seedling production.
• Genetics that give good tree form and good oil yield and quality.

S. album breakthroughs concentrate on faster production and higher oil yields.

20
Single greatest S. spicatum research breakthrough comments included:
• New product development.
• Knowing with confidence that a high quality product can be produced without irrigation in
less than 20 years.
• Understanding factors and mechanisms that limit growth – it’s not all genetics!
• It is likely that multiple products can be developed from the large nut of S. spicatum – this
area requires urgent attention.
• Reducing the time required between planting out and harvest for plantations.
• Identifying the link between mid-weight range mammal grazing and S. spicatum natural
regeneration
• Genetics that give good tree form and good oil yield and quality.
• Sustainable native harvest practices.
• Development of suitable genetic material through breeding programs to enable productive
broad-scale plantation development.
• Nut oil and its uses
• Single greatest research breakthrough will occur when research places more importance on
the nut industry over timber production.
• Solid markets and product development for the nut.

S. spicatum breakthroughs also highlight faster production and higher oil yields. In addition they
target the importance of product and market development, especially in relation to the S. spicatum nut.

Single Greatest Constraint

Single greatest S. album constraint:

• Synthetic sandalwood oil is the greatest threat.
• Unreal expectations – total production, heartwood yield, quality and unreal price
expectations.
• The time required between planting out and harvest for plantations.
• Federal and state agencies attempting to increase revenues through exploitation of intellectual
property.
• Market opacity.
• The long rotation period due to delayed heartwood production.
• Poor yielding trees
• Inadequate scientific training of staff involved in sandalwood oil production

To some extent constraints are a corollary of research breakthroughs and highlight the length of time
between plantation establishment and harvest.

21
Single greatest S. spicatum constraint:
• Supply of good quality wood in the medium term.
• Untapped markets and product opportunities yet to be realised. Underdeveloped nut industry,
as the wood has such a long rotation (10 to 20 years) if the nut industry was viable adoption
would speed ahead.
• Inappropriate plantation design leading to plantation failure at year 10-15. Poor
understanding about constraints on growth and appropriate hosts in different regions of
Australia.
• The time required between planting out and harvest for plantations.
• Federal and state agencies attempting to increase revenues through exploitation of intellectual
property.
• Market opacity.
• The long rotation period due to delayed heartwood production.
• Poor yielding trees.
• Lack of investment, poor understanding by government and agricultural industry of how
rising oil prices will drive production of low input food crops.
• Inadequate scientific training of staff involved in sandalwood oil production.
• Land purchases by WA government that result in further restrictions on harvesting.
• Escalating land prices inhibiting profitable plantation development.
• Lack of history of commercial production.
• Current production of timber is a 20-year rotation – too long need the nut market in short-
medium term to increase private investment.
• Failure by government to invest in the development of S. spicatum – risk management in
agricultural development and research.

Once again constraints are similar for S. album and S. spicatum in relation to length of time between
plantation establishment and harvest. The importance of appropriate plantation design is also
highlighted.

Least Adequately Researched Area

Least adequately researched area for S. album:

• Markets.
• Value adding opportunities and products.
• Chemical analysis of oil.
• The physiological process of oil creation in heartwood.
• The physiological process of heartwood development and methods of heartwood oil induction
in young trees.
• Genetics and the chemistry of sandalwood oils with respect to their extraction and
marketability.
• The true value of album plantation wood upon reaching harvest – will there still be a market

Markets and genetics dominate S. album research gaps.

22
Least adequately researched area for S. spicatum:
• Value adding opportunities.
• Value added products.
• Markets.
• Extraction of oil from nuts.
• Chemical analysis of oil.
• Processing with respect to chemical quality.
• The physiological process of oil creation in heartwood.
• The physiological process of heartwood development and methods of heartwood oil induction
in young trees.
• Genetics and the chemistry of sandalwood oils with respect to their extraction and
marketability.
• Lack of knowledge in processing, extraction, distribution, storage and transport.
• Markets for nuts, seeds.
• Nut oil and its uses/application.
• Nut genetics – size, yields, nutritional analyses and opportunities/constraints arising from
these analyses.
• Nut production and market development.
• Value of nuts – oil, food source, medical, etc

The market potential of nuts dominates S. spicatum research gaps.

Research Priorities
S. album research priorities identified through consultation are summarised in Figure 1.

Figure 1 Indian Sandalwood (S. album) Research Priorities

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Pr

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Source: AgEconPlus industry consultation

Highest priorities for S. album research relate to the processing of Indian sandalwood oil,
understanding plant physiology and genetics to maximise oil production and minimise maturation
times, markets, communication and industry development and training.

23
S Spicatum research priorities are shown in Figure 2.
Figure 2 Western Australian Sandalwood (S. spicatum) Research Priorities

8
7
6
5
4
3
2
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Source: AgEconPlus industry consultation

Highest priorities for S. spicatum research relate to market research, processing, plant physiology and
genetics and sustainability.

6. Study Conclusions and

Recommendations
The Australian sandalwood industry is set to dominate world supply of sandalwood oil. Substantial
gaps in the industry’s knowledge in relation to processing, plant physiology, markets, sustainability
and industry development remain. There is a role for RIRDC in the provision of public good research
that fills the gap between industry need and non-proprietary research interests. The findings from this
report should inform future priorities in the Essential Oils and Plant Extracts sub-program.

24
7. References
Adviser Edge Investment Research (2005) ITC Sandalwood Project 2005 Independent Assessment

Avon Sandalwood Newsletter, ‘The Avon Sandalwooder’ various editions.

Brand JE, Jones P and Donovan O (2004) Current Growth Rates and Predicted Yields of Sandalwood
(Santalum Spicatum) Grown in Plantation in South-Western Australia. Sandalwood Research
Newsletter 19, 4-7

Brand J, Kimber P and Streatfield J (2006) Preliminary Analysis of Indian Sandalwood (Santalum
Album) Oil from a 14-year-old Plantation at Kununurra, Western Australia. Sandalwood
Research Newsletter 21.

Forest Products Commission WA Media Release (27 March 2006) Preliminary Oil Results from a 14-
year-old Indian Sandalwood (S. Album) Plantation at Kununurra, WA

Forest Products Commission WA Media Release (16 May 2006) First Indian Sandalwood Plantations
Established in Carnarvon.

Government of Tamil Nadu (2005) Department of Economics and Statistics, Statistical Hand Book
2004

Jones, P. (2004) Sandalwood Oil (The West Australian Sandalwood) in RIRDC, The New Crop
Industries Handbook.

Jones, P (2001) Sandalwood Re-visited in Western Australia

Rewards Group (undated) The Australian Sandalwood Story

RIRDC (2000) Thirty Australian Champions, Shaping the future for rural Australia, edited by Keith
Hyde

RIRDC (2006) RIRDC Annual Operating Plan 2006-2007

Sandalwood Research News – various ed. (www.jcu.edu.au/school/tropbiol/srn/index.html)

Southwell, I. (2004) Tea Tree Oil in RIRDC, The New Crop Industries Handbook.

The Australian Newspaper 7 June 2006 TFS Exploits Sandalwood Dollars and Scents

The West Australian 31 May 2006 Sandalwood Wafts Scent of Success Over Ord

Vernes T and Robson K (2002) Indian sandalwood industry in Australia. Sandalwood Research
Newsletter 16, 1-4

25
Web Pages Visited
www.plantcultures.org.uk/plants/sandalwood_production__trade.html

www.american.edu/projects/mandala/TED/sandalwd.htm

www.agroforestry.net/tti/Santalum(Haw-sandalwood).pdf

www.agricultureinformation.com/indiaroom/html/forestry.html

www.fao.org/documents/show_cdr.asp?url_file=/docrep/x5326e/x5326e0d.htm

www.fao.org/documents/show_cdr.asp?url_file=/docrep/V5350E/V5350e00.htm

www.tn.gov.in /misc/tnataglance.htm#FORESTS%20200102

www.indiatogether.org/2005/may/env-sandal.htm

www.fas.usda.gov/htp/tropical/2001/03-01/esndimp.pdf

www.newcrops.uq.edu.au/newslett/ncnl2-54.htm

www.treecrop.com.au/files/documents/27_AdviserEdgeITCSandalwoodProject2005Print.pdf

www.rewardsgroup.com.au/cms/rg/pages/products/40-SandalwoodProject5Supp

www.jcu.edu.au/school/tropbiol/srn/index.html

26
Key Contacts
Contact Person Organisation/Industry Role Contact Details/Reason
Roslyn Prinsley RIRDC General Manager New (02) 6272 5227
Industries - Essential Oils and [email protected]
Plant Extracts
Tony Byrne Plant Extracts and Essential Oils, (02) 6272 4819
RIRDC (former) [email protected]
Peter Jones Renew Environmental Services, (08) 9729 2290
Industry Consultant, WA [email protected]
Tim Oakley Wescorp – industry analysis (08) 9434 3318
[email protected]
Grant Pronk Forest Products Commission, WA (08) 9729 2888
Ben Sawyer [email protected]
Jon Brand Forest Products Commission, WA (08) 9475 8885
0429 109 002
[email protected]
Tony Page Sandalwood Research Network, (07) 4042 1673
JCU, School of Tropical Biology [email protected]
Andrew Brown Mount Romance Australia, (08) 9841 7788
Sandalwood Oil Producers [email protected]
Andrew Rado Rewards Group, WA (08) 9324 1155
[email protected]
Mike Hendriks Integrated Tree Cropping (08) 9483 0200
Tony Price [email protected]
Andy Wright [email protected]
Carl Richardson
Danae Christensen Tropical Forest Services Limited (08) 9221 9466
Tom Cullity [email protected]
Eric Lassak Essential Oil Producers Australia (02) 9875 1894
(secretary) and researcher Fax: (02) 9875 11791
Victor Fuchs Manufacturer of Essential Oils (02) 9456 3870
(retired)
Ian Southwell Essential Oil Producers Australia (02) 6624 2453
[email protected]
Richard Davis G R Davis (manufacturer of (02) 9627 4537
Sybil Davis essential oils but not sandalwood) [email protected]

Tim Emmott Avon Sandalwood Network, WA (08) 9621 2400

Lisa Grosskopf [email protected]
Geoff Woodall Centre for Excellence in Resource (08) 98928427
Management, University of [email protected]
Western Australia

27
Appendix 1: Research Completed
Sandalwood Research News Publications 1993 to 2006
Year Sandalwood Research Newsletter Publication

2006 Preliminary analysis of Indian sandalwood oil from a 14-year-old plantation at Kununurra, WA
Evaluation of heartwood and oil characters in 9 populations of S austrocaledonicum from Vanuatu
Grafting of sandalwood in Vanuatu
Molecular and morphological phylogeny of sandalwoods: Insights for biogeography and taxonomy

2005 Variation in heartwood oil composition of young sandalwood trees in the south Pacific
Indian sandalwood: Genetic and oil diversity, biochemistry of the Australian germplasm collection

2004 Santalum insulare (Bertero ex A. DC.): Distribution and ecology

Current growth rates and predicted yields of S. spicatum grown in plantation in south-western Aust
Sandalwood growers network gains momentum

2003 Growth performance of sandal (Santalum album L.) with different host species
Relationship between girth and percentage of oil in trees of S album provenances
Hopping into a bright future - The woylie sandalwood story
Genetic diversity between sandal populations of different provenances in India
Edaphic, environmental and genetic factors associated with growth and adaptability of S. album in
provenances

2002 Indian sandalwood industry in Australia

Competitive effects within and between Santalum album and pot host Alternanthera dentata
A note on peroxidase reagents to distinguish between high and low yielders of sandal (Santalum album) in
the field
Somatic embryo irregularities in in vitro cloning of sandal
Techniques to improve sandalwood (Santalum spicatum) regeneration at Shark Bay, Western Australia
Sandalwood work in SPRIG

2001 Clonality in remnant populations of Santalum lanceolatum

Longitudinal variation in the yield and composition of sandalwood oil from Santalum spicatum
Mass cloning of Santalum album L. through somatic embryogenesis: scale up in bioreactor
Current sandalwood seed source in Timor island
Preliminary results from Santalum macgregorii ex situ conservation planting
Sandalwood re-visited in Western Australia
East Timor (Timor Timur) sandalwood plantation development: a feasibility study
An overview of Santalum album research in Sri Lanka
Queensland sandalwood (Santalum lanceolatum): Regeneration following harvesting

2000 Status and current interest in sandalwood in Fiji

Can sandalwood in East Nusa Tenggara survive? Lessons from the policy impact on resource sustainability
Testing growth and survival of four sandalwood species in Queensland
Sandalwood work on 'Eua, Kingdom of Tonga
Santalum album in the Top End, Northern Territory, Australia
The influence of pot host species seedling age and supplementary nursery nutrition on S. album plantation
est, WA

28
Year Sandalwood Research Newsletter Publication
1999 Sandalwood (Santalum spicatum (R.Br.) A. Dc.) excavation study
Somatic embryogenesis in Santalum album L
Santalum macgregorii F. v. Muller in Papua New Guinea

1998 Nutrition studies on young sandalwood seedlings in the absence of hosts

Sandalwood work in the South Pacific Regional Initiative on Forest Genetic Resources Project

1997 Direct somatic embryogenesis from mature embryos of sandalwood

Workshop on sandalwood in Papua New Guinea

1996 Santalum lanceolatum in Queensland

Santalum austrocaledonicum seed germination study
Forthcoming roving sandalwood workshop

1995 Sandalwood - Scope for commercial propagation on community lands in India

Sandalwood Workshop, 1-11 August 1994, Noumea, New Caledonia

1994 The effect of host plants on the growth of sandalwood seedlings (Santalum album Linn.)
Selection of sandalwood (Santalum album) candidate plus trees in Timor Tengah Selatan district
The need for increased Santalum species research collaboration for germplasm conservation
Genotypic variation in Santalum album
Germplasm conservation of sandalwood
Determining heartwood oil content within Santalum album and S. spicatum

1993 Self and cross pollination in Santalum spicatum and S. album

Determining heartwood formation within Santalum album and S. spicatum
Introduction and overview of Santalum research in Kununurra

Source: www.jcu.edu.au/school/tropbiol/srn/index.html

29