What is ecosystem?

 Biological community of interacting organisms and their physical

environment.
 Ecology – the scientific study of the interaction of living organisms with
other organisms and with the physical environment

8.1 The Abiotic and Biotic Component of the

Environment
The abiotic component
The non-living components such as
1. pH value – soil and water
2. Light intensity – as source of energy
3. Temperature
4. Humidity – amount of water vapour present in the air
5. Topography – physical features of land (altitude, gradient and aspect of
region)
6. Microclimate – climate in a microhabitat

The biotic component

The living organisms in the environment such as
1. Producers – synthesise organic substances (plants)
2. Consumers – eat other organisms (primary consumer, secondary consumer,
tertiary consumer)
3. Decomposers – microorganisms that break down waste products and dead
bodies
(bacteria and fungi)

Food chain, food web and trophic levels

1. Food chain - sequence of organisms through which energy is transferred.
2. Each stage - trophic level
1. Food web – food chain interconnected.
2. Energy flows through food web and lost when it transferred from one level
to another level of the trophic levels in the form of heat
The interaction between biotic component in relation to feeding
Organisms interact with one another in various ways such as
1. Symbiosis
2. Saprophytism
3. Prey-predator
 Symbiosis
Close relationship between two or more different species which live closely
together and interact with each other.
1. Commensalism
2. Mutualism
3. Parasitism

 Commensalism
1. One species (the commensal) benefits, the other (the host) don’t get
benefits nor is harmed
2. E.g. epiphytes grows on branches of trees

 Mutualism
1. Relationship between two species of organisms in which both benefit
2. E.g. bacteria in the digestive system of human

 Parasitism
1. Relationship between two organisms in which one organism (the
parasites) benefits from the other organism (the host)
2. Two types:
 Ectoparasites – live on the surface of the host (e.g. ticks and fleas)
 Endoparasites – live inside the body of the host (e.g. tapeworms)

 Prey-predator
1. Relationship where an organism which is smaller, called the prey, is
hunted and eaten by a stronger animal, the predator.
2. E.g. an owl (predator) and a rat (prey)
3. The interaction takes place in a cycle that keeps the populations of both
organisms in a dynamic equilibrium

The interaction between biotic component in relation to

competition
  Competition – interaction between organisms living together in a habitat and
competing for the same resources that are limited supply
 Two types:
1. Intraspecific – competition between the same species
2. Interspecific – competition between different species

8.2 Colonisation and Succession in an Ecosystem

Ecosystem
 A community of organisms which interact with their non-living environment &
function as unit.
 Species – a group of organisms that have similar characterisitics, share the
same roles in an ecosystem and are capable of interbreeding.
 Population – a group of organisms of same species living in the same habitat at
the same
time.
 Community – several different species living in the same habitat in an
ecosystem.
Niche – role of an organism in ecosystem.

Colonisation and succession

 Colonisation takes place in a newly formed areas where no life previously
existed
The first organism occupy a newly formed area are called pioneer species.
 Characteristics:
1.Hardy plant that have dense root system (grass)
2.Short life-cycle
 Second species came after the pioneer species are the successor species.
 Characteristics:
1. .Bigger than pioneer species (herbs)
2. .Have small wind-dispersal seeds (to spread and grow rapidly)

 Third and permanent species are the dominant species (shrub).

 Modify the environment for larger trees to grow.
 Succession – the gradual process through which one community changes its
environment to be replaced by another community
 Climax community – ecological succession leads to relatively stable community
(equilibrium with its environment)

8.3 Population Ecology

 A branch of ecology that studies the structure and dynamics of population.
 Population density – number of organism per unit area of habitat
Affected by abiotic and biotic factors, birth rate, death rate, immigration and
emigration.
 Direct counting – method to estimate the size and density of population (impractical
due to the size of ecosystem, the number of plants involved and the movement of the
animal).
 Sampling technique – more practical way, enable us to estimate the total population
size of the organism.

The quadrat sampling technique

 Used in estimating the size of plant population and immobile animal.
 A quadrat – metal, wooden frame or PVC pipe frame which form a square of a known
area (1 m2).
 Placed randomly in an ecosystem where sampling is carried out.
 Frequency – number of times a particular species is found present when a quadrat is
thrown a certain number of time
 Density – the mean number of individuals of species per unit area
 Percentage coverage – an indication of how much the area of quadrat is occupied by a
species

The capture, mark, release and recapture technique

 Used to estimate mobile animals (small mammals, butterflies, birds and insects)
 Procedure:
1. Animal sample is captured
2. Marked
3. Released
4. Second sample captured & number of marked animal recorded.
8.4 Biodiversity
What is meant by biodiversity…
 The diverse species of plants and animal interacting with one another on Earth.
 Need to be classified because there are many organisms in this world.

Classification of Organisms

 Taxonomy – branch of Biology concerned with identifying, describing and naming

organisms.
 Systematic method of classifying plants and animal based on the similarities in their
characteristics.

 Organisms can be classified into 5 major kingdom:

1. Monera / Prokaryotae
2. Protista
3. Fungi
4. Plantae
5. Animalia

The hierarchy in the classification of organisms

 7 hierarchy levels
1. Kingdom
2. Phylum
3. Class
4. Order
5. Family
6. Genus
7. Species
 The number of organisms at each levels decreases
 Naming of organisms is based on Linnaeus binomial system.
 Each organism has two names in Latin – first name is the name of genus (begins with
capital letter) & second name is the name of species (begins with small letter)
 E.g. Mimosa pudica – Mimosa refers to the genus and pudica refers to the species.
 Specific names are written in italic or underline.
 E.g. Mimosa pudica or Mimosa pudica

The importance of biodiversity

 Provide various biological products – food, medicine, timber, etc.
 Provide many environmental services – nutrient cycle, pollination, etc.
 Give diversity in the genetic pool.

8.5 The impact of Microorganisms on Life

Microorganism

 Tiny living things that only can be seen using microscope

 Classified based on their characteristics (appearance, shape, size, method of
reproduction, nutrition and habitat)
 Classified into 5 groups:
1. Viruses – smallest microorganisms, not a living cell and must use living cells to
reproduce. (E.g. HIV, Influenza virus etc.)
2. Bacteria – unicellular organisms, have cell wall, form spores under unfavourable
condition and have 3 common shape à spherical, rod-shaped and spiral. (E.g.
Lactobacillus sp., Straphyloccous sp. etc.)
3. Protozoa – unicellular organism, have plasma membrane and can carry out living
processes. (E.g. Amoeba sp., Paramecium sp. etc.)
4. Algae – have chlorophyl and chloroplast, can undergoes photosynthesis process.
(E.g. Spirogyra sp.)
5. Fungi – heterotrophic microorganisms, feeds by secreting enzymes that
break down the
surrounding organic material into simple molecule before absorb them.
(E.g. Mucor sp.,
 yeast etc.)

The role of useful microorganisms in the ecosystem

Decomposition The nitrogen cycle

Roles of
microorganisms in
ecosystem

Digesting animal’s Digesting human’s

food food

The harmful microorganisms

 Microorganisms that cause diseases are called pathogens
 Pathogens are classified as parasites or saprophytes
 They cause diseases in two ways:
1. Produce poisonous chemical
2. Attack and destroy host cells and body tissues

Transmission of diseases
1. Air
2. Water
3. Food
4. Vectors
5. Direct Contact
6. Indirect Contact
 Endangered Ecosystem

9.1 Human Activities that Endangered an Ecosystem

Pollution
 Pollution - Any undesirable change in the natural environment caused by pollutant.
 Pollutant – substance that cause pollution
 Pollution – being make dirty
 Types of environmental pollution:
1. Air pollution
2. Water pollution
3. Soil pollution
4. Pollution caused by solid waste and hazardous (dangerous) waste
5. Noise pollution

Air pollution
 Air pollution is responsible for major health effects.  Every year, the health of
countless people is ruined or endangered by air pollution.

 Many different chemicals in the air affect the human body in negative ways. 
Just how sick people will get depends on what chemicals they are exposed to,
in what concentrations, and for how long.

 Studies have estimated that the number of people killed annually in the US
alone could be over 50,000.

 Older people are highly vulnerable to diseases induced by air pollution. 

Those with heart or lung disorders are under additional risk.  Children and
infants are also at serious risk.

 Because people are exposed to so many potentially dangerous pollutants, it is

often hard to know exactly which pollutants are responsible for causing
sickness.  Also, because a mixture of different pollutants can intensify
sickness, it is often difficult to isolate those pollutants that are at fault.

 Many diseases could be caused by air pollution without their becoming

apparent for a long time.  Diseases such as bronchitis, lung cancer, and heart
disease may all eventually appear in people exposed to air pollution.
  Air pollutants such as ozone, nitrogen oxides, and sulfur dioxide also have
harmful effects on natural ecosystems.  They can kill plants and trees by
destroying their leaves, and can kill animals, especially fish in highly polluted
rivers.

Water pollution
 Boston Harbor is a strong example of how badly pollution can damage
bodies of water.  The water is filled with toxic waste and sewage, and
routinely receives more waste when rainfall pushes it into the harbor.

 Many bodies of water near urban areas are highly polluted.  This is the result
of both garbage dumped by individuals and dangerous chemicals legally or
illegally dumped by industries.

 The main problem caused by water pollution is that it kills life that inhabits
water-based ecosystems.  Dead fish, birds, dolphins, and many other animals
often wind up on beaches, killed by pollutants in their habitat.

 Pollution disrupts the natural food chain as well.  Pollutants such as lead and
cadmium are eaten by tiny animals.  Later, these animals are consumed by
fish and shellfish, and the food chain continues to be disrupted at all higher
levels.

 Eventually, humans are affected by this process as well.  People can get
diseases such as hepatitis by eating seafood that has been poisoned.

 Ecosystems can be severely changed or destroyed by water pollution.  Many

areas are now being affected by careless human pollution, and this pollution
is coming back to hurt humans.

Soil pollution
 Not enough oxygen in the soil,
 acidy soils that may burn the plant,
 bugs will go and start an infestation in the soil,
 it effects plants growth,
 the soil pollution eats away at the nutrients and becomes
 a bigger soil polluter,
 not enough drainage,
 new soil diseases develop every year,
 not enough moisture in the soil.

Dynamic Ecosystem
Noise Pollution

 Noise pollution disturbs our health and behavior in a number of ways including
deafness causing lack of sleep, irritability, indigestion, heartburn, high blood
pressure, ulcers, and heart disease. Just one noise explosion from a passing truck
drastically alters our endocrinal, neurological, and cardiovascular functions in
many individuals. If this is prolonged or frequent, the physiological disturbances
become chronic and contribute to mental illness.

 Sometimes, even low levels of noise are irritating and can be frustrating, and high
volumes can be annoying. Natural sounds are less irritating than those we find
uncontrollable but intermittent sounds such as a tap dripping water can be more
irritating than the sound of falling rain.

 Noise more than 50dB can be very difficult to hear and interpret and cause
problems such as partial deafness.

 Increased noise levels gives rise to a lack of concentration and accuracy at work,
and reduce one’s productivity and performance. Difficult tasks can be impaired,
and instructions or warnings difficult to be heard and interpreted, causing
accidents.

The Greenhouse Effects and the Thinning of the Ozone Layer

Greenhouse effect.
 Occur when greenhouse gases accumulates in the atmosphere to form a layer of
gases
 Greenhouse gases – carbon dioxide, chlorofluorocarbon, nitrogen oxides, methane
and water vapour
  The layer of gases trap the Sun’s heat around the world

Ozone layer
 located in the atmosphere.
 consist of ozone molecules which made up of three oxygen atom (O3).
 act as protective shield that absorb the Sun’s harmful UV radiation
Thinning of ozone layer
 Main cause - chlorofluorocarbon (CFC)
 CFC – man made gases used as refrigerant (substance that make things cold or
freeze) and propellants (compressed gas that forces out the content of an aerosol
container)
 CFC when exposed to UV radiation will release chlorine atom which can break
down ozone molecules in chain reaction causing the ozone layer become thinner.

The Importance of Proper Management of Development Activities and

the Ecosystem
The need for development and the effects of an increasing population on
the ecosystem

 The increasing in population cause the increase in development.

 Development interfere the balance in nature.
 Unplanned and unmanaged development cause environmental problems.
 Proper management of development activities are important

The importance of proper management of development activities

 Natural resource are non-renewable means once they have been used they cannot
be replaced.
 They need to be manage in proper ways to maintain balance in nature.
 Uncontrolled use of the natural resources will cause them to be used up.
The importance of proper management of development activities
 Carry out sustainable development to balance the demands and the needs for
resources with the need to conserve the resources.

Measures taken in the management of development activities

1. Implementation of laws
2. Use of technology
3. Education on the management of resources
4. Preservation and conservation activities
5. The practice of biological control