Argillaceous Rock Atlas

Neal R. O'Brien Roger M. Slatt

Argillaceous
Rock Atlas
With 242 Illustrations, 46 in Full Color

Springer-Verlag
New York Berlin Heidelberg
London Paris Tokyo Hong Kong
NEAL R. O'BRIEN
Geology Department
Potsdam College
State University of New York
Potsdam, NY 13676-2294, USA

ROGER M. SLATT
ARCO Oil and Gas Company
Research and Technical Services
2300 West Plano Parkway
Plano, TX 75075, USA

On the/ront cover: Bituminous shale formation with pyrite framboid (Upper Lias, Jurassic), p. 32.
Frontispiece: Representation of clay flakes.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

O'Brien, N. R. (Neal R.)
Argillaceous rock atlas / N.R. O'Brien, R.M. Slatt.
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references (p. ).
1. Shale-Atlases. I. Slatt, Roger M. II. Title.
QE471.15.S5024 1990 90-9739
552'.5-dc20 CIP

Printed on acid-free paper

© 1990 Springer-Verlag New York Inc.
Softcover reprint of the hardcover 1st edition 1990

All rights reserved. This work may not be translated or copied in whole or in part without the written permission of the publisher (Springer-Verlag New York, Inc., 175 Fifth
Avenue, New York, NY 10010, USA), except for brief excerpts in connection with reviews or scholarly analysis. Use in connection with any form of information storage and
retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed is forbidden.
The use of general descriptive names, trade names, trademarks, etc" in this publication, even if the former are not especially identified, is not to be taken as a sign that such
names, as understood by the Trade Marks and Merchandise Marks Act, may accordingly be used freely by anyone.

Camera-ready copy provided by the authors.

9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

ISBN -13: 978-1-4612-8005-7 e- ISBN -13 :978-1-4612-3422-7

DOl: 10.1007/978-1-4612-3422-7
Neal dedicates this Atlas to his father, Raymond, and wife,
Kathy. Roger dedicates the Atlas to his parents Earl and
Helen, for supporting his early interest and education in
geology, and to his wife, Linda, and sons, Thomas and
Andrew, for their love, patience, and understanding during the
long course of this research.
 PREFACE
In 1980, the book Sedimentology of Shale, Study Guide and Reference Source We wish to thank the many people and organizations who made this book
(potter et aI., 1980) was published to provide a source book for information possible. R. W. Dalrymple and J. J. Renton assisted in preparation of the x-
and ideas on a class of rocks that was very poorly studied and understood. The radiographs. SEM facilities were provided by E. Matijevic of Clarkson
authors noted that even though shales comprise 60% of the stratigraphic University. Selected samples were obtained from C. W. Atkinson, M. R.
column, they are often taken for granted and considered the "interbedded Rosen, M. H. Scheihing, J. T. Senftle, J. D. Reed, S. S. Demecs, F. E.
matrix" between lithologies of greater economic significance or interest. The Cole, R. M. Coveney, P. J. DeMaris, J. D. Gray, P. H. Heckel, J. W.
authors also noted the importance of shales as sources of oil, gas, and heavy Hosterman, M. R. House, S. D. Hovorka, Illinois State Geological Survey,
metals in addition to their holding the key to much of earth's history. They Indiana Geological Survey - Department of Natural Resources, Iowa
acknowledged that the book was unusual in that, rather than summarizing and Geological Survey, W. T. Kirchgasser, Ohio Geological Survey, D. Patchen,
evaluating the results of years of study of the subject, it was largely devoted to D. W. Reif, Salt Repository Project Office - U. S. Department of Energy, N.
identifying problems in the study of shale and emphasizing areas for expanded R. Shaffer, R. J. Spencer, J. P. M. Syvitski, E. G. Wermund, ARCO
research. Research & Technical Services, and the many undergraduate members of the
Potsdam College Shale Research Team. M. R. House, R. Young, and W. T.
A major reason for the lack of understanding of argillaceous rocks is difficulty Kirchgasser assisted in field work and R. Peppers, A. Traverse, D. W. Powers
in analysis. Non-routine methods are required to identify small textural and provided valuable advice about sample identification. J. T. Senftle provided
structural features that can normally be observed with the naked eye or hand valuable assistance in interpreting geochemical data and in reviewing the
lense in coarser-grained rocks. In our book, we have attempted to overcome chapter on hydrocarbon source rocks and oil shales. Neal R. O'Brien is
this obstacle by demonstrating an approach to the systematic analysis of grateful for financial assistance from the Donors of the Petroleum Research
argillaceous rocks. We show that this approach provides a framework for Fund, administered by the American Chemical Society, the National Science
interpreting depositional and post-depositional geological processes and Foundation (grant EAR-8611608), and the Potsdam College Mini-grant
environments. As such, it goes an important step beyond the 1980 source program. Roger M. Slatt thanks ARCO Oil and Gas Co. for permission to
book (potter et al., 1980) and fills a gap in our understanding of argillaceous publish this book. K. L. Bianchi, J. M. Richardson and V. Marks expertly
rocks. and patiently typed several manuscript drafts and L. G. Slatt compiled and
organized the photographs.
The chapters are arranged as follows. First we have listed important terms and
classification schemes. Then we explain a systematic analytical approach
which combines x-radiography, thin-section petrography, and scanning
electron microscopy. Much of the remainder of the book is devoted to case
studies which illustrate the utility of the techniques and features identified in
determining sedimentary processes and environments of deposition. We also
present a chapter on the physical conversion of mud to shale. A chapter on
fabrics of hydrocarbon source rocks and oil shales and the possible role of
fabrics on primary hydrocarbon migration is also presented. Fabric
information is supplemented by mineralogical and geochemical data
throughout the book, and is also summarized in a single chapter. Finally, we
provide some conclusions, point out new questions that have arisen in the
course of our studies, and list ideas for future research.

The goal of this book is to provide a visual frame of reference of fabrics to aid
geologists in the interpretation and understanding of argillaceous rocks, and to
demonstrate that considerable information on sedimentary processes and
environments can be interpreted through their systematic and careful analysis.

vii
 CONTENTS
PREFACE VII

CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION 1
Definitions 2
Argillaceous Rock Classifications 3
Stratification and Parting Description 4
Examples Seen in Outcrop 4
Classification of Very Fine-Grained Sedimentary Rocks 5
Textural Classification of Fine-Grained Sediments and Rocks 6

CHAPTER 2 FABRIC ANALYSIS TECHNIQUES 7

X-radiography 8
Petrography 8
Scanning Electron Microscopy 9

ix
CHAPTER 3 X-RADIOGRAPHY, PETROGRAPHY AND SCANNING ELECTRON
MICROSCOPY DESCRIPTIONS 11

X-radiography Classification of Argillaceous Rock Macrofabric 12

Well developed lamination 12
Indistinct lamination 12
Bioturbation 12
Suggested environmental significance of macrofabric x-radiography
data 14
Petrographic Classification of Black Shales 16
Black shale - lamination types 16
Finely laminated 16
Thickly laminated 16
Wavy laminated 16
Lenticular laminated 16
Various petrographic features of shale - bioturbation 22
Petrographic features of shale - miscellaneous 23
Scanning Electron Microscopy Descriptions 24
Preferred particle orientation in shale 24
Random particle orientation in mudstone 26
Fabric variations in organic rich shales 28
Microfabric types of organic rich shales 28

x
 Shallow Marine Shelf Facies 72
Wilcox Group (Lower Eocene) 72
Kuparuk River Formation (Lower Cretaceous) 76
Delta Complex Facies 78
Argillaceous Units of the Ferron Sandstone Member (Mancos
Formation, Cretaceous) 78
Submarine Slope Facies 82
Mudstone Facies, Cozy Dell Formation (Middle Eocene) 82
Marine Turbidite Facies 84
Huron Shale Member (Ohio Shale Formation, Devonian) 84
Deep Marine Turbidite Facies 86
Pico Formation (Early Pliocene) 86
Marine Basinal Facies 88
Geneseo Shale Member (Genesee Formation, Devonian) 88

CHAPTER 7 FORMATION OF SHALE BY COMPACTION OF FLOCCULATED CLAY--A

MODEL 91

xiii
CHAPTER 4 MISCELLANEOUS FEATURES IN ARGILlACEOUS ROCKS 31
Pyrite Framboids 32
Fecal Pellets 34
Palynomorphs in Shales 36

CHAPTER 5 CASE STUDIES OF SPECIFIC DISTINCTIVE FEATURES 39

Well Developed Lamination in a Black Shale (Example I) 40
Bituminous Shale Formation (Upper Lias, Jurassic) 40
Well Developed Lamination in a Black Shale (Example II) 42
Jet Rock Shale Formation (Upper Lias, Jurassic) 42
Organic Variation in a Shale - Clues to the Cause of Lamination 44
Jet Rock Shale Formation (Upper Lias, Jurassic) 44
Laminated Shale from Bottom-Flowing Low Density Turbidity Currents 46
Sunbury Shale Formation (Mississippian) 46
Bioturbation 48
Huron Shale Member (Ohio Shale Formation, Devonian) 48
Bioturbation - Tiered Burrowing in Shale 50
Gray Shale Formation (Upper Lias, Jurassic) 50

Xl
 Significance of Vertical Fabric Variation in a Shale 52
Huron Shale Member (Ohio Shale Formation, Devonian) 52
A Journey to "Anoxia" - Reconstruction of an Event on the Devonian Sea

Floor 54
Huron Shale Member (Ohio Shale Formation, Devonian) 54

CHAPTER 6 CASE STUDIES OF FABRIC ANALYSIS IN EVALUATING SEDIMENTARY

PROCESSES AND ENVIRONMENTS 57

Marine Regressional Facies 58
Hushpuckney Shale Member (Swope Formation, Pennsylvanian) 58
Marine Transgressional Facies 60
Rhinestreet Member (West Falls Formation) and Cashaqua Member
(Sonyea Formation) (Devonian) 60
Floodplain-Paleosol Facies 62
Ivishak Sandstone (Triassic) 62
Evaporite Facies 64
Great Salt Lake (Pleistocene-Holocene), Bristol Dry Lake (Pliocene-
Holocene), Clear Fork Formation (Permian) 64
Tidal Flat Facies 66
Red Bed Members (Moenkopi Formation, Lower Triassic) 66

xii
CHAPTER 8 FABRICS OF SOME HYDROCARBON SOURCE ROCKS AND OIL
SHALES 97
Introduction 98
Marine Hydrocarbon Source Rock 100
Kimmeridge Clay (Jurassic) 100
Woodford Formation (Devonian-Mississippian) 104
Monterey Formation (Phosphatic Facies, Miocene) 106
Saline Lacustrine Hydrocarbon Source Rock 110
Green River Formation (Eocene) 110
Fresh-Brackish Lacustrine Hydrocarbon Source Rock 112
Rundle Oil Shale (Eocene-Oligocene) 112

CHAPTER 9 FABRIC OF GEOPRESSURED SHALE 115

Geopressured Shale Analysis 116
General Geology and Composition 116
Onshore Louisiana 116
High Island, Texas Offshore Area 117
South Padre Island, Texas Offshore Area 117
Description of Shale Fabric 117
Interpretation of Shale Fabrics 117

xiv
CHAPTER 10 COMPOSITION OF ARGILLACEOUS ROCKS 121

CHAPTER 11 CONCLUSIONS 129

REFERENCES 133

INDEX 139

xv
 CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
 DEFINITIONS

It is appropriate at the beginning to define our tenns since there is some disagreement or ambiguity concerning precise terminology applied to argillaceous rocks. In this
book the following definitions from Bates and Jackson (1987) Glossru:y of Geology are used:

ARGILLACEOUS "Pertaining to, largely composed of, or containing clay-size particles or clay minerals, such as an "argillaceous ore" in which the gangue is mainly
clay; esp., said of a sediment (such as marl) or a sedimentary rock (such as shale) containing an appreciable amount of clay .... "

CLAY "A rock or mineral fragment or a detrital particle of any composition (often a crystalline fragment of a clay mineral), smaller than a very fine silt
grain, having a diameter less than 1/256 mm (4 microns or 0.00016 in., or 8 phi units). This size is approximately the upper limit of size of
particle that can show colloidal properties .. composed primarily of clay-size or colloidal particles and characterized by high plasticity and by a
considerable content of clay minerals and subordinate amounts of finely divided quartz, decomposed feldspar, carbonates, ferruginous matter, and
other impurities .... "

FABRIC "[SED] The orientation (or lack of it) in space of the elements (discrete particle, crystals, cement) of which a sedimentary rock is composed."

FISSILITY "A general tenn for the property possessed by some rocks of splitting easily into thin layers along closely spaced, roughly planar, and
approximately parallel surfaces, such as bedding planes in shale or cleavage planes in schist; its presence distinguishes shale from mudstone .... "

LAMINA "[SED] The thinnest recognizable unit layer of original deposition in a sediment or sedimentary rock, differing from other layers in color,
composition, or particle size; specif. such a sedimentary layer less than 1 cm in thickness (commonly 0.05 - 1.00 mm thick) .... "

MUD "[SED] An unconsolidated sediment consisting of clay and/or silt, together with material of other dimensions (such as sand) mixed with water.... "

MUDROCK "A W. of mudstone."

MUDSTONE "An indurated mud having the texture and composition of shale, but lacking its fine lamination or fissility; a blocky or massive, fine-grained
sedimentary rock in which the proportions of clay and silt are approximately equal; a nonfissile mud shale."

SHALE "A fine-grained detrital sedimentary rock, formed by the consolidation (esp. by compression) of clay, silt, or mud. It is characterized by finely
laminated structure, which imparts a fissility approximately parallel to bedding .... "

SILT "[SED] A rock fragment or detrital particle smaller than a very fine sand grain and larger than coarse clay, having a diameter in the range of 1/256
mm to 1/16 mm (4-62 microns, or 0.00016 - 0.0025 in., or 8 to 4 phi units ... ) It varies considerably in composition but commonly has a high
content of clay minerals .... "

TEXTURE "[pETROLOGY] The general physical appearance or character of a rock, including the geometric aspect of, and the mutual relations among, its
component particles or crystals; e.g. the size, shape, and arrangement of the constituent elements of a sedimentary rock .... "

2
 ARGILLACEOUS ROCK CLASSIFICATIONS

Following are examples of the tenninology used in various argillaceous rock classifications. Notice that there is no agreement upon the use of terms - this is the current
state of classifications. In this book, we use the tenn mudstone or mudrock when referring to a non-fissile or non-laminated rock and the tenn shale for the argillaceous rock
exhibiting fissility or lamination. Potter et aI. (1980) presented a classification of partings for what they tenn mudrocks (Note: Their usage of this tenn differs from ours). This
classification and the appearance of these partings are also included below.

3
 EXAMPLES SEEN IN OUTCROP

STRATIFICATION AND PARTING DESCRIPTION

THICKNESS STRATlFI CATION PARTING COMPOSITION

30cm

THIN
0
3cm
Z
C SLABBY
c l-
w I-Z
VERY m zw
THIN wI-
I-Z
ZO
10mm 00
/OW
01-
THICK FLAGGY -«
Zz
«0
Smm C)m
a: a:
0«
MEDIUM Z PLATY cO
0
1= Zo
1mm « «Z
Z w«
THIN
:E FISSILE
zl-
«
...I
"'" 1--
en en
0...1
O.Smm > .
«0
..JZ
VERY 0«
PAPERY en
THIN

*After Potter et al., 1980

4
CLASSIFICATION OF VERY FINE-GRAINED SEDIMENTARY ROCKS
CLASSIFICATION OF MUDROCKS
VERY fINE·
ORAINEO ROCKS
IDEAL SIZE ASSILE NONFISSILE
FI ELD C RlTERIA MUD ROCK MUDROCK
DEANITION

ABUNDANT SILT
> 213 SILT VISIBLE WITH SILT· SHALE SILTSTONE
HAND LENS

.,. FEELS GRITTY

o > 113 <213 SILT
WHEN CHEWED
MUD-SHALE MUDSTONE

~~'
MUDSTONE
~dI'
~~ > 2/3 CLAY
FEELS SMOOTH
CLAY· SHALE CLAYSTONE
<o\..p WHEN CHEWED

From Lewan, 1979,

SILT-SIZE SAND-SIZE Geology, vol.6, p.745 ,Fig.l From Blatt, Middleton & Murray,
(5.62 {tm) (62 - 2000{tm) With permission of Origin of Sedimentary Rocks,2e,©1980,p.3B2. Adapted by
Geological Society of America. permission of Prentice·Hall,lnc., Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey.

SILT FRACTION PERCENTAGE

213 1/3 CLAY· SIZE 0·32 33 ·65 66 ·100
CONSTITUENTS
RELD ADJECTIVE GRITTY LOAMY FAT OR SUCK

NON - CLAY
MUDSTONE
LAMINATED STONE

'"cw GREATER
THAN
BEDDED
SILTSTONE
MUDSTONE CLAYSTONE
CD 10mm
INDURATED SILTSTONE C
UI
~
a:
~
c
CLAY ; UI
LAMINATED MUDSHALE SHALE « LESS
z THAN
LAMINATED MUDSHALE CLAYS HALE
~ SILTSTONE
10mm
:5

From Lundegard & Samuels,19BO MOdllled aller t'otter et al. (1980)

Journal of Sedimentary Petrology, voI.50,p.783,Fig.
With permission of SEPM (SOCiety for Sedimentary Geology).

5
 TEXTURAL CLASSIFICATION OF FINE - GRAINED
SEDIMENTS AND ROCKS

SEDIMENTARY ROCK CONTAINING MORE CLASSIFICATION OF FINE · GRAINED FRAGMENTAL. ROCKS & SEDIMENTS
THAN 50% SILT ANDIOR CLAY
CONSOllDATEO
NO CONNOTA· I,IPCONSOuOA no ROCK
TlONS AS TO FISSILE
AGGREGATI!
CENERAl
MASSIVE NONflSSllE FlSSllE
BREAKING CHAR· TERM
ACTERISTICS

NO CONNOTA· GENERAL MUD If WET. MUOROCK MUOSTON SHALE OR

TERM DUST I.F DRY OR lUTITE MUDSHAl.E
TIONS AS TO
RELATIVE MUDROCK MUDSTONE MUDS HALE
AMOUNTS OF
SILl' CLAY PARTICLES
MAINLY SILT SILTROCK SILTSTONE SILT SHALE
:to4 MtCRONS

SILT,. CLAY SILTROCK SILTSTONE SILTSHALE PARTICUS KAlNI.."

.
.. MICRONS,
NORM.A.llV CLAY CLAVROCK CLAYSTONE CLAY SHALE

r~~~ ~s
CLAY,. SILT CLAYROCK CLAYSTONE CLAYSHALE vEFI.'t WUKLY
W;ETAMORPHOSt;D - - ARGilLITE CLAY SLATE

From Ingram, 1953, From Dunbar & Roge rs, 1957,

Geological Society of Amenca Bulletin, vol 64,p 870,table 1 PrinCipals of Stratigraphy, p 166, table 10
With permission of Geological Society of Amenca. With permission of John Wtfey & Sons, Inc.

MUDROCK DIVISION BASED UPON TEXTURE AND STRUCTURE

GRAIN SIZE INDURATED, INDURATED,

OF MUD SOFT
FRACT10N NONFISSILE FISSILE

OVER 213 SILT SILT SILTSTONE SILT· SHALE

SUBEQUAL SILT MUD MUDSTONE MUD· SHALE

AND CLAY

OVER 213 CLAY CLAY CLAYSTONE CLAY· SHALE

Used with permission from Folk, 1965, From Picard , 1971

Petrology of Sedimentary Rocks, p 130. Journal of Sedimentary Petrology, vo141 , p 185, Fig 3
Used With permission of SEPM (Society for Sedimentary Geology).

6
 CHAPTER 2
FABRIC ANALYSIS TECHNIQUES
 Based upon our experience, we suggest studying the fabrics of argillaceous rocks by combining three techniques: x-radiography, petrography, and scanning electron
microscopy. Each provides useful information of macrofabrics revealed by radiography and thin-sections, and microfabrics revealed with the scanning electron microscope (SEM).
Thus, argillaceous rock fabric analysis is a three-step procedure.

Proper sample preparation is essential in any investigation. Listed below are suggestions for obtaining good samples for study. These techniques have been developed by
experimentation in the authors'laboratories and are based upon standard preparation techniques combined with suggestions provided by colleagues.

X-RADIOGRAPHY

X-radiography reveals internal fabric of rocks not easily seen by the unaided eye or under a light microscope. Anyone who has had their teeth x-rayed knows the value of this
technique in revealing internal structures. In argillaceous rock analysis, slabs of the sample are prepared to a thickness of 2-3mm. Thicker samples may be used, however, this
requires varying the radiation time and intensity. The other dimensions of the slab are not critical. The sample should be slabbed perpendicular to bedding or lamination (all of the
x-radiographs in this book are oriented in this manner). Some argillaceous rocks are difficult to slab to the correct thickness in a water lubricated diamond saw. Some shales split
along fissile planes and certain mudstones disintegrate, often into a clay slurry. This problem can be overcome by using a diamond saw with a kerosene-oillubricant or simply by
dry sawing (although this is a dusty process). To prevent the rock from fragmenting, it is advisable to coat it with a thin layer of standard epoxy resin which dries into a
waterproofing layer and holds the rock together after cutting. Often simply wrapping the rock tightly with plastic tape before cutting may prevent it from breaking apart during
sawing.

After a 2-3mm slab has been prepared, saw marks must be removed using either fine sandpaper or carborundum powder on a water wet glass plate or grinding wheel. Salad
or cooking oil may be substituted for water as a lubricant if the sample breaks apart during wet grinding. Finish the grinding with a 600 grade carborundum powder and observe the
sample under a light microscope for the presence of scratches, since they could appear on the final x-radiograph. The finished sample should be of uniform thickness, since a
wedge-shaped slab produces an uneven x-radiograph. We usually finish grinding with a 51J1Il aluminum oxide powder and polish with a polishing compound. The rock slab is then
placed on top of x-radiography film and exposed. Instrument settings, distance from source to film, and exposure time must be determined experimentally for the particular instru-
ment. The photos in this book were obtained with an x-radiography unit using a setting of 40 KV for approximately 5 minutes and a source to specimen distance of 60 cm.
Positive prints have been made from the x-radiograph negatives. All x-radiographs shown here are positive contact prints or positive enlargements.

More detailed information on x-radiography plus excellent photos may be found in the publications of Bouma (1960), Calvert and Veevers (1962), Clifton (1966), Cluff
(1980), Hamblin (1962), and Nuhfer et al. (1979).

PETROGRAPHY

There are some publications concerning the petrography of shales and other argillaceous rocks. Photomicrographs are found in the work of Cole and Picard (1975), Thiessen
(1925), and Folk (1962) and provide the reader with useful interpretations. Good color photomicrographs are found in Potter et al. (1980). Anyone who has tried to make a shale
or mudstone thin-section can appreciate why so few photomicrographs are in the literature. These thin-sections are simply difficult to make. We have developed a few techniques
in addition to the standard procedures which provide useable thin sections. Using a diamond saw, the sample is cut to obtain a surface perpendicular to bedding. Only small rock
pieces are needed to make a thin-section (a 4x4x2 cm sample is adequate). If you find the sample remains intact after wet sawing, this is fortunate and allows you to proceed to the
next step. Usually, a sample will split upon wet sawing. To prevent this, the sample should be coated with an epoxy resin, then cut with the wet diamond saw.

As mentioned in describing x-radiography techniques, mudstones often break easily, so these samples are usually shaped by dry cutting either with a diamond saw or a simple
hack saw (the latter is very tedious and requires patience - but it works).

After cutting, the rock slab is ground smooth and polished to remove saw marks. Usually grinding with abrasive (starting with grit size 220, then 400, then 600, and finally
5 micron) and water on a glass plate is sufficient. If the edges and top surface of a slab are coated with epoxy, the sample usually will not break apart during grinding and washing
with water. Since water often causes the sample to disintegrate during this stage, the epoxy coating is essential. A lightweight household cooking or salad oil can be used in place

8
of water as a lubricant. Dry grinding is possible by using abrasive papers of similar grit sizes. Finally, the rock is cleaned of all abrasive and polished with a 0.3 micron
compound.

After polishing, the slab is cemented onto a standard petrographic slide using epoxy resin. Care should be taken to prevent bubbles from getting into the epoxy during
mixing. The rock surface is coated and a slide placed over it. Bubbles are extruded by applying gentle pressure on the glass. This operation is best done by observing the sample
under a light microscope. The epoxy resin should be cured according to manufacturers instructions. At this stage we usually coat the exposed top and sides of the rock slab with a
thin epoxy layer to protect it from breaking during the next stages.

The sample is then cut down on a diamond slab saw or ground down by hand to about 1 mm. The final grinding procedure is similar to those previously described except
that the hardened epoxy around the edge of the rock wafer on the slide should be removed (a fine diamond coated disc in a dental drill is helpful here) because it is removed at a
slower rate than the rock itself during grinding, and slows down the grinding process. The sample should be checked periodically during grinding for proper thickness, recognized
when quartz gives first order white interference color (at 30 J.Ull thickness).

With patience and skill, a suitable thin-section for fabric analysis may be produced by this technique.

SCANNING ELECTRON MICROSCOPY

Microfabric is best observed using the scanning electron microscope (SEM). Observation of a macrofabric of a rock sample from an x-radiography photo and in thin-section
allows one to determine which specific areas to study in detail with the SEM. Only a small sample (0.5mm 3) is needed for SEM viewing; however, this is usually prepared from a
slightly bigger sample (e.g. 2-3 cm 2). First, a narrow groove is cut completely around the rock piece with a diamond coated thin grinding disc (see diagram). About 3 mm of
sample is left uncut. Then, carefully place the pliers on both pieces and break at the cut to produce a freshly fractured surface. There will be a fme dust on the surface which should
be blown free. This technique produces a fresh, unaltered surface. The sample is then shaped with the grinding disc and attached to an SEM stub, using a conducting (e.g. silver)
cement or mounting tape. The sample is then either coated in a vacuum evaporator or sputter coated with a thin layer of conductive metal such as gold (used in our work).
Typically, a thin line of silpaint is added by some investigators to provide an electrical ground from the sample to the stub. Applying the thin coat of conductive metal to the
sample allows a clearer image to be obtained. Uncoated samples are very difficult to view or photograph. After coating the sample is ready for viewing. We suggest that before
SEM viewing, the sample should be examined under a light microscope and a map made of various features on the small sample because it is easy to get lost when scanning at the
higher magnifications of an SEM. SEM photomicrographs in this book were taken with an ISI-40 (International Scientific Instruments, Inc. ) at 15 KV.

9
10
 CHAPTER 3
X-RADIOGRAPHY, PETROGRAPHY
AND SCANNING ELECTRON MICROSCOPY DESCRIPTIONS
X-RADIOGRAPHY CLASSIFICATION OF ARGILLACEOUS ROCK B. INDISTINCf LAMINATION
MACROFABRIC Characteristics: Bedding or lamination is still visible, but disrupted. Some laminae
continue across a sample and appear wispy. The macrofabric of this group results
This section reveals three distinctive macrofabric types shown in x-radiographs from slight disruption by bottom flowing currents and/or by bioturbation, but not as
of mudstones and shales. The classification is based upon the degree of development thorough as in the bioturbated macrofabric. Some burrows are visible.
of lamination. 1. CANTON SHALE MEMBER (Carbondale Formation, Middle Pennsylvanian)
GROUP Gallatin County, Illinois. Although bioturbated in its central part, remnant
DECREASING I A WELL DEVELOPED LAMINATION lamination is still visible at the top and bottom. Sample is a gray shale.
LAMINATION" B INDISTINCILYLAMINATED 2. CASHAQUA SHALE MEMBER (Sonyea Formation, Upper Devonian),
C BIOTURBATED Wyoming County, New York. This moderately bioturbated gray shale retains
Significant work on categorizing lithic types of argillaceous rocks based upon evidence of primary disrupted lamination. It exhibits poorly developed fissility
macrofabric revealed by x-radiography has been published by Nuhfer et al. (1979), in outcrop.
Cluff (1980), and Nuhfer (1981). Both Nuhfer and Cluff based their observations on 3. JAVA FORMATION (Upper Devonian) Lincoln County, West Virginia.
fabrics of Devonian shale. We show here examples from various stratigraphic Primary bedding is slightly disturbed by mild bioturbation. Thickness of
positions and sedimentary environments to illustrate (1) a macrofabric classification laminae varies and laminae are discontinuous.
of argillaceous rocks, and (2) the usefulness of macrofabric in environmental GROUP B includes Cluffs "indistinctly bedded" shale and Nuhfer's "non-banded" and
interpretations. The scheme proposed here is intended to be simple and useful in "lenticularly laminated" shales.
making a quick and accurate macrofabric description and is based upon our
observations and modification of the classifications used by Nuhfer and Cluff. All C. BIOTURBATION
scale bars in photos equal 1 cm. Characteristics: No bedding or lamination is apparent. A mottled pattern is visible.
Burrows appear as dark, randomly-oriented lines on the x-radiograph. Bioturbation
A. WELL DEVELOPED LAMINATION has destroyed all layered features.
Characteristics: Thin «2mm; commonly <lmm) closely spaced laminae, 1. GRAY SHALE IN FERRON SANDSTONE MEMBER (Mancos Shale
commonly continuous across a sample, although they may be discontinuous in Formation, Upper Cretaceous) Utah. The highly mottled appearance indicates
places. Alternating light and dark layers are due to an alternation of layers containing extensive bioturbation, although there are no recognizable burrows.
pyrite, silt, organics, and clay. Bioturbation is absent in samples with continuous 2. CANTON SHALE MEMBER (Carbondale Formation, Middle Pennsylvanian)
layers and minor in sample containing discontinuous layering. Gallatin County, Illinois. Dark areas are vertical and horizontal burrows. This
1. HURON SHALE MEMBER (Ohio Shale Formation, Upper Devonian), Lincoln sample is extensively bioturbated.
County, West Virginia. Continuous laminae in the upper part; slightly 3. JAVA FORMATION (Upper Devonian) Jackson County, West Virginia.
discontinuous in the lower part. Extensive bioturbation is indicated by burrows (dark lines) and a mottled
2. MECCA QUARRY SHALE MEMBER (Linton Formation, Pennsylvanian), appearance.
Park County, Indiana. Uninterrupted lamination. GROUP C includes Cluffs "bioturbated mudstone" and Nuhfer's "non-banded" shale.
3. BITUMINOUS SHALE FORMATION (U. Lias, Jurassic), Ravenscar,
Yorkshire, England. Good example of continuous lamination uninterrupted by
bioturbation or bottom currents.
GROUP A includes Cluffs "finely laminated" and "thickly laminated" shales and
Nuhfer's examples of "thinly laminated," "lenticularly laminated" and "sharply
banded."

12
 X·RADIOGRAPHY CLASSIFICATION OF ARGILLACEOUS ROCK MACROFABRIC

1 2
Group A. Well Developed Lamination Group B. Indistinct Lamination

1 2 3
Group C. Bioturbated Mudstone

13
SUGGESTED ENVIRONMENTAL SIGNIFICANCE OF
MACROFABRIC X-RADIOGRAPHY DATA

The figure on the next page shows the suggested environmental significance of
macrofabric x-radiography data by relating macrofabric to sedimentary environments.
The well developed lamination (Group A) is well preserved in the quiet deep density-
stratified water (see pycnocline). Oxygen depletion in this zone restricts benthonic
organisms thus minimizing sediment mixing by bioturbation. Dislocation of
primary laminae is also prevented due to decreased velocity and/or complete absence
of bottom flowing currents in the stagnant water. Indistinct lamination (Group B)
represents deposition of sediment under slightly more oxygenated conditions which
would allow some sediment mixing by those infaunal organisms that tolerate low
oxygen conditions. In the diagram this zone is depicted as a transition from
Anaerobic to Dysaerobic and is characterized in x-radiography by indistinct bedding.
Alternately this macrofabric could result from slight reworking of sediment by
bottom flowing currents in shallow water. The third fabric of Group C is definitely
produced by biogenic activity. Bioturbation is recognized by the conspicuous
burrows and greatly mottled texture. The original primary fabric is completely
reworked to form bioturbated mudstone. Biogenic activity is promoted in moderately
agitated to quiet shallow near shore water which contains a higher oxygen content
from the other two offshore zones.

14
ANAEROBIC ANAEROBIC-DYSAEROBIC DYSAEROBIC-AEROBIC

(Quiet, deep water) (Quiet water of moderate depth) (Moderately agitated to

Quiet, shallow water)
150 m - 200 m + (?) ±150m
< 150±m

WELL DEVELOPED LAMINATION INDISTINCT LAMINATION BIOTURBATED MUDSTONE

~----------~==:::::;::::'~/,

- - -
PYCNOCLINE

--_ /"- / "

............
--/' ---
-.::::-- --
--:-- ::
..............
/ \/
--
-- -- "'--
I ,- \
\/......... - " ""
/ ~
--

'-..,./
/'
/"/
/
\/
~\
----
-- / ~ \

\ /~
- -- __-- -=-_ ,,__ - '-/-- - I
- -::--:...--- -- ----------
-
---- ------ - -- -- -- -- -- ---=-
--
-~----
------- - - -

15
PETROGRAPlllC CLASSIFICATION OF BLACK SHALES EXAMPLES
A. PINELY LAMINATED - GENESEO SHALE MEMBER
Organic-rich shales are commonly also called "black" or "bituminous" (Genesee Fonnation, Upper Devonian)
shales. Color ranges from dark gray to black depending upon the iron and/or Ontario County, New York
carbon content. Hostennan and Whitlow (1983) compared color and organic Scale = O.l mm
carbon content of approximately 880 Devonian Shales from the Appalachian Crossed nicols
Basin. Carbon ranged from as low as 1% in medium gray to 2% or greater in
dark gray to black shales. In addition to organic content, all black shales also B. THICKL Y LAMINATED - HURON SHALE MEMBER
share another common feature - lamination. Our petrographic analysis of over (Ohio Shale Fonnation, Upper Devonian)
100 dark gray to black Paleozoic and Mesozoic shales showed variations in the Gallia County, Ohio
type of lamination present. This section illustrates the four main lamination Scale = O.l mm
types present in organic-rich shales: (1) finely laminated (2) thickly laminated Plane light
(3) wavy laminated (4) lenticular laminated. Use of these macrofabric tenns
should facilitate a more accurate petrographic description of shales when C. WAVY LAMINATED - JET ROCK FORMATION
combined with mineralogical, geochemical, and microfabric data. (U. Lias, Jurassic)
Photomicrographs here are representative of black shale macrofabrics observed in Port Mulgrave, Yorkshire, England
thin-section. Scale = O.l mm
Plane light
BLACK SHALE - LAMINATION TYPES
D. LENTICULAR LAMINATED - ENERGY SHALE
FINELY LAMINATED - alternating silt and organic-clay layers; layers are < 0.1 (Carbondale Fonnation, Pennsylvanian)
mm thick and exhibit parallel contacts. (A) Jefferson County, Illinois
Scale = 0.1 mm
THICKLY LAMINATED - alternating silt and organic-clay layers; layers Plane light
are> O.l mm thick and exhibit parallel contacts. (B)

WAVY LAMINATED - similar to Finely Laminated except the contacts are

undulatory. (C)

LENTICULAR LAMINATED - possesses a "flaser bedding" appearance

with lenses arranged in layers; lenses are composed of light colored (quartz,
calcite) minerals encased by a dark (clay, organics) matrix. (D)

16
 BLACK SHALES-LAMINATION TYPES

A Finely Lamin.a ted C Wavy Laminated

B Thickly Laminated

17
 FINELY LAMINATED BLACK SHALES

GENESEO SHALE MEMBER (Genesee Formation, PENN YAN SHALE MEMBER (Genesee Formation, GENESEO SHALE MEMBER (Genesee Formation
Devonian) Seneca County, New York. Fine layers of dark Devonian) Livingston County, New York. Numerous silt Devonian) Ontario County, New York. Fine layers of dark
organic-rich material (organics plus clay) alternate with layers, each one to two quartz grains thick. Scale = 0.1 organic-rich material (organics plus clay) alternate with
quartz silt layers (some only one to three grains thick). mm. Crossed nicols. quartz silt layers (some only one to three grains thick).
Scale =0.1 mm. Crossed nicols. Scale = O.lmm. Crossed nicols.

GENESEO SHALE MEMBER (Genesee Formation RHINESTREET SHALE MEMBER (West Falls UTICA SHALE (Ordov!cian) Jefferson. County, New Yor~.
Devonian) Ontario County, New York. Scale = 0.1 mm. Formation, Devonian) Livingston County, New York. Silt layers < 0.1 mm thIck alternate. WIth clay and organic
Plane light Fine layers of dark organic rich materials (organics plus layers. Scale =0.1 mm. Crossed nlcols.
clay) alternate with quartz silt layers (some only one to
three grains thick) (similar to A and B). Scale = 0.1 mm.
Crossed nicols.

18
 THICKLY LAMINATED BLACK SHALES

CASHAQUA SHALE MEMBER (Sonyea Formation, MIDDLESEX SHALE MEMBER (Sonyea Formation, HURON SHALE MEMBER (Ohio Shale Formation,
Devonian) Livingston County, New York. The lower part Devonian) Ontario County, New York. Alternation of dark Devonian) Gallia County, Ohio. Sample shows banding
of this shale is mildly bioturbated, however, the upper part organic-rich layers with lighter colored silty layers. Scale due to variation in organic concentration. Abundant
exhibits thick laminations undisturbed by mixing. Scale = = 0.1 mm. Crossed nicols. flattened spore cases are aligned parallel to lanlinae. Scale
0.1 mm. Crossed nicols. =O.1mm. Plane Light.

CHAGRIN SHALE MEMBER (Ohio Shale Formation JET ROCK FORMATION (U. Lias, Jurassic) Port HURON SHALE MEMBER (Ohio Shale Formation,
Devonian) Gallia County, Ohio. Alternation of ligh~ Mulgrave, Yorkshire, England. Organic-rich layers (dark) Devonian) Gallia County, Ohio. Alternation of light
colored silt-rich layers with darker colored organic rich alternating with silt- and clay-rich layers (lighter). Scale = colored silt-rich layers with darker colored organic-rich
layers. Scale = 0.1 mm. Crossed nicols. 0.1 mm. Crossed nicols. layers. Scale =0.1 mm. Plane light.

19
 WAVY LAMINATED BLACK SHALES

JET ROCK FORMATION (U. Lias, Jurassic) Port JET ROCK FORMATION (U. Lias, Jurassic) Port WHITE BAND - "PECTINATUS ZONE" (Kimmeridge
Mulgrave, Yorkshire, England. Samples of Jet Rock Mulgrave, Yorkshire, England. Abundant light colored silt Clay Formation, Jurassic) Kimmeridge Bay, Dorset,
exhibit a "stromatolitic-type" of lamination of alternating (quartz?) layers and dark colored organic-clay rich layers. England. Compressed marine algae spore cases (yellow)
wavy dark organic-rich layers with lighter colored silt-clay Scale = 0.1 mm. Plane light. are apparent. Quartz grains appear as clear areas. Scale =
laminae. Scale =0.1 mm. Plane light. O.lmm. Plane Light.

BITUMINOUS SHALE (U. Lias, Jurassic) Ravenscar, BLACKSTONE LAYER (Kimmeridge Clay Formation, CLEVELAND SHALE MEMBER (Ohio Shale
Yorkshire, England. Silt, organic, and clay layers. Scale = Jurassic) Kimmeridge Bay, Dorset, England. Compressed Formation, Devonian) Gallia County, Ohio. Compressed
0.1 mm. Plane light. marine algae spore cases (yellow) are apparent. Scale = 0.1 marine algae spore cases (yellow) are apparent. Layers of
mm. Plane light. coarse silt size grains alternate with darker colored organic
and clay layers. Scale = 0.1 mm. Plane light.
20
 LENTICULAR LAMINATED BLACK SHALES

ENERGY SHALE MEMBER (Carbondale Formation MECCA QUARRY MEMBER (Linton Formation,
Pennsylvanian) Jefferson County, Illinois. Lenticular UPPER CLEGG CREEK MEMBER (New Albany
Pennsylvanian) Parke County, Indiana. Scale = 0.1 mm. Formation, Devonian) Clark County Indiana. Elongate
lamination characterizes the organic-rich Pennsylvanian age Plane light.
black shales of the United States Midcontinent region. lens of quartz grains (center of photo). Scale = O.lmm.
Crossed nicols.
Scale =0.1 mm. Plane light.

HUSHPUCKNEY SHALE MEMBER (Swope Formation, ROOF SHALE OVER SPRINGFIELD V COAL
Pennsylvanian) Adair County, Iowa. This shale is not ROOF SHALE OVER SPRINGFIELD V COAL
(petersburg Formation Pennsylvanian) Vanderburg County, (Petersburg Formation Pennsylvanian) Knox County,
associated with a coal but with gray shale and limestone; Indiana. Scale = 0.1 mm. Plane light.
however, it still possesses characteristic lenticular bedding. Indiana. Scale = 0.1 mm . Plane light.
Scale = 0.1 mm. Plane light.
21
 VARIOUS PETROGRAPHIC FEATURES OF SHALE· BIOTURBATION

WINDOM SHALE MEMBER (Moscow Formation, CASHAQUA SHALE MEMBER (Sonyea Formation, TURNER MINE SHALE MEMBER (Carbondale
Devonian) Livingston County, New York. This gray shale Devonian) Wyoming County, New York. This green shale Formation, Pennsylvanian) Gallatin County, Illinois.
has poorly developed fissility in outcrop and is very has moderate to good fissility in outcrop. The thin section Normally most black shales are well laminated. The
fossiliferous. Notice the lack of lamination in the thin- exhibits disruption of laminae due to moderate Chondrites trace fossil burrows (light areas) in this black
section. Scale = 0.1 mm. Plane light. bioturbation. Scale =0.1 mm. Crossed nicols. shale indicate post-depositional bioturbation. Extensive
bioturbation destroyed lamination. Scale = 0.1 mm. Plane
light.

GRAY SHALE FORMATION (U. Lias, Jurassic) Port GRAY SHALE FORMATION ( Lias, Jurassic) Port WEST RIVER SHALE MEMBER (Genesee Formation,
Mulgrave, Yorkshire, England. This thin-section shows a Mulgrave, Yorkshire, England. This sample shows coarser Devonian) Ontario County, New York. This dark gray
coarser material filling burrows and the swirled nature of material filling burrows and the swirled nature of shale is fissile in outcrop, but still has zones which exhibit
lamination. Burrows are the lighter areas. Obviously this lamination. The burrows are the lighter colored areas. bioturbation. The thin section is from a moderately mixed
rock was originally laminated and laminae were disrupted Scale = 0.1 mm. Plane light. zone. Notice disruption of lamination in the upper part.
during bioturbation. Scale =0.1 mm. Plane light. Scale =O.lmm. Plane light.
22
 PETROGRAPHIC FEATURES OF SHALE - MISCELLANEOUS

JET ROCK FORMATION (U. Lias, Jurassic) Ravenscar, GENESEO SHALE MEMBER (Genesee Formation, PENN YAN SHALE MEMBER (Genesee Formation
Yorkshire, England. Arrows point to silt-size quartz Devonian) Seneca County, New York. Five separate silt Devonian) Ontario County, New York. Organic-rich, dark
grains. Notice the sharp contact between the silt-abundant laminae occur in the center of the thin-section, each gray shale displaying micro "graded bedding" in the silt-
layer (lower left) and the overlying darker organic and clay- composed of a single layer of quartz grains. Single-grain clay size range. The arrow indicates the top of the bed.
rich layer. Scale = 0.1 mm. Crossed nicols. laminae are common in Devonian black shales of New Scale = O.lmm. Plane light.
York. Scale = 0.1 mm. Crossed nicols.

CHAGRIN SHALE MEMBER (Ohio Shale Formation, PENN YAN SHALE MEMBER (Genesee Formation, PENN YAN SHALE MEMBER (Genesee Formation,
Devonian) Gallia County, Ohio. Pyrite appears op~que in Devonian) Ontario County, New York. Micro- Devonian) Ontario County, New York. Fine scale current
this thin-section of dark gray shale (arrows). Nouce the crossbedding in a black shale. Notice the variation in the bedding occurs at the top of this thin-section. Scale = 0.1
extreme variation in sizes of pyrite crystals. Scale = 0.1 thickness of light colored silt laminae. Scale =0.1 mm. mm. Crossed nicols.
mm. Crossed nicols. Crossed nicols.
23
SCANNING ELECTRON MICROSCOPY DESCRIPTIONS A. DISPERSED ILLITE - Sample is grundite illite mixed with a dispersing agent in
PREFERRED PARTICLE ORIENTATION IN SHALE distilled water, settled in a glass tube, and air dried. This example is offered to
illustrate the final orientation produced in a sediment by dispersed clay.
Preferred particle orientation (parallelism of platy minerals, mainly clay Parallelism of particles is extremely well developed and compares favorably with
minerals) is a characteristic of most non-bioturbated shales, especially dark gray to the fabric of some shales. Scale = IO JlITI.
black shales. The latter are usually not bioturbated and hence the original primary rock
fabric is well preserved. When did this primary fabric form? Did the parallelism B. BITUMINOUS SHALE FORMATION (Upper Lias, Jurassic) Ravenscar,
result from deposition of individual dispersed clay flakes? Or were the randomly Yorkshire, England. This organic rich, fissile marine shale is described elsewhere
oriented platelets in an original flocculated clay sediment reoriented into a parallel in the Atlas. The remarkable development of preferred orientation of clay is
position soon after deposition and during burial? Either mechanism could produce the similar to that of dispersed illite. Can clay settle in the dispersed state in
same final fabric as the adjacent figures show. electrolyte-rich marine water or does it always flocculate? On the other hand,
This section illustrates the fabrics of laboratory controlled clay deposition and does a high organic material content promote dispersion? Two models are pro-
three typical shales to show well-developed preferred particle orientation. Silt-sized posed in the diagram for the origin of preferred orientation. Model 1 indicates
grains are absent in these samples. that clay flakes arranged in a cardhouse fashion in flocculated sediment reorient
Two possible mechanisms for producing primary shale fabric from flocculated upon early burial and compaction. Model 2 shows parallelism resulting from
or dispersed clay are shown below. Models are based upon a sediment with high clay deposition of dispersed clay. Scale = IO JlITI.
content. Observations indicate that the silt content also has an influence on
argillaceous rock fabric. The greater amount of silt, the more random is the fabric. C. BEDFORD FORMATION (Mississippian) Gallia County, Ohio. Preferred
orientation in this shale is apparent. Notice how clay flakes wrap around the
silt (quartz?) grain in the left center of the photo. Scale = IO JlITI.

D. SUNBURY FORMATION (Mississippian) Gallia County, Ohio. This shale

exhibits well developed parallelism of platy material. Scale = 10 /lm.
FLOCCULATED
~

(\
L..-...-:::--

~ -~ -I I-~
-- -----
-----

-- -
Mcxlell MOlIel2

24
 SCANNING ELECTRON MICROSCOPY DESCRIPTIONS·PREFERRED PARTICLE ORIENTATION IN SHALE

A c

B
D

25
RANDOM PARTICLE ORIENTATION IN MUDSTONE A. FLOCCULATED ILLITE - This stereo micrograph shows the fabric of
grundite illite (1 gm/l ) flocculated in salt water (27 NaCl gm/l), sedimented in a
Random particle orientation is characteristic of mudstones or non-fissile glass tube, and air-dried. Randomness of domains plus some individual flakes prevails
argillaceous rocks. This particular arrangement may be produced by preservation of in this sample. Compare this fabric to the models of flocculated clay shown above
the primary fabric of flocculated clay or secondarily produced by bioturbation. The and to natural sediment and rock fabrics in SEM micrographs B and C. Scale = 1 J.Un.
diagram below shows several commonly accepted models of flocculated clay (after Van
Olphen, 1963 and Bennett et al., 1979). Observations by us and by Bennett et al. B. GREAT SALT LAKE SEDIMENT (pleistocene) Great Salt Lake, Utah.
(1979) of flocculated clays reveal a fabric dominated by randomly oriented domains of Fabric in a freeze-dried core from Great Salt Lake. This sample shows no evidence of
stepped face-to-face oriented flakes in each domain. Domains, in turn, are randomly bioturbation in hand specimen. Randomness of flakes is dominant. A few larger silt
oriented in a typical flocculated cardhouse structure. Also found in argillaceous rocks grains are present. Notice the porous fabric similar to the flocculated clay in A. The
and sediment may be a random orientation of individual flakes arranged edge-face and high salinity of the depositional environment of this clay is a major factor in produc-
face-face. Thus, it seems that various orientations exist in a flocculated clay mass, ing the random fabric of this flocculated clay. Scale = 10 J.Un.
however, domains do tend to dominate. These fabrics are shown in panels A, Band
C. The bioturbated fabric in D also is random, but it is characterized by the C. CLEAR FORK FORMATION (Permian) Swisher County, Texas. This
dominance of randomly oriented individual flakes rather than domains or clusters. mudstone was deposited in a saline mudflat associated with other Permian evaporite
This observation is significant in differentiating the origin of the fabric. deposits. The sample is not bioturbated and it is sandwiched between thin halite
layers, thus indicating the clay was deposited in water high in electrolytes and hence
MODELS OF FLOCCULATED CLAY flocculated. Domains are abundant. Scale = 1 ~m. Used with permission SEPM
(Society for Sedimentary Geology).

D. CASHAQUA MEMBER (Sonyea Formation, Devonian) Wyoming County,

New York. X-radiography and outcrop viewing provide abundant evidence of activity
by organisms which modified the original fabric of the Cashaqua sediment. This
SEM micrograph shows a random mixture of silt and individual clay platelets which
EDGE-FACE is typical of bioturbated fabric. Scale = 10 J.Un.

///
\\y//
FACE-FACE EDGE-EDGE

References:
Bennett et al. (1979), Van Olphen (1963), O'Brien (1987).

26
 CANN I G ELECTRON MICRO COpy DE CRIPTIONS·RANDOM PARTICLE ORIENTATION I N MUDSTONE

A c

B
D
27

27
FABRIC VARIATIONS IN ORGANIC RICH SHALES A. ORGANIC HASH - MECCA QUARRY SHALE MEMBER (Linton
Formation, Pennsylvanian) Park County, Indiana. TOC = 49.3%. Scale = 10 JUn.
Even though preferred orientation dominates, organic rich shale microfabrics
revealed by the SEM do vary. This section illustrates four main types of microfabric B. ORGANIC-CLAYEY - ROOF SHALE SPRINGFIELD COAL MEMBER
found in an SEM analysis of over 100 organic rich shales from various stratigraphic (petersburg Formation, Pennsylvanian) Vanderburg County, Indiana. TOC = 26.2%.
positions and sedimentary environments. The fabric nomenclature is based upon a Scale = 10 JUn.
visual estimate of fabric variation which, in tum, is related to abundance of clay,
particulate organic matter, and silt grains. The latter two materials greatly influence C. CLAYEY - GENESEO MEMBER (Genesee Formation, Upper Devonian)
microfabric of these shales. Fabric types are: (A) ORGANIC HASH, (B) ORGANIC- Seneca County, New York. TOC = 1.7%. Scale = 10 JUn.
CLAYEY, (C) CLAYEY, (D) SILTY. For example, in describing an organic rich
shale under the SEM, one might refer to it as composed of "organic hash" or as an D. SILTY-UTICA SHALE (Ordovician) Jefferson County, New York. TOC =
"organic-clayey black shale." There is no attempt here to propose an organic shale 3.8%. Scale = 10 JUn.
classification, but only to clarify analysis of organic rich shales by supplying suitable
descriptive terminology. This analysis may be of value to those undertaking studies
of hydrocarbon production potential of organic rich shales.

MICROFABRIC TYPES OF ORGANIC RICH SHALES

ORGANIC HASH - composed dominantly of fme «5 JUn) discrete organic particles

preferentially oriented with platy minerals. Organics dominate; their edges are diffuse.
ExampleA.

ORGANIC-CLAYEY - resembles ORGANIC HASH except platy minerals are

recognized by their well-defmed shape and are more visible. Example B.

CLAYEY - composed dominantly of discrete well-defined platy clay minerals oriented

parallel to bedding. Silt (quartz) grains are a minor component. Example C.

SILTY - silt grains (c. 10-20 /lm) are very visible in a clay matrix. Particle
orientation becomes less preferred with increasing silt content. Example D.

References:
Bitterli (1963), O'Brien (1968), Spears (1976), Curtis (1980), Ece (1987).

28
 SCANNING ELECTRON MICROSCOPY DESCRIPTIONS OF BLACK SHALE FABRIC VARIATIONS

A c

B
D

29
 CHAPTER 4
MISCELLANEOUS FEATURES IN ARGILLACEOUS ROCKS
PYRITE FRAMBOIDS AUTHIGENIC PYRITE MICROCRYSTALLITES

"Framboid" describes spheroidal aggregates of pyrite microcrystal lites (Rickard, AI. HUSHPUCKNEY MEMBER (Swope Formation, Pennsylvanian) Adair
1970). They are common in organic rich shales and give clues to geochemical and County, Iowa. The pyrite octahedra are found in small depressions in this
microfabric conditions. Rickard indicates the spheroidal shape may be due to pseu- organic rich marine shale. TOC = 19.3%. Scale = 1 Jlffi.
domorphism of a pre-existing spherical body. It may represent replacement of an
immiscible organic liquid globule by iron sulfide or infilling by microcrystalline A2. TYPICAL PYRITE FRAMBOID SPHERICAL SHAPE-ENERGY SHALE
pyrite of spherical gaseous vacuoles or even by pseudomorphism of single-celled MEMBER (Carbondale Formation, Pennsylvanian) Jefferson County, Ilinois.
microorganisms. Framboid morphology is also attributed to pyritization of The micrograph shows a mosaic of pyrite microcrystaIlites in a typical spherical
microflora (Javor and Mountjoy, 1976). Amstutz et al. (1967) indicate the framboid framboid. Scale = 1 Jlffi.
is inherited from the colloidal glob of iron monosulfide formed authigenically in
sediment. Authigenic pyrite is found with organic matter and is an indicator of B. BITUMINOUS SHALE FORMATION (Upper Lias, Jurassic) Ravenscar,
anaerobic sulfide diagenesis (Berner, 1970). Field and laboratory observations (Berner, Yorkshire, England. Two framboid clusters have crystallized within a cavity.
1969; Love, 1967) show pyrite forming at shallow sediment burial depth (10 cm to 3 Note how the clay flakes closest to the framboid are oriented tangential to the
m) under low temperature «80' C). A good brief summary of their origin is given surface. This orientation is probably produced in the manner shown in the
by Kalliokoski (1974). Observations suggest framboid formation in wet, adjacent diagrams. Scale = 10 Jlffi.
unconsolidated sediment, probably associated with a flocculated clay of soupy
consistency. Thus, their presence offers clues to the early burial diagenesis history of C. RHINESTREET SHALE MEMBER (West Falls Formation, Devonian)
clayey sediment. Astabula County, Ohio. A typical example showing the well developed
spherical nature of a framboid containing numerous pyrite crystallites. Notice
FRAMBOID FORMATION platy particle orientation around the framboid. Compare to figure 4 in adjacent
panel. Scale = 10 Jlffi.

GAS BUBBLE ADJACENT CLl.Y D. ENERGY SHALE MEMBER (Carbondale Formation, Pennsylvanian) Jefferson
(H2S7. C027) ORIENTS AROVND
GAS BUBBLE AS
County, Illinois. This polyframboid has an ellipsoidal shape probably due to
FORMS IN SOFT
FLOCCULl.TED ITGROWS IN deformation during compaction. Preferred clay orientation in this shale is a
SOUPY. EASILY
CLl.Y SEDIMENT
DEFORMED. Floc.
result (see figure 4) of clay reorientation. The large polyframboid (diameter =
CULl.TED SEDlMEN1 150 Jlffi) probably developed during early stages of diagenesis when moist
sediment was being compacted to form shale fabric. Deformation and growth of
3. <;> 4. OVERBURDEN PRES the large polyframboid and clay particle reorientation were probably occurring
AUTHIGENIC PYRITE
_ SURE REORIEtmI
// FI LLS GAS BUBBLE simultaneously. Because of their size (e.g. diameter = c. 10 iJ.m), smaller
'l/\ I
-r
. /;::- "- REMAININO CLI. Y
/-->:::.,.., =
CAVITY. PARTlClE
ORIENTATlON IS _ ~~ - ~- INTO PARAllEL individual spherical framboids resisted deformation during the formation of shale
POSITlON C~
-II~\!.... STIll RANDOM
::..
0. (\
6 ');_ IN SHALE fabric. Scale = 10 iJ.m.
::j.S~/\
-/::::;-~
..... ~-/-
...... -=..'
I-l,-C

* models modified after Rickard (1970, p. 289)

32
 PYRITE FRAMBOIDS

B D

33
FECAL PELLETS A. FECAL PELLET (Recent) Newfoundland Slope, Atlantic Ocean, 49'45.1'N,
49'26.2'W, depth 1400 m. This fecal pellet of unknown organism is composed
This section illustrates another microfabric feature of argillaceous rocks - fecal of a random mix of lithogenic (quartz?) and biogenic (coccoliths, diatoms-small
pellets. Although not common, when present in shale they may be recognized because arrow; see small area, inset) material. Scale = 10 J.1m.
their more random fabric contrasts to that of the enclosing shale. Porter (1984) states The inset micrograph shows a magnified view of the pellet (see large arrow for
that few reports of microscopic «0.5 J1ffi) fossil fecal pellets appear in the literature. location of inset). Scale = 10 J1ffi.
However, biogenic pelletization may be the most important process in depositing
argillaceous sediments in shallow marine interdeltaic environments (Pryor, 1975). B. FECAL PELLET (Recent) Emerald Basin, Atlantic Ocean, 44'N, 63'W, off
Preservation of fecal pellets in the rock record is favored by anoxic conditions which Nova Scotia, depth 250 m. Left SEM micrograph shows two halves of a pellet
eliminate or minimize both biological and chemical degradation. Shown here are (350 J1ffi x 150 J1ffi) broken open in the lab (Scale = 100 J1ffi).
typical examples seen in SEM of fossil fecal pellets found in argillaceous rocks which A close up view on the right reveals a random orientation of platy material
are compared to the morphology of recent pellets. Note the conspicuous presence of (clay), lithogenic material, and diatom fragments. Scale = 10 J1ffi.
phytoplanktonic matter (diatoms and coccoliths) mixed with lithogenic material in
both recent and ancient examples. Note also the similarity of recent and ancient C. BLACK SHALE ROOF ROCK OF HOUCHIN CREEK COAL
pellets in size and shape in microfabric. The high concentration of easily identified (pennsylvanian) Gibson County, Indiana. Random orientation of fine material
phytoplanktonic matter in a random mixture of clay and silt grains is a distinguishing in a pellet located in center of photo. The morphology and size (50 J1ffi x 25
feature of pellets. Hatlin (1975) found coccolith-rich fecal pellets in Cretaceous rocks J1ffi) is similar to that of recent pellets. Notice the preferred particle orientation
which were produced by copepods and tunicates. Copepods were also found to in the enclosing black shale which contrasts to the fabric of the pellet.
pelletize inorganic sediments as they fed on suspended sediment (Smith and Syvitski, Scale = 10 J1ffi.
1982). Thus, investigators should be aware that the fabric analysis of argillaceous
rocks (probably the more organic rich samples) may reveal fossil fecal pellets which D. BITUMINOUS SHALE FORMATION (U. Lias, Jurassic) Ravenscar,
may be useful in interpreting sedimentary conditions. Yorkshire, England. The size and oblong shape of this pellet are comparable to
the Recent pellets. The oblong shape of this pellet is in part due to post-
depositional compaction of wet flocculated sediment which reoriented to produce
the preferred orientation of the enclosing shale. Scale = 10 J1ffi.
Coccoliths (inset) are the dominant components of the pellet. Scale = 1 J1ffi.

34
 FECAL PELLETS

A c

B D

35
PALYNOMORPHS IN SHALES A. CLEVELAND SHALE MEMBER (Ohio Shale Formation, Devonian) Gallia
County, Ohio. Cross sections of deformed yellowish algal bodies are in the
Microscopic resistant-walled organic bodies which include pollen and spores are center of the photo. The thickness of the spore wall of the largest body is ap-
called palynomorphs (Traverse, 1988) and may occur in shales. Other palynomorph proximately 0.01 mm. Silt size quartz grains are light gray. Dark kerogen and
bodies include acritarchs, dinoflagellate thecae and cysts, certain colonial algae, clay is visible throughout. Scale =0.1 mm. Plane light.
scolecodonts, chitinozoan, and other acid-insoluble microfossils (Traverse, 1988).
Yellowish marine algal bodies are visible in examples shown here of some dark gray B. MARCELLUS SHALE FORMATION (Devonian) Mason County, West
to black shales. One spore-like body, Tasmanites, is very commonly found in Virginia. The left photo is a view looking down onto a bedding plane surface
Devonian - Mississippian dark shales. Tasmanites or Tasmanites-like bodies are and reveals the circular (originally spherical shape) of Tasmanites(?) spore-like
planktonic algae and their presence suggests that pure tasmanite deposits accumulated bodies. A cross-section view in the right photo reveals spores. Notice that
from algae blooms (Tschudy and Scott, 1969). Other spores are from land plants and most do not show both spore walls, as seen in the Cleveland shale example.
provide evidence of vegetation type adjacent to the sedimentary basin. Only by using Scale = 0.1 mm. Plane light.
techniques to extract them from the rock is it possible to study them in sufficient
detail to make a positive genus identification. In thin-section, we have found the C. HURON SHALE MEMBER (Ohio Shale Formation, Devonian) Jackson
spore-like bodies are compressed. Their original shape is commonly spherical. A County, West Virginia. The greatly flattened spore in the lower half of the
thin-section cut parallel to bedding reveals a circular shape, however, the appearance in SEM photo originally had a diameter of approximately 200 !lm and offers
a section perpendicular to bedding is that of a "deflated basketball." A compression evidence of compaction of the sediment enclosing it. This sediment was
ratio of 5 to 1 is calculated for these bodies This ratio is conservatively used to originally flocculated and reoriented upon burial during which the spore was
indicate the minimum amount of compaction that took place during burial and adds compressed. Scale = 10 1lID. Plane light.
further evidence supporting the conclusion that the shale-forming sediment was
initially flocculated. This unit illustrates palynomorph morphology in thin-sections D. CLEVELAND SHALE MEMBER (Ohio Shale Formation, Devonian) Gallia
and SEM of shales. County, Ohio. This is an SEM photo of a Tasmanites-like (?) body. No cell
wall is visible. Note how compaction has distorted the shape (compare to photo
All samples shown here are from black shale. C). Scale = 10 1lID. Plane light.
In SEM photographs of surfaces perpendicular to bedding, spores have a distinctive
"worm-like" morphology, distinct from surrounding organic matter.

36
 PALYNOMORPHS IN BLACK SHALE

A C -.._ . .::.,

37
 CHAPTER 5
CASE STUDIES OF SPECIFIC DISTINCTIVE FEATURES
WELL DEVELOPED LAMINATION IN A BLACK SHALE A. The x-radiograph shows well developed, alternating silt and organic - clay rich
(EXAMPLE I) layers. Thickness of the laminae varies from 2.0 mm to 0.4 mm. Laminae are
continuous across the sample. A detailed analysis of a lamina couplet is
BITUMINOUS SHALE FORMATION (Upper Lias, Jurassic) Ravenscar, Yorkshire, presented in a later section. Scale = 1 cm. Reprinted with permission from
England. O'Brien, 1990.
Organic-rich shales are commonly well laminated and exhibit a microfabric of
parallel clay flakes. This unit illustrates a sedimentological interpretation of a black B. Particulate organic matter appears black in a thin-section of this thickly
shale possessing well developed lamination and preferred particle orientation. The laminated shale. Platy organic fragments lie parallel to bedding and obviously
Bituminous Shale outcrops along the northeast Yorkshire coast of England. This contribute to the fissile character of the rock. Vertical variation in color in thin-
fissile, organic shale is in a classic area for the study of Jurassic ammonites. section is an indication of variation in organic concentration. Clear areas are
Sedimentary Environment: marine, anaerobic quartz grains, darker areas are clay or organics. Scale = 0.1 mm. Plane light.
Significant Features: lamination, preferred orientation, organic content
Geology: This shale is characterized by a sparce, low diversity epifauna (mainly C. An SEM of this "clayey" black shale emphasizes the dominant preferred orienta-
bivalves) (Morris, 1979, 1980). The macro- and microfabrics are characterized tion of platy material (it is difficult to differentiate weathered clay from platy or-
by well preserved laminae and parallelism of particles indicating an absence of ganic fragments in SEM). Scattered throughout are fine silt-size quartz grains.
bioturbation. The organic content indicates preservation of organics under Cavities are zones where silt grains were dislodged during sample preparation.
anoxic conditions. Hallam (1967, 1975) has suggested that Jurassic shales Scale = 10 J.l.I11.
were deposited slowly (approximately OJ mm/yr.) in quite shallow water ("no
more than a few tens of metres deep"). Preservation of the thin laminae indi-
cates lack of agitation by strong bottom currents after deposition.

Whole Rock Composition ~

Quartz 20
Plagioclase Feldspar 2
Calcite 14
Dolomite 1
Pyrite 11
Layer Silicates 49*
Illite-Smectite 31
Illite-Mica 37
Kaolinite 25
Chlorite 7

TOC (Total Organic Carbon) 3.1

Note: a detailed geochemical analysis of Jet Rock Series (including Bituminous

Shale) is also found in Gad et al. (1969).

*49% of the whole rock is comprised of layer silicates, when considered as 100% of
the clay fraction, the layer silicates are comprised of 31 % illite-smectite, 37% illite-
mica (discrete illite), 25% kaolinite, and 7% chlorite.

40
 WELL DEVELOPED LAMINATION IN A BLACK SHALE (EXAMPLE I)

A B

41
WELL DEVELOPED LAMINATION IN A BLACK SHALE A. The x-radiograph shows alternating organic and silt/clay rich layers. This
(EXAMPLE II) would be classified as well developed lamination. Average lamina thickness
varies from 0.1 - 0.4 mm. Scale = I cm. Reprinted with permission from
JET ROCK SHALE FORMATION (Upper Lias, Jurassic) Port Mulgrave, Yorkshire, O'Brien, 1990.
England.
This example also illustrates well developed lamination in organic-rich black B. Thin-section (plane light) shows dark colored organic and clay rich layers
shale. alternating with lighter colored quartz silt layers. Wavy lamination is well
Sedimentary Environment: anaerobic, marine displayed. Scale = 0.1 mm.
Significant Features: thin, well developed, and wavy lamination.
Geology: The Jet Rock Shale is a well known shale underlying the Bituminous C. An SEM of the microfabric of a lighter colored silt layer. In the right- center
Shale. The original lamination is preserved because of the lack of (arrow) is a clay-encrusted silt grain (quartz). Notice parallelism of platy
bioturbation due to an entirely epifaunal group of organisms of very low material (clay flakes). This orientation probably was produced upon sediment
diversity (Morris 1980). SEM micrographs show a repetition of fine organic compaction by the reorientation of flocculated clay. Scale = 10 ~.
and clay-rich laminae alternating with coarser silty layers suggestive of cyclic
sedimentation. The high organic content (TOC=7.8%) indicates anoxic D. SEM of the microfabric in an organic/clay-rich lamina. Notice the high
conditions at or near the bottom. A quiet water stagnant condition seems to degree of parallelism of material due to compaction. The SEM description of
have prevailed, however, it was interrupted periodically by deposition of silt this black shale would be "silty black shale." Scale = 1O~.
The fabric shown here is also similar to that of the Rundle Oil shale discussed
in the section on Hydrocarbon Source Rock. A microbial mat origin is
offered for the development of the lamination characteristic of the Rundle
shale. Fabric similarity suggests this is a reasonable explanation for the
origin of the wavy lamination of the Jet Rock shale .

Whole Rock Composition .w......%.

Quartz 15
K-Feldspar 2
Plagioclase Feldspar 6
Calcite 25
Dolomite 5
Pyrite 13
Layer Silicates 25
Illite-Smectite 38
Illite-Mica 35
Kaolinite 18
Chlorite 9

TOC 7.8

42
 WELL DEVELOPED LAMINATION IN A BLACK SHALE (EXAMPLE II)

A c

B
D

43
ORGANIC VARIATION IN A SHALE· CLUES TO THE CAUSE OF A.,B. The Jet Rock black shale is fissile in outcrop. One factor influencing this
LAMINATION property is the prominent lamination, as seen in x-radiograph A (Scale = 1
cm) and in thin-section B (plane light, Scale = 0.1 mm). In B, the lighter
JET ROCK SHALE FORMATION (Upper Lias, Jurassic) Raven scar, Yorkshire, areas are silty, whereas the darker layers consist of clay and organics. Notice
England. the variation in layer thickness. An interesting observation in our study of
This section presents a detailed analysis of the composition and fabric of a typical lamination in black shales is that lamina thickness is not regular but varies
lamina couplet of alternating fine-coarse material in the black Jet Rock Shale. The vertically throughout a unit.
purpose is to show the usefulness of microanalysis in obtaining evidence of the origin
of black shale and, in particular the origin of lamination. C 1. SEM photograph of microfabric of a typical silt-rich layer. Notice the
Sedimentary Environment: marine, anaerobic abundant fme silt grains (large arrows). Scale = 10 JlITI.
Sedimentary Features: variation in organic content in layers of highly laminated shale.
Geology: Lamination in shale may be due to differences in composition, texture, and C2. SEM photograph of the microfabric of a dark organic-clay rich layer directly
color. Rhythmic repetition is due to variations in transport or production of overlying the zone shown in Cl. Preferred platy particle orientation
material resulting from fluctuations in currents or flow regions plus tidal and dominates. Some clay-size quartz grains are present. Pyrite framboids (small
seasonal fluctuations (Reineck and Singh, 1980), turbidity currents (Stow and arrows) occur in both Cl and C2. Scale = 10 JlITI.
Bowen, 1980; Piper, 1972), seasonal phytoplanktonic blooms (Gallois, 1976;
Hallam, 1975), and interrupted growth on the sediment substrate of microbial D. A thin diamond coated dentist's grinding disk was used to carefully extract
mats (Riegel et al., 1986). Wavy lamination described for the Bituminous material from each layer of a light-dark couplet. Thickness of the couplet
Shale suggests "stromatolitic" bedding (microbial mats?). The finely- to varies but averages 0.2 mm, therefore, extreme care was taken so as not to
thickly-laminated character of the Jet Rock Shale suggests another mix layers during sampling. The fine powder of each layer was analyzed for
mechanism. During the deposition of the Jet Rock shale, conditions were TOC by a combustion technique. TOC of the clay-organic layer is 11.0% and
such that continuous sedimentation of organic-rich clay was periodically 4.1 % for the silt layer.
interrupted by deposition of silt. Lamination in this example provides
evidence of systematic alternation of sedimentary conditions, possibly
indicating periodic pulses of coarser sediment deposited rapidly into the
anaerobic environment.

Whole Rock Composition ID.....%.

Quartz 26
Plagioclase Feldspar 6
Calcite 3
Dolomite 6
Pyrite 21
Layer Silicates 38
Illite-Smectite 25
Illite-Mica 47
Kaolinite 13
Chlorite 15

TOC (average) 7.8

44
 ORGANIC VARIATION IN A SHALE
DESCRlPI'ION OF
A TYPICAL SHALE
COUPLET

CLAY &
ORGANICS
TOC
11.%

SILT

B
4.1%

45
LAMINATED SHALE FROM BOTTOM-FLOWING, LOW DENSITY A. This X-radiograph displays alternating silty and silt-poor layers. TOC content is
TURBIDITY CURRENTS high enough to give a dark gray color to the rock although TOC varies
considerably between individual lamina. Dark spots at the bottom and top of
SUNBURY SHALE FORMATION, (Mississippian) Gallia County, Ohio. zone 2 are pyrite. Notice the variable thickness of laminae which appear to have
This thickly laminated, dark gray shale exhibits fabric evidence of having been parallel contacts in x-radiograph (however, see contact detail in thin-section, C).
deposited from low density, bottom-flowing turbidity currents. Scale = I cm.
Sedimentary Environment: shallow marine shelf, dysaerobic to aerobic.
Significant Features: particle size variation in adjacent laminae; evidence of erosion by B. SEM micrographs illustrate vertical variations in micro fabric within the
bottom flowing currents. laminated shale. Preferred platy particle orientation dominates in clay-rich
Geology: The Sunbury Shale was deposited in the Ohio Basin during progradation of lamina I and 3 (Bl and B3). Between them is a 2 mm thick silt-dominated
the Berea Delta. Lamination resulted from deposition from episodic pulses of pyrite-bearing zone (see B2). In this zone clay is randomly oriented owing to
low density, low velocity turbidity currents. The rme-grained material was the higher silt content (arrows at silt grains); however, this randomness may
deposited at the distal margins of the flow. Piper (1978) has described how also be produced by rapid deposition of flocculated clay. Micrographs show the
laminated silts and muds may form from turbidity currents. He indicated fabric and size variations between layers, which cannot be observed readily by x-
alternating laminae represent deposition of bedload silt followed by deposition of radiography. Scale = 10 J.ll11.
suspended mud. The Sunbury Shale may have formed at the distal margin of
low density turbidity currents during periodic alternating influxes of silty and C. Thin section of the contact between zones 1 and 2. Notice the mini flame
clayey sediment. The coarser sediment is associated with the turbidity current structure (arrow) indicating erosion of fine sediment in zone 1 by bottom
episode whereas the rme-grained units represent interturbidite or hemipelagic flowing current which deposited the silt in zone 2. Crossed nicols, Scale = 0.1
sedimentation. mm.

Whole Rock Composition ID...!&

Quartz 27
K-Feldspar <1
Plagioclase Feldspar 3
Siderite 2
Pyrite 5
Layer Silicates 58
Illite-Smectite 30
Illite-Mica 57
Kaolinite 4
Chlorite 9

TOC (whole rock) = 4.5

TOC Zone 3 = 1.2
TOCZone2= 0.1
TOC Zone 1 = OJ

46
 LAMINATED SHALE FROM BOTIOM FLOWING, LOW DENSITY TURBIDITY CURRENTS

47
BIOTURBATION A. X-radiograph shows welllarninated macrofabric (large arrows) of the black shale
overlying indistinctly laminated fabric of the gray shale (small arrow). Pyrite
HURON SHALE MEMBER (Ohio Shale Fonnation, Devonian) Jackson County, grains (dark spots) are concentrated at the interface between the shales. Notice
West Virginia. the abrupt contact at the pyritized zone and the difference in macrofabric above
Example shows a sharp contact between bioturbated fabric of a gray shale and and below the contact Scale = 1 cm.
overlying non-bioturbated fabric of a black shale.
Sedimentary Environment: marine, dysaerobic changing vertically to anaerobic. B. SEM micrograph of well developed preferred orientation of the black shale. A
Significant Features: comparison of fabrics of bioturbated and non-bioturbated shales. pyrite framboid is indicated by the arrow at the bottom. Scale = 10 1lIll.
Geology: Fabric variations in the Huron Shale show changes in the sedimentary
environment from dysaerobic to anaerobic conditions. Random particle C. SEM micrograph showing randomness of particles produced by bioturbation in
orientation in the gray shale is due to bioturbation of bottom sediment. The the gray shale. Scale = 10 1lIll.
overlying pyrite zone indicates a geochemical change in bottom conditions
which also must have influenced faunal activity. This change is also indicated
by the presence of an overlying weillarninated black shale with preferred particle
orientation. This preferred microfabric indicates burrowing ceased with the
development of anaerobic conditions. The change from a dysaerobic to an
anaerobic environment appears to have been abrupt, indicated by the sharp gray-
black shale contact revealed in the x-radiograph. However, it is difficult to
estimate the length of time of this transition from fabric data alone.

Whole Rock Composition ~

Quartz 30
K-Feldspar 1
Plagioclase Feldspar 3
Siderite 1
Pyrite 4
Layer Silicates 62
Illite-Mica 87
Chlorite 13

TOC 4.1

48
 BIOTURBATION

49
BIOTURBATION - TIERED BURROWING IN SHALE A. Tiered trace fossils in an x-radiograph of the dark gray Gray Shale. Arrow 1
points to a zone of undisturbed shale lamination. Vertically, the lamination
GRAY SHALE FORMATION (Upper Lias, Jurassic) Port Mulgrave, Yorkshire, becomes progressively more poorly developed. Larger Thalassinoides (?)
England. burrows occur at arrow 2. Smaller Chrondrites are light gray spots and narrower
This unit illustrates tiered burrowing and the utility of ichnofabric and sediment burrows (examples at arrow 3). Notice that Chrondrites burrows penetrate
fabric analyses in environmental analysis. deeply. Scale = 1 cm.
Sedimentary Environment: marine, originally anaerobic changing vertically to
dysaerobic. B. Thin section (crossed nicols) of shale with Chrondrites burrows. Notice the
Significant Features: tiered burrowing, preserved remnant shale lamination, preservation of remnant lamination in the center of the area. Light areas are
bioturbation. burrows and reworked sediment. Scale = 1 mm. Plane light.
Geology: Trace fossils provide valuable clues to sedimentary conditions that
influenced rock fabric. Environmental changes may be evident from juxtaposed C. SEM photograph from area 1 (x-radiograph in A) showing that original preferred
suites of trace fossils representing different conditions. Here, for example, orientation is still preserved in non-burrowed areas. Some minor disruption of
Chrondrites (which indicates a low oxygen level in sediment) is the only trace fabric is apparent. The primary preferred orientation fabric is well displayed at
fossil in the lower portion of the shale. The depth of penetration of the bottom of the photo. Scale = 10 J.IlIl.
Thalassinoides is limited by the anaerobic conditions. It originated in the more
oxygenated (dysaerobic?) environment represented in the sequence by an D. SEM photograph of a bioturbated portion (zones 2 and 3 in x-radiograph A) of
overlying lighter-colored shale. This tiering of burrows indicates progressive the rock showing fabric within a typical burrow filled with coarser silt grains
change from anaerobic to dysaerobic bottom conditions. and randomly oriented clay flakes. Scale = 10- J.IlIl.

Whole Rock Composition ~

Quartz 34
K-Feldspar 1
Plagioclase Feldspar 7
Pyrite 10
Layer Silicates 46
Mix Layer (lIS) 16
Illite-Mica 43
Kaolinite 25
Chlorite 16

TOC 2.1

50
 BIOTURBATION· TIERED BURROWING IN SHALE

A c

B
D

51
SIGNIFICANCE OF VERTICAL FABRIC VARIATION IN A. X-radiograph shows a pyrite-rich zone (large arrow) separating well-laminated,
A SHALE black shale from overlying non-laminated gray shale (small arrow). Notice the
burrow at the base of the gray shale (small arrow). Scale = I cm.
HURON SHALE MEMBER (Ohio Shale Formation, Devonian) Mason County,
West Virginia. B. SEM micrograph of random fabric of the non-laminated gray shale. This
This example shows abrupt fabric changes vertically and how they may be randomness is suggestive of bioturbation, especially considering the presence of
interpreted to indicate a temporal change in the sedimentary environment. a burrow shown in x-radiograph A. Scale = 10 J.U11.
Sedimentary Environment: Gray Shale: marine shelf, dysaerobic to aerobic.
Black Shale: marine, restricted circulation, anaerobic. C. SEM micrograph of well developed preferred orientation fabric of black shale.
Significant Features: Laminated fabric overlain by unlaminated, bioturbated fabric Scale = 10 J.U11.
exhibiting random particle orientation.
Geology: Transgressions and regressions are recognized in Devonian rocks of the Samples from the West Virginia Geological and Economic Survey.
eastern United States. A commonly accepted sedimentological model depicts
black shale as representing anoxic conditions in deep offshore marine water,
whereas gray shale indicates oxygenated, shallower water. This example
provides a record of a regression. It is interpreted that black shale deposition
occurred in deep water under anaerobic conditions with no infauna present to
disturb the original lamination (which is obvious in x-radiograph A) or primary
microfabric (shown in the black shale SEM-C). As the sea became more shal-
low, sufficient oxygen was produced to support some organisms, which mixed
the sediment. Bioturbation of the soft, water-laden flocculated sediment produced
a homogeneous unlaminated gray shale with random particle orientation well
illustrated in SEM-B. Although above the sediment water interface sufficient
oxygen was present, anoxic conditions existed in the organic-rich bottom muds.
The next unit reconstructs a "moment" in geological history in this Devonian
environment.

Black Shale Gray Shale

Whole Rock Composition ~ IDJQ.
Quartz 38 39
K-Feldspar Tr. Tr.
Plagioclase Feldspar 4 3
Calcite 2
Dolomite 2
Siderite 2
Pyrite 6 <I
Layer Silicates 52 52
Illite-Mica 45 90
Kaolinite 10 3
Chlorite 45 8

TOC 10.5 4.1

52
 SIGNIFICANCE OF VERTICAL FABRIC VARIATION IN A SHALE

GRAY B
SHALE
(8)

PYRITE

BLACK
SHALE
(C)

53
A JOURNEY TO "ANOXIA" - RECONSTRUCTION OF AN
EVENT ON THE DEVONIAN SEA FLOOR

HURON SHALE MEMBER (Ohio Shale Fonnation, Devonian)

Mason County, West Virginia.
This section provides more details concerning the usefulness of combining
shale macrofabric and ichnofabric (biogenic sedimentary structures) analysis in
reconstructing ancient sedimentary environments. Below (left) is an enlarged x-
radiograph (Scale = I cm) of the same sample pictured in the previous section.
Note the shape of the burrow (arrow). The shape offers a clue to sedimentary
conditions. Diagrams show, in a sequence of frames, a possible interpretation of
the significance of the burrow in the x-radiograph.

Frame A. Organisms during a normal day of burrowing mined the gray

sediment, which was probably deposited in a dysaerobic
environment. Burrowing was facilitated by the presence of easily
penetrated flocculated clay substrate. Any original lamination was
destroyed at this time along with parallelism of clay flakes.
Below the gray sediment was black organic mud with its original
laminae and preferred orientation. Anaerobic conditions prevailed
in this organic-rich zone. H2S generated in this zone played an
important role in contemporaneous pyrite fonnation (shown by
diamond symbol).

Frame B. The x-radiograph shows that an organism tunneled down through

the gray mud to produce a burrow approximately 0.5 mm wide.
Tunneling deeper, apparently the organism approached more reduced
sediment. However, in this case, less than a centimeter below the
sediment-water interface highly anoxic conditions existed in the
area (shown by the diamonds).

Frame C. Upon penetrating this reduced zone, the burrower was surprised
when it encountered the top of the anaerobic sediment rich in H2S.

Frame D. The organism may have quickly stopped tunneling and retreated
vertically, digging another escape burrow in the overlying safer,
more oxygenated sediment. Notice the abrupt tum in the lower
segment of the burrow. Alternately, the shape of the burrow could
have been distorted by later compaction of the sediment
(flocculated?). What is clear, however, is that burrowing did not
proceed into the anoxic sediment of the black mud because of
restricted conditions. This example illustrates that macro- and
micro-fabric analysis provides another way to view the details of
geological history.

54
 Start of a Normal Day Routine Tunneling
-----~

!
J

8
The Surprise! The Escape!

c o Cartoon by T. G. O'BRIEN

55
 CHAPTER 6
CASE STUDIES OF FABRIC ANALYSIS IN EVALUATING
SEDIMENTARY PROCESSES AND ENVIRONMENTS
MARINE REGRESSIONAL FACIES Whole Rock Composition lYl.....!&
Quartz 40
HUSHPUCKNEY SHALE MEMBER (Swope Fonnation, Pennsylvanian) Adair K-Feldspar 2
County, Iowa. Plagioclase Feldspar 4
This example shows changes in shale fabric associated with a marine regression. Calcite 10
The Upper Pennsylvanian megacyclothems illustrate the numerous marine Dolomite 15
transgressions and regressions that occurred in the Midcontinent region of North Pyrite 4
America. The regressive phase of a cycle in this example is represented by a Layer Silicates 25
shoaling-upward sequence of black shale overlain by gray shale, in turn, overlain by llite-S mectite 42
marine limestone. Shown here is how fabric changes vertically with environmental Illite-Mica 44
changes. Chlorite 14
Black Pennsylvanian shales of megacyclothems of the Midcontinent (like the
Hushpuckney) are thought to have been deposited in deep water at times of maximum TOCJrnost o!&.anic-rich~art~ 20.8
marine inundation (Schutter and Heckel, 1985). Heckel (1977) indicates that the black
shale facies, lacking benthic fossils, represents anoxic conditions which developed Macrofabric: The Hushpuckney shale in this example is approximately one meter
when vertical water circulation was eliminated by thennocline development as the sea thick interbedded between two limestones. It grades vertically upwards from black
extended over large parts of the shelf during the maximum stand of sea level. Later, well laminated shale to a dark gray shale with poorly developed fissility, then to a
as sea level dropped, a typical shoaling-upward sequence fonned. light gray bioturbated mudstone.
Sedimentary Environment: Transition from deep anaerobic to shelf aerobic marine
water. A. In x-radiograph the black portion of the shale exhibits well developed
Significant Features: Lamination, bioturbation, systematic vertical change in fabric. lamination. The laminae are laterally continuous but vary in thickness.
Geology: The vertical fabric change reflects a change in sedimentary conditions with Compositional variation is indicated by tonal differences. Scale = 1 cm. Used
time. Fabrics along with paleontologic and stratigraphic data support a change with pennission SPEM (Society for Sedimentary Geology).
from a deeper water sea (black shale) to the more shallow shelf conditions (light
gray mudstone). The lamination and parallel particle orientation of the black B. This is a polished section of the surface of the light gray mudstone. Fossil
shale is a good clue that the original primary shale fabric was not altered by fragments are apparent. Notice the highly mottled nature indicative of
post-depositional mixing. Although fabric does not offer a clue to water depth, extensive bioturbation. Scale = I cm.
well developed primary laminae coupled with the high organic content, does
indicate anoxic bottom conditions. A change in these conditions with time Microfabric: Photos C, D and E show vertical changes in the shale sequence.
occurred as evidenced by the gradual vertical modification from preferred to
random fabric along with a change in rock color from black to light gray. The C. SEM micrograph shows the black shale is mainly composed of "organic hash."
highly random light gray portion of the unit provides evidence that the sediment Parallelism of particles prevails. Scale = 10 1J.II1. Used with pennission
was extensively mixed by infaunal organisms which inhabited the more SPEM (Society for Sedimentary Geology).
oxygenated shallow shelf environment Fabric data is used here as an important
supplement in assessing environmental conditions. D. This SEM micrograph of the dark gray shale is more "clayey-organic" in
appearance. The sample occurs at the top of the black shale in the transition
zone with the overlying bioturbated light gray shale. Silt (arrow) is also
present. A gross parallelism of platy material exists indicating primary fabric
has been only slightly disrupted. Scale = 10 1J.II1.

E. Randomness of fabric is seen in this SEM micrograph of the light gray upper
part of the Hushpuckney unit. Compare this bioturbated fabric with that
shown in earlier sections on Bioturbation. Macrofabric data from the polished
section also aid in interpreting bioturbation in this sample.

58
 MARINE REGRESSIONAL FACIES

/
...., /
_-_ / /B
J

-
-- - --
/
~---
W
..J
<
:z::
en --
)0-
w
Z
l.:
o
::)
a.
:z::
en
::)
J:

59
MARINE TRANSGRESSIONAL FACIES preservation of lamination and preferred particle orientation in the black shale
(Figs. C and E). Thus, the petrographic and microfabric details of these two
RHINESTREET MEMBER (West Falls Formation) and CASHAQUA MEMBER shales reveal important clues in interpreting a marine transgressive sequence.
(Sonyea Formation) (Devonian), Wyoming County, New York.
Fabric variations in shales also record a transgressive event of the Devonian sea Whole Rock CQmPQsition
in New York State. In this example, the fabrics associated with basin, slope and shelf ~
facies illustrate progressively changing environmental conditions from anaerobic to Green Gray
dysaerobic to aerobic. During Late Devonian time there were numerous phases of
CllShll9ull CllShll9Yll Rhin!<Sl!~t
deposition with deltaic (Catskill Delta) progradation alternating with transgression of
the Devonian sea. During transgression, anaerobic conditions (represented by black
Quartz 33 35 33
shale) shifted laterally toward the east (shore) so that the aerobic shelf became fIrst
K-Feldspar <1 1 1
dysaerobic, then anaerobic. Byers (1977) traced the Middlesex Shale unit (Devonian)
laterally from western to eastern New York and found lithologic changes which
Plagioclase Feldspar 4 6 9
Calcite 4 3 1
support this interpretation - "... the main basin remained in an anaerobic state, even
Pyrite 2 3
while aerobic conditions prevailed on the shelf... " A marine transgression is one
Layer Silicates 58 54 53
explanation for the vertical lithologic changes in the Upper Devonian. Shown here
are the shale fabrics which reflect this transgression.
IlIite-Mica 77 77 79
Kaolinite 2 3 3
The Cashaqua Shale grades vertically from a poorly fissile, green shale to a Chlorite 21 20 18
moderately fIssile gray shale in the Wyoming County, New York Section. It has a
dominant pelagic fauna with few infaunal forms, although trace fossils are common. TOC 0.8 0.6 3.6
The overlying black Rhinestreet shale is very fIssile, fInely laminated, and contains
few fossils.
Sedimentary Environment: Marine-shelf (aerobic); slope (dysaerobic); basin
(anaerobic). A. A photomicrograph of a thin-section of the green Cashaqua shale reveals its
Significant Features: Vertical fabric change associated with organic carbon and shale highly bioturbated nature. Scale = 0.1 mm. Plane light.
color change.
Geology: The change in fabric from randomness of particles at the base of the B. Well preserved "thick" lamination is common in the gray upper Cashaqua
Cashaqua to preferred particle orientation in the overlying Rhinestreet Shale
shale. Photomicrograph shows evidence of current lamination with low angle
results from a progressive decrease in biogenic activity resulting from a change
cross-bedding. Scale = 0.1 mm. Plane light.
in sedimentary environment. Bioturbation, prominent in the lower Cashaqua,
occurred on the shelf in well-oxygenated water where organisms mixed the
C. Well developed "fine" lamination prevails in the Rhinestreet black shale. Scale
sediment and destroyed the primary fabric, producing the fabric observed in =0.1 mm. Plane light.
figures A and D. Byers (1977) indicated the Devonian sea in the study area was
density stratified, producing an oxygen depletion in the deeper part of the basin.
D. SEM microphotograph of random bioturbated fabric typical of the green
As the sea transgressed, the depositional area represented here became more re-
Cashaqua shale. The arrow points to a silt-size quartz grain. Scale = 10 J.Illl.
stricted in oxygen content. The gray portion of the Cashaqua represents the
marginally oxygenated environment (dysaerobic condition) which developed
E. SEM microphotograph of preferred orientation at the base of the black fIssile
upon deepening. That bioturbation ceased or was greatly restricted is indicated
Rhinestreet shale. Scale =10 J.Illl.
by the preservation of original shale fabric (see lamination in figure B). Appar-
ently, oxygen levels were still sufficient to allow organic matter to decompose
(note the lower TOC values of the Cashaqua shale).
It is interpreted that, with further deepening of the sea, sediment was
deposited in an oxygen deficient environment and the black Rhinestreet Shale
formed under deeper basin conditions. Under these anoxic conditions organic
matter was preserved (e.g. TOC = 3.6%) and biogenic activity ceased, allowing

60
 MARINE TRANSGRESSIONAL FACIES

RHINESTREET ~

-
-
_- -j
__ ID

- - C
>
co:
a:
u

- -
CASHAQUA E
- -

- -
}m. Z
W
w
a:
u
- -
B
~

-
A D

61
FLOODPLAIN·PALEOSOL FACIES WhQl!< Ro!;k CQmllo~ition A B C D
9320 9460 9484 9875.2
IVISHAK SANDSTONE (Triassic) Prudhoe Bay Field, North Slope, Alaska. Wt% Wt % Wt % Wt %
The Ivishak Sandstone of the Sadlerochit Group is a fluvio-deltaic deposit
comprised of sandstones, conglomerates and shales (Atkinson et al., 1988). This Quartz 33 43 41 36
sandstone produces oil at Prudhoe Bay Field, the largest oil and gas field in North Plagioclase 1 1 1 3
America, with original reserves in place of over 22 billion barrels of oil and 40 Dolomite - 1 Tr -
trillion cubic feet of gas. Facies in the field include (1) subaerial, fluvially-dominated Siderite 10 1 7 29
coastal plain, (2) transitional, fluvio-marine deltaic, and (3) marine reworked Total Silicates 55 55 51 33
transgressive shelf deposits, each characterized by a different suite of sedimentary Illite-Smectite 53 24 43 22
textures, structures, and stratification sequences. Illite-Mica 21 46 30 58
Core samples described below are from well DS-3-1 0 of Atkinson et al. (1988) Kaolinite 24 26 24 18
Floodplain/Pond facies association. The rocks are mainly siltstones which were Chlorite 2 3 3 2
deposited in low physical energy environments marginal to active stream cour~ in a
floodplain setting. Rocks range in color from dark brown-grey to red-brown owmg to TOC 0.9 0.6 0.7 .2
variable iron mineral content They often possess a distinct color mottling attributed
to development of soil profiles typical of modem-day floodplains where sedimentation A-B. SEM micrographs of the random microfabric in silty mudstone. A = channel
rates are relatively high and groundwater levels fluctuate seasonally. The more mature abandonment mudstone (sample 9320) and B =unmodified floodplain mudstone
paleosols exhibit increased levels of mottling and more intense red coloration than (sample 9460). Scale = 10 ~.
immature paleosols.
Sedimentary Environment: Floodplain. C-D. SEM micrographs of very random microfabric of paleosols developed upon the
Significant Features: Remnant lamination found in floodplain mudstones, but a lack fluvial muds. The paleosols are finer-grained and lack abundant quartz grains
of lamination in paleosols at the thin-section scale; random fabric found in mudstones compared to the channel and floodplain mudstones. C = immature paleosols
and paleosols at the SEM scale. (sample 9484.9) and D = mature paleosol (sample 9875.2) Scale = 1O~.
Geology: Floodplain mudstones exhibit primary laminations at the thin-section scale,
which is destroyed during soil formation. At the SEM scale, floodplain E-F. Thin-section views showing the contrast between macrofabrics of unaltered
mudstones appear to exhibit a primary random fabric, which becomes mudstone and paleosol. Notice the mottled nature of both samples. E =
progressively more random during soil formation. Paleosols are finer-grained, channel abandonment mudstone (sample 9320). F = immature paleosol
perhaps owing to soil-forming processes. (sample 9484). Remnant lamination is observed in the unaltered mudstone (E),
whereas soil-forming processes have destroyed this lamination in the paleosol
(F). Scale 1 mm. Plane light.

62
 FLOODPLAIN -PALEOSOL

A c

B D

63
EVAPORITE FACIES Whole Rock Composition ID...%
Great Clear Bristol
GREAT SALT LAKE (pleistocene-Holocene) Great Salt Lake, Utah; BRISTOL SaItLake MFm ~
DRY LAKE (pliocene-Holocene) San Bernadino, County, California; CLEAR
FORK FORMATION (permian) Swisher County, Texas.
Quartz ~ 28 24
This section displays the common microfabric in mudstones of evaporite
facies. The fabric of the Great Salt Lake sample shown is from sediment K-Feldspar 1 4 13
between 14,500 and 12,700 year B.P. in a saline lake of shallow restrictive Plagioclase 1 8
circulation (Spenser et aI., 1984). The Bristol Dry Lake mudstone was deposited Calcite 15 0.0 6
by sheetflood and by suspension settling from ponded floodwater in a closed Dolomite 8 1
basin playa setting with ephemeral or perennial shallow saline lakes (Rosen, Siderite 11
1989). Age dating of adjacent tephra indicates the Bristol Dry Lake mudstones Pyrite
were deposited 2-3 million years B.P. The third example, the Clear Fork Halite 19 42
Formation of the Permian Basin, was deposited in an ancient coastal-sabkha salt Aragonite 10
pan environment (Handford, 1981). Presley and McGillis (1982) describe Gypsum 2
portions of the unit as forming on a low relief supratidal or evaporite plain that Total Layer Silicates 24 17 46
contained standing water (Le., a brine pan environment). Horvorka (pers. Illite-Smectite 77 26 22
comm~nication, 1986) emphasizes evaporite deposition in shallow, areally
extensIve, marine marginal "brine pools" in which mudstones were occasionally Illite-Mica 17 34 33
deposited. Kaolinite 3 3
Sedimentary Environments: Evaporite-continenlal-sabkha-brine pan; coaStal- Chlorite 2 10 4
sabkha salt pan; saline lake. Corrensite 30
Significant Feature: Random microfabric of flocculated clay. Quartz 2
Geology: The samples in this evaporite suite all reveal the random particle Gypsum 31
fabric of primary flocculated clay. Figures A and B illustrate this fabric for
Great Salt Lake mudstone. The sediments are conspicuously laminated in TOC 2.1 0.21 0.1
hand sample, which indicates a lack of bioturbation and a primary
flocculated fabric of the sediment. The random fabric (Fig. C) found in
laminated mudstone of the Clear Fork Formation is also a good indicator of
A. SEM micrograph showing the random fabric of flocculated Great Salt Lake
p~i"!ar~ deposition and preservation of floccules. There is a striking
SImIlarIty between the flocculated fabric of the Clear Fork and of the sediment. Arrow shows typical floccules; Q points to a quartz grain.
Bristol Dry Lake mudstone (Fig. D). Scale = 10 1ll1l.
All of the examples illustrate that the typical microfabric of mudstone
in an evaporite environment is characterized by an open texture of randomly B. SEM micrograph of flocculated Great Salt Lake clay. Scale = IO Ilm.
oriented clay flakes--a fabric produced by the deposition of flocculated clay
in saline water. This fabric is contrasted to the preferred particle orientation C. SEM micrograph showing the fabric of Clear Fork Formation mudstone.
found in shales from various open-marine environments. Arrows point to flocculated clay masses. Notice the zones of face-to-face
flocculation. Scale = IO 1ll1l.

D. SEM micrograph of Bristol Dry Lake mudstone. Arrow points to

floccules. Scale = IO Ilm.

64
 EVAPORITE ENVIRONMENT

A c

B D

65
TIDAL FLAT FACIES mudstone (see arrow in Fig. G). We suggest this orientation resulted from
shearing and disruption of the clay flocs by current action at the sediment-water
RED BED MEMBERS, MOENKOPI FORMATION (Lower Triassic) Clark interface (see Figure N), however more observations and experiments are needed
County, southern Nevada. to confirm this process.
The Moenkopi Formation in southern Nevada and on the adjacent Colorado Disruption of fabric in a turbated mudstone is attributed by Reif and Slat!
Plateau represents a gradual transition from continental fluvial sedimentation in (1979) to churning of sediment by burrowing organisms, desiccation, growth of
Arizona through intertidal and shallow marine deposition in western Nevada and Utah gypsum crystals which nucleated within the sediment, and/or erosion and
(Reif and Slat!, 1979). The red bed members in Clark County are muddy tidal flat redeposition of sediment prior to lithification. The features illustrated in figures
sediments deposited in a tectonically stable area of very low relief and arid climate. G-K are due to soft sediment slumping, evaporite mineral growth, and
The Triassic environment is analogous to the upper surface of the modem Colorado desiccation in high intertidal to supratidal environments where exposure and
River Delta and the Hwang Ho Delta of China. Seven lithofacies comprise the red evaporation are common (no definite bioturbation fabrics are present in these
bed members of the Moenkopi Formation. They range from laminated mudstone, samples).
medium- to thick-bedded sandstone, thin- to medium-bedded sandstone, turbated Numerous sedimentary processes and post-depositional processes operate in
sandstone to mudstone, gypsum, limestone, and dolomite. Detailed fabric analysis of the tidal flat environment and fabric analysis of mudstones provides one means
the laminated and turbated mudstone lithofacies are presented in this section. to determine them. For example, some tidal flat mudstones in our example have
Sedimentary Environment: Muddy tidal flat a characteristic macrofabric of fine lamination with zones of lenticular cross-
Significant Features: Well preserved fine laminations, lenticular cross laminae, bedding. Others show modified macrofabrics indicated by convolute lamination
preferred orientation of particles in clay lamination, random orientation of particles in and/or disrupted lamination. In addition, micro fabric varies with process.
convolute bed, original clay floccule and evaporite minerals within mudstone. Preferred orientation in clay laminae indicates reorientation of particles in the
Geology: The sedimentary structures pictured above in thin section are common to original flocculated sediment by bottom flowing currents. At times these
tidal flat deposits and have been described in the literature (Wunderlich, 1967; currents mixed or resuspended bottom sediment sufficiently to alter its fabric and
Thompson, 1968; Reif and Slatt, 1979). PIN-STRIPE TIDAL BEDDING produced zones of random particle orientation. The latter orientation also
represents high intertidal to shallow subtidal deposition of fine sediment from resulted from sediment slumping or desiccation and evaporite mineral growth.
suspension in the presence of currents and sufficient coarser-grained bedload In summary, microfabrics of tidal deposits indicate current actio'! which tends to
sediment (silt) to form ripples. With diminishing tidal current intensity, ripple produce oriented clay fabric in clay-rich tidal sediments, whereas slumping,
crests become bevelled, forming horizontal laminae. High sedimentation rates desiccation, and salt growth reorient the primary fabric and produce a more
inhibit bioturbation. TIDAL BEDDING is produced in a similar manner, but in random particle orientation.
the transition zone between intertidal and high tidal mud flats where current
activity is more intense and coarser-grained sediment is carried in suspension, WhQle RQ!;;k CQml2Q[2itiQn A D G H J
giving rise to thicker silt laminae. CONVOLUTE BEDDING is produced by Wt.% :w..t...!& .w.t....% .w.t....% .w.t....%
post-depositional slumping of unconsolidated mud, as along tidal channel walls. Quartz 72 57 44 56 45
GYPSUM crystals are the product of evaporation of saline water in an arid K-Feldspar 12 14 12 16
environment
At the SEM scale, preferred particle orientation of platy minerals is well
Dolomite 4 10 Z7
developed in most clay laminae and is significant in suggesting another Calcite 11 23
mechanism for the development of argillaceous rock fabric different from the Gypsum 22
mechanism of compaction of flocculated clay due to overburden pressure Hematite 2
(discussed in previous sections of this Atlas). It is reasonable to assume that the Layer Silicates 12 19 18 18 6
original clayey sediment was transported in this hypersaline tidal flat Illite-Mica 88 81 85 89
environment as floccules. Photograph L demonstrates that some of the original Chlorite 12 19 15 11
floccules (arrows) escaped deformation and were preserved in a clay lamina (fabric
shown in Fig. L is from a tidal bedded mudstone, Fig. D). Photograph M, TOe 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.2 0.1
however, shows the more common preferred orientation found in laminated
zones. This fabric is preserved in the well laminated portion of a turbated

66
A. Thin-section photomicrograph of pin-stripe tidal bedding of a laminated N. A model suggesting a possible process of disruption of clay fabric at sediment-
mudstone showing alternations of light-colored silt laminae and darker clay water interface by bottom-flowing currents.
laminae. Note the cross laminations. Scale = 0.1 mm. Plane light

B. SEM micrograph showing random microfabric of a typical silt lamina in a

mudstone with pin-stripe lamination. Scale = 10 Jlffi.

c. SEM micrograph showing preferred orientation of particles within a typical clay

lamina in mudstone possessing pin-stripe lamination. Scale = 10 Jlffi.

D. Thin-section photomicrograph of tidal bedding in mudstone (similar to pin-stripe

tidal bedding, but with thicker laminae) showing cross-lamination (see arrow),
with light-colored silt laminae and darker colored clay laminae. Note the bipolar
lateral thinning of silt laminae. Scale = 0.1 mm. Plane light.

E. SEM micrograph showing preferred orientation of particles in clay laminae in

tidal bedded sample. Scale = 10 Jlffi. Plane light.

F. SEM micrograph showing random fabric silt laminae of tidal bedded sample.
Scale = 10 mm. Plane light.

G. Thin-section photomicrograph of a turbated mudstone showing disrupted

laminations (small arrow) above a well laminated, ripple-bedded zone (large
arrow). Scale = 0.1 mm. Plane light.

H. Thin-section photomicrograph of convolute bedding (arrow) above a ripple-

bedded siltstone. Scale = 0.1 mm. Plane light

1. SEM micrograph showing random orientation of particles within the convolute

bed. Scale = 10 Jlffi.

J. Thin-section photomicrograph of gypsum crystals (arrows) scattered within a

turbated mudstone. Scale = 0.1 mm. Plane light.

K. SEM micrograph of a gypsum crystal (arrow) that has grown within a turbated
mudstone. Scale = 100 Jlffi.

L. SEM micrograph of a clay floccule (arrow) within a clay lamina in a tidal bedded
sample (see Fig. D). Scale = I Jlffi.

M. SEM micrograph of preferred orientation within a clay lamina in a well

laminated zone of a turbated mudstone like that shown in Fig. G. Scale = IJ.Lm.

67
TIDAL FLAT

68
 TIDAL FLAT

G I

,
H : J
69

69
 TIDAL FLAT

70
N

71
SHALLOW MARINE SHELF FACIES Variations in the current velocity or geochemical conditions on the shelf
could have been responsible for diminishing biogenic activity during the
WILCOX GROUP (Lower Eocene) Webb County, Texas. time this shale was deposited. Preferred orientation (Figure F) and laminae
This section shows the fabrics associated with a shallow marine shelf facies. (Figure G) indicate less sediment mixing than that shown in previous
The Wilcox Group in southwest Texas occurs as a thick sequence of alternating examples and further restriction on sediment mixing by organisms.
siltstone and shales, containing packets of fine to very fine sandstones; Bioturbation is not the only process operating in the shallow shelf
individual beds can be as thick as 6 m, but are usually less than 60 cm thick environment that may influence shale fabric. The disruption of laminae
(Boles and Franks, 1979). Sandstones are commonly burrowed and bioturbated. shown in Figure H is interpreted as resulting from reworking of the
Paleontological data indicate a generally shallow-marine brackish setting ranging original mud layers by bottom currents. No visible burrows or other
from prodelta to delta front, distributary channel and interdistributary bay evidence of extensive sediment mixing are present. The similarity of this
environments. Presented here is a suite of the fabrics common to the shaly macrofabric to slightly convolute lamination suggests postdepositional
members of the Wilcox Group formed in the inner neritic sedimentary distortion by bottom current activity.
environment. This unit illustrates the diversity of fabrics associated with a shale
The Wilcox siltstone-shale sequence also has been the focus of a study facies in a shallow marine shelf where many sedimentary processes operate.
relating clay diagenesis to sandstone cemetation (Boles and Franks, 1979). The Additional evidence of this observation is given in the next example.
shales are quartzose and contain variable proportions and types of clay minerals
depending upon burial depth and temperature. With depth, discrete smectite Whole Rock Coml2osition Wt%
disappears, expandability of mixed layer illite-smectite diminishes, kaolinite SA SA SA SA P
diminishes, chlorite increases, and ankerite replaces calcite cement. These
reactions occur at different burial temperatures. Shale pore water, as well as
12700 ~ 1mOO ~ ~
dehydration water, is believed to have moved through the interbedded sandstones
Quartz 54 32 49 36 59
during burial.
Results are presented below for two wells, the #2 Strom-Armstrong (SA) K-Feldspar 1 2
and the #1 Puig (P) (see Boles and Franks, 1979, for clay diagenesis details). Plagioclase 2 2 2 15
Sedimentary Environment: Shallow marine shelf. Calcite
Significant Features: Mixture of random and oriented microfabric; bioturbation Dolomite 2 2 2 2
fabric; preserved original lamination; contorted lamination due to current Siderite 1 10 1 1 1
activity. Pyrite 1 1 1 1 1
Geology: The most significant feature of these shallow marine shelf shales is Layer Silicates 40 53 46 60 23
the variety of both macrofabrics and microfabrics, which reflects variations Illite-Smectite 78 31 66 71 52
in sedimentary processes operating in the shelf environment. For example, Illite-Mica 13 36 22 21 37
extensive bioturbation is shown in Figures A, B, and C. The presence of Kaolinite 3 10 6
arenaceous agglutinated foraminifera in SA 12769 indicates a generally
muddy environment on the shallow part of the shelf (p. Thompson, pers.
Chlorite 6 24 13 9 6
comm., 1988). Apparently, this environment did not restrict the activity
of certain burrowing organisms. Bioturbated argillaceous rocks are TOC 1.0 1.3 1.2 1.4 1.4
characterized by randomness of clay platelets associated with abundant silt-
size quartz grains and this fabric is obvious in Figure C. The arrows in
Figure A show concentrations of grains in burrows. A distorted burrow in
Figure B is further evidence of extensive sediment mixing by organisms.
The diminished influence of bioturbation is illustrated in fabrics
shown in Figures D-H. Various degrees of preservation of the primary
shale fabric are represented. Preferred clay particle orientation is shown in
Figure D. However, this rock has been slightly affected by sediment
mixing as shown by the slight disruption of laminae (Figure E).

72
A. Thin-section photomicrograph of highly bioturbated shale (SA 12859).
Arrow points to sand-silt size quartz grains. Scale = llllll. Plane light.

B. Thin-section photomicrograph of burrow in bioturbated sample SA12769.

Notice that the burrow (arrow) is filled with light-colored fine sand-silt size
grains. Darker areas are clay. Plane light. Scale =1 Ilm.

C. SEM photomicrograph of a highly bioturbated shale (SA 12769) which

exhibits poor fissility. Notice quartz grains (arrows) surrounded by
randomly oriented clay flakes--a typical bioturbated microfabric. Scale = 10
Ilm.

D. Preferred orientation shown in a SEM photomicrograph of fissile dark gray

shale (SA 13854). Scale = 1 1lIll.

E. Thin-section photomicrograph of the same sample shown in D. Remnant

lamination is apparent. Notice the concentration of light-colored sand-silt
size grains in laminae marked by arrows. Scale = 1 1lIll. Plane light.

F. Well preserved preferred particle orientation shown in a SEM

photomicrograph of a well-laminated black shale (SA 13790). Scale = 1
Ilm.

G. Thin-section photomicrograph showing continuous laminae in the same

well-laminated shale shown in F. Scale = I Ilm. Plane light.

H. Contorted lamination possibly due to current activity (compare this fabric

to that of the highly bioturbated mudstone shown in Figs. A and B).
(P9565). Scale = 1 Ilm. Plane light.

73
 SHALLOW MARINE SHELF

A c

B D

74
 SHALLOW MARINE SHELF

H
F

75
SHALLOW MARINE SHELF FACIES Whole Rock CornI2osition Wt%
~ fffi!
KUPARUK RIVER FORMATION (Lower Cretaceous) Kuparuk Field, North
Slope, Alaska. Quartz 2) :r7
A suite of shallow marine shelf fabrics is presented here for the Kuparuk K-Feldspar 3 1
River Formation.
Plagioclase 2 2
The giant Kuparuk oil field is located on the southern flank of the Barrow
Arch, northern Alaska, between the Colville and Prudhoe Bay structural highs Siderite 1
(Gaynor and Scheihing, 1988). The reservoir consists of sandstones within the Pyrite 3 3
Kuparuk River Formation of Valanginian to Hauterivian age (Lower Layer Silicates 63 5'5
Cretaceous). The formation is comprised of two distinct depositional sequences Illite-Smectite 32 ~
separated by a major regional unconformity. Sandstones beneath the Illite-Mica 28 42
unconformity are comprised of several upward-coarsening, lenticular units. Kaolinite 35 3)
Based upon preservation of excellent suites of sedimentary structures in both Chlorite 6 3
sandstones and associated shales, they are interpreted to have been deposited
during regressive phases of shelf sedimentation by storm-driven along-shelf TOC 1.2 1.7
currents. In contrast, sandstones above the unconformity are comprised of
highly bioturbated, glauconitic sandstones and siltstones interpreted to have been
deposited on a shelf during marine transgression. A. SEM micrograph of a bioturbated portion of a silty mudstone showing
The two samples described below are from a 6.1-m-thick shale interval typical patchy random particle orientation. Scale = 10 J..lIl1. Well KRU-
within the regressive deposits beneath the major unconformity. The shale IA-l3, Sample 6853.
separates two coarsening-upward sandstone sequences. Foraminifera found in the
samples include Ammobaculites Jragmentarious Cushman, A. wenonahae B. SEM micrograph of a silty shale showing preferred particle orientation of a
Tappan, Haplophragmoides topagorukensis Tappan, and Trochamimina partially bioturbated siltstone. Scale = 10 ~m. Well KRU-IA, Sample
rainwateri Cushman and Applin (p. Thompson, 1989, pers. comm.). Although 6855.
these genera were not abundant in the samples, some inferences can be made
concerning depositional environment. The specimens are all quite small, C. Thin-section photomicrograph of the bioturbated sample shown in A.
suggesting a stressed environment. Modem analogs of these genera in the Gulf Notice the lack of lamination. Scale = 1 mm. Plane light.
of Mexico are typical of brackish, nearshore environments, possibly tidal marsh
or inner shelf. D. Thin-section photomicrograph of the partially bioturbated siltstone sample
Sedimentary Environments: Marine, inner shelf. shown in B. The upper large arrow points to a zone of disrupted,
Significant Features: Lamination and bioturbated fabrics. bioturbated lamination, whereas the original undisturbed laminae are
Geology: Fabrics associated with marine shelf depositional processes are preserved in the lower part of the sample (smaller arrow). Scale = 1 mm.
illustrated in this example. These include current laminations, which give Plane light.
rise to preferred particle orientation at the microfabric scale, and
bioturbation, which destroys preferred orientation and gives rise to random E. Thin-section photomicrograph showing a moderately bioturbated zone.
microfabric. Marine currents apparently were sufficiently strong to Scale = 1 mm. Plane light.
disaggregate original clay f10ccules as they were being deposited, leading to
the preferred orientation seen in photograph B. Evidence of current
lamination is seen in the lower portion (small arrow) of Figure D. The
random microfabric shown in Figures A, C, and E is evidence of biogenic
activity.

76
 SHALLOW MARINE SHELF

n _ __

B
E

77
DELTA COMPLEX FACIES and environments, which impart recognizable features used in
sedimentological interpretations.
ARGILLACEOUS UNITS OF THE FERRON SANDSTONE MEMBER
(Mancos Fonnation, Cretaceous) Emery County, Utah. References: Thompson (1985), Thompson et aI., (1986), O'Brien and Slatt
Macro- and micro fabrics (revealed in thin-section photomicrographs and (1988).
SEM micrographs, respectively) reflect changes of sedimentary environments
and processes. This example of clayey units from the Ferron Sandstone (ARCO Whole Rock Composition: Wt. %
core 82-6; Thompson, 1985; Thompson et al., 1986) shows the different fabrics A* B* C D* E F
of shelf, shoreface, and progradational deltaic wedge facies.
During Jurassic and Cretaceous times, a major north-south trending Western Quartz 72 50 46 50 82 80
Interior Seaway occupied the interior of the North American Continent. K-Feldspar 2 2 2 2 3 3
Sediment from the Cordillera to the west was deposited in the basin, fonning Plagioclase Feldspar 4 2 2 1 1 1
clastic wedges of fluvio-deltaic, marginal marine, and shelf sedimentary facies. Calcite 0 7 18 1 0 2
Fabrics of clayey units associated with the Last Chance delta lobe in Castle Dolomite 11 20 14 31 0 0
Valley, Utah (Thompson et aI., 1986) are shown in this example. Influencing Pyrite 2 2 0 2 2 0
these fabrics were waves, stonns, tides, rivers and burrowing organisms. Layer Silicates 11 16 18 13 12 14
Sedimentary environments represented are illustrated in the diagram and Illite-Smectite 14 27 13 9 13 39
labeled A-F. IIIite-Mica 26 18 22 25 21 18
Sedimentary Environment: Prograding delta complex Kaolinite 49 35 40 49 54 33
Significant FeatW'es: Variation in particle size and fabric associated with various Chlorite 11 19 25 16 12 10
sedimentary processes.
Geology: Thompson et al. (1986) indicated that in the Last Chance delta TOC 1.5 1.5 2.8 4.4 4.8 0.2
complex, shelf sediments were reworked by currents and bioturbating
organisms. Tidal currents and shelf turbidity currents could also have * Average values of numerous samples from these environments.
influenced sediment transport. Sample A is from an open-shelf
environment. The influence of bioturbation is apparent in the randomness
of the fabric. The conspicuous laminations shown in Figures Band C are
representative of current lamination as suggested by Thompson et al. for
the prodelta shelf environment. The lamination and preferred orientation
of the fine-grained sediments in B and C are interpreted as the result of
shelf currents prevailing off the mouth of a delta lobe. In this high energy
environment of turbid water, sediment mixing would be less due to the
restriction on biogenic activity; hence, original lamination fabric could be
preserved. Coarser sediments shown in D, E, and F are associated with
near shore deposits influenced more by fluvial processes. Sample F, for
example, contains relatively large quartz grains in a random matrix of clay
which indicates more rapid deposition of riverine sediments on the delta
plain (e.g. floodplain or crevasse splay).
Sediment deposited farther away from crevasse splays and washover
fans in interdistributary bays exhibit a fabric influenced both by riverine
and wave, storm, and tidal processes. Samples D and E maintain a faint
lamination (either the remnants of imperfect current lamination and/or due
to partially bioturbated sediment) and moderately preferred particle
orientation (compare E2 to B2); however, the coarser grain size suggests
deposition closer to source.
In summary, the fabric and grain size of the argillaceous units in the
Ferron sequence vary vertically owing to changing sedimentary processes

78
 ENVIRONMENTS REPRESENTED IN CORE 82-6 Section Description and Fabric Signatures:
Thin section photomicrographs are shown in column Al to FI (AI-EI =
ENVrRONME TS REPRESENTED IN CORE 82-6 Plane light; FI = Crossed nicols), Scale = I mm. SEM micrographs are in
columns A2 to F2; Scale = 10 J.lm. Note: sample locations with respect to
sedimentary environments are indicated in the above diagram and in cross
sections (see arrow).

F A. (Fig. A-I) - A homogeneous fine-grained texture is exhibited in thin-sec-

tion. (Fig. A-2) - SEM analysis reveals randomness of platy material,
z E suggestive of bioturbation. Arrow points to quartz grain.
o
~c D B. (Fig. B-1) - Photomicrograph shows an alternation of dark-(organic-rich?)
and light colored (clay and silt) laminae interpreted by their thickness to
«
a:: C represent current laminations. (Fig. B-2) - Preferred orientation is well
t:J developed in the SEM photograph.
o
a: 8
Q. DELT AFRONT-PRODELTA C. (Fig. Col) - The same fabric as B, however notice the slight disruption of
A [IDrg laminae, possibly due to weak currents since mixing by bioturbation is
not indicated in the SEM, (Fig. C-2) - which also shows the fine nature
SHELF !AI and good sorting of the sediment, plus preferred orientation.

D.,E. Samples D and E have high average TOC values (4.4%-4.8%). Organic
lenses are shown by dark streaks at E) (arrow). SEM micrographs D2 and
E2 shl:"N quartz grains (small arrow) and zones of preferred orientation
(large arrow).

F. Both figures show the abundance of large quartz grains (arrows). The
small amount of clay present is randomly oriented.

79
 DEL TA COMPLEX

DEL TA COMPLEX

DELTA FRONT
PRODELTA

Cl C2

OFFSHORE - MARINE SHELF Bl B2

Al A2 ~-

80
 DEL TA COMPLEX
DELTA PLAIN

FLUVIAL - CREVASSE SPLAY

Fl F2

MARGINAL MARINE

INTERDISTRIBUTARY BAY

El E2

D2
81

81
SUBMARINE SLOPE FACIES sedimentation rates in a more distal hemipelagic environment would
promote oxidation and decomposition of organic matter.
MUDSTONE FACIES, COZY DELL FORMATION (Middle Eocene)
Santa Ynez Mountains, southern California.
The Cozy Dell Fonnation comprises several thousand feet of predominantly Whole Rock Composition Tan Mudstone Gray Mudstone
mudstone, generally considered to have been deposited in a submarine slope Wt% wt%
environment. A 120m thick stratigraphic section has been described by Slatt Quartz 31 23
and Thompson (1985) as consisting of a tan, ungraded mudstone facies and a K-Feldspar 10
6
gray, laminated mudstone facies with associated lenticular sandstones.
Plagioclase Feldspar Z3 21
Foraminifera within the mudstones indicate deposition in upper bathyal or slope
water depths of 150-500m. The various mudstone fabrics represented here show Calcite 2 3
the influence of processes operating in the marine slope environment. The Pyrite o 3
ungraded mudstone represents an upper slope hemipalagic deposit; whereas the Layer Silicates 38 35
laminated mudstone is an overbank deposit associated with channels on the Illite-Smectite o 48
slope. The depositional setting is analogous to the modem Mississippi River Illite-Mica 43 40
delta front. This settling is shown in Figure E along with interpretations of Kaolinite 2 4
processes and environments. Chlorite 3 9
Sedimentary Environment: Submarine slope. Chlorite-Smectite 52
Significant Features: Random orientation of particles within the tan, ungraded TOC 0.5 0.9
mudstone; laminae and oriented fabric of the gray laminated mudstone.
Geology: Macrofabrics of the two mudstone facies have been identified by Sian
and Thompson (1985) as comprising units of Stow and Shanmugan's
(1980) Mudstone Turbidite Facies. Figure E reconstructs environmental A. Thin section photomicrograph of tan, ungraded mudstone showing the
conditions and associated fabrics. The tan, ungraded mudstone (Figs. A, B) overall massive appearance with the exception of elongate, oriented black
is classified as T7 Ungraded Mud in the scheme of Stow and Shanmugan. organic particles. Scale 10 mm. Plane light.
Its fabric resulted from slow sedimentation either from the distal portion of
waning turbidity currents or by hemipelagic sedimentation in relatively B. SEM micrograph of tan, ungraded mudstone showing random fabric of
quiet water. Its random microfabric (Fig. B) records preservation of sample (Fig. A). Scale = 10 ~m.
primary clay flocs in quiet water of slow suspension settling and burial.
The gray laminated mudstone (Figs. C-D) is classified T2-T3 (Stow and C. Thin section photomicrograph of gray, laminated mudstone. Notice
Shanmugan) Thin Irregular to Regular Laminae. It resulted from conspicuous laminations. Scale=1O mm. Plane light.
deposition from more proximal muddy turbidity currents, which flowed
downslope and was deposited more rapidly (see the diagram on the next D. SEM micrograph of gray, laminated mudstone showing parallel orientation
page). Preferred orientation and parallel lamination characterize the gray of fabric. Small arrows point to quartz grains. Notice parallel clay flakes
mudstone which fonned from slope channel overbank sedimentation. (large arrow). Scale = 10 ~.
Orientation and lamination probably are a result of a process of shearing of
floccules by high energy bottom flowing turbidity currents, in a similar E. Reconstruction of environmental conditions and associated fabrics (A-D).
manner to that described earlier for Tidal Deposits of the Moenkopi
Formation.
Mineralogy and TOC contents support this interpretation. The higher
TOC and pyrite contents of the gray, laminated mudstone are interpreted to
be due to higher sedimentation rates and subsequent burial and preservation
of organic matter in a reducing environment. In contrast, lower

82
 SUBMARINE SLOPE

A c - ------'

B
83
MARINE TURBIDITE FACIES A. X-radiograph of thickly laminated shale. Scale = 1 cm. Box shows area
enlarged in Figure D.
HURON SHALE MEMBER (Ohio Shale Fonnation, Devonian) Gallia County,
Ohio. B. Series of SEM photomicrographs showing the vertical microfabric
Lamination is a prominent feature of shales and as the previous case study variation in individual laminae: (1) preferred particle orientation of a clay-
(Cozy Dell Formation) illustrated, may be formed by the turbidity current rich layer; silt is absent; (2) random orientation of clay and silt in
process. The example of the Huron Shale member provides more evidence of overlying silt and pyrite layer. Notice pyrite (black spots) in the upper
the role turbidity currents played in shale fonnation. Bottom flowing turbidity part of zone 2; (3) the upper part of zone 2 grades into the lower part of
currents impart characteristic features to coarser clastics such as graded bedding zone 3 showing less silt and the return to preferred orientation. Scale = 10
and various bedforms (e.g. sole markings, convolute lamination, etc.). This Ilm.
unit illustrates that a fine-grained argillaceous rock also may possess these
features. Fabric is used here to support a turbidite origin for this shale. C. Thin section photomicrograph showing lighter colored silt-rich layers
Sedimentary Environment: Marine, slope to basin. alternating with darker colored organic-rich clay layers. Notice the
Significant Features: Graded bedding, cut and fill structure undulating lower contact at the arrow indicating traction transport and
Geology: Fabric evidence suggests that the bottom-flowing turbidity current erosion by bottom flowing current.Scale = 0.1 mm. Plane light.
process could have been responsible for forming the Huron Shale.
Evidence of this process is revealed in graded bedding (Fig. B) and "cut and D. SEM enlargement showing the contact between silt layer 2 and the under-
fill" features (Figs. C and D) commonly associated with traction currents. lying clay layer 1. Notice mini-cut-and-fill feature (arrow). Fig. D is an
The alternation of coarse silt and finer clayey layers (Fig. A) results in the enlargement of the area shown in the box, Fig. A, and shows details of the
characteristic lamination of this shale and reflects episodic sedimentation contact between layer Bland B2. This contact suggests deposition of silt
due to periodic influxes of low density turbidity currents onto the slope or from slow moving bottom currents. Scale = 10 Ilm.
flowing out into the basin. The fine-grained nature of the shale also
suggests deposition from distal turbidites. Thus, detailed fabric analysis of
this shale provides evidence useful in supporting a turbidite origin.

Reference: Schwietering (1979).

Whole Rock Composition ID...%.

Quartz 36
K-Feldspar <1
Plagioclase Feldspar 5
Pyrite 5
Layer Silicates 54
Illite-Smectite 14
Illi te-Mica 74
Kaolinite 2
Chlorite 10

TOC 1.0 (composite)

0.8 (silt layer)
1.7 (dark organic la}'er)

84
 MARINE TURBIDITE

A -_....

85
DEEP MARINE TURBIDITE FACIES A. This SEM stereo-pair shows the randomness of the mudstone microfabric.
The large arrow points to a quartz grain in the 3-D viewing area. Platy
PICO FORMATION (Early Pliocene) Long Beach Unit, Wilmington Oil Field, minerals (dominantly clay) are oriented at various angles in this random
Los Angeles Basin, California. fabric (small arrows). Notice clumps of clays occur in packets of face-face
The Long Beach Unit of the giant Wilmington oil field consists of hundreds oriented platelets. Scale = I JlITl.
of meters of Miocene-Pliocene age sediments deposited in the northwest-
southeast trending, structurally complex and highly petroliferous Los Angeles B. SEM micrograph illustrating randomness of platy minerals intermixed with
Basin. The Pico and Puente formations, which occur near the top of the large silt-size quartz grains (large arrow). Scale = 1 JlITl.
reservoir interval, were deposited in lower middle to upper middle bathyal water
depths (500-2000 m) as a series of sediment gravity-flow deposits (Slatt et al., C. Thin-section photomicrograph of the sample in A-B showing a lack of
1988). Thick stratigraphic intervals of mudstone separate intervals of thick- lamination and poor sorting of turbidite mudstone. Arrows show silt- and
bedded to thin-bedded turbidite sands. Shown here are the macrofabric and sand-size quartz grains. The darker matrix is dominantly clay. Scale = 1
micro fabric characteristics, representative of deep marine turbidite mudstone mm. Plane light.
(sample from 1068m, well B756I).
Sedimentary Environment: Deep marine turbidite (bathyal depth).
Significant Features: Random macrofabric and microfabric.
Geology: The obvious randomness of fabric shown in the photographs is
characteristic of silty turbidite mudstones. O'Brien et al. (1980) found a
random clay flake orientation in Pliocene and Holocene turbiditic siltstones
from the Boso Peninsula, Japan, indicating that the clay was flocculated,
probably due to its high concentration in the turbidity flow. This well-
indurated, dark, greenish black mudstone contains few burrows or trace
fossils, so the fabrics observed are associated with primary turbidite
depositional processes. Burial and compaction of the flocculated clay
apparently has not reoriented the particles.
Note the similarity of this turbidite mudstone fabric to that of the
Devonian Huron Shale example. Both show numerous silt-size grains in a
random clay matrix. The highest degree of randomness in both samples is
found in siltier portions. Our observation is that randomness of fabric
increases with silt content

Whole Rock Composition

Quartz 17
K-Feldspar 4
Plagioclase 12
Calcite 5
Pyrite 3
Clinoptilolite 1
Layer Silicates 59
Illite-Smectite 40
Illite-Mica 50
Kaolinite 11
Chlorite
TOC 5.7

86
 DEEP MARINE TURBIDITE

B
c

87
MARINE BASINAL FACIES parallel contacts seem to be supported by this mechanism. Details of this
process are described further by O'Brien (1989).
GENESEO SHALE MEMBER (Genesee Fonnation, Devonian) It is clear, however, that the laminae in this organic-rich marine shale
Ontario County, New York. reveal alternating depositional processes.
In two previous case studies (TIDAL FLAT-Moenkopi Fm. and
SUBMARINE SLOPE-Cozy Dell Fm.), mechanisms were discussed which are Whole Rock Composition:
responsible for fonnation of lamination in shale. Another example is presented
here which emphasizes the significance of the turbidity current process in shale Quartz 39
fonnation. The laminated Geneseo shale of the Appalachian Basin represents a K-Feldspar <1
marine basinal facies associated with the Late Devonian Catskill Delta Plagioclase Feldspar 5
Complex. Ettensohn (1985) indicated that organic-rich facies fonned in density- Calcite 2
stratified marine waters which produced anoxic bottom conditions. Additionally, Dolomite 4
evidence of turbidity current deposition is presented by Woodrow (1985). The Siderite 2
fabric of the Geneseo shale is described below and a possible mechanism for the Pyrite 5
origin of the fabric is illustrated in Figure D. Layer Silicates 44
Sedimentary Environment: Marine, anaerobic. Illite-Mica 76
Significant Features: Well preserved [me lamination. Kaolinite 2
Geology: One characteristic of this finely laminated Devonian black shale is Chlorite 22
that the silt laminae, composed of one to a few quartz grains, are aligned in
parallel layers (Figure A). The parallel character of laminae boundaries, TOC 3.7
plus the fine-grained nature of the rock, supports deposition in a quiet
environment, possibly far offshore and an absence of bottom flowing
currents. It is proposed that the alternating layers could be produced by a A. Thin-section photomicrograph showing light-colored silt laminae
detached turbid layer mechanism similar to that described by Drake (1971), alternating with darker organic-clay laminae (arrows point to typical fabric
Pierce (1976), and Stanley (1983). This mechanism is illustrated in Figure of each lamina seen in SEM).Scale = 1.0 mm. Plane light.
D. Ample evidence of coarser turbidites is found in clastic units elsewhere
in the Devonian section of New York. In this model dilute sediment B. SEM micrograph of the highly preferred particle orientation in a typical
gravity flows introduce fine-grained sediment into a density stratified organic clay layer. Scale = 10 11m.
marine basin. The period of each pulse of sediment is unknown
(seasonal?). The low density turbid layer flows over the pycnocline C. SEM micrograph showing typical microfabric of a silt layer (notice quartz
because of a density difference of the water (A in Figure D). The mass of grains, large arrow). Scale = 10 Ilffi.
fine suspended sediment in the low density turbid layer is unable to
overcome the density difference imposed by the pycnocline and flows D. Model for producing lamination by the detached turbid layer mechanism.
laterally basinward. At the most distal margins of the flow only the finest
silt and clay rain down from an already very dilute detached turbid layer (B B, C and D from O'Brien, 1989. With pennission of publisher, Northeastern
in Figure D). Previous to this episodic silty sedimentation, ongoing Geology.
hemipelagic sedimentation of clay and organics has resulted in an organic-
rich bottom sediment layer (B in Figure D). After silt deposition,
hemipelagic sedimentation still continues under the prevailing anaerobic
conditions (C in Figure D). A couplet of silt-clay laminae in the Geneseo
black shale thus could represent episodic sedimentation. Background sedi-
mentation of the organic-clay layers represents the time interval between
turbidity current deposition and silt represents the turbid layer event.
Alternating fine laminae of silt with organic-rich clay which exhibit

88
 MARINE BASIN

89
 MARINE BASIN

- - ~-
+0

..vCNQCUNE
~ -:
.'
•• A

•
•
•

c:>~
ORGANIC cu.v--::
• .-!, _ •••i •••••
SlLT'(:LAV. : ._~• • • • • •
c.-------
ORGANIC CLAV:::::::-=-_ C ORGANIC ~LAY~ '0-~ B

LAMINATION IN A DEVONIAN SHALE PRODUCED BY THE DETACHED TURBID LAYER MECHANISM

90
 CHAPTER 7
FORMATION OF SHALE BY COMPACTION OF
FLOCCULATED CLAY--A MODEL
FORMATION OF SHALE FABRIC BY COMPACTION OF cardhouse structure is characterized by random domains containing face-face
FLOCCULATED CLAY and edge-face oriented flakes and the abundance of voids (dark areas).
Flocculated clay has a low-density network of random particles leading to
Compaction is a major physical diagenetic process responsible for the final high porosity in this early sedimentation stage.
fabric in many argillaceous rocks. This chapter discusses the role of compaction
(mechanical rearrangement of particles) in shale formation. It is commonly B. After settling onto the seafloor, the clay cardhouses begin to compact,
agreed that most clay-rich sediment settles out in sea water as aggregates or partially by gravity but mostly due to the overburden pressure exerted by
floccules. The "flocculated model" (see section on PREFERRED PARTICLE the clay mass itself (stage B in diagram). Those aggregates not ripped apart
ORIENT ATION IN SHALE) shows how parallel particles result from an and resuspended by bottom currents begin the long burial process that will
original random orientation. Here, a model is described by which the flocculated result in shale. The orientation shown in the diagram in stage B and the
fabric of sediment may change into that of shale. Presented is a composite of corresponding SEM photograph (BI) present the possible fabric assumed to
SEM micrographs of clays of various orientations assembled to illustrate be present in the upper meter or so of flocculated clayey sediment.
hypothetical successive stages of shale formation. Although from different clays Aggregates at this stage are larger and more densely packed since they are
from different environments, the examples are useful in providing an idea of pushed closer together to form a mosaic of random particles. Significantly,
particle orientation at different stages of compaction. An actual case study of particle orientation is still random; however, voids (black areas in B I) are
fabric change with depth in marine sediment is presented by Bennett et al. less abundant, indicating partial expulsion of pore water. The clay mass is
(1979). denser, but is still composed of random particles in stage B..
It is our contention that shale fabric may form soon after deposition and
during burial as platy particles rotate to a parallel or subparallel orientation. In C. An important change takes place after stage B. Pore water continues to be
previous sections we described the role played by bottom flowing currents in expelled during compaction, facilitating movement of platy particles to a
shearing floccules and producing particle reorientation. Here we stress the role of more stable parallel orientation. The cardhouse fabric begins to collapse.
compaction due to overburden pressure. Rotation of particles due to overburden Reorientation proceeds through burial of tens of meters (?) in the upper
pressure is facilitated by the expulsion of pore water which acts as a lubricant for clay layers. Bennett et al. (1979) observed such fabric changes in
particle movement. This is the key in the shale-forming process. Porosity is Mississippi prodelta sediment and found strong preferred orientation from
reduced during compaction as silt and clay particles assume a denser arrangement. the original randomly oriented (flocculated?) clay at <120 meters depth.
Most pore water is removed early in the compaction history of clayey sediment Few studies have been done on the actual mechanism of particle orientation
(Burst, 1967). In fact, Powers (1967) found a decrease in natural water content with depth so it is difficult to quantify the exact depth at which the "shale"
(expressed in dry weight of sediment) from 115% to 70% from 0 to 3m depth of fabric forms. We suggest that a continuous reorientation of particles
York estuary muddy sediment. A significant study by Burst (1967) involved the occurs from the time of initial burial to some shallow depth. Based upon
diagenesis of Gulf Coast clayey sediment and its possible relation to petroleum the studies of Bennett et al., Burst (1967), and Hinch (1980), it seems that
migration. He described three stages of "dehydration" of clayey sediments. "shallow depth" could range from a few meters to several hundreds of
Stage I is most relevant to our analysis of shale fabric formation. At this stage, meters. The rate and amount of reorientation probably vary depending
pore water and excessive interlayer water are removed by overburden pressure; upon factors such as rate of sediment accumulation (i.e., rate of application
water expulsion is greatest during this early burial phase. Burst indicated that of overburden pressure), size and sorting, mineralogy and geochemistry of
the original 70-80% water by volume is reduced to 30% in the first few thousand the sediment. Our model simply suggests that the fabric-forming process
meters of burial of Mississippi delta muds. Hinch (1980) also discussed the is continuous upon burial during which particles reorient as pore water is
rapid decrease in porosity of newly deposited sediment, which he stated may expelled upon compaction. At stage C (see also SEM micrograph CI).
contain 80% or 90% water. He indicated also that in Gulf Coast Tertiary cardhouses have collapsed and porosity is diminished. Platy material
sediments the porosity has been reduced to 25-30% at 800 to lOOOm in depth. exhibits a parallel to subparallel orientation.
Our studies indicate that most shale fabric is a result of early burial. The
following SEM photographs illustrate a model of how shale fabric forms. This model is based upon the concept that shale fabric formed from
collapsed flocculated clay and stresses the role played by overburden pressure.
A. In the diagram, stage A and the accompanying SEM micrograph Al Another mechanism of particle reorientation (i.e., shearing by bottom flowing
represent the typical cardhouse structure of flocculated clay--that state in current, discussed in earlier chapters) could produce similar results in certain
which clayey sediment would be found suspended in sea water. Notice the cases. But how does one explain random particle orientation preserved in some

92
non-bioturbated mudstones (such as those discussed in the sections on Evaporite Figures F and G contain less silt than those shown in Figures D and E, they
Environment and Marine-Monterey Formation)? The state of our current display that aggregates or floccules of clay, in responding to overburden pressure,
knowledge is insufficient to unequivocally answer this question, however, there were collapsed around and between silt grains. Figures F and G also show how
are some possible explanations that are worth mentioning and which may be silt grains influence clay orientation by causing the platy particles to "mold"
tested by others. First, if it is assumed that random clay fabric represents that of themselves around grains during compaction.
the original undisturbed flocculated sediment, then it is clear that upon burial and
lithification some mechanism was operative which prevented drainage of pore A. SEM micrograph of freeze-dried flocculated illite deposited in a
water, because the movement of pore water would have provided a lubricant to sedimentation tube. Scale = 1 flIlI.
facilitate particle rotation. Rapid sedimentation of flocculated clay may have
been a factor in preventing effective pore water drainage contemporaneous with B. SEM micrograph of Pleistocene clayey sediment from Great Salt Lake,
sediment accumulation. However, the evaporite deposits discussed earlier also Utah. Scale = 1 flIlI.
display random fabric and they formed under different conditions which may also
provide a clue to the preservation of random fabric. It is known that clays with a C. SEM micrograph of Jet Rock Shale (Jurassic), Ravenscar, Yorkshire,
given moisture content develop an equilibrium condition which may give them England. Scale = 1 flIlI.
considerable strength (Grim, 1962, p. 240). Thixotropic clay, for example, is
weakened when disturbed, but gains strength when undisturbed. It should be D. SEM micrograph of Cleveland Shale Member (Ohio Shale Formation,
expected that the "gel strength" develops in an undisturbed flocculated clay Devonian), Gallia County, Ohio. Scale = 10 flIlI.
sediment on the sea bottom. This feature also may be observed in the laboratory
when sedimented flocculated clays are settled in a beaker and allowed to stand for E. SEM micrograph of Penn Yan Member (Genesee Formation, Devonian),
a period, during which time they become stiffer. With time interparticle bonding Ontario County, New York. Scale = 10 flIlI.
(aided by oriented water layers or authigenic cements at contact points) could
increase the strength of the clay sediment on the sea floor. If the amount and F. SEM micrograph of a Tertiary shale from the Gulf Coast area. Scale = 10
rate of application of overburden pressure provided by sediment accumulation 11m.
was minimal during the period the flocculated clay mass developed its maximum
strength, then the likelihood of the preservation of randomness of the flocculated G. SEM micrograph of Huron Shale Member (Ohio Shale Formation,
mud would increase, thus promoting the development of a mudstone upon Devonian), Mason County, West Virginia. Scale = 10 flIlI.
lithification. More direct evidence is obviously needed to test these hypotheses.
Our SEM observations do, however, provide a significant clue to an
alternate mechanism producing random fabric in mudstones. We found that silt
content of a flocculated sediment influences the final rock fabric. Silty shales
and mudstones display a high degree of randomness of platy minerals. Because
of the size and shape difference between silt and clay grains, the fabric of silty-
clayey shale and mudstone is more random than that of a rock composed mainly
of clay-size material. It is simply harder for platy clay flakes to assume a
parallel orientation in a sediment which also contains larger silt grains.
In silty shale there is also ample evidence which supports a fabric origin by
compaction. Figures D and E show that clay cardhouses have been squeezed
between silt grains during compaction and have flowed around and between the
larger grains. Notice, however, that clay between grains occurs in packets of
parallel flakes (i.e., representing the collapsed cardhouses composed of face-face
oriented domains). The gross fabric of the total silty-clayey shale sample shown
in Figures D and E naturally is not as oriented as the clayey shale shown in
Figure C because the silt grains force a more random particle orientation. The
fabrics shown in Figures D and E have not formed as individual dispersed clay
flakes settled with or on top of silt grains. Even though the samples shown in

93
 Stages
///\\\
~A
"-.7
f ~
Ait
Clay

~"
Floccules
//\\/
~~j A1

II~ :/A; Bit

Random

'\ ;II ///' 1,1;/

\ Sealloor / Particles
in Sediment
B
\/

-----
///
--------//
\ B1

~~~
/ ~-
~~""~-
--
/ /J-- -
-
- --
y
-- -- C -
- ----
-
-
-------- - -
- -- - -
C. Shale

Diagram of Shale Fabric Formation Stages C1

94
 SHALE FABRIC BY COMPACTION (continued)

D F

E
G

95
 CHAPTER 8
FABRICS OF SOME HYDROCARBON SOURCE ROCKS
AND OIL SHALES
INTRODUCTION 6,900 m, respectively.
Measurement of vitrinite reflectance is a common technique for determining
This brief summary of petroleum source rocks is mainly summarized from the degree of maturity of hydrocarbon source rocks. The analysis involves the
Hunt (1979). A petroleum source rock is defined as a fine-grained siliciclastic or measurement of reflected incident light from the polished surface of vitrinite
carbonate sediment that in its natural setting has generated and released enough inclusions in rocks or isolated kerogen using reflected light microscopy and oil
hydrocarbons to form a commercial accumulation of oil or gas. Studies of immersion objectives. Reflectance values are recorded as mean percent
source rocks have emphasized the organic fraction of the sediments and there is reflectivity or %Ro, measured from a statistically significant number of
very little published information on the inorganic fraction. Although organic inclusions. Vitrinite maturation, or reflection, increases with increasing
matter is present in most fine-grained sediments and rocks, it is generally temperature. The lowest level of maturation (Ro) of source rocks associated
considered that at least 0.5-1.5 weight percent organic carbon must be present to with generation of oil is about 0.45%, and 0.60% is generally considered as the
form commercial accumulations of hydrocarbons. In general, organic matter minimum for generation of commercial oil accumulations. For example, in the
content increases with decreasing sediment grain size. offshore Miocene of the Texas Gulf Coast, the onset of major oil generation at
Source rocks are commonly classified on the basis of their chemical and about 2,610 m corresponds to Ro of 0.6% and the end of oil generation occurs at
physical composition. The ratio of atomic hydrogen to atomic carbon (H/C) and about 4,140 m, corresponding to an Ro of 1.35%.
atomic oxygen to atomic carbon (O/c) can be used to distinguish four major Maturity and reflectance also increase with age. In Louisiana Gulf Coast
kerogen types in the well-known Van Krevelen diagram (see figure on the next sediments, the initiation of oil generation (0.6% Ro) is at about 5,490 m
page). Reflected light microscopy of polished rock sections permits recognition (164°C) in Pliocene sediments, 3,540 m (l13°C) in Oligocene sediments, and
of the main constituents (macerals) of the source rock and the association with 2,430m (84°C) in Cretaceous sediments.
the host sediment, thus allowing the environment of deposition to be inferred. In this section, examples of some important hydrocarbon source rocks and
Four main groups of kerogens can be distinguished (see figure on the next oil shales are presented to document their fabrics.
page). The Liptinite group includes the hydrogen-rich constituents sporinite,
cutinite, suberinite, alginite and resinite. These materials are considered to be
precursors of oil and gas. Yit!:inite constituents include materials derived from
the woody and cortical tissues of plants and tend to be relatively hydrogen-
deficient and a precursor of gas. The Intertinite group includes a wide range of
materials which are hydrogen-poor and considered inert. These macerals can be
primary or reworked components and include fusinite, semifusinite, sclerotinite
and inertodetrinite. Finally, Amorohinite, or amorphous organic matter,
includes a broad range of materials which can have primary and secondary
origins. Welte (1974) describes the origin of these materials as random
condensation and polymerization of biopolymers, their degradation products and
other monomeric materials such as lipids. These materials can have a wide range
of chemical composition, ranging from hydrogen-rich to hydrogen-poor, and are
considered precursors of oil and gas.
The maturation of organic matter to oil or gas is a function of burial history
(time) and geothermal gradient (temperature) in an area, consequently there is not
a uniform threshold depth below which hydrocarbons always will be generated.
For example, the threshold for intense hydrocarbon generation is about 2,400 m
(corresponding to a temperature of 120°C) in the Los Angeles basin and 3,900 m
(91°C) in part of the offshore Gulf of Mexico. Typically during burial, source
rocks first pass through the "oil generation window," and with increasing burial
(temperature and time), gas is generated. For example, in the Eocene of the Gulf
Coast, the onset and end of oil generation occur at about 1,500 m and 4,200 m
respectively, and the onset and end of gas generation occur at about 2,400 m and

98
 Chemical Visual
Kerogen Type Kerogen Types
(Tlssot et ai, 1974; HarwoOd 1977)

1.80 Sapropelic-
Hydrogen Rich
Liptinite
1.60
c:
0
.a 1.40
co
~

0 CI)
-. ~
c: c:
CI) 1.20 .c:
C)
Co
0~ ~
0
"C
>- 1.00 E
J: Vitrinite ex:
Humic
.80 Hydrogen Poor

.60
Inertinite
.40
0.1 0.2 0.3

Oxygen I Carbon

99
MARINE HYDROCARBON SOURCE ROCK shales formed under predominantly quiet anaerobic conditions, the main dif-
ference being the interpretation of the cause of conditions. Seasonal
KlMMERIOOE CLAY (Jurassic)Kimmeridge Bay, Dorset, England. convective currents are believed to have brought nutrients to the surface,
The Kimmeridge Clay is generally accepted as the source rock of North Sea stimulating coccolith blooms.
oil. The classic section containing the important organic-rich units outcrops Whatever the exact mechanism, it is clear that anoxic bottom con-
along the Dorset coast of southern England at Kimmeridge Bay (18 km. east of ditions existed periodically during formation of the oil shale and
Weymouth). At this section, five alternating lithologies of the Kimmeridge bituminous shale intervals of the Kimmeridge Clay. Most revealing in our
Clay are common: dark gray mudstone (called "clays"), bituminous shale, oil analysis is the obvious "organic hash" fabric which characterizes the oil
shale, coccolith limestone, and dolomite. This association of lithologies occurs shale, and its high Toe content. These are features commonly associated
in a cyclic pattern. It is the relationship of the oil shales and coccolith with anaerobic conditions in a sedimentary environment and are significant
limestones that interests us here. Fabrics of rocks in the Whitestone Band in hydrocarbon investigation.
(Pectinatus Zone) and the well known Blackstone layer (Wheatleyensis Zone) are Even though the "organic hash" fabric which characterizes this shale
presented in this case study because they illustrate the fabric of organic-rich shows a moderately preferred particle orientation, abundant micropores are
shales thought to be hydrocarbon source rocks. still apparent (Figure G). It is suggested that this porous network could
Sedimentary Environment: Marine, anaerobic. have been important in facilitating hydrocarbon migration. This
Significant Features: Argillaceous rocks with high Toe and "organic hash" observation deserves future study.
associated with coccolith limestone.
Geology: The extremely high Toe content of the oil shale (e.g. Blackstone Whole Rock Composition Blackstone Whitestone
layer in this study) of the Kimmeridge Clay, plus the association with Wt.% Wt.%
coccolith limestones and other alternating lithologies is of significance Quartz 14 27
considering that the Kimmeridge Clay is an important oil source rock. Plagioclase Feldspar 3 5
Alternating lithologies indicate conditions of deposition fluctuated Calcite 53 19
periodically. Two major hypotheses are offered to explain the origin of oil Siderite 4 o
shale and its lithologic association with the limestone. Gallois (1976) Pyrite 12 10
argues" ... that Kimmeridge oil shales (and therefore much of the oil in the Layer Silicates 14 38
North Sea) were formed from algal blooms, in an environment between Illite-Smectite 56 45
open ocean and an enclosed marine basin." He states that the oil shales Illi te-Mica 36 33
represent algal blooms (probably dinoflagellate) which deoxygenated and Kaolinite 6 15
poisoned the water producing temporary anaerobic bottom conditions Chlorite 3 8
which allowed preservation of organic matter in sediments rich in Toe 46.2 34.5
palynomorphs such as dinoflagellates. The low layer silicate (14%) content
of the Blackstone oil shale (indicating minimal sedimentation of land
derived clastics) supports this interpretation along with its "organic hash"
fabric.
The organic hash is shown in Figure G. Coccolith bands are believed
to represent seasonal blooms (Figure D). Coccoliths found in the unit
(seen in Figures G and I) were probably swept down to the bottom when
the mass of hemipelagic organic material was sedimented.
Alternately, Tyson et al. (1979) indicate that this sequence was pro-
duced in a density stratified shallow marine sea. Below the thermocline,
bottom water was oxygen-depleted for much of the time; however, there
were numerous temporal fluctuations of the interface between a bottom
oxygen-depleted layer and the overlying oxygenated water mass (Tyson et
al. 1979, refer to the "02:H2S interface"). They also agree that the oil

100
A. Outcrop photograph of Whitestone Band showing association of bitumi-
nous shale (arrow) and laminated coccolith limestone (LS). Scale =cms.

B. X-radiograph of bituminous shale associated with the Whitestone

sequence. Scale = 1 mm.

C. Photomicrograph of thin-section of laminated coccolith limestone above

shale in Figure A. Light areas, composed of coccolith remains, alternate
with darker organic layers, possibly of dinoflagellate origin. Scale = 0.1
mm. Plane light.

D. Coccospheres (arrows) and coccoliths from the Whitestone Band seen in

SEM. Scale = 10 J.UII.

E. Photomicrograph of thin section of a bituminous shale associated with

the Whitestone sequence (Figure B). The golden yellow material is
interpreted as kerogen of marine algal origin. Clear areas are quartz grains
and/or coccolith clusters. The black material is opaque kerogen and/or
clay. Notice the high degrees of preferred particle orientation. Scale =
0.1 mm. Plane light.

F. Photomicrograph of a thin section of "oil shale" associated with the

Blackstone layer. The identifications are the same as in Figure E. TOC
is 46.2% and layer silicate composition is only 14% which makes this
rock a "doubtful shale." However, note the parallelism of platy material.
Scale = 0.1 mm. Plane light.

G. This SEM micrograph shows the "organic hash" character of the

Blackstone "oil shale" in Figure F. The arrow poinl~ to a coccolith.
Coccoliths occur as a single plate or as clusters (see Figure I). Preferred
orientation of platy material is apparent Scale = 10 J.UII.

H. SEM micrograph of a spore-like body found compressed in the Blackstone

"oil shale." Scale = 10 !lm.

I. SEM micrograph of two clusters of coccoliths surrounded by "organic

hash" in the Blackstone "oil shale." Scale = 10 J.UII.

101
KIMMERIDGE eLA Y

102
 KIMMERIDGE CLAY

103
MARINE HYDROCARBON SOURCE ROCK
Whole Rock ComQQsition Wt%
WOODFORD FORMATION (Devonian-Mississippian) Carter County and A ~
Lincoln County, Oklahoma. Quartz 68 63
The Woodford Formation is stratigraphically equivalent to organic-rich K-Feldspar 4
basinal shales which extend over a large portion of the eastern and central United Plagioclase Feldspar 3
States. It is a mature, rich petroleum source rock in Oklahoma and western Calcite 10
Arkansas. Comer and Hinch (1987) estimate that 27-33% of the total oil Dolomite 9 6
generated from the formation has been expelled, amounting to 22 billion bbl of Pyrite 7 5
bitumen and 16 billion bb1 of saturated hydrocarbons in central and southern Total Layer Silicates 12 14
Oklahoma. The Woodford Formation is texturally and compositionally variable, Illite-Smectite 44 49
owing to temporal and spatial variations in terrestrial and marine organic matter Illite-Mica 47 42
sources and in burial history (Sullivan, 1985). Total organic carbon values are Kaolinite 6 2
in the range less than O.l %-26% and degree of compaction and cementation are Chlorite 3 7
variable (Comer and Hinch, 1987). All these factors affect the fabric of the
shale. Two samples are illustrated in this section, one from Lincoln County (A) TOC 7.9 5.1
and one from Carter County (B), Oklahoma.
Sedimentary Environments: Marine basinal, anoxic.
Significant Features: "Organic hash," moderately preferred microfabric, porous, A. SEM micrograph showing "organic hash" microfabric of sample A. Notice
compressed palynomorphs. . that well developed preferred orientation of particles is not obvious
Geology: The Woodford Formation, like the Kimmeridge Clay, is characte~ed although a gross parallelism exists. Notice microporosity. Scale = 10
by an "organic hash" fabric which presents a moderately preferred partIcle 11m.
orientation. This fabric is not densely packed, however, but is relatively
open for a shale. Compressed palynomorphs are common in these B. Parallelism of compressed palynomorphs (small arrows, s) is apparent in
samples, as has been noted for the Woodford Shale, in general, by Sullivan this thin-section photograph of sample A. Large clusters of pyrite (small
(1985). At least a six-fold sediment compaction compressed palynomorphs arrows, P) and layers of finely disseminated pyrite (large arrow, P) are
to their observed shape. Apparently the amount of compaction was common. White circular areas are positions of pyrite dislodged during thin-
insufficient to completely destroy the open network of original floccules. section preparation. Scale = 10 mm. Plane light.
Comer and Hinch (1987) have suggested that hydrocarbon expUlsion
occurred early in the generative history of the Woodford Formation. The C. High magnification SEM micrograph of "organic hash" fabric and
open, porous network observed in these photographs .(Figs. ~, C, and !!) compressed palynomorph (arrows) in sample A. Scale = 1 /lffi. Insert is a
may have promoted migration through the shales and mto adjacent carner photomicrograph of the same sample showing a large compressed
or reservoir beds. At a larger scale, lamination zones in the shale (Figures palynomorph (arrow) in a clay-organic matrix. Scale = 0.1 mm. Plane
B and C, inset) may have provided an additional avenue of early expUlsion light.
of hydrocarbons.
D. SEM micrograph of a compressed palynomorph in sample B. Scale = 10
11m.

E. SEM micrograph showing a zone of randomness of particles in an

otherwise moderately preferred "organic hash" microfabric of sample B.
Scale = 10 /lffi.

104
 WOODFORD SHALE

-. ,.
.......
--."
_. _ c.
0:h
v'
.
. 0
.

!!.-..
==
~
0.. czD.-,. . .
A c .~IL. ... - ~..... •

105
MARINE HYDROCARBON SOURCE ROCK hydrocarbon generation. Here again, one sees the association of an open
porous network of an argillaceous rock possessing high TOe.
MONTEREY FORMATION (phosphatic Facies, Miocene) California.
The Monterey Formation records the deep basinal phase of a major Tertiary
cycle of restricted basin sedimentation associated with wrench fault tectonism
along the California continental margin (Pisciotto and Garrison, 1981). Fine- Whole Rock Composition ffi...!&
grained Monterey rocks are both source and reservoir for major quantities of Quartz 22
hydrocarbons both onshore and offshore California. The major facies are Plagioclase Feldspar 12
calcareous facies of foraminiferal-coccolith shales and mudstones, phosphatic Calcite 23
~ of phosphatized foraminiferal shales and mudstones, and siliceous facies of Pyrite 2
diatomites and diatomaceous mudrocks and their diagenetic equivalents (chert, Clinoptilolite 9
porcelanite and siliceous mudrock). Fluorapatite 12
The phosphatic facies is illustrated in this section. Phosphate occurs as Layer Silicates 20
cryptocrystalline carbonate fluorapatite in irregularly-shaped layers, blebs, and Illite-Smectite 27
nodules sometimes filling and replacing foraminiferal tests and sometimes Illite-Mica 62
without an obvious carbonate precursor (Pisciotto and Garrison, 1981). Rocks of Chlorite 11
this facies are laminated at the outcrop scale, organic-rich, and average 3-25% TOC 9.9
silica, 15-50% detrital minerals, 25-75% calcite, 0-20% apatite, and 9-24%
organic matter (Isaacs, 1981). According to Pisciotto and Garrison, the high
phosphate and organic matter contents, foraminiferal types and abundance, and
laminations indicate the phosphatic facies of the Monterey Formation represents
hemipelagic deposition near the intersections of a well-developed oxygen
minimum zone with the seafloor, probably in outer shelf to upper slope water
depths.
Sedimentary Environments: Restricted marine basinal environment
Significant Features: Random, open microfabric of the phosphatic mudstone,
abundant organic, fossil and phosphatic material.
Geology: The macrofabric and microfabric features illustrated here are indicative
of suspension settling in a restricted marine environment, as evidenced by
the laminations (lack of bioturbation), organic tests, and fluorapatite.
Alternating phosphate-rich and relatively less phosphate-rich laminae may
represent seasonal alternations in the amount of detrital influx into the
basin.
The random, open microfabric of this dark gray organic-rich silty
mudstone in SEM micrographs indicates that detrital and organic material
were deposited as clumps or aggregates. Some aggregates could, in fact, be
interpreted as clay floccules formed by electrochemical attraction which
resulted in a typical clay cardhouse (see F). Others could have been
aggregates of biogenic and lithogenic material similar to "marine snow"
(examples: E and G). Regardless of primary origin, the delicate random
fabric of platy materials lacking sharp grain boundaries indicates that
physical and chemical diagenesis failed to alter the original sediment fabric.
Formed by suspension settling of sediment with a random fabric which was
preserved upon burial, the phosphatic facies retained its original porosity--
thus probably contributing to primary migration pathways upon

106
A. Thin-section photomicrograph showing lamination in the phosphatic
mudstone. Lighter laminae (small arrows) contain a higher phosphatic
content than do darker laminae (large arrows). Scale = 1 mm. Plane light.

B. Enlarged area of Figure A. X is in the phosphate-rich zone. Foraminifera

tests are abundant. Scale =0.1 mm. Plane light.

C. Energy dispersive X-ray spectrum (EDX) of area X in Figure B shows

major concentrations of Ca, P, and Cl indicating the presence of
fluorapatite. Concentrations of Mg, AI, Si, S, and K are associated with
clay and iron sulfide minerals. The Ca concentration is partly contributed
by foraminifera and coccoliths, and the Si concentration is partly
contributed by diatom tests (see Welton, 1984).

D. SEM micrograph showing diatom (small arrow) and foraminifera (large

arrow) tests in the mudstone. Scale = 100 J.Ull.

E., F., G., H. This series of SEM micrographs shows the random, open
microfabric common in the phosphatic mudstone. E is a characteristic
fabric showing abundant random biogenic and lithogenic fragments; silt
size grains are also present. The large arrow points to a cluster of
coccoliths. Scale = 10 mm. Lithogenic aggregates (F, G, H) display the
typical open cardhouse fabric of clay floccules. The edge-face, face-face
association is well-displayed in F. Another large aggregate (G) illustrates
random particle orientation. A more compressed cardhouse fabric is shown
in H. Scale F, G, H = 111m.

107
 MONTEREY PHOSPHATIC MUDSTONE

c E

108
 MONTEREY FORMATION

F
H

109
SALINE LACUSTRINE HYDROCARBON SOURCE ROCK flocculated-like fabric shown in Figs. A, B, and C may represent remnants
of this mass, which settled as organic~inorganic aggregates in a current-free
GREEN RIVER FORMATION (Eocene) Parachute Creek, Colorado. anoxic environment.
The Green River Formation has a potential shale-oil resource of 8000
billion bbls, spread over an area of 16,500 square miles in the tri-state area of Whole Rock Comoosition
Colorado, Wyoming, and Utah (Shanks et al., 1976; Robinson, 1976). The
Green River Formation was deposited from two large Eocene lakes: Lake Uinta Quartz 11
in Colorado and Utah, and Lake Gosiute in Wyoming. Post-depositional K-Feldspar 4
tectonism has fragmented the lacustrine deposits into the following basins: Plagioclase 9
Uinta, Piceance Creek, Sandwash, Green River, Great Divide, Washakie, and Calcite 20
Fossil (Yen and Chilingar, 1976). The sample presented in this study is from Dolomite 45
the organic-rich Mahogany Zone in the Piceance Creek Basin. E.;re, the Pyrite 5
formation is divided, from the base upward, into the Douglas Creek Member, the Aragonite 5
Garden Gulch Member, the Parachute Creek Member (which includes the Total Layer Silicates I
Mahogany Zone), and the Evacuation Creek Member. The Parachute Creek Illite-Smectite 68
Member consists of 130-250 m of gray-black, gray, and brown, organic-rich Illite-Mica 27
carbonate rock. Green River oil shales are typically varved, consisting of Kaolinite 5
alternating thin organic-rich and relatively organic-poor laminae. Common
minerals include dolomite, calcite, quartz, illite, feldspar, pyrite, analcite, and TOC 9.9
dawsonite (Robinson, 1976; Shanks et al., 1976). Organic content ranges from
1% to as much as 40% with an average for the Mahogany zone of 16%
(Robinson, 1976). The insoluble (kerogen) organic matter consists of
structureless, nondescript particles and fragmentary particles of bacteria, algae, A. SEM micrograph showing the microfabric of the Parachute Creek member
spores, pollen, and other organic tissue. laminated, dolomitic "oil shale." Most apparent is the open, porous fabric
The sediments were deposited in a highly saline lacustrine environment, comprised of randomly oriented particles. (Note: Compare this fabric to
with shallow-water depths that did not exceed 30 m (Robinson, 1976). The the fabric of the Great Salt Lake clay in another chapter of this volume.)
presence of carbonates has been attributed to early diagenesis within a Scale = 1O~.
permanently stratified lake. Anoxic conditions prevailed, leading to preservation
of the organic debris. B. SEM micrograph at higher magnification showing the porous structure of
The sample discussed here is from the Parachute Creek member. As the the "oil shale." The small arrow points to a carbonate rhomb and the large
whole rock composition indicates, it really is not a shale, per se, but a carbonate arrow points to typical orientation of platy minerals. Scale = 1 ~.
rock (layered silicates <1 %). It is included in our discussion because it is a
hydrocarbon source rock of wide interest and is commonly referred to as an "oil C. Energy Dispersive X-ray (EDX) analysis of a dolomite rhomb. Arrow
shale." We will keep this terminology for clarity in our discussion. points to an aggregate. Scale = 111m.
Sedimentary Environments: Saline lacustrine, anoxic.
Significant Features: Porous, random microfabric within a laminated D. Thin-section photomicrograph of the laminated dolomitic "oil-shale."
dominantly carbonate rock. Small arrows point to quartz grains and the large arrow brackets a varve
Geology: Alternating fine-grained, darker laminae with relatively coarser- couplet consisting of a lower finer-grained, darker lamina overlain by a
grained, lighter colored laminae (Fig. D) are indicative of seasonal or cyclic coarser-grained (note the greater density of quartz grains), lighter colored
deposition in a lacustrine environment (Cole and Picard, 1975). Organic lamina. Scale = 1 mm. Plane light.
content, presence of lamination, and absence of any bioturbation structures
indicate that the lake bottom was anoxic at the time of deposition.
Robinson (1976) indicated that the organic debris falling into the reducing
environment of the hypolimnion was degraded to a gelatinous mass similar
to the deposits in present-day lakes described as algal ooze. The open,

lIO
 GREEN RIVER SHALE

A c

D
R

111
FRESH-BRACKISH LACUSTRINE HYDROCARBON SOURCE stromatolites. A similar fabric is discussed earlier in this Atlas (unit on
ROCK Well-Developed Lamination in a Black Shale-Example II). Because of the
high water content of the algal mat there would be considerable volume
RUNDLE OIL SHALE (Eocene-Oligocene) Queensland, Australia. loss upon burial during which particles could reorient into the parallel
The Rundle Oil Shale contains about 600 million bbls of oil in the positions shown in Figure A (large arrow). It is interesting to speculate if
"Narrows Beds" of the Queensland area (Lindner and Dixon, 1976). The Narrows this rock is an oil shale because hydrocarbons weren't able to migrate out
Beds are confmed to a narrow graben about 6 km by 30 km. They are comprised owing to preferred particle orientation and resultant low permeability!
of claystones, mudstones, carbonates, clayey sandstones, lignite and oil shale
(Lindner and Dixon, 1976; Hutton et al., 1980). Oil shales are typically well
laminated. Organic matter, mainly of algal origin, is present in quantities up to Whole Rock Composition .w..t%.
55%. Minerals include quartz (dominant), feldspar, mica, clay minerals, calcite, Quartz 19
siderite, dolomite, and zeolites. Gastropods, pelecypods, fish and reptilian Plagioclase 4
remains, spores, and plants are present in the sediments in addition to an Calcite 1
abundance of ostracods, all of which indicate a fresh- to brackish-water lacustrine Siderite 4
environment of deposition. The presence of these well preserved organisms, in Pyrite 3
addition to the uniform and fine-grained, organic-rich lithology, imply Layer Silicates 68
continuous, anoxic, quiet water sedimentation. The Rundle Oil Shale exhibits Illite-Smectite 70
features common to the Green River Formation in that the organic matter in Illite-Mica 8
each is almost entirely of algal origin (Hutton et al., 1980). However, the Green Kaolinite 18
River units contain more carbonates and minerals common to a much more Chlorite 4
saline environment plus the fabric is random. Clay minerals dominate in the TOC 11.3
Rundle Shale, thus promoting the parallel particle orientation observed in SEM.
Sedimentary Environments: Fresh to brackish lacustrine.
Significant Features: Well-developed preferred orientation of particles.
Geology: This hydrocarbon source rock differs from the others illustrated in this A. SEM micrograph showing the well-developed preferred orientation which is
section in exhibiting a well-developed preferred orientation. The open, responsible for the fissility of this shale sample. The large arrow points to
random orientation of clay particles in the other rocks has been attributed to a zone of parallel clay flakes. Small arrow points to a clay coated silt
deposition and preservation of floccules in marine or saline lake grain. Scale = 10 Ilm.
environments. The Rundle Oil Shale was deposited in a quiet, fresh to
brackish lacustrine environment. Its organic content (TOC=I1.3%) is of
algal origin. Hutton et al. (1980) call the Rundle Shale a lamonsite which
is a compact laminated organic-rich rock characterized by the presence of
Alginite-B (a subdivision of alginite, which is largely of algal origin) as
the dominant organic entity. The Alginite B is described by them as
finely-banded and lamellar and interbedded with mineral deposits in well
laminated order. Their interpretation is that it is derived from microscopic
algae, which grew in bloom proportions in shallow warm lakes where they
formed a layer of incoherent algal ooze. Our fabric analysis of the SEM
seen in Figure A indicates well developed preferred particle orientation
which could result either by settling from a very dilute suspension of
dispersed clay onto algal mats or by deposition of clay floccules onto the
sticky mucilaginous upper surface of bottom algal mats. Continuous
growth of algae over each clay or silt sediment increment would result in a
laminar fabric composed of alternating layers of organic-rich and clay-silt-
rich layers. The result would be a laminated structure similar to

112
 RUNDLE OIL SHALE

113
 CHAPTER 9
FABRIC OF GEOPRESSURED SHALE
GEOPRESSURED SHALE ANALYSIS depth within the main geopressured zone in the onshore Louisiana and South Padre
Island wells, sonic transit time and density values began to return with depth toward
This unit describes the fabric of geopressured shales in an attempt to evaluate the the normal compaction trend; these intervals are referred to on the table as "Below
application of fabric analysis in understanding the origin of geopressuring. Our Main Geopressure".
investigation of geopressured shales is very preliminary so we hope that the examples
presented here will stimulate additional research. The term "geopressure" is used to ONSHORE LOUISIANA
describe pore fluid pressures which are greater than hydrostatic pressure (the pressure
equal to that of a column of water extending to the surface from a given depth). Stratigraphically Stratigraphically
Geopressures are of great importance to the oil industry because they constitute an Average Above Within Below
expensive and dangerous hazard in drilling (Dickey, 1976). Geopressure usually is Whole Rock Geopressured Geopressured Geopressured
found within thick sequences of shales or mudstones. CQml2Q~itiQn Interval Interval Interval
A variety of processes have been proposed to account for geopressured Quartz 56 68 40
environments. These processes are best summarized in a reprint series edited by Dutta Feldspar (total) 11 2 4
(1987), and the reader is referred to that volume for details. According to Dutta, Calcite 2 5 6
"mechanical compaction disequilibrium" is the principal cause of geopressuring. The Pyrite Tr
process of geopressure buildup is a consequence of rapid burial of thick intervals of Other 2 4 4
clay mud; thus the expUlsion of pore water will be hindered during burial compaction. Layer Silicates 30 21 46
If the rate of loading is faster than the expUlsion of pore water, then the water is Illite-Smectite 63 53 34
trapped and ultimately supports some of the overburden load (i.e. the pore water Illite 2 24 41
becomes abnormally pressured). Kaolinite 35 23 20
It is also generally agreed that, at least in the Gulf of Mexico, the diagenetic Chlorite 6
conversion of smectite to illite clay through an intermediate mixed layer illite- TOC (Wt.%) 0.6 0.4 0.4
smectite phase releases considerable bound water during burial. If this free water Age Early Miocene Early Miocene- Late Oligocene
cannot flush through the mud pore system, then the water will begin to support the late Oligocene
sediment load and contribute to pressure buildup. Depth Range (ft.) 7,900-10,500 10,500-16,000 16,000-17,600
No. Samples 2 2 2
GENERAL GEOLOGY AND COMPOSITION
Our observations have been made on shale cuttings samples from normally
pressured and geopressured zones in three widely spaced wens in the Texas-Louisiana
Gulf Coast area. One wen is located onshore Louisiana, another is located in the
High Island, Texas offshore area and the third is located in the South Padre Island,
Texas offshore area.
Information on the depths, positions, and ages of normany pressured and
geopressured intervals in the three wens are presented in the table below, along with
depth intervals of cuttings samples and their mineralogy. Note from this table that all
of the strata analyzed are Tertiary in age, and that the depth and age of the geopressured
interval vary from wen to well.
Presence of geopressured zones has been determined for these wens from sonic
transit time logs, density logs, and mud weight data (Hottman and Johnson, 1%5).
The geopressured zones were recognized on well logs by deviation from a normal
depth-dependent compaction trend, specifically by abnormal increase in sonic transit
time (decrease in interval velocity) and decrease in rock density. Rapid increase with
depth in drilling mud weight was also indicative of geopressure. Below a certain

116
 HIGH ISLAND, TEXAS OFFSHORE AREA The generalized mineralogical data records diagenetic processes and reactants that
have been well documented for Gulf Coast shales (Hower et aI., 1976). These
Stratigraphically relationships are particularly well displayed for the onshore Louisiana well, where
Average Above Within with increasing depth the proportion of discrete illite increases at the expense of mixed
Whole Rock Geopressured Geopressured layer illite-smectite, kaolinite content decreases, and chlorite content increases. The
CQmI!Q~iliQn .I!lliTIl!l Interval diagenetic processes responsible for these changes include loss of bound water to
Quartz 39 49 adjacent pore spaces. These reactions are a function of sediment age, burial rates and
Feldspar (total) 17 14 temperatures.
Calcite 2 5
Pyrite 2 2 DESCRIPTION OF SHALE FABRIC
Dolomite 0 1 Our observations indicate that shales above and below the main geopressured zone
Layer Silicates 40 27 in these wells commonly display a finer-grained texture than geopressured shales, and
Illite-Smectite 53 53 a moderate to well developed clay flake orientation. By contrast, microfabric in shales
Illite 32 31 from within the geopressured zones are siltier (coarser-grained) and exhibit a random
Kaolinite 11 12 particle orientation. Examples are illustrated in the SEM micrographs.
Chlorite 4 5
TOC(Wt.%) 0,7 0,6 INTERPRETATION OF SHALE FABRICS
Age Pleistocene Pleistocene- Observed variations in microfabric can be explained by the mechanical
early Pliocene compaction disequilibrium process discussed above for the origin of geopressure. The
siltier nature of geopressured shales compared to stratigraphically adjacent normally
Depth Range (ft.) 3,500-5,000 5,000-9,000+ pressured shales implies higher sedimentation rates for the former, and is a factor
No. Samples 1 3 accounting for disequilibrium.
Although silty sediments are more permeable than adjacent clayey sediments,
SOUTH PADRE ISLAND, TEXAS OFFSHORE AREA permeabilities would still be low, fluid flow through both types of strata would be
slow, and the stratigraphically adjacent less permeable clayey sediments would act to
Stratigraphically Stratigraphically partially seal the strata from fluid expulsion. In addition, the diagenetic processes
Average Above Within Below discussed above provide additional interstitial water upon burial. Thus the data
Whole Rock Geopressured Geopressured Geopressured presented here suggest a strong primary depositional control on geopressuring, aided
CQmI!QsiliQn .I!lliTIl!l Interval Interval by secondary diagenetic effects.
Quartz 44 35 29 Alternately, the random, more open fabric of the geopressured shales could be a
Feldspar (total) 7 9 11 secondary effect resulting from the post-depositional pressure buildup and increase in
Calcite 15 20 25 porosity. This is unlikely, however, based on the common observation in this Atlas
Dolomite 4 2 0 that silty rocks from a variety of geologic settings generally exhibit a random fabric.
Pyrite 2 2 5 Clearly, future studies are required to firmly establish the relationship between origin
Layer Silicates 28 32 30 of geopressure and fabric. We suggest here that fabric analysis should become a part
Illite-Smectite 53 55 43 of any research aimed at identifying the cause(s) of geopressuring in shale.
Illite 31 27 29
Kaolinite 11 7 11
Chlorite 4 12 17
TOC(Wt.%) 0.4 0.7 OJ
Age Pliocene-middle Middle Miocene Middle-early
Miocene Miocene
Depth Range (ft.) 3,800-9,000 9,000-13,000 13,000-15,500
No. Samples 2 2 2

117
Geopressured Shale
A. SEM micrograph of microfabric of shale in the geopressured zone of the South
Padre Island well. Fabric is characterized by numerous silt size grains (quartz?)
surrounded by a matrix of randomly oriented clay flakes. The large arrow points
to silt, and the smaller arrow shows a zone of random clay. Scale= 10 flJll.

B. SEM micrograph of microfabric of shale in the geopressured zone of the High

Island well. The same fabric is apparent as was described in A. The large arrow
points to silt, and the small arrow shows typical random clay microfabric.
Scale=lO Jlm.

C. SEM micrograph of microfabric of shale in the geopressured zone of the

Louisiana well. This example also shows typical random clay fabric (small
arrow) and abundant silt grains (large arrow). Scale=lO flJll.

Normally Pressured Shale

D. SEM micrograph of oriented microfabric of shale below the main geopressured
zone in the South Padre Island Well. Scale=10 flJll.

E. SEM photograph of oriented microfabric of shale above the geopressured zone in

the High Island well. Scale= 10 Jlm.

F. SEM photograph of oriented microfabric of shale just above the geopressured

zone in the Louisiana Well. Scale=lO flJll.

118
 GEOPRESSURED SHALES

119
NORMALLY PRESSURED SHALES

120
 CHAPTER 10
COMPOSITION OF ARGILLACEOUS ROCKS
COMPOSITION OF ARGILLACEOUS ROCKS results indicate chemical diagenesis of argillaceous rocks does not destroy primary
depositional or post-depositional compaction fabric.
Table I summarizes ranges and average mineralogic compositions, based on x-
ray diffraction analyses, of the ninety six Ordovician-Quaternary age argillaceous
rocks used in this study. Also listed are ranges and average values of Total Organic
Carbon (TOC). The data in Table 1 are compiled from individual rock descriptions in
the text, in addition to other analyses of rocks not given with individual rock
descriptions (Table 2).
These data, though useful from the perspective of providing a mineralogic data
set for argillaceous rocks of varying type, diagenesis, and age, cannot be used to (Z2l swell ,ng Clay· ~ ~aolin;1t
quantify any systematic age or environmental-related trends. This is because the ~ ' ll ' t. min . c:J chlc"t~
distribution of rocks by age is not uniform. In some instances, several rocks of one
geologic period are from a single formation or related formations. Also, depositional
environments are not uniformly represented by all rock suites.
Singer and Miiller (1983) have summarized observed systematic changes in
mineral composition of argillaceous rocks and diagenetic processes thought to be CENOZOIC
responsible for these changes (see their figure, this page). Specifically, with age the
proportions of mixed layer illite-smectite and kaolinite clay minerals diminish and
those of discrete illite and chlorite increase. K-Feldspar also diminishes with age.
The data in Table 1 exhibit the same general trends. However, ranges of values for
any given group of analyses often span the total range of compositions throughout
the Ordovician-Quaternary time span represented by the data. Whole rock ME SOZOIC
compositions are quite variable, as would be expected owing to variations in grain
size, degree and type of cementation, etc. Pyrite and carbonates are considered to be
diagenetic minerals, whereas quartz and feldspars are undoubtedly partially diagenetic
and partially detrital in origin. K-feldspar exhibits a tendency toward becoming less
abundant with geologic age, possibly reflecting dissolution upon burial.
Interestingly, plagioclase, which is considered to be less chemically stable than K-
feldspar, persists, and may even increase in abundance with age, suggesting it is an
authigenic by-product of burial diagenesis.
The interpreted presence of authigenic quartz, feldspar, and carbonates in these PALEOZOIC
argillaceous rocks indicates chemical diagenesis and cementation are common
processes associated with age and burial. However, pervasive physical evidence of
these processes is lacking when the rocks are examined under the SEM, which
suggests that physical processes will dominate over chemical processes in formation
of the ultimate fabric of the rock.
TOC values are also quite variable, and do not show any systematic change with
geologic age. The amount of organic matter present in an argillaceous rock will be a PROTE ROZOle
function of the amount originally deposited and the nature of the depositional
environment which will either allow the organic particles to become oxidized or
preserved upon burial.
In summary, the compositional data reported here correspond in a general sense
to compositional data reported by others. Burial diagenetic processes are invoked to Summary figure of observed systematic changes in mineral composition as a
explain compositional variations with geologic age and burial diagenesis. Our function of age (after Singer and Miiller, 1983)

123
 TABLE 1. AVERAGE AND RANGE OF COMPOSITIONS OF ARGILLACEOUS ROCKS
ACCORDING TO GEOLOGIC AGE

CD
<ll (/)
(/) 0.. <ll ~ 2
CD - <ll
2 ·E 2
g-
(/)
(/)
>- 0 N
t
"0 .~ ·0 ..Q
.;::

. Iii Cii 0)"0 CD

Age 0 <ll
u. <ll- Iii 0 "0
en
:£~ ,.; 6 -.:.- 0::LJCD 0 0

Quatemary
5 0.9 41.0 12.0 -- 6.4 2.3 --
0.6- 2.1 20.0- 49.0 0.9- 17.0 2.0- 15.0 0.0- 8.4

4 2.8 16.0 6.2 13.0 3.5 3.2

Pliocene --
<.1- 5.7 7.5- 24.0 1.4- 13.0 12.0- 13.0 3.1- 5.8 1.9- 11.0

Miocene 9 1.4 35.0 7.6 15.0 1.2

0.3- 9.9 22.0- 56.0 0.0- 11 12.0 2.0- 25.0 0.0- 4.0 --
Oligocene 4 0.4 54.0 3.0 -- 5.5 -- --
0.4- 0.4 40.0- 68.0 2.0- 4.0 5.0- 6.0

3.7 37.0 2.1 8.7 4.1 4.9 1.8

Eocene 11
0.3- 11.0 11.0- 59.0 0.0- 10.0 0.0- 24.0 0.0- 20.0 0.0- 45.0 0.0- 10.0

Cretaceous 2.1 56.0 3.8 1.7 3.1 8.4 0.1

9
0.2- 4.8 29.0- 82.0 1.0- 16.0 0.0- 4.0 0.0- 18.0 0.0- 31.0 0.0- 1.0

12.0 24.0 0.6- 4.8 16.0 1.8 0.4

Jurassic 10
2.1- 46.0 14.0- 35.0 0.0- 2.0 2.0- 7.0 nn C;q n n- 6.0 0.0- 4.0

Triassic 9 0.3 47.0 11.0 0.7 3.8 4.2 5.2

0.07- 0.90 33.0- 57.0 2.0- 16.0 0.0- 3.0 0.0- 23.0 0.0- 27.0 0.0- 29.0

Permian
1
0.2 28.0 4.0 8.0 -- 1.0 --
11.0 32.0 0.8 6.1 1.4 2.1 3.3
Pen nsylvanian 7 0.9- 29. 24.0- 40.0 0.0- 2.0 4.0- 9.0 0.0- 10.0 0.0- 15.0 0.0- 11.0

Mississippian 4.9 30.0 0.4 3.0 0.6

3
4.5- 5.8 27.0- 33.0 <1.0 1.0 3.3- 4.0
-- -- 0.0- 2.0

Devonian 4.2 53.0 0.6 0.0- 2.2 1.5 0.3

22 0.3- 18.6 24.0- 68.0 0.0- 4.0 4.7 9.0 0.0- 12.0 0.0- 9.0 0.0- 2.0

Ordovician 1.5 33.0 <1.0 6.5 10.0 0.5 0.5

2 1.3- 1.6 32.0- 33.0 0.0- <1.0 6.0- 7.0 1.0- 19.0 0.0- 1.0 0.0- 1.0

124
 TABLE 1. AVERAGE AND RANGE OF COMPOSITIONS OF ARGILLACEOUS ROCKS
ACCORDING TO GEOLOGIC AGE

ill ro
'u
II)
II) (]) () (]) (])

ill
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Cii
Q5 "@m~
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, (]) ~ ""
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.Q
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~ E
~ .r::
+-'
.r:: c oro= .r::
c...>-
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Age f-.-J(I) =(1) 6
6~ ~ ()

5.4 -- 29.0 58.0 28.0 10.0 4.3. --

Quaternary 2.0- 19.0 24.0- 40.0 53.0- 77.0 17.0- 32.0 3.4.- 12.0 2.4- 5.0

2.0 <1.0 62.0 25.0 47.0 6.0 2.4

Pliocene
1.0- 3.0 0.0- 1.0 59.0- 64.0 11.0- 40.0 37.0- 63.0 3.3- 11.C 0.7- 3.7
--

2.0 2.5 26.0 46.0 24.0 13.0 7.7 --

Miocene 0.0- 0.0- 20.0- 27.0- 2.0- 0.0- 0.0-
5.0 21.0 32.0 63.0 62.0 35.0 17.0

Oligocene Tr 4.0 34.0 44.0 33.0 22.0 3.0 --

4.0- 4.0 21.0- 46.0 34.0- 53.0 24.0- 41.0 20.0- 23.0 0.0- 6.0

1.6 43.0 56 27.0 4.6 8.5

0.0- 5.0
-- 1.0- 68.0 0.0- 79.0 8.0- 43.0 0.0- 18.( 0.0- 24.0
--
Eocene

1.6 29.0 21.0 28.0 40.0 11.0

Cretaceous
-- --
0.0- 3.0 11.0- 63.0 9.0- 39.0 18.0- 49.0 30.0- 54.0 0.0- 25.0

Jurassic
10.0-
12.0
21.0
--
14.0-
38.0
51.0 16.0-
32.0
56.0 33.0-
38.0
47.0 6.0-
20.0
26.0 3.0-
10.0
16.0
--
Triassic
-- -- 6.0-
30.0
55.0 0.0-
16.0
55.0 21.0-
55.0
89.0 0.0-
10.0
26.0 0.0-
7.1
19.0
--
Permian -- 42.0 17.0 26.0 34.0 -- 10.0 30.0

3.4 -- 48.0 36.0 45.0 9.6 9.4

--
Pen nsylvanian 0.0- S.O 25.0- 66.0 19.0- 54.0 30.0- 60.0 0.0- 16.0 5.0- 14.0

5.3 -- 59.0 27.0 58.0 6.0 9.0 --

Mississippian 5.0- 6.0 57.0- 62.0 21.0- 30.0 57.0- 60.0 4.0- 10.0 9.0- 9.0-

Devonian 3.7 47.0 7.7 76.0 2.3 14.0

0.0- 7.0 12.0- 64.0 0.0- 49.0 42.0- 93.0 0.0- 9.0 2.0- 25.0
--

3.5 46.0 11. 66.0 23.0 --

Ordovician --
3.0- 4.0 35.0- 56.0 0.0- 21.0 58.0- 74.0 21.0- 25.0

125
 TABLE 2. MISCELLANEOUS COMPOSITIONAL ANALYSES
OF ROCKS DESCRIBED ELSEWHERE IN THE ATLAS

Q)
Co Ul Q)
, Q)
m."!:::
C.
Ul
C1l
u0 2 2
Q)
."'t5" '"FE t5 2
N "0 Q)
'E 2 CijCi>~ cb 'C1l o Q)
£
t:: (jj '0, '6 .~
- >...- Q) :~.~ ::CE 0 Q)

=({)
C1l 0 OC1l= .c
LL (ij (5 .~
."'" E O({) 0>
a
::J
~
C1l
0:: 0 0
"0
Ci) D-
f-...J({) =~ 0 0
f-
ex:
Mecca Quarry
Shale Member 36 -- 6 -- -- 2 4 52 54 30 -- 7 6.6 Penn
Mecca Quarry
Shale Member 32 -- 5 -- -- 1 8 54 24 60 -- 4 18.4 Penn.

Canton Shale
25 <1 6 -- -- 11 1 57 31 44 -- 12 1.1 Penn.
Member
Cashaqua Shale
Member
33 1 5 7 2 -- 2 50 -- 83 -- 17 0.7 Dey.
Cashaqua Shale
Member 37 <1 4 5 -- -- 1 52 -- 72 -- 23 0.3 Dey.

Jaya
Formation
39 <1 4 2 1 2 2 50 -- 85 -- 14 NA Dev.

Genesee Shale 1 4 12 4 4 44 82 16 2.5 Dey.

33 -- -- --
Member
Jet Rock <1 4 4 -- -- 11 26 35 -- 12 2.2
33 48 Jur.
Formation
Energy
Shale
24 <1 8 -- -- 1 <1 66 42 38 -- 12 0.9 Penn.

Rhinestreet --
Shale Member
50 1 9 -- -- -- 5 35 71 -- 25 4.3 Dey.
Utica Shale 33 -- 7 1 -- -- 3 56 21 58 -- 21 1.3 Ord.

Utica Shale 32 <1 6 19 -- 1 4 35 -- 74 -- 25 1.6 Ord.

Chagrin Shale 28 <1 -- -- -- 4 -- 85 -- 7 0.5

3 64 Dev.
Member
Middlesex Shale
Member 42 1 6 -- -- -- 3 49 -- 77 -- 21 2.6 Dev.

Huron Shale
Member 36 <1 5 -- -- -- 5 54 14 74 -- 10 1.0
Dev
Huron Shale 58 -- 5 -- -- -- 6 31 -- 93 -- 5 6.5 Dev.
Member

126
 TABLE 2. MISCELLANEOUS COMPOSITIONAL ANALYSES
OF ROCKS DESCRIBED ELSEWHERE IN THE ATLAS

ro0. en
ca
<lJ

en U ~
N '0 ~ 'E <lJ
.<:: <lJ
<lJ
.<:: .~ ~
g
t:: 0
ca Qi '0 '0 (j; ~ t5 , ca
U. ca co '0
0
.~ co(j;~ cD
.~
'0
()
'0 .~ .9 0
a:
:::l <lJ
a ~ () 0 Ci5 0...
-Oca::
>..-
I-....J(/)
.<::
:=(/)
E :=::: ca
~
.s::;
() I-
<l>
Ol
~

Cleveland Shal
Member
55 1 6 -- -- -- 3 35 22 70 5 2 8.6 Dev.

Roof Shale ove

Springfield V 33 1 5 -- -- -- 7 55 43 46 7 5 29.0 Penn.
Coal

Pen Van Shale 47 -- 6 -- -- -- 3 45 -- 77 4 19 4.8 Dev.

Member
Bedford
Formation
33 1 4 -- -- -- 6 57 21 60 10 9 5.8 Miss.
Sunbury
Formation
29 <1 3 -- -- 2 5 62 30 57 4 9 4.5 Miss.
Canton Shale
Member
32 2 9 -- -- 8 -- 49 19 54 16 12 1.1 Penn.

New Albany 24 1 4 -- 4 -- 7 60 27 53 9 11 18.6 Dev.

Formation

Wilcox Group 53 -- 12 19 -- -- 1 53 50 37 3 10 0.3 Eoc.

Wilcox Group 42 -- 3 -- 1 2 1 51 79 11 -- 10 1.3 Eoc.

Pico Formation 17 6 13 -- -- 1 -- 62 29 63 5 2 -- Plio.

127
 TABLE 2. MISCELLANEOUS COMPOSITIONAL ANALYSES
OF ROCKS DESCRIBED ELSEWHERE IN THE ATLAS

ro Ql
CIl
0.. CIl
U 2
·E
·u2
CIl
N -0 0 2
Ql
.t: Ql .~ 2
t:: Qi .0, ·0 a.; 2 ~
·c
CIl
ro
0
row~ , CIl 0 ()

a
:J LL
~
CIl
a: ()
"0
0
-0
en
.~

a. (5 ~==
'
.~ E
Ql :~ .g 0
CIl :c 0
I-
Ql
OJ
I-....JU) =U) =::2: ~
()
<C

Bituminous
Shale 21 -- 2 14 1 -- 11 51 31 37 25 7 3.1 Jur.
Formation

Jet Rock
Formation 17 2 6 29 5 -- 14 28 38 35 18 9 7.8 Jur.

Gray Shale 35 1 7 -- -- -- 10 47 16 43 25 16 2.1 Jur.

Formation

128
 CHAPTER 11
CONCLUSIONS
SUMMARY
7. Our SEM analysis supports the observations of others in showing
Our analysis of the macro- and micro-fabrics of numerous argillaceous rocks preferred or moderately preferred platy particle orientation in shale and
demonstrates one clear conclusion - shale and mudstone fabrics are variable and randomness in mudstone.
that the variations may be attributed both to geologic processes operating on the
sediment before, during, and after burial and to the environment in which the 8. The exact mechanism responsible for particle orientation is a subject for
sediment is deposited. Many scientists often report their findings with the future research by sedimentologists, particularly those with a background
disclaimer that "more work needs to be done." We are no exception, because in colloid and surface science. However, we offer some working
shale and mudstone research clearly is in its infancy. This atlas is an attempt to hypotheses here which should aid in environmental interpretations. We
describe and discuss a group of rocks long ignored by geologists. Our have found that a random fabric in mudstones is attributed to bioturbation
conclusions are presented below. (note: a bioturbation interpretation should also be supported by x-
radiographic and petrographic evidence) or preservation of a primary
1. The investigation of fabrics should be added to the list of methods used in flocculated clay fabric. Preferred orientation in shales results most often
a complete study of argillaceous rocks, occupying a place along with from compaction and reorientation of flocculated clay, but may also form
mineralogical, geochemical and other methods. from shearing due to bottom currents or by deposition of dispersed clay.
Our results indicate it is not always easy to interpret which mechanism is
2. A complete fabric analysis of argillaceous rocks should include x- dominant in forming a fabric; however, in many cases a good first
radiography, petrography, and scanning electron microscopy. The approximation of cause is possible when combined with other geologic
significance of the results from anyone of these techniques often becomes evidence.
more obvious when supported by data from another technique.
9. Shales and mudstones from widely varying sedimentary environments
3. Careful sample preparation is very important. For example, at the initial exhibit different fabrics because the dominant sedimentary processes are
stages of a study, a random chip from a large sample for SEM analysis different in certain environments. Some processes (such as bioturbation,
may not provide any significant specific information. One should first bottom flowing currents, slow sediment accumulation, etc.) may
evaluate fabric features from x-radiographic and petrographic analysis and dominate in one environment or under certain sedimentary conditions and
then use that data to properly choose a sample for SEM examination. not in another, resulting in a unique environmental signature upon
The world of the millimeter should be investigated before the world of the sediment fabric. On the other hand, some sedimentary processes are
micrometer. common in numerous environments, so that the fabric can only be used
to interpret the process and not the specific environment An example of
4. It is possible to classify shales and mudstones by their macrofabric as the latter is the randomness of flocculated clay in basinal turbidite and
seen in x-radiographs. Lamination is either well developed or indistinct in evaporite sequences, which is indicative of deposition and preservation of
shales and is a significant characteristic of this rock type. Lamination is primary clay floccules.
lacking or greatJ y distorted in mudstones.
10. We have only just begun to investigate the importance of fabric analysis
5. Petrographic macrofabric signatures vary among shales and mudstones. in evaluating hydrocarbon source rocks and oil shales. Initial results from
For example, we show four categories of black shales. Some are finely marine argillaceous source rocks suggest an association of an open
laminated and others are thickly laminated, whereas others show wavy or network of micropores (micrometers in scale) with an "organic hash"
lenticular lamination. The different formative processes require future fabric in organic-rich black shales. It is possible that this open network
research. could facilitate primary migration of hydrocarbons if the fabric is
preserved upon burial down into the oil generative window. Our data are
6. Black shale fabrics also vary at the micrometer level. Microfabric less conclusive, however, about the role of fabric in lacustrine oil shales
variations in all types of shale are influenced by the relative abundance of simply because the fabrics of these rock types vary considerably.
clay, particulate organic matter, and silt grains. In describing a black
shale fabric from an SEM micrograph, one may call it: a) organic hash, 11. Although it is often assumed that chemical diagenesis and cementation
b) organic-clayey, c) clayey, or d) silty. occur upon burial of argillaceous rocks, we have found relatively little

130
 observational evidence that these processes are sufficiently pervasive to 7. What processes are responsible for forming the various types of black
overprint primary fabrics. True cements appear to be volumetrically shale laminae seen in thin-section? For example, what causes wavy or
insignificant in these rocks. lenticular lamination?

12. Based upon limited analysis, we have observed that geopressured shales in 8. What is the significance of the shape and distribution of micropores in
the Gulf of Mexico are relatively coarse grained (silty) and exhibit random hydrocarbon source rocks? Is one type of fabric (e.g. organic-hash) more
microfabric. By contrast, stratigraphically adjacent shales are fmer -grained common in source rocks? Does the open fabric of organic-rich rocks
and exhibit oriented microfabric. These differences are consistent with the promote primary hydrocarbon and other fluid migration?
interpretation that geopressure develops primarily under conditions of
relatively high sedimentation rate and burial compaction of mud. 9. More fabric analysis is needed to determine why an oil shale retains a
kerogen content sufficiently high enough to produce hydrocarbons upon
These twelve statements above indicate our current knowledge of laboratory processing. Why haven't the hydrocarbons migrated from this
argillaceous rock fabrics. As we prepared this Atlas it became apparent that there type of rock like other hydrocarbon source rocks? Is the answer locked
are areas which require future investigation. Some of these are listed below in away in fabric analysis?
the form of questions or as suggestions for future study.
10. What chemical diagenetic processes are associated with argillaceous rocks
1. There is a need for a quantitative scheme to classify fabrics observed in the and how pervasive are these?
SEM. Such a scheme should provide a rapid way to measure particle
orientation from a scanning electron micrograph. 11. More research is needed to test our limited observations that geopressured
shales have distinctly different microfabrics from stratigraphically adjacent
2. At what stage in the lithification process does shale fabric form? At what shales. Also, the application of microfabric analysis to understanding the
depth? Is shale fabric formation related to rate of sediment accumulation? origin of geopressuring needs to be evaluated.
Study of cores of recent sediment would provide valuable insights into
these questions. Duplication of depositional conditions in the laboratory
and analysis of resulting fabrics would also prove useful.

3. There still is a need for determining the fabric of flocculated sediment in

suspension before it reaches the seafloor or lake bottom. In situ
collection and preparation techniques need to be developed in order to
study undisturbed samples like "marine snow" or clay aggregates during
sedimentation, at the sediment-water interface and at shallow depths of
burial.

4. What actually are the mechanisms responsible for reorientation of

flocculated bottom sediment due to shearing of bottom flowing currents?
How does a fabric formed by this mechanism differ from that produced by
compaction?

5. What are the gross fabric characteristics of a mass of authigenic clay

compared to undisturbed primary flocculated or bioturbated fabric?

6. There is a need to study further the various fabrics of hydrocarbon source

rocks and oil shales. Here an integrated approach, which couples
geochemical analysis and fabric analysis, would be most valuable in
providing clues to some aspects of hydrocarbon generation and migration.

131
 REFERENCES
Amstutz G C, Park W C, SchotE H and Love L G (1967) Orientation offrarnboidal Bromley R G and Ekdale A A (1984) Chrondrites: A trace fossil indicator of anoxia
pyrite in shale. Mineralium Deposits, 1:317-321. in sediments. Science 224:872-874.

Atkinson C D, Trombly P N and Kremer M C (1988) Sedimentology and Bromley R G and Ekdale A A (1986) Composite ichnofabrics and tiering of burrows.
depositional environments of the Ivishak Sandstone, Prudhoe Bay Field, North Geological Magazine 123:59-65.
Slope, Alaska. In: Lomando A J and Harris PM (eds.) Giant Oil and Gas Fields,
A Core Workshop. Society of Paleontologists Mineralogists Core Workshop Burst J F (1967) Diagenesis of Gulf Coast clayey sediments and its possible
12:561-614. relationship to petroleum migration. American Association Petroleum
Geologists Bulletin 53:73-93.
Bates R L and Jackson J A (1987) Glossary of Geology, American Geological
Institute, Falls Church, Va., 788 pp. Byers C W (1977) Biofacies patterns in euxinic basins: a general model. In: Cook
HE and Enos P (eds.) Deep-water Carbonate Environments. Society Economic
Bennett R H, Bryant W R and Keller G H (1979) Oay fabric and related pore Paleontologists Mineralogists, Special Publication 25:5-17.
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 INDEX
abnonnally pressured shale, see geopressured shale compaction, 91,117 foraminifera, 108
aerobic environment, 46, 58, 60, 66, 72, 76, 78 composition of argillaceous rocks, 123-128 frarnboids, see pyrite framboids
Alaska, 62, 76 convolute bedding, 66-68, 72-73
algal mat, see microbial mat cross-bedding, 23, 66-67
alginite, 112 Cretaceous, 12, 76-78 gel strength, 93
anaerobic environment current bedding, 23, 67, 71-73, 76-77, 79, 84-85 geopressured shale, 116-118
cause of, 90 cut-and-fill, 47, 66-67, 85 graded bedding, 23, 84-85
example of, 40-54, 58, 60, 88, 90, 100, 104, 106, gray shale, 22-23, 48-51, 58
111-112 gypsum, 66, 69
analysis techniques, 8-10 definitions, 2-3
anoxic, see anaerobic deltaic environment, 78
argillaceous, defmition, 2 detached turbid layer, 88-90 hydrocarbon source rock, 76, 86, 98-100, 104-106, 110-
argillaceous rock mineralogy, 123-128 Devonian, 12, 16, 18-23,26-28,32, 36,48, 52,60,84, 112
Atlantic Ocean, 34 88,93, 104
authigenic cement, 93 diagenesis, 116-117
Australia, 112 diatoms, 108 Illinois, 12, 16,21-22,32
dispersed clay, model, 24 Indiana, 21, 28, 34
basic environment, 60, 100, 104, 106 dolomite, 11 0-111 Iowa, 21, 32, 58
bioturbation dysaerobic environments, 46-50, 60
model in shale, 55
shown in SEM, 25, 27, 49,51,53,59,60,75,77-80 Jurassic, 12, 16, 19-24, 32-34, 40-44, 50, 93, 100
shown in thin-section, 22, 51, 60, 75,77,80 energy dispersive x-ray analysis (EDX), 108, III
shown in x-radiographs, 13,49,51,53,55,59 England, 12, 16, 19-20,22-24, 32, 34, 40-44, 50,93,
bituminous shale, see black shale 100 kerogen, 98, 110
black shale environment, sedimentary, see the specific environment
fabric variations in SEM, 28 episodic sedimentation, 84, 88
lamination, significance of, 40-44, 88 evaporites, 64-66, 110 lacustrine, 64, 1l0-1l2
lamination type, 12, 16, 18-21 clay fabric in SEM, 27, 65 brackish, 112
petrographic classification, 16-17 environment, 64 freshwater, 112
pyrite framboids, 33 gypsum, 69 saline, 110
bottom erosion, evidence of, 47, 67, 71-73, 85 lamination
bottom flowing currents, 46,61,67,71,76-77,84-85, bottom currents, cause of, 71, 76-78, 81
93 fabric, definition, 2 definition, 2-3
fecal pellets, 34-35 detached turbid layer, cause of, 88
fissility environmental significance, 15,40,42,46
California, 64, 82, 86, 106 definition, 2-3 organic variation, in, 44
classification systems, 5-6 in SEM, 25, 44, 60 petrographic classification, 16
petrography, 16-17 flocculation turbidity currents, 46
x-radiography, 12-13 examples, 46,64,67-69, 86,92, 104, 106, 109 types, 12, 16
clay, definition, 2 model of fonning, 24, 92 x-radiography classification, 12-13
coccoliths, 100-102 floodplain environment, 62, 78 Louisiana, 116
Colorado, 110 fluvial environment, 62

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marine Permian, 26 random clay orientation, 27, 49-53, 59-65,68,70,74,
environment, 40-52, 58-60, 66, 72, 76, 82-88, 100, petrography 77,81, 85, 87, 94, 109, 111, 118
104-106 bioturbation, 22, 51, 59, 61, 74, 80 recent, 34, 64
snow, 106 black shale classification, 16-17, 18-21 redbeds, 66
megacyclothem, 58 cross-bedding, 23 red shale, see red beds
microbial mat, 42, 112 current bedding, 23, 47, 85 regressive facies, 52, 58, 76
mineralogy of argillaceous rocks, 123-128 graded bedding, 23
by clay composition, 123-128 miscellaneous shale features, 23
by geologic age, 123-128 pyrite, 23 sabkha environment, 64
by non-clay composition, 123-128 techniques, 8-9 sample preparation
examples in atlas, 123-128 phosphatic facies, 106 petrography, 8
Mississippian, 24,46, 104 Pleistocene, 26, 64, 93 SEM,9-1O
mudstone pollen, 36-37 x-radiography, 8
defmition,2-3 porosity, 117 scanning electron microscopy
fabric in SEM, 27, 62, 65, 83, 87, 106 preferred clay orientation, 25,33,41-49,53,61,68,70, preferred clay orientation, 25, 33, 41, 43, 45,47,49,
origin of particle orientation, 26, 82, 86, 106 74, 77, 81,85, 89,94, 113, 118, 120 53,61,68, 70, 74, 77, 81, 85, 89, 94, 113, 120
process random clay orientation, 27, 49,51,53,59,61,63,
aggregation, 106 65,68,70,74,77,81,85,87,94,109,111,119
non-fissile argillaceous rock, 3 bioturbation, 12,22,26, 34,48, 50, 58, 61, 73, 76, techniques, 9-10
non-laminated argillaceous rock, 3 78 sedimentary environment, see the specific environment
Nevada, 66 compaction, 36, 92 sedimentary process, see process
New York, 12, 16, 18-19,22-23,26,28,32,60,88,93 convolute bedding, 66, 72 sedimentation rate, 82, 93, 117
cross-bedding, 23 sediment gravity flow, see turbidity currents
current lamination, 23,66, 72, 76, 78 SEM, see scanning electron microscopy
Ohio, 16, 19-20, 23-24, 36,46,48, 84, 93 cut-and-fill,84 shale
oil shale, see hydrocarbon source rock detached turbid layer, 88 compaction, 36,91
Oklahoma, 104 dispersion, 24, 112 defmition,2-3
Ordovician, 18,28 fecal pellets, 34 lamination, 40-41, 112
organic hash, 28, 58, 103, 105, 112 fine lamination, 12, 23, 61, 66, 88 model of forming, 94
organic shale, see black shale flocculation, 24,26,64,86, 92 origin of particle orientation, 24, 94
graded bedding, 23, 46, 84 permeability, 117
microbial mat, 42, 112 porosity, 117
paleosol, 62 pyrite formation, 32, 47 silt content, 95
palynomorphs, 36-37, 103, 105 suspension settling, 82, 88, 100, 104, 106, 110 shelf environment, 40-42,46-52, 58-60, 72, 76-78, 100
particle orientation, origin of, thick lamination, 12,23,47,66, 76 shelf facies, 72
preferred, 24 tidal bedding, 66, 78 silt, definition, 2
random, 24 turbidity current, 46, 82, 84, 86 slope environment, 60, 82-84
parting types, 4 pycnocline, 15,58,88,90,100 spores, 36-37, 103, 105
Pennsylvania, 12 pyrite framboids stratification types, 4
Pennsylvanian, 12, 16,21-22,28,32,34,58 petrography, 23,47, 105 supratidal environment, 64
permeability, 117 SEM, 33,45,49, 53 suspension settling, 82, 88, 100, 104, 106, 110

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 techniques, 8-9 transgressive facies, 60, 76 vitrinite reflectance, 98
Triassic, 62, 66
turbated sediment, 69
Tertiary, 72, 82, 86, 93,106, 110, 112, 116-117 turbidite environment, 46, 82-86 West Virginia, 12, 36, 52, 93
Texas, 26, 72, 117 turbidity currents, 46, 82, 84, 86, 90
texture, defmition, 2
thennocline, 100 x-radiography
thin-sections, see petrography Utah, 12, 26, 64, 78, 93 classification, 12-13
thixotropic, 93 techniques, 8
tidal flat environment, 66-71
total organ carbon (TOC), summary, 123-128 Van Krevelen diagram, 98-99
trace fossils, see bioturbation

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