Rock Forming Minerals in Thin Section
Rock Forming Minerals in Thin Section
Rock Forming Minerals in Thin Section
Thin Section
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Rock-forming Minerals in
Thin Section
H. Pichler
Professor of Mineralogy, Petrology and Geochemistry
University of Tubingen
Germany
and
c. Schmitt-Riegraf
Lecturer in Mineralogy
University of Munster
Germany
Translated by
L. Hoke
Institute of Geological and Nuclear Sciences
New Zealand
© 1987, 1993 Ferdinand Enke Verlag, P.O. Box 30 03 66, D-70443 Stuttgart, Germany
Softcover reprint of the hardcover 2nd edition 1993
Typeset in 9/10 pt Times by Best-set Typesetter Ltd, Hong Kong
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Contents
Part C Appendices
1 Tables for the microscopic 3 Diagrams of mineral and rock
identification of rock-forming structures 208
minerals 170
Bibliography 215
2 Diagrams for the classification
of magmatic rocks 205 Index 217
Preface to the English edition
The use of a polarizing microscope is still an The tables at the end of the book complement
essential tool for every earth scientist who does the more descriptive text, which the microscope
petrographic work. No student in mineralogy, user should use in the identification of minerals.
petrography and petrology, geology and mining Tables 6 and 7a-7d are particularly useful.
geology should leave university without knowl- 4. In order to make it easier for the beginner
edge of this fundamental method for determining we start off with the principles of polarization
minerals and rocks, which in 1850 revolutionized microscopy. This part is short and places empha-
our science and placed it on firm foundations. sis on the practical applications. The microscope
In German geological literature, this is the first user should know which observations can and
short comprehensive teaching book about using should be made in plane-polarized light and
a microscope in the identification of minerals for which ones in crossed polarized light; how to de-
at least fifty years. The classic German works of termine the optical character of the optical elon-
this kind, such as those by Weinschenk (1915) gation; what straight, symmetric and inclined
and Chudoba (1932), opened up polarizing extinctions are, and how to make observations
microscopy to earlier generations, including one in the conoscopic path of light. Comprehending
ofthe authors (H.P.) These have long been out of indicatrix models requires knowledge of the rela-
print and outdated. Therefore, in order to close tionship between crystal symmetry and its optical
this gap and to provide future earth scientists characteristics. All these points are covered in
with guidelines in practical microscopy, we have the first part of this book. Literature for further
compiled these notes, which have been used and reading about polarization microscopy is listed in
developed over many years at the Mineralogical the Bibliography. In particular we recommend
Institute in Tubingen. In writing this book the the clearly written, very practical small book by
following guidelines were used: Muller and Raith (1987).
5. Importance of paragenesis. The coexistence
1. The contents focus on rock-forming miner- of certain minerals in assemblages is characteris-
als. In our selection, we have been generous and tic for most rocks. For instance, as a general rule,
have also included some rare minerals, such as if a volcanic rock contains a mineral of the
perovskite, pyrochlore, koppite, cancrinite, etc. sodalite group then quartz will not be present.
We selected those minerals that are familiar, oc- However, minerals such as nepheline, leucite,
cur in rocks of central Europe, and that are well aegirine-augite and melanite can be expected.
represented in rock collections. The rare miner- Consideration of possible paragenesis can help in
als occur in volcanic and subvolcanic rocks of the the search and identification of minerals.
Kaiserstuhl, the Hegau, Schwabische Alb and in 6. Photomicrographs and black and white dia-
the Laacher volcanic areas of Germany. grams. We have tried to show all minerals de-
2. We give emphasis to the common minerals. scribed here either as a drawing (by C. S.-R.) or
They are shown in the tables in bold letters; the as a photomicrograph (by Manfred Pfleghaar).
less common and not so important minerals are
shown in normal type. Rare minerals and also We are pleased that, through this translation,
special rock-forming minerals which belong to it has been possible to bring this book to the
salt and clay-rich rocks and soils are not covered attention of the English-speaking mineralogy
in this book; we refer the reader to more special- community.
ized books, in particular Troger (1982, 1969). The
Troger edition (1969), unfortunately out of print, Hans Pichler
is recommended as an essential reference book. Cornelia Schmitt-Riegraf
3. Important data are presented in table form. Tubingen
Preface to the German second edition
Apart from some improvements to the text and We are grateful to all colleagues who have sent
updating the optical data, some black-and-white us suggestions for improvements. We look for-
photomicrographs were replaced by better ones, ward to further suggestions and comments.
photographed by C. S.-R. In addition some new
figures showing crystal forms and optical param-
eters, which for a number of minerals were miss- Hans Pichler
ing in the first edition, were added; the number of Cornelia Schmitt-Riegraf
illustrations has been increased to a total of 114. Tubingen and Munster
Symbols and abbreviations
1.1 Microscope components and analyser. This is a second polarizer with the privi-
leged direction in N-S orientation (parallel to the
their function vertical line of the cross-hairs in the ocular). If an
object is viewed with the analyser inserted, it is
The polarizing microscope is a specialized magni- said to be viewed under crossed nicols or crossed
fication instrument. It is equipped with two polars. In older microscopes the privileged direc-
polarizers which enable minerals to be examined tions of the polarizer and analyser can be
under plane-polarized light, for their bire- reversed. .
fringence and refraction characteristics. Below the rotatable microscope stage is the
Modern microscopes are of a box-like con- condensing unit (Fig. 2). In the case of
struction equipped with the optical parts as orthoscopic observations at low magnifications,
shown in Fig. 1. The polarizer converts the upper condensing lens is not used and is
unpolarized light, which is emitted from the swung out of the path of light. When working at
microscope's light, source and which vibrates in high magnifications (using a xlO objective lens or
numerous directions, into polarized light, which higher) or looking at interference figures in the
vibrates within a single plane. The vibration di- conoscopic path of light, the upper condensing
rection of the plane-polarized light traditionally lens is used.
has an E-W privileged direction parallel to the Care must be taken to ensure that the condens-
horizontal line of the cross-hairs in the ocular. As ing lens is positioned directly below the object,
polarized light, it travels through the thin mineral thus providing optimum illumination. At low
section and undergoes a number of changes magnifications and during orthoscopic viewing,
which can be examined either with or without an
-,-1
...--2
Fig. 3 Objectives (LABORLUX 11 POL, Leitz).
1 Lever to fix or loosen the intermediate micro-
scope tube.
2 Microscope tube slot with inserted compen-
sator.
3 Centring screw for objective.
4 Objective showing engravings (explanation in
text) .
5 Springs to hold the thin section in position.
6 Rotatable microscope stage with degree mark-
ings engraved around its edge.
7 Nonius to read off rotations of the microscope
stage to~O accuracy.
4 The polarizing microscope
Accessories Ocular
Accessory anisotropic plates and wedges are People wearing glasses should use a special ocu-
used to determine the direction and size of vibra- lar. For measurements of the size of an object, an
tion of light in the crystal when viewed under ocular with a micrometer should be used. It has
crossed nicols. They possess two mutually per- to be calibrated by using a micrometer on the
pendicular privileged directions; the one corre- microscope stage.
sponding to the larger index ILy, which is the slow
direction, is marked while ncr is perpendicular to
it and corresponds to the smaller index and hence 1.3 Adjustment of the
faster direction. microscope
Three accessories are commonly used in
optical mineralogy: The adjustment of the polarizers will be de-
1. A.-plate (first-order red or gypsum plate; Fig, scribed in section 2.1.2.3.
4(a».lts birefringence and thickness are such
that it produces a retardation (;\) of 551 nm, 1.3.1 Centring the condensing lens
equivalent to the red I interference colour
(red of the 1st order). Prior to use the microscope must be checked to
2. The quartz wedge (Fig. 4(b» produces in- ensure that the object is properly and evenly illu-
creasingly higher retardations (interference minated. If this is not the case (Fig. 5(a», then
colours up to the 4th order) as its thicker parts the condensing lens must be centred in the fol-
successively move into the light path (Fig. 1, lowing way:
no. 6) and is sensitive within 0-4;\, 1. The light source aperture at the foot of the
3. The variable rotating compensator is gener- microscope is closed down.
ally used only in research microscopes. It per- 2, The condensing lens is inserted into the path
of light.
3. The substage assembly is slightly racked up or
down until the edge of the illuminated field is
in focus (Fig. 5(b»,
4, If the illuminated field is not centred (Fig.
5(b» then the condensing lens adjustment
screws are used (Fig. 2, no. 3) until the illumi-
nated field is exactly in the centre of the view-
ing field (Fig. 5(d».
5. Condensing lens is swung out.
6. The light source aperature is opened so that
the full field of view is illuminated right up to
its edges (Fig, 5(f»,
3. The cross-hair intersection is brought to coin- 4. The grain is brought into alignment with
cide with the centre of the circle described by the cross-hair intersection by moving the thin
the mineral grain by turning the centring section. If it remains in its position then the
screws on the objective. This is best done by objective is centred. If not, continue the pro-
moving the mineral grain when it is furthest cedure described above until the objective is
from the cross-hair intersection (X position) centred.
by half the distance between X and the cross-
hair intersection M in the direction of M (Fig.
6(c)).
2 Orthoscopic observations
I~ ®~ ~oD
hematite, ilmenite and others, in thin section can .. ~ ..
appear opaque as well as slightly transparent in
dark colours. Because of their slight transpar-
ency they should be listed in Part B, section 2
(transparent isotropic minerals) or in Part B, sec-
tion 3 (optically uniaxial minerals). Here, how-
ever, with the exception of chromite, we treat
m~
(b) Tetragonal
0£
(c) Trigonal
o 0
(d) Hexagonal
them as opaque minerals.
(J'
Reflected light microscopy on polished thin
~!I,. ~
sections is necessary to identify opaque minerals
(e.g. Schneiderhohn, 1952; Ramdohr, 1975;
II
•.
..
I~
MUcke, 1989). Magnetite (Fe 30 4) and ilmenite <>
o eID 0
I
(FeTi0 3) can be differentiated by transmitted
light microscopy only if they occur as euhedral
(idiomorphic) crystals showing their characteris-
tic crystal morphology. Rather than using the (e) Orthorhombic
wrong mineral name, the term opaque mineral
should be used.
Examples nepheline, zeolite quartz, feldspar apatite, mica, pyroxene, zircon, rutile, sphene
carbonate amphibole,
olivine
Observations under crossed polars 9
parent cubic minerals), glass and amorphous characteristic and diagnostic for certain cubic
minerals. Isotropic media viewed under crossed minerals.
polars do not show interference colours but ap-
pear black and viewed in a conoscopic light path
do not show an axial figure (Part A, section 3). 2.2.2 Passage of light through
To this group belong rock-glass, rare amorphous anisotropic media
minerals (such as opal) and all crystals of cubic 2.2.2.1 Birefringence and polarization
symmetry.
In addition, we include within this group those General
minerals that show a very weak birefringence The wavelength').. of a light ray can be defined as
and are non-cubic, such as leucite, which com- the distance between two adjacent points in a
monly occurs as twinned paramorphs after its transversal wave which experiences vibrations of
cubic high-temperature form. the same amount and direction. Such points are
Deviations from this normal optical behaviour said to be in phase (Fig. 11). The trace of the
of isotropic minerals are referred to as optical vibration plane is perpendicular to the direction
anomalies. With the analyser in the light path of travel of the wave. The speed of light passing
they appear as patchily distributed brighter areas through isotropic crystals (cubic) or amorphous
(e.g. certain garnets), as very weakly birefringent media is equal in all directions but the travel time
lamellar areas or as regular patterns which are is reduced by a factor determined by the refrac-
tive index of the media. In anisotropic media a
light ray may travel with considerably different
speed in different directions of vibration within a
crystal. The light ray is split into two linear polar-
ized waves which travel with different speeds
(and hence different refractive indices). The two
planes of vibration are perpendicular to each
other. This phenomenon is referred to as
birefringence. It is strongly dependent on the ori-
entation of the crystal. The maximum difference
between the two refractive indices in a crystal is
Fig. 10 Becke line (shown as dotted line). referred to as maximum birefringence (~).
(a) Mineral with a higher relief than its surroundings. Different coinciding electromagnetic (trans-
With lowering the microscope stage, the Becke line verse) waves of the same vibration direction and
moves into the mineral. same travel time can either be added or sub-
(b) Mineral with a lower relief than its surroundings. tracted, or they cancel each other out (Fig. 12).
With raising of the microscope stage, the Becke line The interaction of coinciding waves is referred to
moves out of the mineral. as interference. Additive or constructive interfer-
Vibration direction
~-----------------A------------------~
Polarization direction
Vibration plateau
Fig. 11 Harmonic vibration of an (electromagnetic) transverse wave, also showing vibration and polarization
planes.
10 Orthoscopic observations
A AI
t ny '
" ny, I
"
I
;!
P
"" /
/ na'
P P
I
I na'
P
Fig. 13 Main vibration directions
(n", and ny') in an anisotropic mineral
with straight extinction.
" '\.
/
0
P-P, A-A = vibration directions of
/ the polarizer and analyser.
"
Ie. I
~ (a) Diagonal position (45°, 135°,
AI
+ etc.) = brightest position.
A
Rotation
direction (b) Vertical position (0°, 90°, etc.) =
(a) Diagonal position (b) Normal position darkest position.
Observations under crossed polars 11
Normal interference colours fading of the colours, which ultimately pass into
the white of the upper order.
Visible light represents a relatively limited band
The interference colours are periodically re-
of wavelengths within the electromagnetic spec-
peated, but have subtle colour variations. The
trum with wavelengths ranging from 380 to
colour sequence is subdivided into orders. Each
780nm (Fig. 14). The two extreme wavelength
order represents a 551 nm retardation range, with
endmembers are in a 1: 2 ratio to each other;
the 1st order ranging from 0 to 551 nm 2nd order
hence a mineral with a 380nm retardation under from 551 to 1l02nm, etc. Particularly important
crossed polars in short-wavelength visible light
is the deep red of the 1st order (551 nm red),
will behave like an A-plate and in long-wave-
which is used in a A-plate (gypsum plate; Part A,
length visible light like a A/2 plate. Constructive
section 1.2) as compensator.
and destructive wave interference or elimination
of component wavelengths of the white light
causes interference colours.
Using compensators to determine the
In cases where the retardation is very small
interference colours
and only up to 300nm the interfering waves are
only slightly offset to each other with all compo- The gypsum plate (red 1st) is an accessory device
nent wavelengths being weakened equally. This used for determining the interference colours.
results in a slight difference in colour from the For example: A bright blue interference colour is
original white light and grey to grey-white observed. The question arises if this is a 2nd or
colours. 3rd order blue. In higher orders no blue colours
In the medium retardation range (300- occur. Using the gypsum plate the following pos-
1300nm) certain component wavelengths are to- sibilities have to be anticipated: if the blue is of
tally eliminated whereas others undergo positive the 3rd order, addition by 1A would cause the
interference. In this range strong clear colours interference colour to change to pale purple of
dominate, ranging from orange to deep red, in- the 4th order, subtraction by 1A would produce a
digo-blue, sky-blue, green to yellow (first- and sky-blue colour of the 2nd order. However, if the
lower second-order). These colours are repeated initial blue is of the 2nd order, then addition
but are somewhat weakened in the upper would result in a 3rd order dark blue and subtrac-
second- and lower third-order. tion in a 1st order pale-grey interference colour.
At an even higher retardation (>1300nm) an Colour addition occurs either in the 45° or 135°
increasing number of equally distributed Ain the position, and subtraction in the 135° or 45° re-
spectra are eliminated, leading to an increased spectively. The gypsum plate is inserted when the
A.
A.
X-rays 380
1'&'
Violet
446
464 Indigo
1 nm Blue
500
Green
Ultraviolet (UV)
Visible light (VIS) 1 ~m 578
592 Yellow
620 Orange
Infrared (IR)
1mm
Red
Short radio waves
Broadcast band 1m
780
28366-550 R
section is in the 45° and then in the 135° position. and short light wavelengths are different. There-
Subtraction in theory could lead to negative re- fore a complete extinction cannot be achieved
tardation values, but the smaller retardation and even in the darkest position some colour can
value is always subtracted from the larger one. In be seen. For example, if a mineral section is in
the case of 1st order yellow, 551 - 400 = 151 the extinction position for 1st order red, then
results in a dark-grey interference colour. some blue light still manages to get through, re-
When dealing with minerals with grey interfer- sulting in a grey-blue colour of the mineral. The
ence colours of the 1st order (e.g. quartz, feld- opposite is the case when the mineral is in the
spar, nepheline or apatite) then the use of a extinction position for blue light, then some red
gypsum plate leads to blue colours of the 2nd and yellow light will get through, resulting in
order in the case of addition, and subtraction brown-red colours (e.g. in certain clinopyroxenes
results in 1st order yellow. Again, the smaller cut parallel to the {OlO} plane).
retardation is subtracted from the larger one.
In cases of high interference colours greater 2.2.2.2 The indicatrix model
than 4th and 5th orders, a quartz wedge (Part A,
section 1.2) is used instead of the gypsum plate General
(red 1st). The optical characteristics of crystals are better
understood by using a three-dimensional model
Anomalous interference colours of the index of refraction, referred to as the
Changes in the birefringence as a function of Ais indicatrix. It is either the shape of a sphere or
called dispersion. This can occur in three differ- ellipsoid where the surface of the indicatrix is
ent ways: interference colours that are higher proportional to the crystal's refractive indices
than normal, lower than normal or anomalous. which vary for different wavelengths (Figs 15, 16).
If the birefringence is higher for the short In the simplest case the indicatrix is a perfect
wavelengths of light than for the long wave- sphere (e.g. all cubic crystals) in which the refrac-
lengths, higher interference colours result; in this tion does not change with the vibration direction
case (nrn",) for purple > (ny~n",) for red. Instead of the light within the crystal. In minerals of
of grey-white and white-yellow interference col- lower symmetry the indicatrix has the shape of a
ours of the 1st order, bright blue and yellow col- two- or three-axial ellipsoid, which has a certain
ours typical for the 2nd order are observed: red orientation relative to the crystallographic axis
1st appears as bright red normally characteristic (a, b, c).
for 2nd order red, 2nd order green is brighter and The three axes of the ellipsoid are labelled X,
darker and is more like that of the 3rd order. Y, and Z with their half-lengths proportional to
Examples of minerals with higher then normal their respective refractive indices ncr, n~ and ny (=
interference colours are epidote and clinozoisite. n" ny, nz). For a three-axial indicatrix: ncr < n~ < ny.
Epidote shows bright-blue 1st order colours With the aid of the indicatrix model the physi-
which pass straight into bright yellow. cal behaviour of a light ray inside the crystal can
Lower than normal interference colours occur be illustrated in three dimensions. One imagines
when the birefringence for the long wavelengths that the light ray runs through the centre of the
of light is higher than for the short wavelengths; indicatrix. A section through the indicatrix per-
in this case (ny,-n",) for purple < (ny,-n".) for red. pendicular to the direction of travel of the light
Instead of interference colours of the 1st order, ray is either of the shape of a sphere or that of an
grey and brown colours appear: instead of 1st ellipse. In the latter case the axes of the ellipse
order grey, grey-blue can be observed, 1st order represent the vibration directions of the two per-
yellow changes to leather-brown, 1st order red pendicular transverse waves. The half-lengths of
into dull brown-red. This is characteristic for the axes of the ellipse are proportional to the
tourmaline and MgFe 2+-chlorite. respective refractive indices ny, and ncr"~ The wave
Anomalous interference colours occur when which vibrates parallel to the longer axis of the
the birefringence is positive EB for one end of the ellipse has the higher refractive index (n y,) and
e
light spectrum and negative for the other end, hence the smaller speed of travel. The wave
which vibrates parallel to the shorter axis of the
representing the (ny,-n",) 1 §: 0 case. Instead of
1st order grey, 1st order ink-blue to purple col- ellipse has the smaller refractive index (n".) and a
ours are typical. Minerals with anomalous inter- faster travel time.
ference colours are, for instance, vesuvianite,
melilite and Fe2+Mg-chlorite. The indicatrices of hexagonal, trigonal and
tetragonal crystal systems
Dispersion in the extinction position
Their symmetry defines a = a = a "* c and a = b
1 2 3
This is common in monoclinic and triclinic min- "* c respectively. Therefore the main or principal
erals where the extinction positions for the long refractive indices are equal (n" = n~ for optically
Observations under crossed polars 13
z x
a b 8
Fig. 15 Indicatrix ellipsoid for optically uniaxial crystals (rotation ellipsoid).
(a) Optically uniaxial positive.
(b) Optically uniaxial negative.
This leads to two options determined by the dicular which is always perpendicular to the opti-
relative size of the two refractive indices ne and cal axial plane. The angle between the two optic
no: axes is called axial angle 2V with its semi-value
V. Z and X halve the axial angle and are called
1. ne > no is equivalent to ne = ny and no = na-
medium lines or bisectrix. The first medium line
Therefore ne - no > O. The actual size of the
or acute bisectrix halves the acute angle between
maximum birefringence (~) is defined by the
the optic axes, the obtuse angle is bisected by the
maximum difference between the refractive
obtuse bisectrix. With regard to the bisectrix two
indices of the extraordinary and ordinary rays
cases can be distinguished:
and hence ~(~ = ne - no) is greater then zero
and positive. 1. Z is the acute bisectrix, X is the obtuse one:
Uniaxial crystals with lly parallel to c (and optically biaxial positive. The angle 2Vy is
therefore Z parallel to c) are optically uniaxial always < 90°, 2Va is always > 90 0 (Fig. 17,
positive. Their indicatrix is an ellipsoid which left).
is stretched along the optic axis or rotation 2. X is the acute bisectrix, Z is the obtuse one:
axis (Fig. 15(a)). optically biaxial negative. The angle 2Va < 90°,
Example: quartz with ne = ny = 1.5533 2Vy > 90 0 (Fig. 17, right).
no = n" = 1.5442 In the case where both axial angles are equal and
EB~ = 0.0091 therefore 90 the crystal is referred to as being
0
,
z z
O.A.
/'
_n~a~____~____~_x
2.2.2.3 Optical character of elongation sory plate; nn is oriented parallel to its length.
Two cases are possible:
The principal zone (main zone (MZ) or elonga-
tion zone) is equal to the elongation direction in 1. ny gypsum is II ny, crystal and nn gypsum is II nn'
a mineral. In minerals of characteristic and fixed crystal ~ MZ(+).
crystal shape the optical character of the main 2. ny gypsum is II nu ' crystal and nn gypsum II ny,
zone (determined by the vibration directions of crystal ~ MZ( -).
ny{nz') and nn,(n x,» is very important for identifi-
cation. This applies to all cases where it is diffi- In the first case the retardation increases and
cult to get a clear conoscopic axial image. causes a colour-change towards blue to greenish-
Minerals of variable crystal shape, like those that yellow (if the initial birefringence colour is grey
are sometimes elongated parallel to one or the of the 1st order); in general the interference col-
other axis (e.g. calcite or anatase), do not have a ours shift towards higher orders. The process is
clear optical elongation. called addition = positive main zone (MZ) = (+)
Only elongated mineral sections of hexagonal, (Fig. 18(1».
trigonal, tetragonal and rhombic symmetry In the second case the retardation colour de-
classes are suitable for determining the optical creases, changing from grey of the 1st order to
character of the elongation. In elongated sections grey to orange-yellow of the 1st order; therefore
of monoclinic and triclinic crystals, which show the interference colours decrease = subtraction =
oblique extinction, it is difficult to determine the negative main zone = (-) (Fig. 18(2». In general
optical character of the main zone. It is only pos- the retardation of the gypsum plate (551 nm) is
sible if the extinction angle is less than 20° (e.g. added to or subtracted from the interference col-
amphibole, but not clinopyroxene). our of the mineral. With this simple device one
can easily determine if ny' or nn' vibrate parallel to
Methodology the longitudinal crystal direction. Furthermore,
with the exception of platy crystals, the orienta-
The mineral section is viewed under crossed tion of the indicatrix within the crystal can be
polars and rotated into the 45° diagonal position fixed (Fig. 18).
(NE-SW orientation) where it appears in its If there is uncertainty as to whether or not the
brightest colours. The compensator red 1st (gyp- diagonal crystal position produces addition or
sum plate) is inserted. The ny direction is en- subtraction, then rotate the section into the next
graved on the accessory plate (Fig. 4(a». It is diagonal position, which is at 90° from the start-
oriented perpendicular to the length of the acces- ing position (orientation NW-SE). If negative
16 Orthoscopic observations
CD:;&<cx'
c nr' ~cx c nr Opt.Ch. e (nrllc)
Quartz MZ e (nT'"I)
1,1 ~ Compensator
~
r c
ncx Opt.Ch. 8 (n cx II c)
Apatite MZ 8 (n cx 'lIl)
~ Compensator
~ Compensator
~
ncx n, Opt.Ch. 8 (ncx llc )
Gehlenite
MZ e (ncx'll)
~ Compensator
Fig. 18 Determination of the vibration direction ny. and na' and orientation of the indicatrix in optically uniaxial
crystals in longitudinal section (= principal zone or main zone MZ). Minerals with low birefringence have been
chosen as examples.
(1) Prismatic crystals: the c-axis is parallel to the longitudinal axis of the crystal.
Case 1:
ny, crystal II ny compensator, na, crystal II na compensator.
Interference colours increase (blue): MZ (+), optically uniaxial EEl.
(2) Prismatic crystals: the c-axis is II to the longitudinal axis of the crystal.
Case 2:
na, crystal II nycompensator.
ny, crystal II na compensator.
Interference colours decrease (subtract/yellow): MZ (-), optically uniaxial 8.
(3) Platy crystals: c-axis is perpendicular to the elongation direction of the crystal.
Case 1:
na, crystal II ny compensator.
ni crystal II na compensator.
Interference colours decrease (subtract/yellow): MZ (-), optically uniaxial EEl.
(4) Platy crystals: the c-axis is perpendicular to the elongation direction of the crystal!
Case 2:
ny, crystal II ny compensator.
na, crystal II na compensator.
Interference colours increase (addition/blue): MZ (+), optically uniaxial 8.
The optical character has to be determined in the conoscopic light path.
Observations under crossed polars 17
colours or subtraction occurs, then addition or different in negative crystals with Ily parallel or at
positive colours are produced for the first diago- a small angle to MZ and in positive crystals with
nal position and vice versa. nil parallel or at a small angle to MZ (example:
In minerals with 3rd or even higher order in- amphibole, Figs 146, 147, 152). The character of
terference colours, any positive or negative col- the MZ changes in all biaxial minerals, depend-
our shift is very difficult to determine. It is better ing on the orientation of the section, where n~
to use a quartz wedge instead of the red 1st com- vibrates within MZ. MZ is (+) in the case where
pensator. This has the effect, in the case of addi- nll-n~ lie within the section and it is (-) when Ily-
tion, of making colours of the higher orders n~ lie in the section (e.g. olivine, Fig. 112).
became fainter. They become stronger if subtrac-
tion occurs. It also helps to apply the quartz
wedge to thin wedge-shaped crystal edges. With 2.2.2.4 ParaDe), symmetric and oblique
insertion of a quartz wedge, colours move out of extinction
the grain in the case of addition; this is best seen
Crystal symmetry and extinction
by following the red colour. In the case of sub-
traction colour bands migrate towards or into the Where the axes of the indicatrix coincide with the
crystal and get stronger, shifting towards colours crystallographic axis (a,b,c), which is the case in
of lower orders. all minerals of higher symmetry classes (hexago-
Attention should be paid to several further nal, trigonal, tetragonal and orthorhombic), the
considerations. Where the retardation of a min- vibration directions of both waves are parallel or
eral is smaller then 551 nm, then, in the case of symmetric to the morphological reference sys-
subtraction, colours initially decrease down to tems provided by the mineral (crystallographic
black of the 1st order and then increase again faces, edges, cleavage, twinning-plane, etc.). If
(for explanation see Part A, section 2.2.2.1). In any of these reference lines are aligned parallel
strongly coloured minerals addition and subtrac- to the N-S or E-W direction of the cross-hairs,
tion are difficult to determine and it is best to then one observes total extinction under crossed
apply the quartz wedge technique to crystal polars: parallel extinction in 0°, 90°, 180°, 270°
edges. and 360° positions (Fig. 19(a),(b». A crystal
The sign of the main zone and the optical char- shows symmetric extinction if one vibration di-
acter of a mineral coincide in prismatic crystals rection lies exactly between two equally devel-
(Fig. 18(1» whereas they differ in uniaxial platy oped morphological reference lines or cleavage
crystals (Fig. 18(1),(2». In biaxial crystals it can systems (Fig. 19(b),(d» (e.g. halving the angle
differ: it is the same in positive crystals with Ily between the rhombic cleavage set developed in
parallel or at a small angle to the main zone calcite). Symmetric extinction only occurs if the
(MZ) and also in negative crystals with nil paral- section is cut exactly perpendicular to the cleav-
lel or at a small angle to MZ (examples are age intersection. If this is not the case, then even
natrolite, Fig. 199, and andalusite, Fig. 223). It is in minerals of higher symmetry classes, exact
a b c d e
Fig. 19 Extinction in anisotropic crystals.
(a) Parallel extinction.
(b) Parallel and symmetric extinction: parallel extinction in respect to the cleavage set which runs parallel to the
longitudinal axis of the crystal, symmetric extinction with respect to the perpendicular crystal faces (angle !O).
(c) Oblique extinction: the section cuts a monoclinic crystal parallel to (010).
(d) Symmetric extinction.
(e) Oblique extinction.
18 Orthoscopic observations
symmetric extinction is not observed. The latter basal sections parallel to (001) show symmetric
particularly applies to orthorhombic crystals. extinction).
On the other hand all monoclinic crystals
show straight extinction in all orientations within
2.2.2.5 Twinning
the zone [010]. This is a limitation one must be
aware of. Nevertheless, the determination of General
the type of extinction is one of the quickest
Many minerals do not just consist of a single
methods to determine in minerals of the higher
crystal but are made up of more then one indi-
or lower symmetry classes (e.g. orthopyroxene
vidual intergrowth, forming double or multiple
or clinopyroxene). The possibility of finding an
twins. Where the c-axes of the twinned crystals
orthopyroxene which shows oblique extinction is
are parallel, the extinction will be the same in
three times less than in a clinopyroxene.
both twins. Twinning in quartz with parallel c-
axes is very common but tends to go unrec-
ognized under the microscope. Where the
Oblique extinction (Fig. 19( c),( e))
longitudinal axes of the twinned crystals are at an
This occurs when the vibration direction of the angle to each other (e.g. interpenetrating
light is at an oblique angle to crystallographic staurolite twins), then the extinction in all sec-
reference planes. This obliqueness occurs in min- tions which are not parallel to the twining plane
erals of the lower symmetry classes (monoclinic, are different in the individual twinned crystals.
triclinic) and varies between the different crystal The same is true for twinned monoclinic and
systems. In the monoclinic system there are triclinic crystals (Figs 144(b),(c), 179). Multiple
certain orientations where extinction is parallel twinning is particularly common in triclinic
or symmetric (e.g. clinopyroxene in sections feldspars where it is diagnostic (Figs 180, 185,
parallel to (100) show parallel extinction and 188).
3 Observations under conoscopic light
Fig. 20 Conoscopic images of optically uniaxial crystals in sections approximately perpendicular to the optic
axis. The optic axis pierces the image at the intersection point of the two black isogyres. The concentric colour
rings (isochromes, shown in dotted pattern) are spaced with increasing density from each other and increasing
interference colours away from the centre. While rotating the stage the image does not change.
20 Observations under conoscopic light
Fig. 21 Conoscopic images of optically uniaxial crystals in sections of different orientation and rotation
positions. The isochromes are shown in a dotted pattern.
Upper row: section approximately perpendicular to the optic axis; the isogyres form a cross (melatope) which
remains in the field of view when rotating the microscope stage.
Lower row: section at an oblique angle to the optic axis; the melatope is outside the field of view.
Thick arrow: direction of rotation of the microscope stage (anticlockwise). Broken arrow: rotation of the
conoscopic image (anticlockwise).
If the mineral has been sectioned exactly per- 3.2.2 Determination of the optical
pendicular to the optic axis, then the melatope character of uniaxial crystals
and the isogyre cross do not change their position
when rotating the stage. If the section is at a small
angle to the perpendicular to the optic axis, then The compensator red I (gypsum plate) is inserted
the isogyre cross changes position when rotating while viewing the mineral in the conoscopic light
the stage (Fig. 21, upper row). path. Where quadrants I and III show addition in
In mineral sections cut at a large angle to the their interference colours by one order (551 nm),
optic axis, the melatope can lie and rotate along a the mineral has positive character. In the case of
circle outside the field of view. The diameter of quartz, which shows grey-white colours of the 1st
this circle depends on the angle to the optic axis. order, the accessory plate produces blue colours
The isogyres remain parallel to the N-S and E-W of the 2nd order. In quadrants II and IV, the
orientation respectively and move in and out of colours decrease by one order, e.g. they become
the field of view (Fig. 21, lower row), which is a 1st order yellow (subtraction). In minerals
quite different to optically biaxial minerals. The where the opposite is the case (e.g. apatite or
narrower end (homodrome) of the isogyres is nepheline), the minerals have negative optical
always in the direction of the melatope. When character (Fig. 23). Here the accessory plate pro-
restricted to images of the thicker end of the duces yellow in quadrants I and III and blue in II
isogyre (antidrome), inexperienced observers and IV.
can easily confuse the image with that of an opti- Observation of addition or subtraction in a
cally biaxial crystal. quadrant depends on the vibration directions of
Sections oriented approximately parallel to the ordinary and extraordinary rays (no, ne). This
the optic axis, show wide and diffuse isogyre pat- can be best illustrated in a Becke's 'Skiodrom-
terns. In sections parallel to the optic axis a broad sphere' (for more detail see e.g. MUller and Raith
black cross appears, which opens quickly even at 1987).
small rotations of the stage (Fig. 22); again this In minerals with high interference colours it
can easily lead to confusion with biaxial can be difficult to decide if addition or subtrac-
conoscopic images. tion occurs when inserting the red I compensator.
Conoscopic examination of optically uniaxial crystals 21
90°
8
90° 180°
Fig.22 Conoscopic images of optically uniaxial crystals in section approximately parallel to the optic axis during
180° rotation of the microscope stage. Isochromes are shown in the dotted pattern. Addition of colours in the 45°
position and subtraction of colours in the 135° position apply to a uniaxial positive optical character. The opposite
is the case in uniaxial negative crystals .
..... :
Subtraction Addition Addition Subtraction
yellow':: blue blue : : . yellow
::. ::·.:e (±) (±) $.":: >.:-:'.
(±) e::::::
.' .
Fig. 23 Determination of the optical character of a Fig. 24 Determination of the optical character in
uniaxial crystal with low birefringence colours in uniaxial crystals with low birefringence colours in sec-
sections approximately perpendicular to the optic tions oblique to the optic axis.
axis.
Top row: determination with the aid of the compen-
Top row: determination with the aid of the compensa- sator red I. Left: addition of colours in quadrant I
tor red I. Left: addition with colours of a higher order in and subtraction in quadrant II = optic ®. Right: sub-
quadrants I and III = optic ®. Right: subtraction of traction of colours in I and addition in quadrant II =
colours in quadrants I and III = optic 8. optic 8.
Lower row: Determination with the aid of the quartz Lower row: determination with the aid of a quartz
wedge in minerals with higher birefringence colours. wedge in minerals with higher birefringence colours.
Left: isochromes in quadrants I and III move towards Left: isochromes move towards the centre in quadrant
the centre = optic ®. Right: isochromes move away I = optic ®. Isochromes move away from the centre in
from the centre in quadrants I and III = optic 8. quadrant I = optic 8.
22 Observations under conoscopic light
Fig. 25 Conoscopic images of optically biaxial crystals in different orientations and rotation positions.
Isochromes are shown in the dotted pattern.
Upper row: sections oriented perpendicular to the acute bisectrix (2V - 40°); the melatope remains in the field
of view.
Middle row: section oriented perpendicular to one of the optic axes (2V - 80°); one melatope is in the field of
view. Isogyres swing back and forth.
Lower row: section perpendicular to the obtuse bisectrix and parallel to the optic axial plane. The isogyre cross
is wide and rapidly expands and moves outside the field of view.
Black arrow: direction of rotation of both the microscope stage and the conoscopic image is anticlockwise.
It is better to use a quartz wedge (Fig. 23). In a 3.3 Determination of the optical
mineral with optical positive character the colour
rings in quadrants I and III move inwards to- character of biaxial minerals
wards the centre (= addition) and in quadrants in the conoscopic light path
II and IV they move outwards (subtraction). If
the opposite is the case then the mineral has 3.3.1 Conoscopic images of biaxial
optical negative character (colour rings in quad-
rants I and III move outwards and in II and IV
minerals in different orientations
inwards). Under conoscopic light, biaxial minerals present
Determination of the optical character as de- an isochromatic system of elliptical curves with
scribed above can easily be done in sections per- the optic axes and isogyres intersecting at their
pendicular or nearly perpendicular to the optic focal points (Fig. 25, upper row). The thinnest
axis (Fig. 24). However, if the section is oriented parts of the isogyres mark the points where the
parallel to the optic axis, then one follows the optic axes pierce through. The convex part of the
procedure illustrated in Fig. 22. If addition is ob- isogyres always point towards the acute bisectrix
served in the 45° position (i.e. the isogyres have (2V < 90°), and the concave side towards the
moved out of the field of view in quadrants I and obtuse bisectrix (2V > 90°).
III) then the mineral is optically positive. If sub- Minerals sectioned perpendicular to the acute
traction occurs in this position then the mineral is bisectrix show both isogyres in the field of view, if
optically negative. axial angles are small- or medium-sized. In the
Determination of the optical character of biaxial minerals 23
0°, 90°, 180° etc. positions the isogyres form a onal positions the isogyres are variably bent and
black cross similar to uniaxial crystals (Fig. 25, thin in places. The point of maximum curvature
upper row). However, the isogyres differ slightly always points towards the acute bisectrix.
from those observed in uniaxial crystals with the In sections perpendicular to the obtuse
thinner isogyre showing two constrictions (pierc- bisectrix viewed in the 90° position the isogyres
ing points of the two optic axes, with the isogyre form a wide cross which rapidly opens when ro-
resembling the optic axial plane) and the second tating the stage and disappears from the field of
isogyre being much thicker. During rotation of view after a 15°-25° rotation (Fig. 25, bottom
the microscope stage the cross opens up and the row). A similar conoscopic image is observed
isogyres become two hyperbolas which are fur- in sections parallel to the optic axial plane. Here
thest apart from each other in the diagonal po- the isogyres disappear from the field of view
sitions (45°, 135°, etc.). In mineral sections after a 10° rotation. Such sections can lead to
oriented at a high angle to the acute bisectrix or erroneous identification of the mineral as
perpendicular to one of the optic axes the optic uniaxial.
angle becomes very large and only one isogyre
can be seen in the field of view. It is straight and
oriented either N-S or W-E in the 90° position 3.3.2 Identification of the optical
(Fig. 25, middle row). During rotation into diag- character of biaxial crystals
The conoscopic image is viewed in the diagonal
position and then the compensator red I is in-
serted. If only one isogyre can be seen in the
field of view then it is positioned so that its con-
vex side points towards the SW (Fig. 26( e ),(f)).
If in a biaxial mineral of low birefringence col-
ours, blue colours (addition) are observed on the
concave side of the isogyre, and yellow colours
(subtraction) on the convex side, then it is opti-
cally positive. In the opposite case, with subtrac-
tion and reduced colours on the concave side and
addition and blue colours on the convex side, the
mineral is optically negative (Fig. 26(a)(b)).
For minerals with high birefringence colours
the quartz wedge is used rather then the red I
compensator. On inserting the quartz wedge the
isochromes move according to the illustration in
Fig. 26 «c)-(t)).
In sections where no melatope pierces the
conoscopic image an unambiguous uniaxial or
biaxial identification of a mineral is very difficult
and requires a lot of experience. Therefore, such
sections are best avoided; it is best to choose
those that show low birefringence colours in the
diagonal position.
Note:
- Conoscopic observations are best done in
sections that show minimal birefringence
Fig. 26 Determination of the optical character of bi-
colours.
axial crystals. - Determine birefringence in sections that
show maximum interference colours.
(a)-(d) Section perpendicular to the acute bisectrix.
(e), (f) Section approximately perpendicular to one of
the optic axes. 3.3.3 Estimation of the optic axial
(a), (b) Mineral with low birefringence: determination angle 2V
with the red I compensator.
The curvature of the isogyres is a measure of the
(c)-(f) Mineral with high birefringence: determination size of 2V (Fig. 27). If one or both isogyres are in
with the quartz wedge. a diagonal position, then the optic angle can be
(a), (c), (e) opt. 63; (b), (d), (f) opt. 8. determined according to the instructions given in
24 Observations under conoscopic light
Isochromes I
1 5A =2a I
2r
Fig. 28. If the isogyres are straight then 2V is are measured (Fig. 29). The following equation
approximately 90°. applies:
oA = 2a/2r,
3.3.4 Determination of optic axial . V oA·U
angles 2V in oblique section sm = - -
n
If the optic axial angle is small, then it can be where n = refractive index of the mineral
measured directly (without a universal stage). (average value n~ taken from Table 7) and U =
This method works for micas in basal section. numerical aperture (Fig. 30, U = 0.85). oA is
One condition is that both isogyres can be ob- determined by dividing the two measurements 2r
served in the field of view under conoscopic light. and 2a, the value n is obtained from Table 7 and
This means that section orientation should be 2V is read off Fig. 30.
approximately perpendicular to the acute
bisectrix (Rittmann 1963). Example: for muscovite (n = 1.6), oA is deter-
Both isogyres are placed in diagonal positions mined with 0.78 and V = 24.5°, 2Vx = 49°; for
and then the diameter 2r and the distance be- biotite (n = 1.65), oA is calculated as 0.16 and
tween the two points of maximum curvature 2a hence V = 4.8° with 2Vx = 9.6°.
Determination of the optical character of biaxial minerals 25
Biotite
n 5° 10° 15° 20° V
~-w~TO~~~~~rT~~~~~~~~
.: Muscovite
25°
2.0 H-t-++-+;
~~~~+hr7~~~~-R~+1~~
1.8
··
30°
1.6
35°
1.4
IlA
Fig. 30 Diagram for the determination of the half optic axial angle (V) for objectives with the numerical aperture
of 0.85 (Rittmann, 1963). OA is plotted against n. The oblique lines represent V. See example for biotite and
muscovite in the text.
26 Observations under conoscopic light
~
'lr
Transparency Non-transparency (opaque)
Colour, pleochroism Colour
Form, habit Form, habit
Refraction, relief, chagrin Refraction, relief, chagrin
Vibration orientations in crystal Cleavage, angular relationships
Cleavage, angular relationships Further observations with a
reflective microscope
Inclusions, twinning, alteration
t
Determination with crossed polars
Orthoscopic path of light
~
Isotropic sections
* l
Anistropic sections
Conoscopic path of light Birefringence
Axial figure No axial figure Birefringence dispersion
Extinction
Extinction angle
Extinction dispersion
Character of elongation
with a compensator
Positive Negative
Twinning
Zonar growth, subgrains
Cubic or amorphous Hourglass structure
substances
Hex., trig., tetra., Inclusions, twinning,
Rhombic, monocl., alterations
crystals tricl., crystals
Conoscopic path of light
~ ,L
t ~
Optical character Optical character
Optically uniaxial Optically biaxial Optically uniaxial Optically biaxial
Determination of the optical sign Determination of the optical sign
with the compensator with the compensator
Optically uniaxial Optically biaxial Optically uniaxial Optically biaxial
Positive Negative Positive Neutral Negative Positive Negative Positive Neutral Negative
Estimation of Estimation of
axial angle axial angle
Determination of the optical character of biaxial minerals 27
Protocol
Mineral number 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Habit
Cleavage
Estimate of the
refraction
Colour
Pleochroism
Isotropic/anisotropic
Twinning
Extinction angle
Birefringence
Uniaxial/biaxial
optical character
Special optical
phenomena
(e.g. zoning,
anomalies, etc.)
Mineral name
Part B Optical Mineralogy
1 Opaque minerals and substances
A precise optic identification is only possible with a reflecting light microscope.
1.2 Ilmenite
trigonal-rhombohedral Alteration: fairly stable mineral. Hydrothermal
and hydrous alterations along rims or complete
General features: the most important and com-
replacement into leucoxene (== alteration of
mon accessory ore mineral after magnetite.
ilmenite and titanoilmenite into a fine-grained ,
dark-red aggregate of rutile, anatase, sphene,
Thin-section characteristics hematite). Sometimes a laminar intergrowth be-
tween ilmenite and magnetite can be developed
Form: thin flakes; dendritic aggregates; skeletal
and is more clearly seen in altered than in fresh
(Figs 32, 33).
grains.
Colour: opaque; in very thin sections deep
Occurrence: it occurs together with magnetite as
transparent brown.
an accessory mineral in almost all igneous rocks.
Refraction: extremely high (n == 2.33-2.51). In In basic plutonic rocks it is commonly found as
crossed polarized light clear anisotropic charac- titanomagnetite (Part B, section 1.1). It occurs in
teristics, optically uniaxial in very thin flakes. metamorphic rocks (e.g. in amphibolites) in
detrital sediments and sedimentary rocks.
Distinguishing features: from magnetite and
other opaque minerals it can be distinguished Paragenesis: very common. In igneous rocks
only if present in skeletal form or by its charac- commonly found together with magnetite.
teristic alteration into leucoxene.
1.3 Hematite
trigonal-scalenohedral
1.4 Pyrite
cubic-didodecahedral
Thin-section characteristics
Form: square, triangular and hexagonal sections
(Figs 35, 36), also granular.
Colour: opaque, in oblique reflected light brass-
yellow.
Fig. 35 Typical form of pyrite. Pentagon-
Distinguishing features: from magnetite, ilmenite dodecahedron (pyritohedron) or cube with character-
and pyrrhotite only by reflected light microscopy. istic stripes.
1.5 Pyrrhotite
FeS dihexagonal-dipyramidal
1.6 Graphite
c dihexagonal-dipyramidal
General features: carbon-bearing organic sedi- (Fig. 37). Grain boundaries tend to be irregular,
mentary material is changed into graphite during because graphite gets smeared during the process
metamorphism. of thin-section making.
Cleavage: tabular crystals with perfect cleavage
Thin-section characteristics along (0001), which cannot be seen under the
microscope.
Form: commonly as thin flakes and scales after
(0001), occasionally as grains, also with egg- Colour: opaque, non-transparent and therefore
shaped cross-sections. Parallel alignment with or dark black; grey-green translucent, only in the
without folding and smeared edges are typical thinnest flakes. .
Refraction: n = 1.5- >2.0, very variable. gneisses (e.g. Bayerischer Wald, Germany). In
augen gneisses.
Distinguishing features: smeared edges are char-
acteristic and help to distinguish it from other Paragenesis: with quartz, K-feldspar, albite,
opaque minerals except molybdenite. mica, chlorite and rutile.
Alteration: none.
Occurrence: only in certain metamorphic rocks
such as graphite-rich phyllites and graphite-rich
2.1 Perovskite
(Ca, Na, Fe 2+, Ce, Sr) (Ti, Nb)03 pseudo-cubic (rhombic-dipyramidal)
General features: rare mineral, commonly found polysynthetic twinning, as do leucite crystals
in Si02-undersaturated basaltic igneous rocks to- (Part B, section 2.5), and anomalous low
gether with melilite. birefringence colours (axial angle 2Vy - 90°).
Distinguishing features: picotite and melanite
Thin-section characteristics have considerable lower refraction; rutile occurs
in a different paragenesis. Easily confused with
Form: cubic and triangular cross-sections; rare
dysanalyte and pyrochlore because of similar re-
skeletal crystals.
fraction and colour, and hence best identified by
Cleavage: cubic after {l00) only developed in microprobe analysis.
larger crystals.
Distinguishing features: commonly unaltered.
Twinning: polysynthetic after {1ll), rare simple
Occurrence: forms as an early crystal phase in
twins after {1l0) and {100), only visible in larger
silica undersaturated, Ca-rich igneous rocks (Fig.
crystals.
38), in particular in melilite-bearing volcanic
Colour: variable; predominantly violet-grey, rocks (e.g. melilite-bearing nephelinite of Hegau,
brown-red, amber to bright yellow, rarely green Schwabische Alb, Kaiserstuhl, Germany), in
to colourless. Concentric colour distribution dykes (alnoite), kimberlites, rare in nephelinites
possible. Very small crystals appear opaque be- and leucitites without melilite.
cause of their total light reflectance.
Paragenesis: with melilite, nepheline, soda lite
Refraction: extremely high, n == 2.30-2.38. group, also leucite and magnetite; never with
ilmenite.
Special characteristics: paramorph, under
crossed polars all larger crystals show
Thin-section characteristics
Form: euhedral hexagonal (Fig. 39), with square Fig. 39 Spinel with typical
and triangular cross-sections, also anhedral as octahedral form.
rounded and angular grains (Colour plate 2).
Cleavage: not visible in thin section. Exception:
spinel s.s. in forsterite-bearing marbles show a
well-developed cleavage after {100}.
Twinning: common after {lll}, not clearly visible
in thin section.
Colour:
Spinel: Hercynite: Picotite: Chromite:
colourless, pale pink, dark green, bright yellowish and dark brown to nearly opaque, at
pale blue; green-grey emerald green brownish. thinned-out grain edges dark brown
if Fe 2+-rich (pleonaste). (Colour plate 2). to red-brown translucent.
Refraction:
Spinel: Hercynite: Picotite: Chromite:
n = 1.72-1.74 n = 1.78-1.80 n =2.0 n = 2.05-2.16
Thin-section characteristics
Form: commonly fine-grained, as euhedral- melanite. Rutile and cassiterite occur in different
octahedral grains (Fig. 41). para geneses.
Cleavage: none. Alteration: none.
Colour: Occurrence: very rare. In foid-bearing peg-
Pyrochlore: Koppite: matites, in sanidinites; koppite in carbonatites
red-brown to brown, red to nearly (e.g. from Schelingen, Kaiserstuhl, Germany).
dark brown to black. colourless.
Paragenesis: with calcite, apatite and phlogopite.
Distinguishing features: under the microscope it
is not possible to distinguish between pyrochlore,
koppite, perovskite, chromite, picotite and
General features: most common in metamorphic The garnet group can be divided into two sub-
rocks where they form isomorphic mixtures of groups based on different ionic radii of Mg, Fe,
their endmembers (Table 2). Mn on the one hand and Ca on the other:
1. Pyralspite = pyrope (Mg, AI), almandine (Fe,
AI) and spessartine (Mn, AI)
2. Grandites or ugrandites = grossularite (Ca,
AI), andradite (Ca, Fe) and uvarovite (Ca,
Table 2 Composition of the most important end- Cr). This subgroup also includes melanite
members of the garnet group (= andradite with 5-15wt% Ti0 2).
R2+ Z3+ AI Fe Cr
Thin-section characteristics
Mg pyrope
Form: frequently euhedral (almandine, grossu-
Fe almandine
Mn spessartine
larite, Fig. 42), but also occurs as subhedral
Ca grossularite andradite uvarovite rounded or irregular unhedral grains (pyrope,
Fig. 43). Square and hexagonal cross-sections af-
ter the rhombic dodecahedra {110} or icositetra-
hedra {211}. The latter habit predominantly
occurs in felspathoid rocks and the rhombic
dodecahedral form is frequent in mica schists.
MgAt,FeAt,MnAt CoAt CaFe
Cleavage: none, {110} cleavage sometimes
®~®
present. Rare parallel or irregular fractures in
stressed crystals (Fig. 44).
Colour: colourless in thin sections of normal
thickness. Pale pinkish colours are typical in
pyraispites and pale-green to yellow and brown-
a b c green colours in the grandites. Stronger colours
are typical for melanites (brown, commonly
Fig. 42 Crystal form differs according to the chemi-
cal composition of garnets: (a) icositetrahedral:
zonal variations) and in uvarovites (bright emer-
pyrope, almandine, spessartine; (b) rhombic- ald green).
dodecahedral: grossularite; (c) combination of (a) and
(b): andradite.
Fig. 46 Poikiloblastic
almandine with heliocentric
inclusions. Deformed garnet-
biotite-muscovite schist with
rotated garnet. Lukmanier
Pass, Switzerland. Uncrossed
polarizers.
tend to be green in colour with octahedral habits. picotite (kelyphitic rim) can occur in garnet and
Representatives of the grandite subgroup can be olivine-bearing rocks (Fig. 43). Kelyphitic rims
confused with periclase in marbles; melanite is of hornblende, plagioclase and quartz around
similar to picotite and perovskite, but the latter garnet in amphibolites and eclogites are com-
has a much higher refraction. mon; they probably form during retrograde
Identification of the endmember compositions metamorphism at lower pressures. Low-grade
with the aid of a microscope alone is not possible diaphthoritic metamorphic alterations some-
and one has to resort to microprobe analysis. times aided by hydrothermal alterations can lead
to replacement of garnet by chlorite (or biotite,
Alteration: radial replacement of pyrope or sericite or epidote).
pyrope-rich almandine by hornblende and
2.4.1 Pyrope
Mg3AI 2 [Si04h
Form: commonly shows round cross-sections kimberlite, eclogite. Placer deposits (e.g. Bohe-
with kelyphitic rims (Fig. 43). mian massive or as 'Kaprubin' in South Africa).
Occurrence: in high-pressure (high-temperature) Paragenesis: with olivine, serpentinite, pyroxene
paragenesis in peridotite, serpentinite, (omphacite in eclogite) and phlogopite.
2.4.2 Almandine
Fe3 AI 2 [Si0 4h
Occurrence: most common garnet. Occurs on a in igneous rocks (e.g. granites, granodiorites and
regional scale in metamorphic AI-rich rocks (Fig. calc-alkaline volcanic rocks) due to resorption of
44) and is found throughout most metamorphic AI-rich contact rocks into the magma.
rocks from phyllites to high-grade gneisses. In
amphibolites almandine tends to contain appreci- Paragenesis: in mica schist with biotite, musco-
able amounts of pyrope and grossularite. It is rare vite, chlorite, quartz, kyanite and staurolite.
Garnet group 41
Fig. 47 Characteristic
zoning pattern in
grossularite.
2.4.3 Grossularite
Ca 3AI2 [Si0 4h
Form: granular euhedral grains. rocks which have undergone calcium metaso-
Colour: colourless to pale green.
matism; in the case of metasomatic addition of
iron, andradite forms instead of grossularite,
Special characteristics: optical anomalies and which belongs to the ugrandite series and is typi-
zonal growth patterns are common (Figs 47, 48). cal of skarn formations.
Occurrence: a contact- and regional metamor- Paragenesis: with diopside, wollastonite vesu-
phic mineral in calcareous and marly rocks. In vianite and calcite.
siliceous carbonates and marbles. Also occurs in
2.4.4 Melanite
Ca 3Fe 2 [(Si, Ti)04h
Colour: bright to dark brown; intensity of colour pyroclastic derivatives, e.g. Kaiserstuhl (Fig. 49)
and birefringence increase with increasing Ti0 2 and Laacher volcanic area, Germany) and in
content. Growth zones are common. equivalent plutonic rocks.
Occurrence: accessory mineral in alkali and Paragenesis: with nepheline, leucite, minerals of
Na-rich silica undersaturated volcanic rocks the sodalite group, aegirine-augite and sanidine.
(phonolite to tephrite and foidite and related
2.5 Leucite
cubic hexoctahedral and tetragonal-dipyramidal
General features: most common and characteris- form, and optically anisotropic polysynthetic
tic feldspathoid in K-rich and silica deficient vol- twinning is typical (Figs 50(c), 51).
canic rocks replacing the potassium feldspar
component:
K[ AlSiPH]-Si0 2 --7 K[ AlSi20 6]. Thin-section characteristics
The cubic high-temperature form of leucite crys- Form: typically occurs in euhedral crystals, in
tallizes at temperatures in excess of 605°C. At trapezohedron form (2111 (Fig. 50(a» with octa-
lower temperatures it forms pseudo-cubic para- hedral or rounded cross-sections. Skeletal forms
morpho us crystals after the high-temperature are not uncommon.
Cleavage: imperfect on {llO}, not visible under xenomorphic and inclusions-free; chabasite has
the microscope. very low birefringence, anomalous subgrains
with a well-developed cleavage parallel to {lOll}
Twinning: fine lamellar twinning parallel to {110}
and shows rhombohedral habit; tridymite is op-
(Figs 50(c), 51).
tically uniaxial positive; rock-glass in general
Colour: colourless. shows a higher relief and is devoid of cleavage
and crystal forms.
Refraction and birefringence:
ne = 1.509 Alteration: late magmatic hydrothermal Na-rich
no = 1.508 fluids can alter leucite into pseudo-Ieucite by
metasomatic Na/K-exchange (= fine-grained
E!l~ = 0.001
intergrowth of alkali feldspar and leucite), or into
Very low, negative relief; in polysynthetic twins analcite pseudomorphs.
extremely low birefringence (compensator red I
Occurrence: in K-rich silica-undersaturated
necessary for identification); identification of
young volcanic rocks (e.g. the leucite tephrites
very small grains is very difficult (grey to black
and leucitites from Mt Vesuvius, the Colli
interference colours of the 1st order).
Albani, from northern Lazio, from the Laacher
Special characteristics: commonly two leucite volcanic area in Germany and other areas); it
generations can occur in a rock: large, partly never occurs in plutonic or metamorphic rocks.
glomerophyrically intergrown crystals and small,
Paragenesis: never found together with quartz.
rounded leucite crystals in the groundmass with
Commonly found with nepheline, minerals from
concentrically and radially aligned inclusions (in
the sodalite group, aegirine-augite, olivine,
most cases glass) (Figs 50(a),(b); 52).
clinopyroxene, melanite and rock-glass.
Distinguishing features: easily confused with
analcite, which has a lower birefringence, is
General features: isotypic crystals of the Special characteristics: in nose an and hauyne
feldspathoids, which occur in Na-rich silica- dark rims and zonar exsolution inclusions of sub-
undersaturated magmatic rocks. microscopic Fe-sulphides and Fe-oxides are con-
centrically arranged or define linear patterns
Thin-section characteristics (Figs 53, 56, 57).
Occurrence: sodalite is the most common repre- Paragenesis: sodalite-group minerals are never
sentative of this group. It can be rock-forming in found together with quartz. However, they occur
Na-rich and silica-undersaturated plutonic and with nepheline, leucite, aegirine-augite, mela-
volcanic rocks (e.g. sodalite-syenite, sodalite- nite, olivine, Ti-augite and rock-glass.
monzosyenite, sodalite-phonolite, etc.). Nosean
and hauyne are restricted to volcanic rocks and
are common in phonolites and tephrites, and also
in foidites and rare in hauynites.
2.7 Analcite
cu bic-hexaoctahedral.
Fig. 58 Paramorphous
analcite filling an amygdale in
an alkaline hawaiite. Cyclope
Islands near Catania, Sicily.
Crossed polars.
Cristobalite 47
zeolite. In low-grade metamorphic basaltic rocks In zeolite-facies rocks and with heulandite,
as mineral of the zeolite facies. stilbite and laumontite.
Paragenesis: magmatic, never together with
quartz, but with nepheline, leucite and Ti-augite.
2.8 Cristobalite
Si02 pseudo-cubic (tetragonal-trapezohedral)
General features: easily overlooked, rare silica Character of elongation: lussatite: (+), Lussa-
mineral in cavities in acidic volcanic rocks. tine: (-).
Paramorphous transItIOn of cubical high-
Extinction: tends to be straight.
cristobalite into tetragonallow-cristobalite at de-
creasing temperatures. Distinguishing features: tridymite is biaxial Ef>
and tends to be platy; chalcedony has higher
birefringence colours, quartz is uniaxial Ef>; and
Thin-section characteristics
also nepheline has a higher relief and bire-
Form: platy, in cavities of volcanic rocks in round fringence (Fig. 59). Chabazite shows anomalous
aggregates; fibrous or as needles forming part of subgrains and has a better developed cleavage
devitrification spherolites together with alkali and occurs in a different paragenesis.
feldspars (Fig. 65); like chalcedony in lussatite
Alteration: none.
and lussatine.
Occurrence: rare mineral, almost exclusively
Twinning: commonly parallel to (111).
restricted to fractures and cavities in silica-
Cleavage: none. oversaturated volcanic rocks, and also as
de vitrification mineral; also occurs as a contact-
Colour: colourless.
metamorphic mineral in sanidine-facies rocks.
Refraction and birefringence:
Paragenesis: with rock-glass, tridymite and alkali
ne = 1.484
feldspar.
no = 1.487
eL1 = 0.003.
Very low relief and birefringence, optically
uniaxial e, abnormal biaxial e (2V" = 25°).
2.9 Fluorite
cubic-hexaoctahedral
2.10.2 Opal
SiOz + nH20 amorphous
2.10.3 Rock-glass
Variable chemistry amorphous
General features: metastable, product of rapidly a shard-rich matrix. However, this is not a result
cooled or quenched melts. Restricted to volcanic of flow but of welding together of hot rock parti-
rocks and dykes. cles and melt, with the melt being squeezed out
by the overburden. Also characteristic are the
spheroidal perlitic shrinkage cracks (Fig. 62).
Thin-section characteristics
Form: amorphous. Distinguishing features: difficult to recognize in
those cases where the glass is colourless and
Cleavage: none. Commonly irregular spherical occurs as interstitial material in small quantities
cracks (perlitic texture) formed during shrinkage (Fig. 64). Opal and fluorite have lower refractive
while cooling (Fig. 62). indexes. Analcite, leucite and members of
Colour: colourless, pale yellow to pale brown, the sodalite group show crystal forms and also
rarely pale coffee-brown (basaltic glass); colour cleavage.
due to submicroscopic inclusions of magnetite
Alteration: devitrification propagates from frac-
and ilmenite.
tures. The glass is replaced by fine crystalline
Refraction and birefringence: patchy aggregates (texture) comprised of those
Rhyolite glass n= 1.48 - 1.51 minerals which would have formed if the magma
Palaeorhyolite glass had cooled more slowly. Spherolite occurs in
(pitchstone) n= 1.49 - 1.51 acidic glass, where it forms radially arranged fi-
Dacite glass n= 1.50 - 1.53 bres of quartz or low-cristobalite and alkali feld-
Trachyte glass n= 1.49 - 1.53 spar, nucleating from crystal faces and other
Andesite glass n= 1.49 - 1.53 inclusions in the glass (Figs 65, 66). The same
Basaltic glass quench crystals, are rare in basic glasses, where
(tachylyte, siderome1ane) n = 1.53 - 1.58 they are called variolites, and consist of
Leucittephrite glass n= 1.51 - 1.61 plagioclase and pyroxene. In some glasses skel-
etal and dendritic microcrystals form during
The refractive index varies according to chemis-
cooling or/and devitrification (Fig. 68). Basic
try; isotropic, tension-induced birefringence col-
glasses of older volcanoes (e.g. Devonian to
ours are produced around inclusions.
lower Carboniferous diabase, spilite) show a
Special characteristics: Natural glasses often green colour, e.g. they are partly altered into oxi-
show flow textures (e.g. obsidian) or shard tex- dized chlorite (delessite). Hydrothermally al-
tures typical for ignimbrites (Fig. 63) with tered glasses contain zeolites, in particular
phenocrysts surrounded in a flow-like fashion by natrolite. Weathering of acidic glasses produces
0,5 mm
I ,
•
52 Optically isotropic minerals and amorphous substances
Fig. 68 Fern-like
devitrification micro lites (green
hornblende?) in a Tertiary
largely devitrified glass. Arran
Island, Scotland. Uncrossed
polarizers.
Amorphous minerals, glass and cryptocrystalline material 53
kaolinite and basic glasses alter to nontronite, which cooled close to the surface. In lavas and
montmorillonite or halloysite. ignimbrites it is common as matrix material: vol-
Volcanic glasses are distinguished from each canic glass (obsidian), pumice (Fig. 67), slag and
other by their water content, and how fresh they ash. With increasing Si02 and Al20 3 content the
are: melt viscosity increases and therefore the chance
Obsidian: 1-2% H 20: fresh. of glass formation also increases (about 90% of
Perlite: 3-4 %: H 20 shows perlitic all glasses are from acidic magmas). Higher iron
cracks from which and magnesium and reduced silica content re-
devitrification textures duce the viscosity. Therefore glass is more com-
propagate; low mon in acidic volcanic rocks than in basic rocks
birefringence (use (as interstitial material, Fig. 64). A high glass
compensator red I). content is present in the hyalo-basanite
Pitchstone: 4-8% H 20: older volcanic glass (limburgite) of the Kaiserstuhl, Germany.
(e.g. from the Permian
Paragenesis: in acidic volcanic rocks with quartz,
in Saxony) largely
sanidine, plagioclase, biotite and hornblende.
devitrified.
In basic volcanic rocks with plagioclase,
Occurrence: natural glasses are the product of clinopyroxenes/titanaugite, olivine, leucite,
rapidly cooling magmas; hence they are absent in nepheline, minerals of the sodalite group and
plutonic rocks. Glass can be present in dykes melanite.
3 Optically uniaxial minerals
3.1.1 Rutile
Ti02 ditetragonal-dipyramidal
General features: widely distributed as small pearl white, 16th order). High birefringence col-
grains in metamorphic rocks. Most common Ti0 2 ours are obscured by strong colour. Optically
polymorph (rutile, brookite and anatase) . uniaxial EB, sometimes anomalously biaxial.
Optic axial angle: small in anomalous biaxial
Thin-section characteristics crystals.
Form: columnar to needle-shaped parallel to Character of elongation: (+).
[001] (Figs 69, 70), also granular, occasionally
Extinction: tends to be straight.
forming a grid-like pattern (sagenite texture, Fig.
71). Distinguishing features: very dark rutile can be
differentiated from an opaque ore mineral by
Cleavage: perfect parallel to {110}, (100)
putting the front condenser lens into the viewing
moderate.
path, which brings out the translucent nature of
Twining: common on (101) elbow-shaped, and rutile. Sphene and brookite are optically biaxial;
on (301) heart-shaped. zircon tends to be colourless with low refractive
index; limonite is isotropic; hematite is red-
Colour: yellow to red-brown (dependent on Fe
brown to dark red in thin flakes.
content); weak pleochroism; as inclusions in
biotite, radioactive trace content can produce Reactions: none.
pleochroic haloes. Small crystals and hair-like
Occurrence: common in many metamorphic
rutile needles appear black due to the high total
rocks as an accessory mineral (e.g. in shales,
reflection. quartzites, mica schists, gneiss, amphibolites,
Refraction and birefringence: glaucophan schists, eclogites). Occurs as small
ne == 2.899 - 2.901 grains in magmatic and plutonic rocks; rarely as
no == 2.605 - 2.613 exsolution mineral of opaque Fe-rich phases in
foid-bearing plutonic rocks and granites. Its sec-
EBll == 0.286 - 0.296
ondary occurrence is as an exsolution mineral in
Rutile has the second highest refractive index
Ti-bearing biotite as fine needles or twinned (==
and birefringence of all minerals (mother-of-
sagenite, Fig. 71). Rutile inclusions appear in
quartz as fine hair-like needles. Larger crystals Parageneses: with kyanite, cordierite, corundum
occur in granite-pegmatites and quartz veins. and spinel; with biotite and quartz.
3.1.2 Cassiterite
Sn02 ditetragonal-dipyramidal
Fig. 72 Idiomorphic
cassiterite with zonar colora-
tion. Greisen. Altenberg,
Erzgebirge, Germany.
Uncrossed polarizers.
56 Optically uniaxial minerals
3.1.3 Zircon
Zr[Si04] ditetragonal-dipyrarnidal
General features: accessory mineral in many coloured minerals (biotite, hornblende, tourma-
rocks. line, etc.). Inclusions in zircon of magnetite,
biotite, cassiterite, quartz, tourmaline or glass or
fluid inclusions are common. Inclusions can
Thin-section characteristics
cause a grey coloration.
Form: short to long columns parallel to {llO} or
{100} (Fig. 73), also as rounded and granular Distinguishing features: from sphene, by its
grains in metamorphic rocks. bright interference colours; from rutile and
cassiterite by colour (colourless); monazite
Cleavage: {llO} imperfect.
shows a clear cleavage and is optically biaxial,
Twinning: rare, on {1ll}. and also has a low refractive index. Also
xenotime has a lower refraction, anatase is opti-
Colour: colourless, rare pale brown, green or
cal uniaxial e, and orthite has a lower refractive
pink, often radioactive (with pleochroic haloes in
index and lower birefringence colours.
coloured silicates), strongly pleochroic in col-
oured grains.
Alteration: very strong resistance but because
Refraction and birefringence: of radioactive decay it becomes isotropic
n. = 1.961 - 2.015 (metamict).
no = 1.922 -1.960
ffi~ = 0.042 - 0.065
Occurrence: one of the first mineral phases to
form in acidic magmas, in granites and also
High refraction, strong relief with dark rims, high quartz diorites. In volcanic rocks occurs as inclu-
birefringence colours with lively red, blue and sions in biotite and hornblende. In basic magmas
green interference colours of the 2nd and 3rd Zr is built into the lattice of pyroxene, and hence
order (Colour plate 3). Optically uniaxial Ea. Be- zircons are rare in these rocks. Zircon is very
cause of radioactive-induced lattice deformation common in nepheline syenite to monzosyenite
the refraction can be as low as n =1.826 and the and in pegmatites. It is a diagnostic detrital min-
birefringence as low as ~ = 0.000 (= amorphous, eral in sedimentary rocks (heavy mineral), and
metamict malacone). an accessory mineral in metamorphic rocks.
Optic axial angle: often anomalously biaxial with
2Vy= 100.
Paragenesis: with quartz, K-feldspar, plagioclase,
biotite and hornblende; in nepheline syenite with
Character of elongation: (+). nepheline, apatite, biotite and K-feldspar.
Extinction: tends to be straight.
Special characteristics: clear zoning is common.
Pleochroic haloes are particularly clearly visible
when zircon occurs as an inclusion in strongly
3.1.4 Xenotime
ditetragonal-dipyramidal
Thin-section characteristics
Form: short columnar (Fig. 74), also granular.
Cleavage: {110} good, visible only in larger
crystals. Fig. 74 Crystal form and
optical characteristics of
Twinning: rare parallel to (101). xenotime.
Colour: colourless to brownish, also red; occa-
sionally weak pleochroism from pale pink to pale
yellow or from yellow via grey-brown to pale
yellow-green; small magnetite inclusions result in
darkening.
Extinction: straight.
Refraction and birefringence:
Special characteristics: when as an inclusion
ne = 1.816 - 1.827
forms pleochroic haloes.
no = 1.721 - 1.720
Distinguishing features: early crystallization
EElL\ = 0.095 - 0.107
phase in granites, aplites, pegmatites, nepheline-
High refraction with clear relief and very high syenites and orthogneisses. It is alteration resist-
birefringence (higher than zircon). Similar inter- ant and is therefore preserved as a heavy detrital
ference colours to carbonate, but masked by mineral in sand and sandstones.
crystal colour; optically uniaxial EEl.
Paragenesis: with brown zircon (hyacinth),
Character of elongation: (+). ilmenite, rutile and cassiterite.
t.
--1------10.010
opt. e
0.000
opt.6l
1---+---4----+---1----10.010
Gehlenile Melilite group Akermanile
o 20 40 60 Mol.-%
Fig. 79 Birefringence and the anomalous interfer-
Fig. 78 Typical rod-like structure in melilite with cen- ence colours depend on the chemical composition of
tral dividing line. the melilite crystal.
Minerals which are optically uniaxial positive 59
anomalous blue or leather-brown interference a higher refraction; and zoisite is optically biaxial
colours. positive.
Character of elongation: opposite to the optical Alteration: alters easily. Hydrothermal altera-
character (Fig. 18). tion into zeolite: growth of nearly isotropic fibres
of mordentite, nucleating along the basal planes
Extinction angle: generally straight. of the crystal, which give rise to a rod-like texture
Special characteristics: may contain characteris- (Figs 77, 78). Weathers into carbonate.
tic rod-like inclusions such as zeolite fibres paral- Occurrence: in strongly silicata-undersaturated
lel to the c-axis and projecting into the crystal magmas (e.g. melilite nephelinites of the
from the (001) plane as far as the middle line. Schwabische Alb, Germany; melilite leucitite in
Can contain glass as inclusions (Figs 77, 78). the Colli Albani, Italy). Rare in dykes as alnoite
There is a continuous transition from the opti- (Alno Island, Sweden). In contact aureoles of
cally negative gehlenite to the optically positive plutonic with marly calcareous rocks pure
ilkermanite, during which t1 constantly decreases gehlenite porphyroblast can form (e.g. dolomitic
and is 0.000 at Ak s2 Ge 48 and then increases again marble of the monzonite area, Predazzo, South-
with increasing ilkermanite content (Fig. 79). ern Alps (Fig. 80)). Synthetic pure ilkermanite
Melilite with t1 = 0.000 is common in lavas, where forms in blast-furnace slag.
it has lavender-blue and bright-brown interfer-
ence colours due to its strong dispersion. Paragenesis: never together with quartz. In vol-
canic rocks next to nepheline, leucite, perovskite,
Distinguishing features: glass is isotropic; pyroxene and olivine. In plutonic rocks with
nepheline has a low refraction; apatite often perovskite, pyroxene, olivine, monticellite,
shows hexagonal cross-sections and never has nepheline, biotite and melanite. In dykes with
anomalous interference colours; vesuvianite has perovskite, pyroxene, olivine, hauyne, biotite
and primary carbonate.
3.1.6.1 Quartz
Si0 2 trigonal-trapezohedral (low-quartz)
General features: the second most common and tions, a high- and a low-temperature quartz (a-
purest mineral on earth. There are two modifica- quartz = high-quartz, and ~-quartz = low-quartz;
60 Optically uniaxial minerals
Laminar undulatory extinction can mimic rel- crystals and also is optically e, similar to beryl.
ict texture of former dynamic deformation, e.g. Among the biaxial crystals quartz is easily mis-
quartz ribbons. Fluid and gas inclusions (com- taken for cordierite. However, the latter has an
monly H 20 and CO 2) can occur. They can be optic axial angle 2V of a minimum of 35°,
arranged along fractures and growth zones. whereas 2V biaxial quartz never exceeds 10°.
Cordierite as well as inclusion-free feldspar tends
Distinguishing features: absence of cleavage, to form crystals which are not as free of altera-
lack of alteration, low relief; twinning easily rec- tions as quartz. K-feldspar has a lower refractive
ognizable. Nepheline never forms such clear index.
The white to grey interference colours of the (Part B, section 2.10.2) as matrix material in
1st order are taken as a measure to determine the silica-rich sediments, as secondary diagenetic
thickness of thin sections (30f..lm). The refractive mineral in organic radiolarite, hornfels and jas-
index of quartz (no) is the safest reference for per-concretions. It also occurs in sedimentary
determining the refraction of other unknown limestones, marls and evaporites as idiom orphic,
minerals. often long-prismatic secondary mineral.
Quartz is present in metamorphic rocks of all
Alteration: none. metamorphic grades, ranging from phyllite to
gneiss. It responds to shear deformation by pre-
Occurrence: in all magmatic rocks which are
ferred crystallization and ribbon formation (Fig.
silica saturated, therefore ubiquitous in mag-
85). Polygonal quartz textures form during static
matic rocks. Dark-coloured rocks which are rich
recrystallization. In some gneisses in which
in mafic minerals generally have very little, if any,
plagioclase is being replaced by K-feldspar
free quartz, whereas more light-coloured rocks,
myrmekite textures are developed that rim the
such as gabbroic and tholeitic basalts, have up to
feldspar, with quartz growing in worm-like fash-
5% vol., and graniteslrhyolites up to 35% vol.
ion perpendicular to the interface.
quartz. Generally, the amount of quartz in-
creases with decreasing darkness of the rock. Paragenesis: quartz only crystallizes in silica-
Magmatic rocks with more than 35% vol. quartz oversaturated rocks and therefore never co-
have probably not undergone secondary SiOz exists with felspathoids. Occasionally quartz is
metasomatism. In pegmatites and some other found in silica-undersaturated rocks, together
acidic plutonic rocks quartz can occur systemati- with corundum, spinel and olivine. This is inter-
cally intergrown with feldspar; this is referred to preted as the result of a change in the chemistry
as graphic intergrowth. In the case of an irregular of the magma, as phases that do not react with
intergrowth we speak about a granophyric tex- the melt crystallize (e.g. olivine) and the silica
ture. In rhyolitic to dacitic volcanic rocks (lavas content in the melt increases. Resorption rims of
and ignimbrites) corrosion features due to olivine give testimony of such chemical changes
remelting can be seen in the quartz phenocrysts in the melt.
(Fig. 83). These resorption features reflect rapid In granites, quartz crystallizes together with
physical changes in pressure and temperature microcline, albite and biotite, and also with green
which can lead to disequilibrium between the hornblende and sphene. In acidic volcanic rocks
quartz phenocrysts and the melt. Quartz resists it often occurs together with corroded K-feld-
alteration and is therefore concentrated in detri- spar, plagioclase, biotite, brown hornblende and
tal sediments, forming sandstones, etc. It occurs rock-glass.
sometimes together with chalcedony and opal
3.1.6.2 Chalcedony
Si0 2 trigonal-trapezohedral
General features: crypto- to microcrystalline, Low refraction and birefringence, slightly lower
fibrous form of low-quartz; product of dehy- than quartz; optically uniaxial EB. Often anoma-
drated opal. lously biaxial with 2Vy = 0-25°.
Character of elongation: Chalcedony s.s. (-),
Thin-section characteristics quarzine (+).
Form: fibrous (Fig. 86), star-shaped, spherolitic, Extinction: commonly straight.
often forming pseudomorphs after other miner- Distinguishing features: very characteristic; pos-
als or filling voids in fossils. The fibre direction is sibly confused with fibrous natrolite, but this has
parallel to the c-axis. a lower refraction.
Cleavage: none. Alteration: very robust.
Colour: colourless. Occurrence: secondary mineral. In volcanic
rocks fills fractures and cavities (e.g. in
Refraction and birefringence: melaphyres of the Saar-Nahe area in Germany),
ne = 1.538 - 1.543 forming agate. Pseudomorph and silicification
no = 1.530 - 1.533 mineral particularly in fossil wood and other fos-
EBLl = 0.008 - 0.010 sils. In concretions in flint.
Paragenesis: opal and zeolites.
3.1.6.3 Tridymite
Si02 pseudo-hexagonal (rhombic-disphenoidal)
General features: difficult to recognize; rare; fills wedge-shaped trillings; also as xenomorphic
cavities in acidic volcanic rocks. grains.
Cleavage: feeble, rarely visible.
Thin-section characteristics Twinning: common, wedge-shaped crystals of
Form: thin platy to flaky, in cavities as aggregate two or more individuals, trillings.
of hexagonal flakes, arranged like roof tiles, or as Colour: colourless.
64 Optically uniaxial minerals
Refraction and birefringence: zeolite shows higher refractive indices and higher
1\ = 1.481 birefringence colours; nepheline has a higher re-
n~ = 1.478 lief and is uniaxial 8; cristobalite is uniaxial 8;
ncr = 1.477 and fluorite has a well-developed cleavage.
EeLl = 0.004
Alteration: none.
Low relief and weak birefringence, almost al-
Occurrence: rare, easily overlooked. Typically
ways biaxial Ee, because only the rhombic
paramorph is stable at normal (STP) conditions. occurs in acidic to intermediate volcanic rocks
(rhyolite to andesite, trachyte, latite and obsid-
2Vy = 40-90°.
ian) in cavities and fractures. As contact-
Character of elongation: (-). metamorphic mineral in 'sanidinite facies'.
Extinction: tends to be straight.
Paragenesis: with rock-glass and cristobalite.
Distinguishing features: analcite and leucite tend
to show abnormal subgrains; sodalite is isotropic;
3.1.7 Chabazite
Cal Al zSi 20 12l· 6H20 ditrigonal-scalenohedral
3.2.1 Anatase
Ti0 2 ditetragonal-dipyramidal
General features: the calcite group (calcite, optically uniaxial 8; commonly anomalously
magnesite, siderite) and dolomite are the most biaxial 8.
important rock-forming minerals of carbonate
sedimentary rocks. Optic axial angle: in metamorphic rocks com-
monly deformation-induced twinning giving rise
to biaxial optical characteristics with 2V" = 4-14°
3.2.2.1 Calcite (25°).
Thin-section characteristics Extinction: symmetric relative to rhombohedral
Form: massive, xenomorphic, granular, as rock- cleavage planes.
forming mineral; also star-shaped spherolitic,
fibrous, oolitic or pisolitic, and mimicks organic Special characteristics: the great difference be-
fossil structures. Common as sutured granular or tween the refractive indices and no creates a pleo-
as polygonal (in marble) aggregates. chroism-like feature, referred to as chagrin
change (it is colourless in the ne vibration direc-
Cleavage: perfect rhombohedral cleavage {lOll} tion). However, in the direction of no the relief is
with an intersection angle of adjacent planes at stronger with a strong chagrin, causing the sec-
75°. Not visible in fine granular aggregates. tion to appear much darker than in the ne direc-
tion. This is characteristic for all rhombohedral
Twinning: glide twins are very common carbonates. Crystals which are optically biaxial
(po!ysynthetic translation lamellar twinning) on do not show complete extinction but patchy blu-
(0112) parallel to the long rhombic diagonal or ish interference colours.
parallel to its sides (Fig. 90); commonly lamellar
Distinguishing features: without a universal stage
twinning is so dense that grey interference col-
it cannot be distinguishable from other carbon-
ours of the 1st order occur.
ates. Staining techniques and solubility in acids
are good tests. Rock-forming dolomite in rocks
Colour: colourless and transparent.
tends to be idiom orphic, contrary to calcite, and
rarely shows lamellar twinning along (0221),
Refraction and birefringence:
wh~reas calcite commonly is twinned after
ne = 1.486
(0112).
no = 1.658
8~ = 0.172 Alteration: very robust with changing pressures
and temperatures, but during weathering it is
Extreme birefringence according to orientation easily dissolved.
of crystal (sections parallel to the c-axis show
mother-of-pearl white of the 10th order); strong Occurrence: very common. Rare as a major min-
chagrin change according to crystal orientation; eral in alkaline magmas (carbonatites; e.g.
Kaisterstuhl, Fig. 91) and as a hydrothermal min-
eral in ore deposits; fills cavities in rocks (Fig. 92)
(e.g. Saar-Nahe area, Germany). Occurs as
a retrograde reaction mineral in magmatic rocks
during breakdown of anorthite-rich plagioclase
and in sediments as concretions from organisms
such as corals, sponges and foraminifera-rich
marls, etc. (Figs 93, 94). Inorganic precipitation
from oversaturated solutions leads to very fine-
grained carbonates, oolites and travertine.
Matrix-forming in clastic sediments (e.g. cal-
careous sandstones). In metamorphic rocks cal-
cite occurs in marbles.
Fig. 90 Crystal form and optical characteristics of
calcite (left) and dolomite (right), illustrating different Paragenesis: not diagnostic. In cavities together
orientations of polysynthetic twinning. with zeolites.
Minerals with uniaxial negative character 67
3.2.2.2 Dolomite
Thin-section characteristics Colour: colourless to pale, rarely grey or brown-
ish (Fe-bearing).
Form: rhombohedral, in carbonaceous rocks
idiomorphic in contrast to coexisting calcite; Refraction and birefringence:
detrital grains in marble are xenomorphic to Fe-free Fe-bearing
hypidiomorphic. ne = 1.500 - 1.520
no = 1.679 - 1.703
Cleavage: perfect, after rhombohedral {lOll},
with the intersection of adjacent sides of the 8~ = 0.179 - 0.183
rhombohedron at 73 3/4°. Crystals can be cleaved Low to intermediate refraction and very high
parallel to the basal plane (0001). birefringence (mother-of-pearl white of the
higher orders); optically uniaxial 8.
Twinning: not as common as in calcite, lamellar
twinning on (0221). Twinning lamellae are paral-
lel to the short rhombohedral diagonal (Fig. 90).
Fig. 95 Hypidiomorphic
dolomite crystal with typical
rhombohedral cleavage.
Dolomitic marble. Campolungo,
Ticino, Switzerland. Crossed
polars.
Minerals with uniaxial negative character 69
Extinction: symmetrically relative to cleavage Alteration: very robust, not easily affected by
traces. weathering.
Distinguishing features: difficult to distinguish Occurrence: in hydrothermal deposits, as
from the other carbonates without the aid of a veinlets in ore deposits, in cavities in altered ba-
universal stage. Staining techniques and solubil- saltic volcanic rocks also occurs as sugar-grained
ity in acids are good tests. The twinning lamellae dolomitic marble (Fig. 95), as well as in the form
are oriented parallel to the short diagonal of the of beautiful rhombohedral porphyroblasts in talc
rhombohedron; the thin lamellae of calcite are and chlorite schist.
oriented at right angles and tend to show grey
Paragenesis: not typical.
interference colours of the 1st order.
3.2.2.3 Magnesite
Thin-section characteristics Extinction: symmetric relative to cleavage
planes.
Form: hypidiomorphic to xenomorphic aggre-
gates, rare as idiom orphic crystals; also granular, Distinguishing features: difficult to distinguish
fibrous or compact porcelain- or gel-like masses. from the other carbonates without the aid of a
universal stage. Staining techniques and solubil-
Cleavage: perfect on rhombohedral planes
ity in acids are good tests.
{lOll}.
Alteration: very robust mineral.
Twinning: rare lamellar pressure twins on (0112).
Occurrence: hydrothermal to metasomatic,
Colour: colourless, grey to pale, brownish if Fe-
forming coarse tabular masses, locally mined.
bearing.
Also occurs as idiom orphic porphyroblasts in talc
Refraction and birefringence: and chlorite schist. It is alteration product in
Fe-free Fe-bearing serpentinites, forming gel-like fracture-filling
ne = 1.509 - 1.563 masses. It forms pseudomorphs after olivine (Fig.
no = 1.700 - 1.782 96).
e~ = 0.191 - 0.219 Paragenesis: as gel-magnesite together with
Low to intermediate refraction and extremely opal.
high birefringence (mother-of-pearl white of the
higher orders); optically uniaxial 8.
3.2.2.4 Siderite
Thin-section characteristics group), clearly developed 'pseudo-dichroism';
optically uniaxial 8.
Form: idiomorphic (fine- to coarse-grained),
commonly hypidiomorphic to xenomorphic Extinction: symmetrically relative to the cleav-
granular or oolitic. age planes.
Cleavage: perfect on {lOll}. Distinguishing features: difficult to distinguish
from the other carbonates without the aid of a
Twinning: lamellar twinning on (0112); lamellar
universal stage. Staining techniques and solubil-
pressure twins are very rare, but very common in
ity in acids are good tests. Sphene and cassiterite
dolomite and calcite.
are optically EB.
Colour: colourless to pale yellow-brown.
Alterations: oxidation into ice flower-like den-
Refraction and birefringence: dritic aggregates of goethite (limonite).
ne = 1.633 Occurrence: as veins in orebodies; as hydrother-
no = 1.875
mal and metasomatic alteration product of car-
8L\ = 0.242 bonate and dolomite, forming coarse-grained,
tabular, locally mined bodies.
Medium to high refraction and extremely high
Paragenesis: not characteristic.
birefringence (highest among the carbonate
3.2.3
trigonal-scalenohedral
Thin-section characteristics
Form: idiomorphic with tabular habit, of High refraction with a strong relief and low
commonly hexagonal shape (Fig. 97); columnar, birefringence (grey interference colours of the
barrel-shaped, massive granular crystals (emery). 1st order, similar to quartz); optically uniaxial 8.
Cleavage: none; parting on {lOll} and {OOOl} Optic axial angle: can be anomalously biaxial e,
intersecting at an angle of 94°. with 2Va = 5-7° (to >30°).
Twinning: lamellar on {lOll}, simple twinning on Character of elongation: (-), rare (+).
{OOOl} and {lOll}.
Extinction: tends to be straight.
Colour: colourless; occasionally characteristic
Special characteristics: can show irregular bluish
patchy, stripy or zonar reddish or brownish col-
pleochroism, which is diagnostic.
oration with pleochroism (no: purple red, violet,
blue; ne: yellow, grey-green, pale blue; Colour Distinguishing features: chrysoberyl is optically
plate 4). biaxial EB; vesuvianite has anomalous interfer-
ence colours; apatite has a lower refractive index
Refraction and birefringence:
and tends to be idiomorphic; tourmaline has
ne = 1.760 - 1.764
birefringence colours of a higher order and is
no = 1.768 - 1.772
also strongly pleochroic.
8L\ = 0.008
Alteration: retrograde alteration into an aggre-
gate of white mica.
Occurrence: during resorption of AI-rich wall
rocks into a magma, corundum-spinel xenoliths
can form (norites, tholeites) if resorption is com-
plete, larger single corundum crystals can survive
(very rare). It is very rare in nepheline syenite
pegmatites; in syenite together with scapolite
and nepheline and feldspars. It also occurs in AI-
rich contact-metamorphic rocks of low silica con-
tent; in silica-poor regional metamorphic rocks in
Fig. 97 Crystal form and optical general, and in metamorphosed bauxite (e.g.
characteristics of corundum. emery-rock, Island of Naxos, Greece).
Minerals with uniaxial negative character 71
3.2.4 Vesuvianite
CalO(Mg, Fe )2AI4[ (OH)41(Si04)sISi207 )2] ditetragonal-dipyramidal
Thin-section characteristics
3.2.5 Tourmaline
Na(Fe2+, Mg, AI)3 (AI, Fe3+M(OH, F, O)41(B03)3ISi601S] ditrigonal-pyramidal
General features: the tourmaline group forms Colour: always coloured; blue-grey to olive-
a solid solution series between the two brown, green, pale-yellow to ochre. Strong char-
endmembers schorl (Fe) and dravite (Mg). acteristic pleochroism (Fig. 101), with the
ordinary ray being more strongly absorbed than
Thin-section characteristics the extraordinary (ne < no), which results in strong
colours perpendicular to the c-axis and pale col-
Form: short columnar (Fig. 99(a),(b», needle- ours parallel to c (Fig. 99(b». A zonar colour
shaped, spherulitic, in radiating groups of colum- change (blue and brown) is common.
nar and acicular crystals (Fig. 100), rarely
granular. Typically rounded triangular cross-sec- Refraction and birefringence:
ne = 1.635 - 1.650
tions (Fig. 99(c»; in pegmatites poikilitic
intergrowth with quartz. In metamorphic rocks it no = 1.660 - 1.671
can form microlites, which are easily overlooked. e~ = 0.Q25 - 0.035
Cleavage: none; irregular parting approximately High refraction with a positive relief, slightly
perpendicular to the long axis. varying according to composition. Intermediate
72 Optically uniaxial minerals
3.2.6 Apatite
Cas[(F, OH, CI)I(P0 4 )31 hexagonal-dipyramidal
Refraction and birefringence: oured and altered; beryl and quartz have lower
ne = 1.631 refractive indices and different appearances;
no = 1.634 melilite tends to show anomalous interference
8,1 = 0.003 colours; sillimanite is biaxial and has a higher
birefringence, and shows good parting fractures;
Medium high refractive index with positive relief topaz is optically biaxial Ee and has a higher
relative to quartz and feldspar; low birefringence birefringence.
(colours of the 1st order); optically uniaxial 8,
Alteration: none, always fresh.
rarely anomalously biaxial.
Occurrence: one of the first minerals to crystal-
Optic axial angie: occasionally weakly anoma-
lize from a magma, an accessory mineral (0.1-
lously biaxial with 2V" = 0-20°.
1 %) in almost all magmatic rocks. More common
Character of elongation: (-). in dark Na- and K-rich magmatic rocks and their
derivatives (nepheline syenite, nepheline monzo-
Extinction: straight.
syenite, olivine nephelinite, etc.) and even more
Special characteristics: rare anomalous sub- common in carbonatites and lamprophyres. Apa-
grains. Inclusions in biotite and hornblende give tite also occurs in pegmatites (with Li-bearing
rise to pleochroic haloes. mica, beryl, etc.). In sedimentary rocks it occurs
as rounded grains; it is rock-forming in phos-
Distinguishing features: can be mistaken for
phorites (as kidney ore structures) as globular
nepheline, which is also optically uniaxial 8.
However, apatite has a much higher relief, and oolitic aggregates. In metamorphic rocks apatite
is stable over a wide pressure-temperature range.
tends to be idiom orphic and unaltered, whereas
nepheline tends to be xenomorphic, pale col- Paragenesis: ubiquitous mineral
3.2.7 Beryl
AI2Be3[Si601s] dihexagonal-dipyramidal
3.2.8 Nepheline
Na 3[AISi0 4]4 hexagonal-pyramidal
Fig.107 Idiomorphic
nepheline with hexagonal
~ symmetry containing inclusions
and showing alterations around
the rim into fibrous zeolite.
Other crystals present are
hauyne (small crystal in the top
right corner). Phononephelinite.
Katzenbuckel, Odenwald,
Germany. Uncrossed polarizers.
good cleavage and is tetragonal; zeolites have tephrites). Nepheline tends to crystallize from a
lower refraction. magma together with the alkali feldspars as one
of the last phases to crystallize. This gives rise to
Alteration: it alters easily, into sodalite, analcite
the commonly hypidiomorphic to xenomorphic
and rarely into cancrinite, and into fibrous zeolite
form. Exceptions to this are the idiom orphic
(in particular natrolite and the dendritic hydro-
nepheline phenocrysts in phonolites or phonone-
nephelite) by hydrothermal and pneumatolitic
phelinites of the Katzenbuckel in the Odenwald,
influences. Under the influence of CO 2-rich solu-
Germany (Fig. 107; two nepheline generations).
tions it alters into sericite (pseudomorphs of
sericite/muscovite are called liebenerite). Paragenesis: it never occurs together with quartz.
Typically it occurs with other foid representa-
Occurrence: in alkali magmatic rocks which are
tives (e.g. from the sodalite group), as well
silica undersaturated; particularly in nepheline
as leucite, aegirine-augite, melanite, melilite,
phonolites to nepheline tephrites, nephelinites,
olivine, Ti-augite, Ti-biotite, apatite, cancrinite
nepheline syenites and nepheline monzosyenites,
and feldspars.
essexites, etc. Next to leucite it occurs subor-
dinately in K-rich volcanic rocks (e.g. leucite
General features: both endmembers of this Colour: colourless; inclusions often cause
group form a solid-solution series, similar to the clouding.
plagioclase group. The pure endmembers do not
Refraction and birefringence:
occur in nature. Scapolite is a very rare mineral.
Marialite Meionite
ne = 1.531 - 1.541 1.556 - 1.564
Thin-section characteristics no = 1.539 - 1.550 1.590 - 1.600
Form: granular, columnar (Fig. 108), stalk-like eLi = 0.004 - 0.005 0.034 - 0.038
(Fig. 110).
Refraction and birefringence clearly increase
Cleavage: good on (100), not so good {110}; in from marialite to meionite. Marialite has grey
cross-section the two cleavage planes intersect at interference colours of the 1st order, and
right angles (Fig. 109). In columnar crystals part- meionite of the 2nd order (bright violet); opti-
ing is on (001) (Fig. 110). cally uniaxial.
Minerals with uniaxial negative character 77
3.2.10 Apophyllite
KCa4 [FI(Si40 IO)2] ·8H20 ditetragonal-dipyramidal
3.2.11 Cancrinite
NClt;Ca2[(C03)2' (AISiO4)6] hexagonal-bipyramidal
General features: important dark mineral in endmembers of forsterite Mg2 [Si0 4] and fayalite
ultramafic and basaltic rocks. Minerals of the Fe2 [Si0 4]·
group show complete diadochy between the
Mg2Si0 4 Fe 2Si0 4
forsterite chrysolite hyalosiderite hortonolite ferrohortonolite fayalite
I I I I
10 30 50 60 90
Fo Fa
Thin-section characteristics
Optical characteristics strongly depend on the
composition.
Form: in volcanic rocks hexagonal and octagonal
cross-sections (Fig. 114), which often show corro-
sion and resorption rims (Fig. 113); in glass-rich
volcanic rocks as skeletal crystals (Fig. 112); and
in plutonic and metamorphic rocks as granular n Z .....
masses. In basic rocks it can form glomerophyric·····o
texture aggregates.
Cleavage: imperfect in Mg-rich members; mod-
erate in Fe-rich members; imperfect on (010) and Fig. 112 Crystal form and optical characteristics of
even less clear on (100). The imperfect cleavage fayalite (left) and forsterite (right) (olivine group).
2Vy
~t-'".----+----t-----+--- opt.E!:l-
90 .-.. ~ .... -.---. ------------------ ----------------- ----------------t------
802Val1 - -------
0
=----+---
-----1""""..._ ___ - -+--- - opt.e -
700~-----~----_T~~~-_r----4_-_1
---t------+----t--------
--f"""-"""=----I-~
-
60°
50°----t- - - - - - - t - - - - + -- --+---:::-..
- - =t"...........d
400-1----~----_+-----+-----r-_4
Forsterrte Chrysolite Hyalosider~e Hortonolite Ferrohortonolite Fayalite Fig. 115 The optical axial angle
Fo 10 30 50 70 90 Fa (2V) is dependent on the
Mol % chemical composition of olivine.
Pyroxene group 81
microscopic assemblage forms, consisting of Fe-rich rims. Zoned crystals are common. In
goethite, haematite and clay minerals (smectite), volcanic rocks two olivine generations can be
chlorite, etc, replacing olivine. Iddingsite forms present, as phenocrysts (e.g. core FalO_2o , rim
pseudomorphs after olivine, shows a weak Fa4O-6Q) and as a matrix mineral (Fa3O-6O; e.g. in
pleochroism but is not a single mineral. It never alkali-olivine basalt). Olivine which forms early
occurs in plutonic or metamorphic rocks, only in during crystallization from a melt might accumu-
volcanic rocks and rarely in subsurface volcanic late at the bottom of the magma body. Pure
rocks. fayalite commonly occurs in blast-furnace slags.
Viridite, bowlingite and chlorophaeite are An exception is the fayalite-gabbro of the Radau
greenish hydrothermal mineral assemblages, Valley, Germany. The crystallization of olivine
which can replace olivine. They form mineral ag- requires a silica-undersaturated magma, other-
gregates consisting of chlorite, smectite, serpen- wise pyroxene would form: Mg2Si0 4 + Si02 ~
tine, Fe-talc, mica, goethite and quartz. Mg2Si 20 6• With the crystallization of olivine from
c) Reaction rims form where olivine is in con- the magma, the melt can become quartz-
tact with anorthite-rich plagioclase in gabbroic normative and hence olivine becomes unstable;
rocks (Fig. 116). These kelyphitic textures consist however, it does not completely react to
of radiating, fibrous green hornblende, some pyroxene, but shows resorption rims. Therefore,
pyroxene, garnet and spinel. olivine and quartz may occur together. In meta-
d) Reaction between olivine with silica-rich morphic rocks olivine occurs in serpentinites.
melt can lead to a reaction rim of orthopyroxene Olivine also forms during metamorphism of
(commonly bronzite). dolomite (e.g. forsterite marble).
Occurrence: characteristic mineral of ultramafic Paragenesis: in ultra basic rocks with chromite
and basic magmatic rocks (e.g. in peridotite, and picotite, ortho- and clinopyroxene. In basic
dunite, picrite, gabbro, alkali-olivine basalt, rocks together with titanaugite, ortho- and
basanite, etc.). Early formed idiomorphic crystals clinopyroxene, plagioclase, and leucite and
tend to be Mg-rich with increasingly more clinopyroxene respectively.
General features: there is a nearly complete solid (opx), but only the first three members occur in
solution between the orthorhombic pyroxenes nature.
82 Biaxial crystals
According to the recent nomenclature Here we follow the old tradition and give credit
(Morimoto, 1988) only the names enstatite to rock types such as hypersthene-granite,
(FsO--so ) and ferrosilite (Fsso_1oo) should be used. bronzitite, etc.
10 30 50 70 90
Under higher pressures (e.g. in granulites) Colour: colourless (enstatite), pale light-green
orthopyroxene has a higher Al content. (bronzite), pale green to reddish-pale brown with
weak pleochroism: a, ~, yellowish to reddish; y,
Thin-section characteristics grey-green (hypersthene).
Refraction and birefringence:
The optical characteristics vary with increasing
Enstatite Hypersthene
Fe-content.
na = 1.650 - 1.712
Form: in volcanic rocks columnar, stretched n~ = 1.653 - 1.724
along the c-axis (Fig. 117); in plutonic and meta- Ily = 1.658 - 1.727
morphic rocks predominantly as hypidiomorphic
to xenomorphic crystals. E9~ = 0.008 - 8 0.015
Cleavage: excellent parallel to prism planes High refraction and medium-high birefringence
(yellow to orange interference colours of the 1st
{21O}: in sections perpendicular to the c-axis two
order), both increasing with increasing Fe-
cleavage planes can be clearly seen intersecting
at angles of 87° and 93° respectively (Fig. 118). In content; zoning in volcanic rocks is common,
sections parallel to the c-axis only one set of with Mg-rich cores.
cleavage planes can be seen oriented parallel to Optic axial angle: systematically varies with in-
the length of the crystal. creasing Fe-content (Fig. 119).
Enstatite: optically biaxial EB
Twinning: not very common on (011), (023) and
(043): not a diagnostic feature. with 2Vy = 54°-83°.
Bronzite: optically biaxial ffi or 8
with 2Va = 97°-63°.
Hypersthene: optically biaxial 8
with 2Va = 63°-45°.
~102m:~ Character of elongation: (+).
IN';'
II)00II -I III "'t)ncr Extinction: tends to be straight.
I
60
-;j
(\J
70
80
80
>-
(\J
70
60
0.024
g 0.020 I--+---+---~-____I!_~q----l
Q)
g> 0.016 1--+--- +--- +-___~____I!_-_f___1
..:::
'§ 0.012 f---+----:;;>,F---+---f-- -+---1
iii
0.0081"""--+-----+--+_---+- - + _-I Fig. 120 Exsolution lamellae in orthopyroxene
(hypersthene). Quartz andesite. Purace Volcano,
Enstatite southern Colombia. Uncrossed polarizers.
Ferrosilite
10 30 50 70 90
En Mol % Fs
Fig. 119 Optic axial angle (2V) and birefringence of
orthopyroxene.
amphibole group differ because of their oblique of the newly formed serpentine mineral
extinction and the cleavage intersection angles of (lizardite) is parallel to {1 ~O} in orthopyroxene.
1240 and 560 respectively. For differentiating fea- Also chrysotile with mesh texture can form and
tures between amphibole and clinopyroxene see replace the orthopyroxene. Weathering can lead
Table 3. to the formation of carbonate and Fe-hydroxide
or hematite.
Alteration: quite robust mineral. Can show
serpentinization in ultramafic (e.g. harzburgite) Occurrence: very common in plutonic rocks,
and volcanic rocks; commonly as pseudomorphs specially in ultramafic and basaltic rocks.
with oriented growth (bastite; bastitization in In pyroxenites and peridotites enstatite and
harzburgites (Figs 122, 123)) where the cleavage bronzite (bronzitite, lherzolite) predominate,
84 Biaxial crystals
Habit squat columnar, tabular, granular columnar, stretched parallel to the c-axis;
aegirine can be needle-shaped to spherolitic
Colour tends to be colourless to pale brownish pale green to brownish with weak
with weak pleochroism pleochroism (exception: aegirine-augite with
strong green pleochroism)
Extinction straight oblique
Birefringence low (0.005-0.015) higher (0.023-0.031)
Optic axial angle enstatite-bronzite: 2V ~ 90 0 2Vy« 90 0 (exception aegirine-augite)
Fig.124 Idiomorphic
hypersthene phenocrysts next
to plagioclase and idiomorphic
olivine phenocrysts. Quartz
andesite. Chiles volcano,
northern Ecuador. Uncrossed
polarizers.
4.2.2 Clinopyroxenes
XY[Zz06] monoclinic-prismatic
General features: most common mineral group and 93° respectively (Fig. 118). Less well-
forming dark minerals; X position is generally developed cleavage on (100), (010) and (001).
filled by Ca, and also Na and Li; Y is filled with
Character of elongation: it cannot be determined
Mg, Fe 2+, Mn and subordinately Fe 3+, Al and Ti;
in clinopyroxenes with the exception of aegirine-
the Z position is filled with Si and subordinately
augite.
AI. The clinopyroxenes (cpx) can be represented
in the Ca2Si206-Mg2Si20oFe2Si206 triangle, with Extinction: oblique; in longitudinal sections per-
the exception of the alkali pyroxenes and pendicular to [010] it is at an angle of 45° (Fig.
titanaugite (Fig. 125). 140), which is a diagnostic feature for distinguish-
ing clinopyroxene from clinoamphibole; only in
basal sections is extinction symmetric (Fig.
Thin-section characteristics
19(d)).
Cleavage: perfect on {110} and (010). In basal
sections the two cleavage planes intersect at 87°
Augite
Pigeonite
Fig. 125 Nomenclature of t---~C~Ii-no~e~n~s7ta~ti7te-----'--~C~li-no~f~e-rr-os~iI~it-e--~5
clinopyroxenes, excluding the Na-rich
representatives. 50
86 Biaxial crystals
General features: differs from members of the Optic axial angle: dependent on chemical com-
diopside group (>45 atom-% Ca) in that the position, 2Vy = 25°-61 ° (Fig. 128).
solid-solution sequence of the augite-group
pyroxenes has by definition a lower Ca-content Extinction: tends to be oblique; dependent
«45 atom-%; Fig. 125). on chemical composition yAc = 35°-48° (Fig.
140).
(Fig. 129). Therefore it can be found in gabbroic forms rather than diopside (e.g. in the pyroxene-
rocks, granodiorites, andesites and rhyodacites, hornblende facies or in pyroxene-granulites).
tholeiitic basalts and related rocks. By contrast,
the principal pyroxene in alkaline magmatic Paragenesis: in calc-alkaline magmatic rocks with
rocks is diopside. The Fe-rich endmembers augite, hypersthene, plagioclase, hornblende and
of the augite group occur in very rare rock types. biotite. In tholeiitic basalts with augite (com-
In high-grade metamorphic and contact- monly in the ground matrix), diopside (as
metamorphosed siliceous limestones augite phenocryst), plagioclase, pigeonite and olivine.
4.2.2.3 Titanaugite
Ca(Mg, Fe, Ti)[(Si, AI)P61
General features: a pyroxene containing more easily recognized by its dark colour and occurs in
than 3% weight TiO z is called titanaugite. It is basaltic and ultramafic alkaline magmatic rocks.
Pyroxene group 89
Thin-section characteristics Special characteristics: zonar growth patterns,
where zoning is parallel to [001] colours are
Form: varies, short columnar to thick platy to
stronger compared to zoning parallel to [111],
long columnar phenocrysts (Figs 130, 131).
giving rise to hourglass textures (Fig. 131).
Cleavage: excellent on (1l0}.
Distingnishing features: distinct brownish-purple
Twinning: lamellar on (100) and equal-sided pleochroism, typical hourglass-growth textures,
twins, intergrown obliquely to the cleavage la- strong dispersion in the extinction position and
mellae. anomalous interference colours.
Colour: brownish-purple to reddish-purple; in- Alteration: in plutonic rocks post-magmatic al-
tensity of colour dependent on Ti 3+ content; teration into titanhornblende.
strongly pleochroic; in cases where Fe 3+ is
Occurrence: restricted to Ti-rich volcanic rocks
present, the colour tends to be brownish-yellow,
of the alkaline series, common in alkali-olivine
greyish or greenish weakly pleochroic; zonar
basalts, tephrites and basanites, phonotephrites,
growth patterns are typical: the core is commonly
nephelinites, hyalobasanites (limburgite); alkali-
free of Ti or Ti-poor.
gabbroic rocks, essexite, theralite, camptonite,
a: pale brownish-yellow.
monchiquite, etc.
~: brownish-purple to reddish-purple.
y. brownish-yellow to violet-brown. Paragenesis: with olivine, plagioclase, nepheline
and minerals of the scapolite group, leucite,
Refraction and birefringence:
aegirine-augite and diopsidic pyroxene.
nu = 1.695 - 1.741
n~ = 1.700 - 1.746
ny = 1.728 - 1.762
EB~ = 0.033 - 0.021
4.2.2.4 Pigeonite
(Mg, Fe, Ca)z[Si2 0 61
General features: easily overlooked Ca-poor Distinguishing features: easily confused with
mineral which is common in tholeiitic basalts. augite and diopside, but they both have a higher
axial angle; orthopyroxene has a straight extinc-
tion; olivine has a higher birefringence and
Thin-section characteristics
higher axial angle.
Form: typically xenomorphic granular, rarely
Occurrence: in mafic to intermediate tholeiitic
idiomorphic columnar, with columns longer than
basaltic volcanic and subvolcanic rocks, com-
in accompaning augite (Fig. 132) (can form rims
monly as matrix mineral next to augite. In
around augite); typical matrix crystal. diabase, dolerite and also in andesite and dacite.
Cleavage: good on (UO). Rare in gabbro and norite (Bushveld, South Af-
rica; Skaergard, Greenland; Harzburg, Harz Mts,
Twinning: lamellar and polysynthetic on (100).
Germany).
Colour: colourless; weak pleochroism pale
Paragenesis: with diopside, plagioclase and with
greenish to brownish.
or without olivine (as phenocrysts); with
Refraction and birefringence: pigeonite and augite (as ground matrix). As in-
nu = 1.682 - 1.722 terstitial mineral between plagioclase lamellae.
n~ = 1.684 - 1.722 Not observed together with titanaugite in alkali
ny = 1.705 - 1.751 basalts.
EEl~ = 0.023 - 0.029
Thin-section characteristics
Form: short columnar to acicular crystals, elon-
gated along the c-axis (Fig. 133); rarely granular.
Octahedral cross-sections are typical; as branch-
ing aggregates developed in the ground matrix of
phonolitic volcanic rocks. a c
Cleavage: good on (UO). Fig. 133 Crystal form and optical characteristics of
aegirine-augite pyroxenes: (a) diopsidic augite, (b)
Twinning: common on (100). aegirine-augite, (c) aegirine.
Pyroxene group 91
Colour: greenish with a strong pleochroism; be masked by the strong colour; optically
zoning is common and shows the characteristic biaxial EB or 8 (dependent on the chemical
hourglass texture. composition).
ex: green, olive-green.
Optic axial angle: dependent on the chemical
~: pale green.
composition (Fig. 135): 2Vy = 60°-90° to 2V" =
y. pale green to pale brownish-yellow.
90°-60°.
Refraction and birefringence:
Character of elongation: (-).
n" = 1.700 - 1.760
n~ = 1.710 - 1.780 Extinction: oblique, yAc= 55°- 85° (commonly'"
ny = 1.730 - 1.813 80°; Fig. 140).
(£l ~ = 0.030 - 0.053 Special characteristics: zoning is very distinct
with diopside-rich cores, surrounded by aegirine-
Medium-high refraction and high birefringence augite and aegerine-rich rims (Fig. 134); uneven
(maximum interference colours of the 3rd and distribution of the aegirine component during
4th orders), which are higher than those of growth leads to hourglass textures. Because of a
the diopside and augite series; however, this can strong dispersion near the extinction position,
. ':.
t. "
J ~~ ..
:;4 r
A
--~~ 0 .060
t-----t----t-----j--::::::.,.-"~=--~ 0.050
Na-rich clinopyroxenes. 20 40 60
Ca(Mg.Fe 2 +) Mol % NaFe3+
92 Biaxial crystals
anomalous brownish to grey-blue interference sentatives of the alkali series of magmatic rocks:
colours, similar to titanaugite. in alkali trachytes, quartz alkali trachytes,
pantellerites, phonolites and their equivalent
Distinguishing features: green hornblende and
plutonic rocks; also in alkali syenites, alkali gran-
actinolite show characteristic cleavage intersec-
ites and foid-syenites and related dykes and sills.
tion at 124° and 56° respectively, and also have a
In related dark-coloured rocks occurs it in alkali
positive elongation and lower refractive indices.
basalts, tephrites and basanites, essexites and
Other similar minerals such as pumpellyite and
theralites, where aegirine-augite occurs only as
chloromelanite occur in different para geneses.
an alteration product of titanaugite or augite.
Alterations: very robust. Pneumatolytic to hy- Also found in contact aureoles of alkali-plutonic
drothermal alteration into sodium-amphibole rocks.
(arfvedsonite).
Paragenesis: with Na-sanidine, nepheline,
Occurrence: aegirine-augite is restricted to sodalite group, leucite and melanite; with quartz,
strongly differentiated magmatic rocks. Repre- albite, zircon and Na-amphibole.
4.2.2.6 Jadeite
NaAI[Siz0 61
4.2.2.7 Omphacite
(Ca, Na)(Mg, Fe, AI)[Si20 61
The determination of the extinction angle in mate value can be determined. Measurements of
monoclinal (triclinal) crystals is an important ny (or n~ or nn) from the c-axis (= nyA c, etc.) with
diagnostic feature, which is easily carried out the help of the 3600 scale on the circular stage in
under the microscope. In suitable sections it sections parallel to (010). Only sections with one
is possible not only to distinguish between cleavage set and the highest interference colours
amphibole and pyroxene (Figs 140, 141) but also are chosen (corresponding to sections parallel to
between members of the group. In order to de- subparallel to the axial plane). The following
termine the exact extinction angle sections paral- steps have to be followed when determining the
lel to (010) are necessary, which are rarely extinction angle:
present. Therefore, only approximate values can
be obtained in most cases; e.g. this method does 1. The objective lens, polarizer and analyser all
distinguish between diopside and augite, and ex- have to be centred.
act values can be obtained only with a universal 2. Choose a small aperture (close iris diaphragm
stage microscope. Nevertheless, if several indi- as far as possible).
vidual crystals are measured, a good approxi- 3. Align the cleavage trace parallel to the N-S
Jadeite 340
Diopside 380
Pigeonite 4rP
Augite, Titanaugite ]
430
Omphacite
Hedenbergite 480
Oxyhornblende -0 0
Glaucophane, Kaersutite 5 - 10 0
Actinolite 10 - 150
n7
Grammatite, Hastingsite 15 - 200
Tschermarkite 15 - 250
cross-hairs and read off the value on the 360° 6. Use the measured values ("" 0°_20°
scale on the circular table. in amphiboles and"" 30°-50° (80°) in c1ino-
4. Rotate the circular stage until the crystal is pyroxenes) for further determinations in
extinct under the crossed polars. Read off the respective tables and diagrams (Figs 140, 141).
angle.
5. Apply this procedure to several individual "
To achieve maximum extinction the following
crystals and use the maximum value. steps should be carried out (Fig. 142):
A A
/
a'
/
/
A' f:\
(a) Vertical (b) Extinction position D' (I)
a) Align the cleavage trace parallel to the N-S out in the correct direction, which is towards I1y
cross-hairs and rotate to the extinction posi- (or in special cases towards n~ or na respectively).
tion, recording the angle I. Rotation of the circular table clockwise or anti-
b) Align the cleavage trace parallel to the E-W clockwise leads in both cases to extinction posi-
cross-hairs and rotate towards the N-direction tions in the crystal. In order to determine in
until extinction occurs. Note angle II. which direction to rotate, the compensator red I
c) The direction which halves the two angles is used and the direction of rotation is chosen
I and II is the direction of maximum which produces additive colours ('blue'). In this
extinction. way ny can be determined and the rotation to
estimate the extinction angle is carried out clock-
During determination of the extinction angle, it
wise towards ny (Z), to get the deviation of nyAc.
is important that the measurements are carried
General features: restricted to low-grade meta- tinction angles as tremolite. Pleochroism varies
morphic rocks. Solid-solution series between the between pale yellowish-green to pale green.
Fe-free tremolite, Fe > Mg-bearing actinolite,
Birefringence and refraction:
Fe-bearing actinolite and Fe-endmember
Tremolite Actinolite
ferroactinolite.
na = 1.608 1.647
n~ = 1.618 1.659
Thin-section characteristics nr = 1.630 1.667
Form: subhedral columnar, acicular to fibrous, e~ = 0.022 0.020
rare aggregates of asbestos-like parallel
Refraction is medium-high and increases with
(amianthus) or randomly (nephrite) oriented
increasing Fe 2+ content, whereas the bire-
fibres. Porphyroblastic blade-shaped actinolite-
fringence is medium-high and decreases with
or garbenschiefer-schist shows preferred growth
of [001] within the schistosity plane (Fig. 146). increasing Fe 2+ content (interference colours of
the lower to medium 2nd order); optically biaxial
Cleavage: perfect on {110} with cleavage inter- e.
section angles of 124° and 56° respectively (Fig.
Optic axial angle: dependent on chemical com-
145). Deformation-induced parting perpendicu-
lar to the long axis. position, decreasing with increasing Fe 2+ content.
Tremolite: 2Va = 85°; actinolite: 2Va = 80°.
Twinning: common on (100), also multiple twin-
Character of elongation: (+), of diagnostic
ning (Fig. 144), rare polysynthetic twinning on
importance.
(001).
Extinction: oblique yAc = 10°_15° (Fig. 141); in
Colour: colourless (tremolite) to pale green (Mg-
rich actinolite), with increasing Fe 2+ content; basal sections symmetric extinction (Fig. 151).
pale greyish-green, accompanied by a weak Distinguishing features: green hornblende is
pleochroism: clearly coloured; aegirine-augite has a greater
a: light yellowish-green extinction angle; negative main optical zone
p: pale greenish-yellow and cleavage are distinctive in pyroxenes.
y. pale bluish green. Wollastonite, which can be easily mistaken for
An emerald-green variety can occur in eclogites tremolite, shows nearly straight extinction and
(smaragdite), which shows the same characteris- has a smaller axial angle; cummingtonite tends to
tics in regard to refraction, birefringence and ex- be optically EB and has a higher refractive index;
General features: the chemistry of the 'green' Colour: always strong green, varying between
hornblende is complex. It forms the most impor- greenish-yellow and bluish-green. Strongly
tant and common dark-coloured amphibole in pleochroic, with the stronger colours appearing
magmatic rocks (e.g. in tonalite) and in meta- in orientations parallel to y and the weaker ones
morphic rocks (e.g. amphibolite). In the former
case it is part of the hastingsite series and in the
latter case it is part of the tschermakite series.
Thin-section characteristics
Form: tends to be subhedral to anhedral, short to
long prismatic (Figs 147-150) or acicular to fi-
brous, rarely idiomorphic (specially in volcanic
rocks); basal sections are hexagonal.
Cleavage: perfect on {UO} with cleavage inter-
section angles of 124 and 56°. Sections
0
Fig.150 Oxyhornblende
replaced by opacite. Hexagonal
outline of the original
hornblende still clearly visible.
Quartz andesite. Dona Juana
volcanic complex, southern
Colombia. Uncrossed
polarizers.
100 Biaxial crystals
paragenesis as listed above with the addition of rutile. In high-grade rocks together with
orthoclase. In regionally metamorphosed rocks it diopside, phlogopite and scapolite. In contact-
appears first in the upper greenschist facies, to- metamorphic rocks green hornblende occurs to-
gether with albite, epidote and almandine. In gether with plagioclase, diopside, biotite and
medium-grade rocks it appears together with quartz.
oligoclase or andesine to labradorite, garnet and
Thin-section characteristics
Form: euhedral to subhedral crystals with short
to long prismatic habit, often with corroded mar- a b
gins (Fig. 152).
Fig. 152 Crystal form and optical characteristics of
Cleavage: perfect on {IlO}. (a) kaersutite and (b) katophorite.
Twinning: lamellar twinning is common on (100).
Colour: strong brown to reddish-brown and biotite, showing strong pleochroism, often
strongly pleochroic, with partly patchy colour clearly zoned or with patchy or hourglass-like
distribution, due to uneven distribution of oxi- colour distribution. In katophorite ythe direction
dization within one crystal. Kaersutite and of maximum absorption is parallel to the b-axis
katophorite have brownish colours, similar to (important diagnostic feature).
The medium refraction and very high bire- Refraction and birefringence of kaersutite is
fringence (interference colours of the medium similar to those of the 'common' hornblende;
2nd order) vary, depending on the degree of birefringence of kaersutite is low to medium high
oxidation. The interference colours tend to be (interference colours of the 1st and 2nd order);
masked by the strong crystal colours; optically optically biaxial 8.
biaxial 8.
102 Biaxial crystals
General features: characteristic alkali amphi- Colour: blue to purple absorption colours,
boles of high-pressure metamorphic rocks. strongly pleochroic (Colour plate 10), zoned with
colours increasing towards the rim:
Thin-section characteristics
Form: long prismatic to acicular along [001],
bladed, rare needle-like to fibrous.
Amphibole group 103
Glaucophane Crossite
a: colourless to pale yellow-green colourless to pale green
~: lilac to bluish-purple deep blue
y ultramarine to sky-blue. lilac to greyish-purple.
Refraction and birefringence:
n" = 1.595 - 1.630 n" = 1.630 - 1.665
n~ = 1.614 - 1.650 n~ = 1.650 - 1.670
Ily = 1.620 - 1.652 ny = 1.652 - 1.680
8L1 = 0.025 - 0.022 8L1 = 0.020 - 0.008
The medium-high birefringence increases with increasing Fe3+ content, whereas the relatively low
birefringence (interference colours of the 1st and 2nd orders) decreases; optically biaxial 8.
Optic axial angle: varies with chemical from Na-rich volcanic rocks. Also present in
composition. eclogites.
Glaucophane: 2V" = 0°_50°
Paragenesis: with clinozoisite, zoisite, lawsonite,
Crossite: 2V" = 0°-90°.
jadeite-rich pyroxenes, muscovite, almandine,
Character of elongation: glaucophane pumpellyite, carbonate, rutile, retrograde epi-
(+); crossite (+) or (-). dote, actinolite, albite and chlorite (penninite).
In eclogites together with garnet, omphacite,
Extinction angle: oblique.
rutile and epidote.
Glaucophane: rAc = 5°_7° (Fig. 153)
Crossite: ~Ac = 5°_9°.
Distinguishing features: the strong absorption
colours are diagnostic. Arfvedsonite occurs in
different parageneses, has different bluish-
green to grey-green or grey-blue colours and a
negative elongation (can also be optically biaxial
EEl); dumortierite has straight extinction and a
higher birefringence; tourmaline always has
straight extinction parallel to its long axis and is
optically 8 (if anomalously biaxial it has a small
axial angle) and has a negative elongation.
Alteration: retrograde alteration into barroisite,
actinolite or chlorite. a b
Occurrence: glaucophane and crossite occur in Fig. 153 Crystal form and optical characteristics of
glaucophane schists, which tend to originate (a) glaucophane and (b) crossite.
General features: characteristic Fe-rich alkali Cleavage: perfect amphibole cleavage on {lID}.
amphiboles of rare alkali-magmatic rocks.
Twinning: simple on (100).
Colour: blue to brownish-green and grey-blue
Thin-section characteristics
absorption colours, showing strong pleochroism:
Form: thick prismatic parallel to the c-axis, acicu-
lar, granular or bladed parallel to {01O}; also
poikilitic (sieve texture) (Fig. 154).
104 Biaxial crystals
Arfvedsonite Riebeckite
a: blue-green, dark blue-green dark blue to green-blue
~: pale bluish-green, grey-blue yellow-brown to pale yellow-green,
y: pale yellowish-green, dark green, dark blue.
greenish blue-grey.
Refraction and birefringence:
na = 1.623 - 1.700 na = 1.650 - 1.701
n~ = 1.631 - 1.706 n~ = 1.655 - 1.711
nr = 1.635 - 1.710 nr = 1.670 - 1.717
$d = 0.010 - 0.012 $d = 0.006 - 0.016
4.4.1 Muscovite
KAI 2[(OH, F)zIAlSi30 IO] monoclinic-prismatic
General features: this white mica occurs in Extinction: in sections perpendicular to the
acidic plutonic rocks and is absent in fresh vol- cleavage the extinction is straight or nearly
canic rocks. A fine-grained scaly variety is com- straight: aAc = 0°_5°, ~Ac = 1°_3°.
mon in low-grade metamorphic rocks (sericite).
Special characteristics: occurs also as fine-
Phengite is also described as sericite and is very
grained scaly aggregates of sericite. Parallel
difficult to distinguish optically from muscovite.
intergrowth between biotite and muscovite can
occur. Pale-yellow pleochroic haloes around zir-
Thin-section characteristics con inclusions are rare occurrences.
Colour: colourless, rarely pale yellow, pale green Distinguishing features: sericite is distinguish-
or pale brown. Cr-rich muscovite is called able from other phyllosilicates only by X-ray
fuchsite, which is rare and pleochroic: a pale
greenish-blue, ~ yellowish, y pale bluish-green.
1.75 r-~--""----r---~--_--r-........,
Refraction and birefringence:
Muscovite Fuchsite
n" = 1.552 - 1.570 1.559 - 1.571
n~ = 1.582 -1.619 1.593 - 1.604
ny = 1.588 - 1.624 1.595 - 1.612
8!1 = 0.036 - 0.054 0.036 - 0.041
methods; phengite is similar but has a smaller vite makes a major chemical contribution to
axial angle; chlorite and kaolinite have a mu.ch the chemistry of mica schists and muscov~te
lower birefringence; lepidolite, talc, pyrophylhte gneisses (Fig. 157). The sequence from phylhte
and paragonite are difficult to distinguish from ~ mica schist ~ muscovite gneiss marks progres-
muscovite under the microscope. sive metamorphism. In eclogites and granulites
muscovite occurs only as diaphthoritic newly
Alteration: in higher-grade metamorphic rocks
formed mineral. In contact-metamorphosed
muscovite becomes unstable and is replaced
rocks sericite occurs in the outer zones of the
by alkali feldspar-bearing assemblages. It is a
contact aureole in knotenschiefer; nearer to the
fairly robust mineral when exposed to weather-
contact white mica appears in the form of musco-
ing; fine-grained aggregates can be altered to
vite. The rare Cr-rich variety, fuchsite, is found in
hydromuscovite and illite.
low-grade metamorphic schists (e.g. in the
Occurrence: not too common in granites to Zillertal Alps).
granodiorites, never in volcanic roc~s. Very com-
Paragenesis: in plutonic rocks toðer with
mon in pegmatites and pneumatolytIcally forme.d
quartz, microcline, orthoclase, plagIOclase a?d
rocks. As sericite it occurs in numerous plutomc
biotite. In pegmatites it can appear together WIth
rocks and palaeovolcanic rocks (quartz-porphyry
phlogopite, lepidolite, tourmaline and topaz ..In
to porphyrite). In these rocks sericite formed as a
low-grade rocks sericite occurs together ~Ith
hydric or pneumatolytic alterati.on. mineral fr~m
albite, chlorite and quartz, and also parag~)ll~te;
feldspar (sericitization). In a SImIlar way fOlds
with increasing metamorphic-grade bIOtite,
undergo alteration (leucite, nephelin~). In chloritoid and microcline join the assemblage.
sediments and sedimentary rocks muscovite oc-
In medium-grade metamorphic-rocks musco~ite
curs in many clastic rocks such as arkoses and
is accompanied by biotite, albite, almandme,
greywackes. White micas weather into ~lay min-
staurolite, kyanite, and also sillimanite. In c~n
erals which with the addition of potaSSIUm dur-
tact aureoles sericite occurs next to quartz, albIte
ing diagene'sis, react to sericite an?~or phen~i~e. and andalusite- or cordierite-blasts; muscovite is
In low-grade metamorphic condItions SerICIte
stable in the lower hornfels facies next to quartz,
can become rock-forming (e.g. sericite phyllites,
plagioclase, biotite and/or hornble~de. Fuch~ite
greenschist and quartzite). At medium-gr~de
occurs together with quartz, albIte, chlOrIte,
metamorphism sericite aggregates recrystalhze
biotite and actinolite.
and form mesoscopic muscovite flakes. Musco-
4.4.2 Phengite
K(Mg, Fe )o.sAI1.5[ (0 H)2IAlo.sSi3.s01O] monoclinic-prismatic
General features: fine- to coarse-grained white Medium-high refraction and high birefringence
mica in medium- to high-grade metamorphic (interference colours of the 2nd and 3rd orders);
rocks. optically biaxial e.
Optic axial angle: optically it cannot be differen-
Thin-section characteristics tiated from sericite muscovite (chemical diag-
nosis necessary). Chlorite and kaolinite both
Colour: colourless, rarely pale green (Fe3+-rich).
have lower refractive indices.
Refraction and birefringence: Occurrence: in glaucophane schists, eclogites,
Fe-free Fe-rich gneisses and phyllites.
na = 1.547 - 1.571
Paragenesis: glaucophane, clinopyroxene,
n~ = 1.584 - 1.610 lawsonite, paragonite as well as the parageneses
nr = 1.587 - 1.612
listed under muscovites (Part B, section 4.4.1).
ell = 0.040 - 0.041
General features: rare mica, which occurs in Optic axial angle: 2Va = 23°-58° (Fig. 156), rarely
Li-rich pegmatites. 0°.
Special characteristics: commonly intergrown
Thin-section characteristics with muscovite.
Colour: colourless; in slightly thick thin sections a Distinguishing features: muscovite has a higher
weak pleochroism can be observed with pale- refraction and birefringence.
pink to pale-purple colours.
Occurrence: in Li-rich granitic pegmatites (e.g.
Refraction and birefringence: Erzgebirge, Germany); in greisen.
na = 1.524 - 1.548 Paragenesis: with quartz, topaz, tourmaline,
n~ = 1.543 - 1.587
spodumene, amblygonite, beryl and cassiterite.
Or = 1.545 - 1.588
ell = 0.018 - 0.038
4.4.3.2 Zinnwaldite
KLiFe2+AI[(F,OH)2IAISi301O] monoclinic-prismatic
Mg 100 80 50 20 o
The term biotite s.s. is used for the meroxene to siderophyllite members.
4.4.4.1 Phlogopite
-
boulder, Baltic Sea coastline,
near Kiel. Uncrossed
polarizers.
,O,3mm,
Optic axial angle: 2Va = 0°_35° (Fig. 156) de- tually the whole crystal is replaced. Exsolution of
pendent on the Fe-content; the axial angle can be titanium in biotite leads to inclusions of fine nee-
small, so that in basal sections the isogyre cross dles of rutile (sagenite, Fig. 71). Diaphthoritic
suggests uniaxial optical behaviour. alteration of biotite into chlorite (Fig. 160), also
epidote, carbonate and quartz, etc. During
Special characteristics: in volcanic rocks resorbed
weathering biotite is bleached (hydro biotite ) and
margins are common or opacitic rims (black,
weathers into an aggregate of carbonate,
opaque rim). Often rich in inclusions (apatite,
limonite and quartz.
quartz, rutile, hematite, tourmaline, etc.). In plu-
tonic rocks it can occur intergrown with mus- Occurrence: biotite occurs in plutonic rocks,
covite; pleochroic haloes around radioactive dykes and in volcanic rocks. Meroxene is found
inclusions are common (zircon, monacite, in basaltic rocks (e.g. gabbro, norite and
sphene, etc.). Tectonically strained crystals can lamprophyre). Lepidomelane is the most com-
be bent or kinked (kink-bands). mon biotite found in intermediate and acidic
magmatic rocks. The dark-green siderophyllite
Distinguishing features: brown hornblende in
occurs in nepheline syenite and related
longitudinal sections shows oblique extinction
pegmatites. In regionally metamorphosed areas
(oxyhornblende '" 0°); brown tourmaline shows
biotite (lepidomelane) occurs in medium
the maximum absorption colours perpendicular
greenschist-facies to upper amphibolite-facies
to the elongation direction, whereas biotite has
grade metapelitic rocks. In contact aureoles of up
them parallel; phlogopite is less strongly col-
to hornfels-facies grade.
oured; green biotite has higher birefringence
than chlorite. Can be confused with stilpno- Paragenesis: in magmatic rocks with brown horn-
melane, which, however, has a golden-coloured blende, plagioclase, orthoclase, quartz, augitic
pleochroism. pyroxene and hypersthene (intermediate to
acidic volcanic rocks); plagioclase, quartz, green
Alteration: in volcanic rocks biotite can be af-
hornblende, sphene, with or without muscovite
fected by oxidation (~ oxybiotite) and water
(granite). In metamorphic rocks with quartz,
loss; rapidly decreasing vapour pressure leads to albite, epidote and chlorite (epidote-chlorite
opacitization: biotite (and also syngenetic horn-
schist); quartz, muscovite, almandine, staurolite
blende) is replaced by a fine-grained aggregate of
and kyanite (mica schist); plagioclase, quartz and
magnetite, haematite, spinel and pyroxene dur-
muscovite (gneiss).
ing this process. The biotite is first affected
around its edges (black opaque rims), and even-
/. ' .'
". i." (.
.. .' . ,
a.
- -
:\ - .' . .. ...
'
.,
I
... '
t' •
'~
4.4.5 Oxybiotite
KMgFe~+[02IAISi30JOl monoclinic-prismatic
General features: oxybiotite is formed from Optic axial angle: 2Va = 20°-30° (Fig. 156), which
biotite by oxidation of Fe 2+to Fe3+, which is com- is much larger than in biotite.
mon in volcanic rocks. As in oxyhornblende, the
Special characteristics: opacite rims; pleochroic
OR group is replaced by oxygen.
haloes around radioactive inclusions.
Distinguishing features: distinguished from
Thin-section characteristics
biotite by its higher refraction, birefringence, a
Colour: intensive brown to red-brown, strongly larger axial angle and strong colour; it differs
pleochroic; in sections parallel to (001) almost no from titan biotite by its higher birefringence.
pleochroism:
Alteration: replaced by opacite, which is a fine-
a: yellow-brown to reddish-brown
grained aggregate of magnetite, hematite, spinel
~ "" y. brown-red to dark brown-red.
and pyroxene. Weathering leads to alteration
Refraction and birefringence: of the iron component into hematite and/or
nn = 1.600 - 1.610 limonite.
n~ = 1.677 - 1.722
Occurrence: as intratelluric blasts in intermedi-
Ily = 1.680 - 1.730
ary volcanic rocks, rich in Fe-rich biotite.
8~ = 0.080 - 0.120
Paragenesis: with oxyhornblende, clino- and
orthopyroxene, plagioclase, sanidine and
Medium-high refraction and very high bire-
sodium-sanidine respectively (in old rocks,
fringence. The very strong interference colours
orthoclase), and quartz.
of the 4th and 5th orders can be masked by the
strong colour; optically biaxial 8.
4.4.6 Titanbiotite
K(Mg, Fe 2+, TiM(O, OR, FhlA1SiPJOl monoclinic-prismatic
General features: rare biotite with a high Ti02 orders are masked by its strong colour; optically
content (7-12.5%), which has more or less the biaxial 8.
same optical characteristics as biotite.
Optic axial angle: 2Vn = 5°_38° (Fig. 156).
4.5 Stilpnomelane
Complex H 20-bearing phyllosilicate monoclinic and triclinic
General features: mica-like dioctahedral Optic axial angle: 2V" = 00_20 0 (to 300).
phyllosilicate. Glauconite is a synsedimentary
Character of elongation: (+).
to diagenetic mineral in marine sediments;
celadonite is a Fe 3+-rich glauconite, restricted to Extinction: oblique, yAa = 20_3 0.
basaltic volcanics.
Special characteristics: in very fine-grained ag-
gregates pleochroism is not visible.
Thin-section characteristics
Distinguishing featnres: ortho- and leptochlorite
Form: rounded to elliptically shaped aggregates have a lower birefringence, and green biotite a
(Colour plate 13), fine-grained to fine-grained much higher birefringence.
sheaths and fibrous radiating aggregates. Forms
Alteration: prone to weathering with new forma-
pseudomorphs after olivine or pyroxene
tion of limonite.
(celadonite) with preferred orientation.
Occurrence: glauconite occurs in green sands and
Cleavage: good on (001), but difficult to recog-
sandstones, also in carbonates and marls.
nize (Fig. 164).
Celadonite can fill cavities and fractures in basal-
Colour: green, yellow-green, olive-green and tic volcanic rocks (basalt, diabases, spilite) as
bluish-green with a clear pleochroism. well as forming pseudomorphs after olivine and
a: dark blue-green, pale yellow-green, green- pyroxene. Celadonite is also present in zeolite-
ish-yellow facies rocks.
~ '" y. brownish-yellow, dark olive-green, blue-
Paragenesis: glauconite with quartz, calcite and
green.
pyrite. Celadonite with chlorite, chrysotile,
Refraction and birefringence: saponite, carbonate and heulandite, laumontite,
n" = 1.592 - 1.612 prehnite and montmorillonite respectively (zeo-
n~ = 1.613 - 1.643 lite facies).
ny = 1.614 - 1.644
EiM = 0.022 - 0.032
4.7 Talc
monoclinic-prismatic or triclinic
General features: layer-silicate; not very com- Optical axial angle: 2Vu = 0 _300 0 •
4.8.1 Orthochlorite
(Mg, Fe 2+, Al)6 [(OH)sIAlSi 30 I0 1 monoclinic-prismatic
Mg·
--+- I Fe· ...........
---t--
Penninite
~
40 -
Dlaba~tlte ~ --~ - ---
_+
""
Bruns·
f-- Mg· Fe~~ ~ vigite
""
Clinochlore Pycnochlorite:
I !
60
I Bavalite
Mg· Fe·1 Aphro·
GrOCLuite
Rhipidolite siderite
I I
~ 80
«
;;,g
I
' .. N •
0
(5
:a: ~~:f~'~~...........
.......
40
-.-.. ' . . ll'"
r.:;~,t-~ c...... ,-- Opt. e
"'N
, ';:...: !'7"' .
t-IT"-~-1-' . -- ~
1'- .... 1 ; ',.~ ; .};. , .
---
\
.\ ~
J-.. . ~
60
r-- Opt.@"'"I
1'-,;
-
~ .
- f ' .....
Mz e
.
.1_._.
,,\
'.~
"-~ .v-
Mz.@
..\. -".-.- \~-
"i . .
.\;.
"
80
;
~-~
,', I ''1\ .
.....,.. \
.'t..
+
I>
+
I>
i I> I. I.
" " " " "
0 0
8
0
6 "~ 0
I '" '" I
I '"
0
0 0 0
Interference colours
Fig. 167 Nomenclature and (M9 4 AI 2 )[S]
optical characteristics of
orthochlorites. (Si 2 AI 2 )14]
11 6 Biaxial crystals
Thin-section characteristics
Form: thin to thick {OO1} plates, flaky, radiating,
scaly to fibrous, dense to randomly oriented, rare nC{
tubular rosettes (MgFez+-chlorite) or layered
(Fe 2+-chlorite) aggregates; generally anhedral,
forming secondary alterations, particularly after
n,
or .. ' ·····0
biotite; thin platy to fibrous, fine-grained with Fig. 168 Crystal form and optical characteristics of
chlorite.
inclusions of opaque minerals. Can be deformed
and kinked.
Cleavage: perfect on (001).
determining the optical character of very small
Twinning: lamellar after the penninite-twinning crystals.
law (001) and after the mica-law [310], rarely
developed in penninite and clinochlore. Extinction: nearly straight (yor aAa '" 0°); the
extinction angle viewed perpendicular to the
Colour: colourless to pale green with a weak cleavage plane (001) is always 0° (rarely 3°_7° in
pleochroism; colour intensity increases with in- clinochlore ).
creasing Fe 2+ content:
Mg-chlorite: colourless to pale yellowish-green Special characteristics: parallel intergrowth with
or blue-green. biotite or phlogopite is common; pleochroic
MgFe 2+- and Fe 2+Mg-chlorite: pale blue-green. haloes around radioactive minerals; in Fe-rich
Fe 2+-chlorite: dark olive-green or dark brown- Mg-chlorites strong colour zonation and isomor-
green to pale yellow or pale brown. phic layering is typical. The anomalous interfer-
Pleochroism in general is weaker than in biotite ence colours characteristic for various chlorites
and hornblende. are:
Refraction and birefringence: Mg-chlorite: optically 8, anomalous inter-
MgFe 2+- and ference colours (penninite, as
Mg-chlorite Fe2+Mg-chlorite well as diabantite and AI-poor
na = 1.562 - 1.594 na = 1.589 - 1.605 pycnochlorite); optically EB,
n~ = 1.565 - 1.594 n~ = 1.595 - 1.608 normal interference colours
nr = 1.565 - 1.606 Ily = 1.595 - 1.615 (grochauite; 20mol% Fe2+).
MgFe 2+-chlorite: optically EB, anomalous
$ Ll = 0.003 - 0.012 $ Ll = 0.002 - 0.010 leather-brown interference
Fe +-chlorite
2 colours (clinochlore and Al-
na = 1.632 - 1.665 rich pycnochlorite as well as
n~ = 1.638 - 1.676 rhipidolite with <50% Fe 2+;
fiy = 1.638 - 1.675 20-50mol% Fe 2+).
Fe 2+Mg-chlorite: optically 8, anomalous blue
8Ll = 0.004 - 0.010 interference colours (rhipi-
dolite > 50mol% Fe 2+ and
Medium-high refraction; noticeably lower bire- aphrosiderite; 50-80 mol %
fringence with anomalous interference colours Fe 2+).
(aspecial feature); optically biaxial EB or 8. Fe 2+-chlorite: optically 8, normal, rare ab-
Optic axial angle: not a very good diagnostic fea- normal blue-grey interference
ture; can appear pseudo-uniaxial, dependent on colours (bavalite; 80-100
chemical composition (Fig. 168). mol% Fe 2+).
Mg-chlorite 2Va = 0° - 5° (penninite) Bent, tubular chlorite aggregates are called
2Vy = 0° - 30° (clinochlore) 'helminth'.
MgFe 2+- and
Fe 2+Mg-chlorite 2Va = 0° - 10° Distinguishing features: all other similar
2Vy = 0° - 40° phyllosilicates have a higher birefringence and
Fe2+-chlorite 2Va = 0° - 30° normal interference colours; antigorite has a
similar pale colour and weak pleochroism as Mg-
Character of elongation: (+) or (-), always oppo- chlorite, but it has a lower birefringence; green
site to the optical sign, which is very helpful for biotite, glauconite and celadonite, which can be
Chlorite group 117
similar to each other in colour and pleochroism, higher-grade metamorphic rocks it appears only
all have a higher birefringence. The lepto- as a diaphthoritic secondary mineral, altering
chlorites can be distinguished clearly from the biotite, green hornblende, gamet, cordierite and
orthochlorites only by X-ray techniques. forms pseudomorphs (chloritization). Occurs as
an auto hydrothermal mineral in different mag-
Alteration: fairly robust to weathering; alteration
into clay minerals, Mg-Fe-carbonate, limonite matic rocks in cavities and fissures; as an altera-
tion mineral of mafic minerals (chloritization),
and Si02 • During progressive metamorphism and
e.g. in gabbro, diabase, spilite; and also as a fine-
addition of potassium, alteration to biotite and/
grained aggregate in fractures together with
or hornblende and in blueschist facies into
clinozoisite and epidote, actinolitic hornblende,
glaucophane and epidote respectively.
quartz and carbonate (pycnochlorite to
Occurrence: orthochlorite is an important rock- rhipidolite). Mg-rich chlorite (penninite) is rare
forming mineral in regional greenschist-facies and can form pseudomorphs after biotite in
metamorphosed rocks (Figs 169, 170), e.g. in acidic palaeorhyolites (quartz-porphyry) and in
chlorite schist, phyllite, chlorite-actinolite schist, granitic to granodioritic rocks. The Cr-bearing,
quartzite and also in rocks of lower contact meta- slightly pink chlorite can form as primary chlorite
morphism (albite-epidote-hornfels facies). In in ultrabasic (peridotite, lherzolite) rocks.
Chlorite in cavities in basalts tends to be MgFe 2+- tremolite and magnesite (in chloriteschist). In
chlorite of the diabantite-pycnochlorite series. blueschists together with actinolite, albite,
Chlorites which form part of the groundmass in glaucophane, epidote, with or without lawsonite
diabase and spilites also belong to this series. and pumpellyite. MgFe 2+-chlorite (diabantite)
forms as an alteration mineral in basic volcanic
Paragenesis: with albite, sericite, biotite, quartz
rocks which contain biotite, pyroxene, am-
and epidote (in phyllites) or albite, epidote,
phibole as well as delessite (leptochlorite).
zoisite, actinolite, stilpnomelane, quartz, talc,
4.8.2 Leptochlorite
(Mg, Fe2+)5_iAl, Fe 3+)'_2[(OHhIAlSi 30 IO] monoclinic-prismatic
General features: trioctahedral 14A normal Occurrence: generally they occur together with
chlorite (oxidized chlorite) characterized by high the MgFe2+-orthochlorites. Delessite is a MgFe2+
Fe-content Fe3+> 4% weight. Fe:l+-Ieptochlorite occurring predominantly in
cavities and fractures and in the matrix of inter-
mediate and basic volcanic rocks e.g. in
Thin-section characteristics
palaeobasalt, diabase, spilite and also in gabbro.
Chlorites of the orthochlorite series cannot be
Paragenesis: with orthochlorite (diabantite,
distinguished from those of the leptochlorites
pycnochlorite), calcite, zeolite and quartz.
with a polarization microscope. Therefore they
are not described here in any detail. They are
very similar to the Fe 2+-rich orthochlorites (Part
B, section 4.8.1).
4.9.1 Antigorite
Thin-section characteristics Low refraction and birefringence (grey-white
interference colours of the 1st order); optically
Form: flaky after {001}, lath-shaped, parallel or
biaxial 8.
felted fibrous masses, also dense (Fig. 171(a».
Optic axial angle: 2Vu = 27°-60°.
Cleavage: perfect on (001).
Character of elongation: (+).
Colour: colourless; Fe-bearing varieties have a
weak pleochroism from pale greenish-yellow to Extinction: tends to be straight with nAc '" 0°.
pale green.
Special characteristics: multiple twinning with
Refraction and birefringence: the same orientation forming a fan in the [010]
Fe-free Fe-rich direction with undulatory extinction. In
nu = 1.546 - 1.595 ultrabasic rocks, antigorite has a gridlike texture,
n~ = 1.551 - 1.603 where the fibres grow in two preferred
~ = 1.552 - 1.604 orientations forming a grid.
86 = 0.006 - 0.009
Serpentine group 119
Distinguishing features: chrysotile is also fine- other ultrabasic rocks, gabbros, lamprophyres,
grained and fibrous; Mg-chlorite has anomalous etc.); a major component in serpentinite. Also
interference colours, lower birefringence and is forms from Mg-rich orthopyroxenes. Can be ac-
optically biaxial ffi; talc and pale-green micas companied by lizardite which can form the
show a significantly higher birefringence. Can be major component in pseudomorphs after
differentiated from the extremely fine-grained orthopyroxene (bastite; Part B, section 4.2.1; Figs
lizardite only by X-ray analysis. 122,123).
Alteration: hydrothermally with the addition of Paragenesis: with olivine and/or enstatite or
Si02 into talc. bronzite, diallage, chrysotile and magnetite;
chrysotile, talc, magnesite to breunerite.
Occurrence: as low-grade metamorphic serpen-
tinization of olivine-rich rocks (peridotite and
4.9.2 Chrysotile
Form: fibrous, parallel growth, brush-shaped or ture (Fig. 172), where the margin is comprised of
irregular (Fig. 171(c),(d». chrysotile y, and the centre of a. chrysotile;
antigorite: fibrous masses, where the opposite is
Cleavage: none.
the case.
Colour: commonly colourless, rarely greenish
Distinguishing features: in larger crystals it can
(Fe2+-bearing varieties) with a weak pleochroism
be differentiated from antigorite; in small fibres
from greenish-yellow to pale green to pale
it can be identified by X-ray analysis; fibrous
yellow.
amphiboles such as grammatite, actinolite, etc.,
Chrysotile y Chrysotile a.
have a higher refraction and birefringence. It is
= 1.532 - 1.552 1.538 - 1.560
distinguished from fibrous lizardite only by X-ray
= 1.545 - 1.561 1.546 - 1.567
analysis.
= 1.545 - 1.561 1.546 - 1.567
Alteration: under low-grade metamorphic condi-
ffi.1 = 0.013 - 0.009 8 0.008 - 0.007 tions it reacts to antigorite. Low-temperature
hydrothermal interaction with ultrabasites can
Low refraction and birefringence (grey-white to
lead to serpentinization of olivine and pyroxene,
straw-yellow interference colours of the 1st or-
which are altered into chrysotile.
der). Chrysotile y. optically biaxial ffi; chrysotile
a.: optically 8. Occurrence: can occur together with lizardite,
which can form oriented pseudomorphs after
Optic axial angle: chrysotile y: 2Vy = 10°-90°; orthopyroxene (bastite; Part B, section 4.2.1; Figs
chrysotile a.: 2Va = 30°-35°.
122,123).
Character of elongation: chrysotile y: (+);
Paragenesis: with olivine, enstatite or bronzite,
chrysotile a.: (-).
diallage and magnetite; also garnet (gamet-
Extinction: tends to be straight. serpentinites).
Special characteristics: chrysotile pseudomorphs
after olivine can appear in two forms: mesh tex-
120 Biaxial crystals
Subdivision
10000
/, '----~~~---------------
Ab '----''-----'''--''''''''''---....---''----''---''---'---''-----lAn Fig. 173 Subdivision of high-temperature
Plagioclase group feldspars.
Feldspar family 121
A Perthite-like orthoclase
or microcline
Miscibility
gap
15,...._ _ _- 10000
Ab 10 30 50 70 90
An
Fig. 174 Miscibility gap in the feldspar
system in the 'plutonic facies'. Plagioclase group
Or
--------=~=·~=~::,~::~~~~~~c~~_~~~--=--
Ab~~--~~~~--5~0~~~~~~~~An
Fig. 175 Varying immiscibility with varying
temperatures in the feldspar system. Plagioclase group
monoclinic symmetry. If a magma, which con- feldspars are very slow, disequilibrium is
tains such feldspars, is rapidly cooled (volcanic very common. High-temperature and low-
facies), then the high-temperature modification temperature modifications express themselves in
remains metastable in sanidine and/or high- the form of different optical orientations (high-
temperature plagioclase. If the cooling path is temperature and low-temperature optics). Be-
slow (plutonic facies), then there is much more tween the two endmembers an infinite number of
order among Si and Al and feldspars tend to be intermediate structures are possible.
of triclinic symmetry. Because kinetics in alkali
122 Biaxial crystals
.-
..... :~
Sanidine Orthoclase Anorthoclase Microcline
(a) (b) (c) (d)
Fig. 176 Crystal form and optical characteristics of alkali feldspars: (a) sanidine, (b) orthoclase, (c)
anorthoclase and (d) microcline.
Low refraction and birefringence (grey interfer- perature at formation and increasing order 2V" =
ence colours of the 1st order); optically biaxial 8. 0°; at higher temperatures, K-feldspar falls into
the transition zone to the orthoclase optical field
Optic axial angle: 2V varies enormously:
60°-65° to 85° and 20°-110° respectively with 2V" = 60°-80° and the axial plane oriented
perpendicular to (010) (Fig. 176(b)).
(anorthoclase). In high-temperature feldspars
the axial plane is oriented parallel (010) with 2V" Special characteristics: very fine-grained inclu-
= 60°-65° (Fig. 176(a)). With decreasing tem- sions of sericite, chlorite, opaque minerals, etc.,
124 Biaxial crystals
Perthite Antiperthite
antiperthite the higher refraction characteristics
:-J ;=.:~ Albite K-Feldspar
of Na-feldspar are made use of, by carrying out
the Becke line test: in the case of perthite the
K-Feldspar Albite Becke line moves into the albite spindle stage
and in the case of antiperthite it moves out of the
spindle stage into the host albite.
4.10.1.1 Sanidine
(K, Na)[AISi30 s] monoclinic-prismatic
General features: high-temperature form of Occurrence: major phase in young and fresh
alkali feldspars (Fig. 176(a)) with the composi- intermediate to acidic volcanic rocks. As
tion range of Or1OO_65 Ab0-35 Alla-1O (Fig. 173). phenocrysts (in e.g. trachytes; Drachenfels, near
Alkali feldspars with <Or65 are called Na- Bonn) as well as in the matrix (e.g. trachyte,
sanidine. phonolite, etc.; Fig. 177). Na-sanidine can
occasionally be found as a rim around
Special characteristics: fresh and young sanidine
plagioclase.
shows poor or no cleavage.
Alteration: sericite alteration or replacement by Paragenesis: in silica-saturated volcanic rocks
kaolinite leads to clouding. Through geological with quartz, plagioclase, biotite, hornblende,
time the crystals develop exsolution compounds ortho- and clinopyroxene, and rock-glass. In
and transition into orthoclase. K-feldspars in trachytes with plagioclase, biotite or aegirine-
older volcanic rocks generally occur as augite. In phonolites with nepheline, aegirine-
orthoclase. augite and minerals of the sodalite group.
126 Biaxial crystals
4.10.1.2 Orthoclase
K[AISiPsJ monoclinic-prismatic
4.10.1.3 Anorthoclase
(Na, K)[AISi30sJ monoclinic-prismatic
General features: morphologically monoclinic Occurrence: as phenocrysts and also in the ma-
(Fig. 176(c». A decay product of K-rich trix of Na-rich volcanic and shallow plutonic
monalbite as a consequence of exsolution and (subvolcanic) rocks, e.g. alkali rhyolites
transformation. The chemical range of Na-rich (pantellerite), alkali trachyte to latite, mugearite
alkali feldspar is Ab77-6Z0r12_3sAn2_2o' (matrix) and phonolite. Also in older volcanic
rocks (e.g. palaeolatitelrhombic-porphyry) and
Special characteristics: polysynthetic twinning
in some plutonic rocks.
(Fig. 184) similar to micro cline andlor antiper-
thite exsolution is common (Fig. 185). Zoning is Paragenesis: with quartz, aegirine-augite, aenig-
common! Rhombic-shaped sections are typical. matite, arfvedsonite, glass or nepheline and
aegirine-augite (in phonolites).
Distinguishing features: can be confused with
other feldspars. Paragenesis is important!
Alteration: see sanidine.
Feldspar family 127
~ 001
~
01
010
100
L...L.L..LL.L..JU '" . " .
Fig. 185 Twinning according to the albite and pericline laws 100
in (a) anorthoclase, (b) microcline.
b
4.10.1.4 Microcline
K[AlSi30 s] triclinic-pinacoidal
General features: the term micro cline applies to c) Replacement of K-feldspar by albite to
all triclinic low-temperature K-feldspars (Fig. form chessboard albite.
176(d)) with or without perthite exsolution tex- d) Progressive replacement of K-feldspar by
tures. The fine polysynthetic cross-hatched twin- plagioclase forming myrmekite. This results in
ning (albite and pericline twinning law; Fig. 180) patches of plagioclase intergrown with vermicu-
is characteristic. However, is some sections lar quartz. The intergrowth is often wart-like in
microcline may not be so easily identified (Fig. shape and is commonly found at the margins of
186). feldspar and plagioclase crystals penetrating an
alkali feldspar crystal.
Alteration
e) If fluor is added at a late stage (fluor
a) In slowly cooling plutonic rocks microcline
pneumatolysis) reaction into topaz and tourma-
perthite can form with albite string, veins and
line occurs.
spindles.
f) Hydrothermal interaction can lead to
b) Hydrothermal interaction, which can occur
kaolinization.
during the late stages of crystallization (auto-
metasomatism), can cause sericitization (the sec-
ond most important alteration.).
128 Biaxial crystals
General features: dependent on the anorthite in a cross or T-shaped fashion. Translation and
content six plagioclase minerals are distinguished pressure twins are not uncommon (Fig. 192).
(Fig. 174) which can crystallize either in a high-
Remarks: albite twins generally form sharply de-
or a low-temperature form (high- or low
fined lamellae parallel to (010). The width of the
anorthite and high- and low-albite). High-
lamellae can vary within one thin section and
plagioclase is restricted to volcanic rocks whereas
within a twinned crystal. Twinning lamellae can
low-plagioclase is found in plutonic and meta-
also pinch out (Fig. 190). In the case of pericline
morphic rocks.
twinning the lamellae are oriented perpendicular
to (010) and if albite twinning is also developed,
Thin-section characteristics then the two sets of lamellae intersect at right
angles. This can give rise to microcline-like tex-
The optical characteristics are dependent on the
tures, but the grid is coarser and the lamellae are
chemical composition and also the degree of All
better defined. If no twinning lamellae are devel-
Si ordering and hence the condition of formation
oped, as is common in albite (e.g. schists), then its
(Fig. 189).
identification is very difficult.
Form: thin to thick plates, isometric to stretched
along [100] or [001], as a matrix mineral in vol-
canic rocks; phenocrysts, often corroded and
zoned with glass inclusions aligned within the
growth zones. Two generations of plagioclase
crystals are common in volcanic rocks: pheno-
crysts and matrix microliths. Strong zoning in
volcanic but also in plutonic rocks with corroded
cores and rims can be observed.
Cleavage: perfect on (001), good on (010) and
not so good on (110) and (110) respectively.
Crystals show two cleavage intersection planes
at an angle of 86°. In young volcanic rocks Fig. 188 Typical twinning in plagioclase after the
this cleavage can hardly be seen under the albite law (polysynthetic twinning).
microscope.
Twinning: several twinning laws can occur simul-
taneously in plagioclase. In the case of albite,
pericline twinning produces, polysynthetic lamel-
lae (Figs 188, 190). Albite-law twins are very
common and typical. In oligoclase albite-law
twinning tends to produce very thin lamellae. b
Increasing Ca-content leads to increasing width
in the albite-twin lamellae (Fig. 191); simple nC{
twinning tends to occur in the pure endmembers,
albite and anorthite. Often one twin lamella (e.g. a b c
albite law) is abruptly transected by another one
(pericline law).
Most important twin laws are:
n(3
Intergrowth
Twinning law Twin axis plane
a) Albite law perpendicular (010)
[010] (Fig. 188)
b) Pericline parallel [010] (001)
law (Fig. 179(d» e f
c) Carlsbad parallel [001] (010)
law (Fig. 179(a» Fig. 189 Crystal form and optical characteristics of
low-temperature plagioclase: (a) albite, (b) oligoclase,
In volcanic rocks Banat intergrowth can occur, (c) andesine, (d) labradorite, (e) bytownite and (f)
where several plagioclase crystals are intergrown anorthite.
130 Biaxial crystals
Fig.192 Hypidiomorphic
plagioclase crystal with clearly
visible glide-twins next to
augite. Tectonized gabbro.
Northern Italy. Crossed polars.
Feldspar family 131
C
High-albite Low-albite Anorthite 80 0
n" = 1.527 1.527 1.575 ~ ··90 0
~-- --/. :/~----r~
-,!
n~ = 1.532 1.533 1.583
" "
• opt (j)
r
90 ~--------------------,90
'E
Q) 'E
'E Q)
0
0 70 70
§40 ~1 40
.l!!
£
0c: 50 50
~ 35 l1flAn:~ ~~~ 35
o
« c:
«
0 0.4 0.8 mm 0.5 1.5 mm
Fig. 195 Zoning in plagioclase: normal zoning (left) and oscillatory zoning (right).
quence of pH 20 variations in the melt phase by albite + calcite (spilitization). This is common
(volcanic rocks). in spilite and diabase.
3. Inverse zoning: increasing anorthite content c) Under retrograde metamorphic conditions
from core to rim as a consequence of progressive the anorthite component becomes unstable, and
metamorphism. is replaced by a fine-grained aggregate of
clinozoisite, zoisite, albite, actinolite and sericite;
Distinguishing features: non-twinned gran-
a greenish colour (saussuritization) results.
oblastic albite is common in schists. Plagioclase
d) Fluor-pneumatolysis results in the crystalli-
is easily differentiated from other minerals by
zation of topaz, tourmaline and Li-mica at the
the characteristic polysynthetic twinning. In the
expense of plagioclase.
absence of twins, identification is difficult and
e) Hydrothermal alteration can also lead to
plagioclase can be confused with orthoclase and
propylitization (greenish coloration), alteration
zeolite; however, plagioclase has a higher refrac-
into aggregates of albite, calcite, chlorite, sericite,
tive index and zonar growth is common. It differs
quartz, etc.
from quartz by its good cleavage, it is often
f) Zeolitization can occur during hydrother-
clouded, is twinned and is optically biaxial with a
mal alteration (natrolite, thomsonite, scolecite,
large axial angle. Non-twinned plagioclase can
heulandite).
also be confused with cordierite. Alkali feldspars
g) Weathering causes kaolinization and
show characteristic perthitic internal textures,
calcite formation. Albite is more stable than
which are absent in plagioclase. Characteristic
anorthite-rich plagioclase. The anorthite com-
twinning in micro cline can be distinguished from
ponent, commonly in the core, can be 'filled'
albite and pericline twins by the former being
whereas the albite rim remains unclouded.
irregular, discontinuous and bleb-like.
Alteration Occurrence
a) Under hydrothermal conditions there is al- 1. Present in almost all magmatic rocks. The
teration into sericite, which starts with a clouding anorthite content decreases progressively from
of the crystal (Fig. 196). basic to acidic rocks:
b) During the albitization of basaltic volcanic gabbro ~ diorite ~ granite ~ aplite, pegmatite
rocks the anorthite-rich plagioclase is replaced An > 50 <50 <30 <10
Feldspar family__ 133
In pegmatites albite is typical, and it can be are the zoning method by Rittmann and the mi-
antiperthitic (Fig. 181). Hydrothermal para- crolith method for matrix plagioclase in volcanic
genesis always contains pure albite. Decreasing rocks. The zoning method is based on the fact
anorthite content with increasing acidity can be that the extinction angle measured relative to
observed in volcanic rocks: cleavage or the prevailing twinning system is de-
basalt ~ andesite ~ dacite ~ rhyolite pendent on composition and therefore related to
An 70-50 60-40 50-30 40-20 the anorthite content. Plagioclase tends to be
twinned according to the albite law (010) and
Plagioclase phenocrysts in volcanic rocks tend to
shows polysynthetic twin lamellae. In sections
be more anorthite-rich than those in the
which are approximately perpendicular to the
groundmatrix (exceptions are rare). Hydro-
twinning plane the extinction is symmetric.
thermally altered plagioclase in spilites are pure
These sections are referred to as symmetric
albite.
zones and, since Schuster (1881) , they are the
2. In metamorphic rocks the albite-rich mem-
preferred sections to be used to determine the
bers are important. In low-grade metamorphic
extinction angle. When choosing these sections
and diaphthoritic rocks only albite and oligoclase
the following must be observed:
are representative for the plagioclase group. In
1. The lamellae of the twinned crystal should not
greenschist-facies rocks non-twinned or simply
be too small.
twinned albite is most common. In mid- to high-
2. Sections which are perpendicular to (010), or
grade metamorphic rocks (e.g. in gneisses)
nearly so, show very sharp cleavage or twin
oligoclase and andesine are the most common
planes along (010) which do not move side-
plagioclase representatives.
ways during focusing and unfocusing of the
3. In arkoses and greywackes (albite).
microscope (best viewed with x25 or x40 ob-
Paragenesis: in magmatic rocks with orthoclase, jective lens).
microcline, quartz, biotite, hornblende, clino- 3. Albite twins can be identified when the lamel-
and orthopyroxene or titan augite, olivine, rock- lae planes are oriented N-S and the lamellae
glass (alkali basalt) or diopside-rich augite, and show equal brightness.
olivine (gabbro). In low-grade metamorphic 4. This is followed by measuring the extinction
rocks with chlorite, sericite, epidote, actinolite, angle, by rotating to the right and to the left.
calcite and quartz. In medium grade metamor- The following should be observed:
phone rocks with hornblende and pyroxene. a) In both directions the extinction angle
should be nearly the same or very similar, and
Determination ofthe anorthite content using the should not differ by more than 5°. The higher
extinction angle in suitable sections: in order to value is used.
determine the anorthite content with the micro- b) Several crystals are measured and the
scope the universal stage is necessary. However, highest value is taken.
an approximate value can be obtained much 5. A compensator quartz red I (551 nm) is used
more easily. The most common methods applied to determine the optical sign.
134 Biaxial crystals
+50 1-'
I- ------- r::: .-.- -
I::If-- -
- Zoning methods by
Rittmann (1929) for
albite twinning
V
./
- - --
+40 ~
..-:. I- 1- I II /"
I-I- 1-
:X'
+30
T::f
/,VI •• ~ Plutonic
<D L' I •• :;;or I I .
Cl
as +20
c::: V' Volcanic
c::: 1+ ~
1.' /j"" 1
0
U +10 L y..A ~I
c:::
1/ I ~
i ~ ~I
~
E
::::I
E
0
7
I
1/.7.,!i~1i ~_
/-1--
Detenn'oatioo 0"'9"'
D'- -!/---:/ ..~~ ? tJ- 0 x' '0
.~ \,c§l by Michel-Levy
::E -10 i--
ac"'" ",,'e
I- ..~ (001) " (010) at (100) +-
-20
"g §
0/- e " /6 X' in obtuse angle
i--
"V
l t--. - (001) " (010) at (100) i--
I ,
-30 0# I ~ Fig. 197 Determination
Ab 20
1"-1 40 60 80 An
of the anorthite content of
plagioclase, simplified
after the zoning method
Mol % of Rittmann (1929).
... /.
,. ' -1
,
'.,
.. .. -.
'\
l!.Bf"~~)if:j
Spheroidal hematite, coloured red-brown , filling cavities in a microcrystalline matrix comprised of plagioclase,
pyroxene and rock-glass. Pyroxene andesite. Mojanda volcano, northern Ecuador. Uncrossed polarizers, 1.4 x
2.0mm.
2 Bright-green hercynite developed as octahedral and as rounded grains, showing a strong positive relief
relative to quartz (bright, unaltered, xenomorphic grains) and cordierite, which is pale yellow to pale light-brown,
originating from a slight pinitization. Small-grained sillimanite needles are recognizable because of their high
relief. Spinel-sillimanite-cordierite-gneiss. Bodenmais, Bavaria, Germany. Uncrossed polarizers, 1.3 x 1.8 mm.
3 Zircon forming an idiomorphic crystal which has crystallized early from the magma. It shows bright-yellow to
blue interference colours of the 2nd order, weak cleavage and sharply defined fractures. It is surrounded by
microcline-perthite (grey to white interference colours of the 1st order), spindles are mostly sericitized (brown);
nepheline shows grey-black to grey interference colours of the 1st order, and apatite (inclusion in microcline-
perthite; section is nearly perpendicular to the optic axis, therefore almost isotropic). Nepheline syenite. Laugen
valley in southern Norway. Crossed polars, 2.2 x 3.1 mm.
4 Idiomorphic, zoned corundum crystals with patchy blue pleochroism and strong relief relative to acicular,
colourless sillimanite (top right). Sillimanite-corundum gneiss. Urals. Uncrossed polarizers, 2.2 x 3.1 mm.
5 Hypidiomorphic vesuvianite crystals with strong anomalous interference colours (lavender-blue to leather-
brown), also showing weak cleavage. Accompanying minerals are calcite with greenish to reddish-white interfer-
ence colours of the higher orders. Contact-metamorphic siliceous carbonate. Predazzo, Dolomites, northern
Italy. Crossed polarizers, 8.0 x 11.0 mm.
6 Short to long prisms of cancrinite phenocrysts, showing well-developed cleavage and interference colours of
the 1st order (straw-yellOW) and 2nd order (blue). Accompanied by alkali feldspar, apatite and ore. Foyaite-
syenite ejecta. Laacher volcanic area, Germany. Crossed polars, 2.4 x 3.2mm.
7 Simple twinning in titan augite with clear zonal growth pattern and typical anomalous interference colours of
the 1st order (grey-blue to dark brown). Clearly developed pyroxene cleavage and crystal outlines. Hyalo-
basanite. Sasbach, Kaiserstuhl volcano, Germany. Crossed polars, 4.0 x 5.5mm.
8 Hypidiomorphic augite in a 'wet' environment altered to pale green to brown amphibole (uralitization). Augite
is partly intergrown with colourless, partly sericitized plagioclase (weak brownish, milky). Gabbro. Nieder-
Beerbach, Odenwald, Germany. Uncrossed polarizers, 3.3 x 4.6mm.
9 Serpentinization of olivine. Fibrous chrysotile aggregates with low birefringence replacing olivine along its
rims and fractures. Olivine phenocrysts show bright interference colours of the 2nd order embedded in fibrous
antigorite. Serpentinized peridotite. Northeast of Dillenburg, Hessen, Germany. Crossed polars, 3.6 x 5.5mm.
10 Lepidoblastic glaucophane with brownish to purple-blue pleochroism, showing cleavage characteristic for
amphiboles. Other minerals present are epidote (yellow to yellow-green pleochroism), chlorite (deep green),
albite (colourless) and opaque minerals. Epidote-glaucophane schist. Island of Syros, Cyclades, Greece.
Uncrossed polarizers, 2.5 x 3.4 mm.
11 Lepidoblastic muscovite with bright interference colours of the 2nd and 3rd orders, next to poikiloblastic
jadeite (white-grey to straw-yellow interference colours of the 1st order), almandine (isotropic) and quartz (grey-
white interference colours of the 1st order; undulatory extinction). Almandine-glaucophane-jadeite-muscovite
schist. Valle d'Aosta, northern Italy. Crossed polars, 4.0 x 5.5mm.
12 Biotite showing strong pleochroism ranging from pale to strong brown. Well-developed basal cleavage
traces are recognizable. Accompanying minerals are bronzite (weak brown) and pale-greenish pleonaste with
strong relief. Mica-bearing peridotite. Kaltes Tal near Bad Harzburg, Harz, Germany. Uncrossed polarizers,
4.0 x 5.5mm.
13 Rounded to elliptical stretched glauconite aggregates, showing concentric growth rings. Glauconite with
characteristic bright-green pleochroism. The matrix consists of colourless to red-brown Fe-hydroxide bearing
calcite. Canaglia, Sardinia. Uncrossed polarizers, 2.4 x 3.2mm.
14 Idiomorphic sphene crystal showing strong pleochroic colours which mask the higher-order interference
colours. Accompaning minerals are microcline-perthite, which locally is altered into sericite, nepheline and
apatite. Nepheline syenite. Gjone near Larvik, southern Norway. Crossed polarizers, 2.4 x 3.2mm.
15 Idiomorphic, weakly pleochroic staurolite phenocryst with straw-yellow interference colours of the 1st order,
next to almandine (isotropic) and lepidoblastic muscovite, which shows bright interference colours of the 2nd
order. Garnet-staurolite-mica schist. Alpe Sponda, southern side of Lukmanier Pass, Canton Ticino, Switzerland.
Crossed polars, 3.6 x 5.0 mm.
16 Idiomorphic, zoned epidote crystal with strong anomalous interference colours of the 2nd order (orange,
yellow, red, green, blue), together with calcite, which clearly shows rhombic cleavage and mother-of-pearl
interference colours of the higher orders. Epidote-marble. Lukmanier Pass, Canton GraubOnden, Switzerland.
Crossed polars, 5.0 x 6.9mm.
Zeolite family 135
a) Fibrous- or needle-shaped zeolites (natrolite, Zeolite has the lowest refractive index of all
mesolite, thomsonite, scolecite, mordenite minerals; zeolites are important minerals which
and laumontite). form during the hydrothermal-magmatic stage,
b) Flaky zeolites (heulandite, stilbite and filling cavities and veins. They also play an im-
epistilbite ). portant role in the classification of low-grade
c) Cube-shaped zeolites (chabazite, phillipsite metamorphic (zeolite facies) rocks. In sedimen-
and harmotome). tary rocks, particularly in pyroclastics and
greywackes, analcite, clinoptilolite, heulandite,
Trigonal chabazite (Part B, section 3.1.7) and the laumontite, mordenite and phillipsite are com-
cubic analcite (Part B, section 2.7) and other min- mon. Phillipsite and clinoptilolite are important
erals belong to the zeolite family. minerals in deep-sea sediments.
Thin-section characteristics
Form: acicular to stalk-like parallel to the c-axis,
fibrous to radiating and kidney-shaped (Figs 199,
200); rectangular cross-sections are typical.
Cleavage: good on {110}.
Twinning: rare on {110}.
Colour: colourless, older crystals can be clouded.
Refraction and birefringence:
n" == 1.473 - 1.489
np == 1.476 - 1.491
ny == 1.485 - 1.501
ffiA == 0.012 - 0.012
Fig. 199 Crystal form and
Very low refraction with a negative relief and optical characteristics of
very low birefringence (white to straw-yellow in- natrolite.
terference colours of the 1st order); optically uniaxial; scolecite shows negative character of
biaxial $. elongation.
Optic axial angie: 2Vy = 58°-64°. Occurrence: in cavities and fractures in inter-
mediate and basic magmatic rocks, particularly
Character of elongation: (+). in volcanic rocks (e.g. in fractures in nepheline-
Extinction: in longitudinal sections straight, in phonolites of the Hohentwiel/Hegau, Germany).
basal section symmetric. As an autometasomatic alteration product of
feldspars and foids (e.g. in the form of natrolite),
Special characteristics: pseudomorphs after together with the mineral hydronephelite, which
plagioclase, nepheline and the minerals of the typically replaces nepheline; common in nephe-
sodalite group are common. line syenites.
Distinguishing features: thomsonite has a higher Paragenesis: with nepheline, Na-sanidine, scole-
refraction and the other fibrous zeolites tend to cite, mesolite, heulandite, stilbite, laumontite,
have oblique extinction; chabazite is optically analcite, thomsonite, calcite and chalcedony.
4.11.1.2 Mesolite
Na2Ca2[Al2Si30 lO13 ·8H20 monoclinic-sphenoidic
4.11.1.3 Thomsonite
NaCa2[AlsSis0201·6H20 rhombic-dipyramidal
4.11.1.4 Scolecite
Ca[ AlzSi30 lO] ·3HzO monoclinic-domatic (pseudorhombic)
4.11.1.5 Mordenite
(Ca, K2 , Na 2)[A1Sis0 12h-6H20 rhombic-pyramidal
4.11.1.6 Laumontite
Ca[AI 2Si40d ·4H20 monoclinic-sphenoidic
4.11.2.2 Stilbite
Ca[ A12Si70 18] ·7H20 monoclinic-prismatic
4.11.2.3 Epistilbite
Cal AI 2SiIi0 11i ]· 5H20 monoclinic-prismatic
4.11.3.1 Phillipsite
(Caos, K, Na)s[Al sSi l1 0 32] ·10H20 monoclinic-prismatic (pseudorhombic)
4.11.3.2 Harmotome
Ba[ A1 2Si 6 0 16] ·6Hp monoclinic-sphenoidic
High refraction and very high birefringence. The Distinguishing features: rhonite occurs with a dif-
interference colours are of the upper orders and ferent paragenesis; in the case of kaersutite and
are very pale, masked by the dark crystal absorp- arfvedsonite the twinning plane halves the angle
tion colours; optically biaxial Et>. of the cleavage planes.
Optic axial angle: 2Vy= 27°-55°. Occurrence: in light-coloured Na-rich (alkaline)
magmatic rocks, such as sodium syenite and
Extinction: always oblique, yAc 40°-45° parallel sodium trachyte, pantellerite, comendite,
(010) and yAc '" 4° (100). nepheline syenite (foyaites), phonolite and
nepheline-syenite pegmatites.
Special characteristics: homo axial intergrowth
with arfvedsonite is common; orthite inclusions Paragenesis: with aegirine-augite, arfvedsonite
are surrounded by a black to smoky-brown halo. or riebeckite, anorthoclase and nepheline.
[tj
to nepheline syenite), commonly together with
greenish amphibole. It is rare in respective vol-
canic rocks, and absent in gabbro and basalt be-
cause there the Ti-content tends to pass into
100
pyroxene (titanaugite) and ilmenite respectively.
Sphene is a hydrothermal mineral in pegmatites
Fig. 216 Crystal form and optical characteristics and and in alpine fractures. It also occurs in low- to
typical cross-sections of sphene. medium-grade metamorphic rocks in amphi-
bolite, marble and siliceous carbonates.
Special characteristics: thorium content can Paragenesis: with green hornblende, plagioclase,
cause pleochroic haloes; zoned crystals have a K-feldspar, quartz, apatite or nepheline,
higher refractive index along their margins; in aegirine-augite, sanidine and apatite.
metamorphic rocks they tend to form clusters of
small rounded pellets.
4.14 Topaz
rhombic-dipyramidal
General features: fluor-bearing mineral, which Optic axial angle: 2Vy = 48° (F, OH); up to 68°
forms in greisen (e.g. in cassiterite granite). (F).
Character of elongation: (+).
Thin-section characteristics
Extinction: in longitudinal sections the extinction
Form: short columns (Fig. 217), acicular parallel is straight and in basal sections it is symmetric.
to the c-axis or brush-like (pycnite); typical as
Special characteristics: tends to be rich in fluid
single granules.
inclusions.
Cleavage: very good on (001).
Colour: colourless. n,:c
Refraction and birefringence: l'~1
(F) (F,OH)
na = 1.606 -1.634
n~ = 1.609 - 1.637
ny = 1.616 - 1.644
EB~ = 0.011 - 0.008
nc/...····
..... 0
Medium-high refraction and low birefringence
(grey-white to straw-yellow interference colours Fig. 217 Crystal
of the 1st order); optically biaxial EB. With in- form and optical
creasing F-content the refraction decreases and characteristics of
the axial angle increases. topaz.
146 Biaxial crystals
Distinguishing features: quartz has a much lower Occurrence: tends to occur at the margin of gran-
refraction, tends to be optically uniaxial EEl and ite bodies (Fig. 218) and in contact aureoles as
has no cleavage; barite and coelestine occur in deuteric mineral which formed late during crys-
different parageneses; beryl is optically uniaxial tallization. Addition of fluor partly or completely
8; andalusite has a patchy pinkish colour and is alters feldspars and micas. It is also in topaz
optically biaxial 8. rhyolites.
Alteration: into kaolinite is possible.
4.15 Cordierite
rhombic-dipyramidal (pseudo-hexagonal).
Thin-section characteristics
Form: short prismatic parallel to the c-axis (Fig.
219), very rare as idiomorphic crystals in volcanic
rocks or as porphyroblasts in hornfels; in meta- Fig. 219 Crystal form
morphic rocks it occurs as xenomorphic, and optical characteristics
irregular-shaped grains. of cordierite.
Colour: colourless, if the thin section is of stand- Table 5 Features distinguishing cordierite from
ard thickness; in 'thick' thin sections yellowish to quartz and feldspar
pale-blue to pale-purple pleochroism; in volcanic
rocks occasionally bright-blue and pale-purple Cordierite Quartz Feldspar
pleochroism.
biaxial uniaxial, biaxial
Refraction and birefringence: (large 2V) also anomalously
na = 1.527 - 1.560 biaxial (small 2V)
n~ = 1.532 - 1.574
poor cleavage no cleavage good cleavage
nr = 1.537 - 1.578
yellow inclusion-
~ L1 = 0.008 - 0.018 pleochroic free
haloes
Low refraction and birefringence (grey to straw- irregular no alteration sericitization,
yellow interference colours of the 1st order); op- fractures minerals saussuritization
e
tically biaxial or EB. with clouding
Optic axial angle: 2V" = 35°-106°. and
pinitization
Character of elongation: (-), in most cases it can-
not be determined.
Extinction: tends to be straight.
chlorite and also biotite. Cordierite pseudo-
Special characteristics: radioactive inclusions,
morphs comprised of sericite and other
such as zircon, cause pleochroic haloes in cor-
phyllosilicates are referred to as pinite, and the
dierite; in metamorphic rocks poikiloblastic tex-
process is called pinitization (Figs 221, 222). The
tures are typical, with quartz, biotite and/or
break-down reaction consumes water, and hence
graphite intergrowth. In volcanic rocks glass in-
is an indicator of hydrothermal interaction.
clusions are common; in paragneisses fibrolitic
sillimanite inclusions can be observed. Poly- Occurrence: in small quantities in magmatic
synthetic twinning is common. rocks, as well as in granite and gabbro, rhyolite
and andesite. Cordierite is an index mineral
Distinguishing features: can be mistaken for
for the anatectic origin of the rock, or contamina-
quartz, which, however, is uniaxial (rarely biaxial
tion by AI-rich contact rocks (e.g. clay-rich
EB) and always fresh. Plagioclase tends to be
sediments). It is very common in contact-
zoned and has better cleavage (Table 5).
metamorphic rocks. In the outer contact aureole
Alteration: subjected to weathering and cordierite porphyroblasts are nobbly schists and
diaphthoritic alteration, cordierite is progres- it occurs in cordierite-hornfels. Cordierite is also
sively replaced, starting from the edges and along present in regional-metamorphosed metapelites
fractures by a dense aggregate of sericite and/or of high grade (e.g. cordierite gneiss). It is also
common in granulites and charnockites, and can In hornfels together with biotite, muscovite,
be found in pegmatitic metatectites. quartz, plagioclase, andalusite, hypersthene and
garnet. In silica-undersaturated rocks together
Paragenesis: in magmatic and metatectites with
with corundum and spinel. In regionally meta-
quartz, K-feldspar, plagioclase, andalusite,
morphosed rocks together with sillimanite (as
sillimanite, biotite, garnet and hypersthene. In
fibrolitic inclusions in cordierite), garnet, biotite,
knobbly schist as newly formed blasts in a matrix
ilmenite and hercynite.
of quartz, biotite, sericite, chlorite and graphite.
4.16
Andalusite rhombic-dipyramidal phosed clay-rich sediments (metapelites). They
Sillimanite rhombic-dipyramidal are important metamorphic index minerals:
kyanite is indicative of higher pressures,
Kyanite triclinic-pinacoidal andalusite is stable at lower pressures but higher
General features: these three aluminum silicates temperatures and sillimanite occurs at higher
are almost exclusively restricted to metamor- pressures and temperatures.
4.16.1 Andalusite
Thin-section characteristics
Form: columnar parallel to the c-axis (Fig. 223),
nearly rectangular and square to longitudinal
and basal sections; acicular to fibrous, brush-like,
parallel fibrous, granular to skeletal, common in
aggregates; porphyroblasts can be densely
packed with quartz inclusions (sieve texture); in-
dividual crystals can form divergent, finger-like ...r;,/!..._..
arrangements. b
Cleavage: good on (llO), with the intersecting
angle at 89°, only visible in coarse crystals. Fig. 223 Crystal form
and optical characteristics
Twinning: rare along {lO1}. of andalusite.
Colour: colourless (as chiastolite), otherwise blue coloration; the orthopyroxenes have a (+)
pinkish colours with a patchy colour distribution elongation.
are common (Fe-content) or greenish (Mn-con-
Alteration: replaced by sericite if subjected to
tent); pleochroism is weak:
hydrothermal and diaphthoritic alteration (very
ex: pink, bright red, yellow
common in most crystals). With increasing pres-
~: colourless, pale yellow, greenish
sure it is replaced by kyanite.
y. colourless, pale yellow, greenish-yellow.
Occurrence: most common in metapelites in con-
Refraction and birefringence:
tact aureoles (e.g. knobbly schist of the outer
nu = 1.633 - 1.642
zone of contact aureoles) where it forms
n~ = 1.639 - 1.644
porphyroblasts; chiastolite can be common. In
ny = 1.644 - 1.650
the inner contact aureole it can occur together
8L1 = 0.009 - 0.012 with cordie rite in the hornfels facies. In regional
low-pressure metamorphosed areas (Abukuma-
Medium-high refraction (similar to apatite) type), andalusite can occur as porphyroblasts in
and low birefringence (grey to straw-yellow in- medium-grade andalusite mica schists; also in
terference colours of the 1st order); optically pegmatites.
biaxial 8. The greenish Mn-rich variety is called
Paragenesis: in knobbly schists as porphyroblasts
viridine; it shows clear pleochroism and is opti-
in a matrix of sericite and quartz. In hornfels
call y biaxial ffi. facies together with biotite, cordierite, quartz,
Optic axial angle: 2Va = 73°-86° (-84°). and occasionally pyroxene. In regionally meta-
morphosed rocks together with muscovite,
Character of elongation: in longitudinal sections
biotite, almandine, also sillimanite and kyanite or
(-).
staurolite and cordierite.
Extinction: tends to be straight parallel to the
prism sides and parallel to the {IlO} cleavage.
Basal sections show symmetric extinction.
Special characteristics: can have yellowish
pleochroic haloes around radioactive minerals
(zircon); commonly contains graphite inclusions
which can be symmetrically arranged forming a
weak cross (chiastolite variety; Figs 224, 225).
Distinguishing features: sillimanite has a (+)
elongation; kyanite shows oblique extinction and Fig. 224 Different chiastolite forms (symmetric ar·
has higher birefringence and also shows a patchy rangement of graphite).
4.16.2 Sillimanite
Thin-section characteristics
Medium-high refraction and birefringence (in-
Form: acicular, fibrous parallel to the c-axis (Figs terference colours of the upper 1st order to blue
226, 227), branching, hair-like, rarely columnar of the 2nd order; not recognizable in needles;
parallel to the c-axis; common as subparallel basal sections show grey to white interference
whirlpool-like fibrous swarms and strings in colours of the 1st order); optically biaxial ®.
quartz or cordie rite (Fig. 228). Brush-like aggre-
gates of fibrous sillimanite are called fibrolite Optic axial angle: 2Vy = 21 °_30° (in most cases it
(Fig. 229). Fibrolite can be kinked or bent. cannot be measured).
4.16.3 Kyanite
Thin-section characteristics Refraction and birefringence:
na = 1.710 - 1.718
Form: tabular, broad lath-shaped, stretched
n~ = 1.719 .: 1.724
along the c-axis (Fig. 231); in schists as broad
Ily = 1.724 - 1.734
prisms, rarely in radial arrangements. Kyanite
rich in fine dusty graphite inclusions is called 8~ = 0.012 - 0.016
rhaeticite. Can be crystallographically inter-
grown with staurolite; deformation-induced bent High refraction and relatively low birefringence
crystals have been observed. (orange-yellow interference colours of the 1st
order); optically biaxial 8.
Cleavage: perfect on (100) and excellent on (010)
(Fig. 232); along (001) characteristically frayed Optic axial angle: 2Va = 78°-83°.
parting.
Character of elongation: (+).
Twinning: simple on (100) and lamellar with
Extinction: always oblique: y/A, = 27°-32° on
[100] as twinning axis and nearly equal extinction
angle in both twin halves.
(100) and i Ac = 5°_8° (010); a/Aa = 0°_3° on
(001).
Colour: colourless to pale blue, sometimes with
Special characteristics: patchy blue, pleochroic
patchy blue weak pleochroism:
colour distribution. Porphyroblasts tend to con-
a: colourless
tain numerous inclusions of quartz and mica
~: pale purple-blue
(sieve texture). Crystallographic intergrowth
y: pale cobalt-blue.
with staurolite is possible (Part B, section 4.17).
Distinguishing features: hypersthene shows
straight extinction in longitudinal sections;
clinozoisite has anomalous interference colours;
sillimanite has a higher birefringence, but a lower
1.0 a n refraction and is optically EEl; andalusite has a
~'I~ 0 similar birefringence, but a much lower refrac-
11\ I I I j..........
..... b . tion and is distinct because of its patchy pink
colour distribution.
~~·a····· I(~ II Alteration: under progressive metamorphic con-
100 ,\ " Fig. 231 Crystal form
and optical characteristics ditions it is replaced by sillimanite; diaphthoritic
of kyanite. alteration leads to sericitization.
Occurrence: characteristic for medium- and high- Paragenesis: with staurolite, almandine, green
pressure mineral assemblages; porphyroblastic hornblende, biotite, muscovite, quartz and rutile.
(e.g. in kyanite-staurolite-mica schist, kyanite
gneiss and kyanite quartzite as well as in granu-
lite and eclogite).
4.17 Staurolite
monoclinic-prismatic (pseudo-rhombic)
General features: index mineral in medium- Optic axial angle: 2Vy = 80°-90°.
grade AI-rich rocks, often together with kyanite.
Character of elongation: (+).
Extinction: occurs mostly in bases and cuts
Thin-section characteristics
which are symmetrical.
Form: idiom orphic with short prismatic habit,
Special features: can show oriented intergrowth
stretched parallel to the c-axis with hexagonal
with kyanite, rarely muscovite; poikiloblastic
cross-section; common as interpenetrating twins
intergrowth with quartz is common (sieve tex-
(Fig. 233). Smaller crystals can form
ture; Fig. 234); rare inclusion of other minerals
glomerophyric-textured aggregates.
(rutile, tourmaline, garnet).
Cleavage: good on (010); in a thin section, spe-
Distinguishing features: orange-yellow pleo-
cially in small crystals, difficult to recognize.
chroism and sieve texture are distinctive. Brown
Twinning: interpenetrating twins on {023} or tourmaline is optically uniaxial 8 and has a
{232); under the microscope not readily recogniz- negative elongation; epidote is greenish-yellow
able (Fig. 233). and has a higher birefringence with anomalous
interference colours and is optically biaxial 8;
Colour: bright orange-yellow (Colour plate 15)
the same applies to orthite.
with clear pleochroism in longitudinal sections.
In basal sections weak or non-pleochroic: Alteration: with increasing metamorphic grade
a: colourless it is replaced by almandine and kyanite or
~: colourless, pale yellow, yellowish-brown almandine and sillimanite respectively. During
y. light yellow, orange-yellow, reddish-brown. retrograde alteration staurolite tends to be re-
placed by chlorite and sericite.
Refraction and birefringence:
na = 1.736 - 1.747 Occurrence: restricted to medium-grade
n~ = 1.742 - 1.753 metapelites, such as staurolite micaschists, garnet
nr = 1.748 - 1.761 micaschist, quartzite and metabauxite.
EBA = 0.011- 0.014 Paragenesis: with biotite, muscovite, kyanite,
next to quartz, albite, rutile, andalusite and
High refraction and relatively low birefringence almandine or sillimanite or tourmaline.
(orange-yellow interference colours of the 1st
order); optically biaxial 8.
,n7 :~ c
I 001 "
Fig. 233 Crystal form and optical characteristics and twin- Fig. 234 Poikiloblastic (sieve texture) in
ning in staurolite. twinned staurolite crystal.
154 Biaxial crystals
4.18 Wollastonite
triclinic-pinacoidal (pseudo-monoclinic), monoclinic-prismatic (para-
wollastonite)
4.19 Chloritoid
triclinic-pinacoidal (twinning can
produce pseudo-hexagonal symmetry)
hercynite. Retrograde chloritization and/or Paragenesis: with quartz, albite, sericite, chlorite,
weathering into kaolinitellimonite. biotite, almandine, rutile and also glaucophane,
never together with stilpnomelane. Can occur
Occurrence: typical mineral in Fe-AI-rich
with staurolite, kyanite and almandine.
metapelites of the greenschist facies (e.g.
chloritoid phyllites) and also in glaucophane
schists.
4.20.1 Zoisite
Ca 2(Al, Fe3+)AI2[OIOHISi04ISi2071 rhombic-bipyramidal
4.20.2 Epidote
Ca2Fe3+AI2[OIOHISi04ISi207] monoclinic-prismatic
4.20.3 Clinozoisite
Ca2AIAI2[OIOHISi04ISi207] monoclinic-prismatic
4.21 Pumpellyite
monoclinic-prismatic
General features: characteristic mineral of low- brown interference colours are common, normal
grade metamorphic rocks of basic volcanic interference colours are rare (straw-yellow of the
origin. 1st order to blue of the 2nd order); optically biax-
ial EB.
Thin-section characteristics Optic axial angle: varies strongly 2Vy = 7°-110°.
Form: lath-shaped parallel to the b-axis (Fig. 2V {Fe-poor variety = 10°.
y Fe-rich variety = 85°.
242), acicular or fibrous; generally in radiating,
divergent aggregates, rosettes or spherolites, also Character of elongation: not characteristic, ei-
in parallel or subparallel bundles. ther (+) or (-).
Cleavage: similar to zoisite, perfect on (100) and Extinction: oblique, depending on Fe 3+ content:
good on (001). A {in Fe-poor members = 4°.
Y c in Fe-rich members = 22°.
Twinning: common on (001) and (100).
Special characteristics: zonal growth; anomalous
Colour: colourless to blue-green, pleochroic; col-
interference colours are common; oak-Ieaf-
our intensity and pleochroism depend on Fe 3+
shaped intergrowth between pumpellyite and
content; colour zonation is common:
lawsonite on (010) together with epidote.
ex and y: colourless to pale yellowish
~: light green to blue-green. Distinguishing features: similar to clinozoisite
and epidote. Clinozoisite has a higher refraction
Refraction and birefringence:
and a lower birefringence; Fe-rich epidote is op-
n" = 1.665 - 1.710 tically biaxial 8; zoisite generally has a straight
n~ = 1.670 - 1.720
extinction, and so has lawsonite; the latter has
ny = 1.683 - 1.726
normal interference colours.
$~ = 0.010 - 0.020. Alteration: none.
Medium-high refraction and relatively low Occurrence: in metamorphic rocks of the
birefringence; anomalous blue and leather- greenschist facies, derived from basalts, diabase,
spilite and their pyroclastic equivalents. Also
stable at higher pressures, and stable in meta-
morphic rocks of the blueschist facies. Also fills
amygdaloidal basalt.
Paragenesis: in the pumpellyite-prehnite zone
with prehnite, chlorite, albite, quartz, calcite and
sphene. In the pumpellyite-chlorite zone with
Fig. 242 Crystal albite, chlorite, stilpnomelane, sericite, quartz,
form and optical calcite, sphene with/without actinolite. In the
characteristics of blueschist facies with lawsonite, glaucophane,
pumpellyite. crossite and epidote.
4.22 Lawsonite
rhombic-dipyramidal
General features: index mineral in metamorphic Cleavage: very good on (010), good on (100), not
rocks of the blueschist facies. perfect on (lOl): cleavage trace intersection of
67°.
Thin-section characteristics Twinning: polysynthetic on {lOll; parquet-floor-
like patterns are possible with undulatory
Form: commonly idiom orphic crystals, with a
extinction.
platy habit, stretched along the c-axis (Fig. 243),
commonly in lath-shaped sections.
Anhydrite 161
4.23 Anhydrite
rhombic-dipyramidal
Distinguishing features: gypsum does not have Occurrence: rock-forming in NaCI accumula-
such good cleavage and has low refraction and tions; accompanying mineral in chloritic
birefringence. evaporites, diagenetically formed from gypsum.
Rare in amygdales in volcanic basalts together
Alteration: with the addition of water, there is a
with quartz, chlorite, prehenite and zeolite.
volume increase of up to 60% and progressive
replacement by gypsum, starting from the cleav- Paragenesis: with gypsum, rock-salt, illite, talc,
age planes. quartz and calcite.
4.24 Gypsum
CaSO 4' 2HzO monoclinic-prismatic
Form: platy on {OlD} (Fig. 244(b)) to coarse Optic axial angle: 2Vy = 58° (at 19°C), tempera-
prismatic or acicular along the c-axis (Fig. 246); ture sensitive, decreasing with increasing
also as fine scaly aggregates, fine grains, dense or temperature.
sphaerolitic.
Character of elongation: untypical, (+) or (-).
Cleavage: very good on (010), good on (100) and
lOll}. Extinction: tends to be oblique, aAa = 15°; there
is marked dispersion of the extinction on (010);
Twinning: swallow-tail twins on (100) are com- in sections parallel to the b-axis straight extinc-
mon, twins on (001) are rare. tion occurs.
Colour: colourless.
Special characteristics: during the preparation of
Refraction and birefringence: thin sections, involving heating of the rock chip,
na = 1.519 - 1.521 polysynthetic twins can form on (100), which can
n~ = 1.523 - 1.526 be bent.
ny = 1.529 - 1.531
Distinguishing features: anhydrite has
EB~ = 0.010
pseudocubic cleavage and straight extinction,
Low refraction and birefringence (grey to white higher refraction and birefringence; with fine-
interference colours of the 1st order, similar to grained aggregates gypsum can be mistaken for
K-feldspar); optically biaxial EB. chalcedony, but the latter is optically uniaxial EB.
Aragonite 163
Alteration: diagenetic alteration into anhydrite; cretions in clay-rich rocks, and in areas of inter-
during heating (e.g. during thin-section prepara- action between fumeroles and basic volcanic
tion) there is water loss and transition into rocks.
bassanite (CaS0 4 ·tH20).
Paragenesis: with anhydrite, halite, clay miner-
Occurrence: rock-forming in rock-salt sequences. als, calcite and other carbonate minerals, and
Gypsum also occurs in sedimentary rocks, as con- quartz.
4.25 Aragonite
rhombic-dipyramidal
4.26 Barite
rhombic-dipyramidal
Thin-section characteristics
Form: tends to occur in flaky or radiating ag-
gregates; granular, dense, fibrous, and also
idiomorphic in long prisms or in plates (Fig. 249).
Cleavage: perfect on (001), good on (110) and
(010).
Twinning: polysynthetic interpenetrating on
{110}. Fig. 249 Crystal form and optical characteristics of
barite.
Colour: colourless.
Refraction and birefringence:
na = 1.636 - 1.637
n~ = 1.637 - 1.639 Special characteristics: in flaky aggregates they
ny = 1.647 - 1.649 can be kinked and crenulated.
Efl~ = 0.011 - 0.012 Distinguishing features: replaced by Si0 2
low and carbonate; chalcedony forms pseudomorphs
Medium refraction and relatively
after it.
birefringence (orange-yellow interference col- ,
ours of the 1st order); optically biaxial Efl. Occurrence: forms veins in many hydrothermal
deposits together with or without sulphides, and
Optic axial angle: 2Vy = 36°-38°. also forms concretions in sandstones (e.g. as
Character of elongation: (+). desert roses).
Extinction: straight in the direction of the (001) Paragenesis: with different sulphides, quartz and
cleavage trace, symmetrical in basal sections. celestite.
Goethite 165
4.27 Goethite
FeOOH rhombic-dipyramidal
General features: crystalline hydroxide iron Special characteristics: because of its strong dis-
minerals are called goethite and lepidocrocite; persion, goethite is optically uniaxial 8, when A=
the cryptocrystalline form is limonite (Part B, 605-620nm.
section 2.10.1).
Distinguishing features: haematite is optically
uniaxial 8 and has predominantly red-brown ab-
Thin-section characteristics sorption colours; lepidocrocite, which is very
similar to haematite, is more platy in habit and
Form: acicular parallel to the c-axis; radiating
together with goethite it tends to be idiomorphic.
fibres, divergent acicular, flaky, oolitic, earthy
Similar to brookite.
(Fig. 251).
Alteration: none.
Cleavage: good on (010).
Occurrence: a weathering product of Fe-rich
Colour: bright yellow, brown and brownish-
minerals and rocks; a component of soils. Forms
orange, not strongly pleochroic:
concentric aggregates filling cavities and veins.
ex: bright yellow or brown
Occurs in fossilized marine iron ore deposits
~: yellow-brown
(minette, residual ore) as iron oolites. Dense
y: orange or olive-coloured.
masses of goethite and lepidocrocite are called
Refraction and birefringence: limonite.
Pure H 20-rich
Paragenesis: with lepidocrocite and hematite.
na = 2.275 - 2.15
n~ = 2.409 - 2.22
ny = 2.415 - 2.23
8A = 0.140 - 0.08
4.28 Prehnite
rhombic-pyramidal
100
Extinction and special characteristics: straight certain gabbroic rocks, granodiorite, and in
parquet-floor pattern; microcline-like with amygdales. In basic and basalt-derived rocks in
anomalous interference colours and incomplete the greenschist and zeolite facies as low-
extinction. temperature replacement of anorthite in
plagioclase (e.g. in actinolite schist, prasinite,
Distinguishing features: lawsonite has a lower
metabasalt, etc.). During high-pressure meta-
birefringence, higher axial angle and normal in-
morphism prehnite reacts to lawsonite. Prehnite
terference colours; thomsonite and other zeolites
also occurs in certain calc-silicate rocks.
have a lower refraction and birefringence;
chondrodite shows a pale gold-yellow pleo- Paragenesis: in magmatites together with
chroism and lamellar twinning. epidote, albite, quartz and calcite. In regionally
metamorphosed rocks together with zoisite,
Alteration: none.
clinozoisite, pumpellyite, albite and actinolite;
Occurrence: hydrothermal replacement of and in contact-metamorphic rocks together with
plagioclase, in particular in spilites, diabase and zoisite, grossularite, axinite and albite.
their pyroclastic derivatives; can also occur in
Part C Appendices
Appendix 1 Tables for the microscopic identification of
rock-forming minerals
Table 6 Refraction plotted against birefringence of rock-forming minerals
MgFe-chlorite Barite
+ Topaz
1.60 to 1.65
Fe(II)-chlorite Andalusite
FeMg-chlorite Wollastonite
-
1.70 to 1.80
Corundum Chloritoid Kyanite Hastingsite
- Vesuvianite Hypersthene (disthene)
>1.80
-
Tables for the microscopic identification of rock-forming minerals 171
Optical Refraction
character
+
<1.55
Cancrinite
Anhydrite
+
1.55 to 1.60
Lepidolite Mejonite
Talc -
Zinnwaldite
Anhydrite
+
1.60 to 1.65
Glauconite Glauconite Muscovite
Celadonite Phengite
-
Phlogopite
Celadonite
Forsterite
Prehnite +
1.65 to 1.70
Titanbiotite Biotite s.s. Aragonite
Tourmaline Calcite -
Dolomite
Table 7(a) Opaque and nearly opaque minerals (important minerals are shown in bold)
skeletal leucoxene-forming; anisotropic effect in almost all magmatic rocks, in high-grade metamorphic
~ optically uniaxial e rocks, in sediments and sedimentary rocks; magnetite
pseudomorphs after magnetite are common; postmagmatic in igneous rocks, in low- to medium-grade
red coloration in different rock types, metamorphic rocks, in sedimentary rocks
optically uniaxial e
weathers easily; in transmitted light difficult to postmagmatic in igneous rocks, in metamorphic schists,
identify in bituminous limestones and in black shales
in transmitted light difficult to identify in mafic to ultramafic plutonic rocks, rarely in equivalent
volcanic rocks; magnetite, ilmenite, olivine, ortho- and
clinopyroxene, plagioclase
black pigment in many sedimentary rocks in coals, sediments with organic components and low-
grade metamorphic rocks; quartz, calcite, clay minerals
small grains appear almost opaque in mafic and ultramafic magmatic rocks; olivine,
serpentine, titanaugite
for optical data and characteristics see in felsic, Na-rich magmatic rocks; aegirine-augite,
Table 7(d) arfvedsonite or riebeckite, anorthoclase, nepheline
174 Appendix 1
Table 7(b) Isotropic minerals with higher refraction (n > 1.7) (important minerals are shown in bold)
2.1 Perovskite octahedral, good on (1 OOj, simple and violet-grey, dark 2.30-2.38
cubic, rarely lamellar, rarely brown,
skeletal recognizable recognizable yellowish,
greenish,
35 ps.-cub. colourless
.
Co
:J Hercynite simple, rarely deep green, 1.78-1.80
0 recognizable emerald green
C)
Qi
c Picotite granular yellowish, 2.00
'a
If) brownish
.
-;
c
(\I
Andradite greenish,
brownish
1.85-1.89
can show zonal colour distribution; paramorphic in silica-undersaturated Ca-rich magmatic rocks,
with anomalous birefringence; very small grains predominantly in melilite-bearing volcanic rocks, alnoites and
appear opaque kimberlites; melilite, nepheline, sodalite group, also leucite,
magnetite but never ilmenite
hercynite can be zoned (dark core) in ultramafic Ti-rich plutonic rocks and cordierite-sillimanite
gneisses
minute inclusions in olivine or serpentine in olivine aggregates and in serpentinite, alkali basalts;
olivine, serpentine
small grains appear opaque in mafic to ultramafic magmatic rocks; olivine, serpentine,
titanaugite
sieve texture and heliocentric inclusion spirals in low- to high-grade metamorphic rocks, rare in magmatites;
biotite, muscovite, quartz, chlorite, hornblende
in chromite-rich rocks
Table 7{b) Optically isotropic minerals, rock-glass and cryptocrystalline phases with generally low refraction
(n < 1.51)
2.6.3
"
0
CI)
Hauyne
microscope
light blue, 1.496-1.508
purple-blue,
43 cub. blue-green
2.10.2
'"
'Iii
.c Opal amorphous, irregular colourless, 1.44-1.46
::J
I/) colloidal forms fractures yellowish,
49 I/)
::J reddish
0
J::
weakly birefringent around inclusions in Na-rich silica-undersaturated volcanic and plutonic rocks;
nepheline, leucite, aegirine-augite, melanite, olivine, titanaugite,
glass. Never together with quartz.
almost always dark rims, opaque streaks and predominantly in volcanic rocks, such as phonolites, tephrites,
clusters, zonar and irregular colour foids, rarely plutonic rocks; nepheline, leucite, sanidine,
distribution; locally as fine-grained inclusions plagioclase, aegirine-augite, melanite, olivine, titanaugite,
rock-glass
weak anomalous birefringence (similar to as interstitial mineral in cavities in basalts and other basic
leucite); optically uniaxial 8 volcanic rocks, in zeolite facies; nepheline, leucite, olivine,
titanaugite and heulandite, desmine, laumontite
zonar and patchy colour distribution in hydrothermal veins, in sandstone and biogenic dolomite, rare
in Li-granite, greisen, pegmatites; topaz, tourmaline, quartz,
hematite
rarely weak birefringence; when dendritic in almost all weathered and altered rocks found as pigment
-7 opaque
commonly altered into low-cristobalite or in volcanic rocks forming crusts, in pores and cavities in acidic
chalcedony (shrinkage cracks and to basic volcanic rocks; tridymite, zeolite
anomalous birefringence)
inclusions surrounded by anomalous in volcanic rocks and in subsurface parts of dykes and sills;
birefringence colours; fluidal texture, parageneses are diverse (see Part S, section 2.10.3)
contraction fractures (ball to onion-shaped),
radial devitrification textures
178 Appendix 1
Table 7(c) Optically uniaxial minerals (important minerals are printed in bold)
No.1 Mineral Form and habit Cleavage Twinning Colour Pleochroism Opt.
Page ch.
3.1.1 Rutile idiomorphic, perfect on (110) 'knee' twins yellowish to red- generally not (jJ
columnar, and good on brown recognizable
acicular, (100)
54 tetr. granular
3.1.2 Cassiterite granular, good on (100) cyclically grey, yellowish, very weak (jJ
columnar, repeated 'knee' reddish, brownish
acicular, twins
55 tetr. idiomorphic
3.1.3 Zircon rounded poor on (110) not colourless, pale rare, very weak (jJ
grains; short- recognizable brownish,
to long- greenish, pink
prismatic
56 tetr.
3.1.4 Xenotime short columns, good on (110) rare colourless, rare, very weak (jJ
granular yellowish,
57 tetr. greenish, reddish
(+) 2.605-2.901 0.296 needle-like crystals appear black; grid-like accessory in many metamorphic rocks (e.g.
network (sagenite); can cause radioactive amphibolite), rare in magmatic rocks, secondary in
haloes; also anomalously biaxial $ biotite; in metamorphic rocks: kyanite, cordierite,
corundum, spinel, biotite, quartz
(+) 1.990-2.100 0.098 zonar to patchy or stripy colour in greisen and contact skarn, rare in granites, in
distribution, causes pleochroic haloes; pegmatitic-pneumatolytic ore deposits; quartz,
also anomalously biaxial $ Li-mica, K-feldspar, tourmaline, topaz, fluorite,
rutile
(+) 1.922-2.015 0.065 black rim caused by refraction; zonar and common in acidic, rare in basaltic rocks, frequently
rich in inclusions; causes radioactive found in nepheline syenites and related pegmatites,
haloes, sometimes anomalously biaxial, in sedimentary rocks and granular in metamorphic
metamict --> isotropic malacon rocks; quartz, K-feldspar, biotite, hornblende or
nepheline, apatite, biotite, K-feldspar
(+) 1.720-1.827 0.107 extremely high birefringence (typically in felsic plutonic rocks, orthogneisses, sands and
masked by its own colour); causes sandstones; brown zircon, ilmenite, rutile,
pleochroic haloes cassiterite
(-) 1.631-1.639 0.008 anomalous interference colours in extreme strongly silica-undersaturated volcanic
(lavender-blue or leather colours) are rocks, very rare in plutonic and contact
common metamorphic rocks (e.g. gehlenite), in slags of blast
furnaces; nepheline, leucite, perovskite, pyroxene,
(+) 1.658-1.669 0.011 central dividing line with rod-like structure olivine, never together with quartz. For other
parageneses see Part B, section 3.1.5
(+) 1.5442-1.5533 0.0091 always fresh and unaltered, often in acidic to intermediate magmatic rocks, in
anomalously biaxial $ with undulatory sedimentary and metamorphic rocks, never
extinction, often corroded (with 'bays' and together with foid minerals; microcline, albite,
'hollows') biotite, green hornblende, sphene or K-feldspar,
plagioclase, hornblende and rock-glass.
(-) 1.530-1 .543 0.010 commonly anomalously biaxial $, in fractures and amygdules of volcanic rocks, as a
(+) quartzine with Mz (+) mineral of pseudo morphosis and silification; opal,
zeolites
1.478-1.490 0.005 cubed zeolite mostly showing subgrains; in fractures and cavities of mafic volcanic and also
often anomalously biaxial $ plutonic rocks; other zeolites, calcite, analcite
180 Appendix 1
Table 7c Continued
3.2.4 Vesuvianite short columnar, not good on colourless, very rare weak 8
granular, (100) yellowish, (!)
acicular, greenish,
71 tetr. spherulitic brownish
(-) 2.488-2.561 0.073 sometimes zoned or patchy colour in sediments and sedimentary rocks, in many
distribution; rarely anomalously biaxial e weathered rocks
1.486-1.658 0.172 chagrin changes according to orientation in sedimentary rocks (specially in carbonates), in
of section; in metamorphic rocks tends to metamorphic rocks, in cavities in volcanic rocks, in
be anomalously biaxial e ore deposits
1 .500-1 .703 0.185 always idiomorphic, coarser lamellae same as for calcite and as porphyroblasts in talc
than in calcite and chlorite schist
1 .633-1.875 0.242 highest relief and birefringence in as gangue in ore body, as ore in metasomatic and
carbonates; strongly developed 'pseudo- hydrothermal deposits
dichroism'
(-) 1.760-1.772 0.009 zonar or patchy colour distribution with in AI-rich and silica-poor contact-metamorphic
pleochroism, occasionally anomalously rocks; in regional metamorphic schist; in emery; as
biaxiale xenolithic inclusions in magmatic rocks; for
paragenesis see Part S, section 3.2.3
(+) 1.701-1.738 0.006 zonar or patchy colour distribution, in contact-metamorphic and in impure regional
(-) anomalous lavender-blue or leather- metamorphic marbles; fassaite, calcite,
brown interference colours; hour-glass grossularite, wollastonite, epidote, sphene, spinel
texture; often anomalously biaxial e
(-) 1.635-1.671 0.035 frequently zonar colour change; in pegmatites and metamorphic rocks, as
radioactive haloes around zircon; rarely pneumatolytic formation in tourmaline granite;
anomalously biaxial topaz, beryl, Li-mica, cassiterite, fluorite,
spodumene, apatite
(-) 1.631-1.667 0.005 mostly idiomorphic; zonar colours change accessory mineral in almost all magmatic rocks,
due to oriented inclusions; sometimes in pegmatites, sedimentary rocks, phosphorites
anomalously biaxial e and metamorphic rocks
182 Appendix 1
Table 7c Continued
3.2.7 Beryl short to long not good, often colourless, pale rare, weak e
columnar, not visible blue, pale green
74 hex. granular
76 tetr.
3.2.10 Apophyllite platy, granular, very good on very good colourless <:9
78 tetr. tabular (001) e
3.2.11 Cancrinite short columnar clear along colourless, pale e
to fibrous {1010} yellow
78 hex.
Tables for the microscopic identification of rock-forming minerals 183
(-) 1.565-1.610 0.009 commonly anomalously biaxial 8 in granite pegmatites, very rare in regional
metamorphic schists; quartz, tourmaline, topaz, Li-
mica, cassiterite
H 1.526-1.546 0.005 cloudy appearance; can show subgrains; in silica-undersaturated alkali magmatic rocks;
can be anomalously biaxial 8; in cross- leucite, sodalite group, aegirine-augite, melanite,
section rectangular cleavage melilite, olivine, titanaugite, titanbiotite, apatite.
Never together with quartz.
(-) 1.531-1.600 fluid and mineral inclusions are common in some granites, nepheline-syenites and
Marialite 0.005 associated pegmatites, in trachytes, contact
Mejonite 0.038 metamorphic siliceous limestones and ejected
volcanic blocks; for parageneses see Part B,
section 3.2.9
(+) 1.5345-1.5445 0.002 often anomalously biaxial Ell; anomalous in fractures and amygdules in basic volcanic rocks;
H subgrain formation calcite, zeolite
H 1.4885-1.524 0.026 sometimes anomalously biaxial very rare in nepheline syenites instead of
nepheline; nepheline, sodalite group, sanidine,
aegirine-augite, melanite, calcite
184 Appendix 1
No.1 Mineral Form and Cleavage Twinning Colour Pleochroism Opt Main
Page habit ch. zone
4.1 ... Forsterite to hexagonal to not good rare simple colourless, rare very weak e (+)
"2 !eyente octahedral crystal ('curved' twins; also as pale yellow or (!ayalite)
:~
0
79 rhomb. e H
4.2.1 Enstatite colourless e
rare, knee-
rhomb.
.... shaped and
star-shaped
r---
.
c
2
Bronzite
short columns,
rhomb. hypidiomorphic to
columnar twins
pale green e
e
(+)
H
~ very good along very weak to
.c
0 xenomorphic, {210}, less good weak r---
t: Hypersthene granular along (100) pale green, e
0 reddish, pale
brown
81 rhomb.
short columns,
86 monocl. lath-shaped, weak, hardly
granular noticeable
4.2.2.2 Augite group often lamellar, pale grey
~
'j§ interpenetrating green, pale
.e.. twins or star brown e
c twins
87 ~ monocl.
2
4.2.2.3 ~ Tltaneuglte short to long simple or brownish, clearly
..
columns, platy lamellar purple, visible
brownish-
c yellow
~ good along
88
,.,...2 monocl. {IIO} and
(01 O); cleavage
4.2.2.4 0 Pigeonite xenomorphic often lamellar colourless, pale very weak
.5 angle of 87°
i3 granular, rarely pink, greenish,
long brownish
90 monocl. columns
4.2.2.6 Jadeite granular, platy, rare as fine colourless, pale very weak
acicular, matted lamellae green
92 monocl.
e
4.2.2.7 Omphacite granular, rarely rare lamellar colourless, pale very weak
columnar green
93 monocl.
Tables for the microscopic identification of rock-forming minerals 185
Refraction Max. a Extinction angle Axial angle 2V Special diagnostic features Occurrence; paragenesis
(n)
1.635-1.670 0.035 0' 84'-90' corrosion and alteration are common; in basic to ultrabasic magmatic
zonar growth mostly invisible picotite rocks, also in quartz-bearing
and chromite inclusions occur magmatites, in serpentinites and
in forsterite-marble;
titanaugite, plagioclase,
foids or chromite, picotite, opx,
1.827-1.879 0.052 90'-50' cpx, serpentine
1.650-1.658 0.008 0' 54'-83' zoning in volcanic rocks with Mg-rich in basic to ultrabasic rocks,
core; in plutonic rocks often with rare in acidic plutonic rocks;
exsolution lamellae; alteration into cpx, olivine, spinel or cpx,
serpentine olivine, plagioclase
97'-63'
1.664-1.755 0.030 38'-48' 50'-62' exsolution lamellae of opx. (diallage) in alkali basalts, tholeiitic
r Ac are common; alteration into uralite basalts, dunites and
and serpentine kimberlites, siliceous
limestones and skarns; augite,
pigeonite, plagioclase, olivine,
foids, etc. (see Part B, section
4.2.2.1)
1.671-1.774 0.033 35'-48' 25'-61' zonar or sectional colour change; in calcalkaline and tholeiitic
r Ac partly irregular extinction; alteration magmatites, in siliceous
into uralite (amphibole), chlorite, limestones instead of diopside;
seladonite, epidote, talc olivine, hypersthene, diopside,
plagioclase, hornblende, biotite
1.695-1.762 0.033 32'-55' 42'-65' well-developed zonar or hourglass only in Ti-rich magmatic rocks
r Ac texture; in extinction position of the alkali series; olivine,
anomalous brown to blue-grey cpx, plagioclase, nepheline,
interference colours sodalite group, leucite,
aegirine-augite
1.682-1.751 0.029 37'-44' 0'_30' matrix pyroxene, often difficult to in basic to intermediate
r Ac recognize volcanic rocks; cpx,
plagioclase, olivine
1.700-1.813 0.050 55'-85' 60'-90' often strong zonar growth; hourglass in alkali rocks; nepheline,
r Ac 90'-60' texture; in extinction position sodalite group, leucite,
anomalous brown to grey-blue sanidine, melanite
interference colours
1.640-1.692 0.021 32'-55' 60'--96' shear-induced undulatory extinction in glaucophane rocks and
r Ac jadeite-quartzites;
glaucophane, lawsonite,
epidote, pumpellyite, etc. (see
also Part B, section 4.2.2.6)
1.662-1.723 0.028 34'-48' 56'-84' cellular exsolution during diaphthorttic only in eclogites; garnet,
r Ac alteration; continuously together smaragdite, kyanite, zoisite,
with rutile rutile
186 Appendix 1
Table 7d Continued
No.! Mineral Form and Cleavage Twinning Colour Pleochroism Opt Main
Page habit I ch. zone
.
II
.!
II
~
"0
c Actinolite pale-green very weak
~
smaragdite pale green to noticeable
97 yellow-green
.
."
c
intersection
of 124'
brown
<
4.3.4 Glaucophane e (+)
long columnar.
rarely acicular. very rare blue to purple strong -
Crossite fibrous or platy e (+)
.!! (-)
...
102
0
...E
:2 $
..
4.3.5 Arfvedsonite (-)
Riebeckite ® (-)
103
Tables for the microscopic identification of rock-forming minerals 187
Refraction Max. t. Extinction angle Axial angle 2V Special diagnostic features Occurrence; paragenesis
(n)
1.650-1.796 0.094 0'_12' 56'--88' tends to be opacitized; variable in acidic to intermediary volcanic
rAc refraction and birefringence in a single rocks; plagioclase, biotite,
crystal; radioactive haloes; orthopyroxene, clinopyroxene,
opacitization, corrosion rock-glass
1.595-1.652 0.025 5'_7' 0'_50' zonar; strong absorption colours in glaucophane-schist and
rAc and strong pleochroism ranging eclogite; jadeite, lawsonite,
from blue to purple are very zoisite, clinozoisite, rutile,
1.630-1.680 0.020 5'_9' 0'-90' characteristic pumpellyite, almandine, also
~Ac garnet, omphacite, rutile, epidote
1.623-1.710 0.012 65'--80' 0'-100' poikilitic throughgrowth (sieve texture); in Na-syenite and associated
~Ac strong anomalous interference colours pegmatites; nepheline syenite,
pantellerite and comendite;
aegirine-augite, alkali feldspar,
also anorthoclase, nepheline,
sodalite, katophorite, riebeckite
1.650-1.717 0.Q16 3'_15' 40'-100' strong anomalous interference colours same as arfvedsonite; also in
aAc Na-rich acidic magmatic rocks
188 Appendix 1
Table 7d Continued
No.1 Mineral Form and Cleavage Twinning Colour Pleochroism Opt Main
Page habit ch. zone
105
"0
0
c:
4.4.2 0 Phengite colourless,
E
rarely pale
green
107
107
I., rarely pale pink
S
4.4.3.2 '"
0
Zinnwaldite
platy, flaky, scaly,
columnar
perfect on
(001), kinking
not visible
under the colourless to weak
~ due to microscope brown-grey
107 deformation
..
II
;:
108 :l
4.4.4.2 IIII
Biotite strong brown or
green
very strong
...
e
::I
.'"
.!!
:;
109
111
111
Refraction Max. ~ Extinction angle Axial angle 2V Special diagnostic features Occurrence; paragenesis
(n)
1.599-1.695 0.044 5°_38" weathered grains are bleached; in Na-rich, Ti-rich magmatiC
pleochroic haloes around zircon rocks; nepheline, nosean, Na-
sanidine, kaersutite,
aegirine-augite, apatite
1.592-1.644 0.032 2°_3° 0°_20° never as oolite (contrary to chamosite) in green sands and green
yAa sandstones, sometimes in
limestones and marbles;
quartz, calcite, pyrite
1.539-1.596 0.050 0° 0°_30° can be distinguished from sericite in talcschist and talc-rich mafic
only by X-ray analysis rocks; tremolite, clinochlore,
quartz, antigorite or actinolite,
clinochore, quartz, antigorite
190 Appendix 1
Table 7d Continued
No.1 Mineral Form and Cleavage Twinning Colour Pleochroism Opt. Main
Page habit ch. zone
13
0
c MgFe'·-Fe'·Mg- pale green weak Ej) (-)
0
E
~ chlorite thin to thick very good along lamellar, only e (+)
0 plates, flaky, (001) sometimes
:E
"0
.s:
scaly, fibrous,
dense, matted
visible
in Mg-chlorite
1:
0 Fe'·-chlorite dark olive to good e (+)
brown-green
Q.
::I
E!
'"
.!!
115 "§
:E
(,)
4.8.2 Delessite oolitic
~0 Chamosite cannot be distinguished from orthochlorites by polarizing microscopy alone.
:E Thuringite (see Fe" chlorite (orthochlorite))
"Q.
.2
118
"
oJ
"'"c
E
"~ Lizardite fine-scaly fibrous perfect on (001) e (+)
"
In
119
4.10.1.1 Sanidine
125 monoel.
.'"
I!?
Q.
126 ." monael. thin to thick very good on
:!1 plates, lath- (001), good on r--
4.10.1.3 Q.
Anorthoclase shaped, (010), cleavage microscopic to
E! ~
::I
hypidiomorphic to angle approx. submicroscopic colourless ©
126 .
m
Q.
."
monocl .
granular
-
4.10.1.4
&! Microcline grid-twinning e
127 tricl.
-
..."
4.10.2 Albite thin to thick platy, very good on commonly as Ej)
Oligoclase lath-shaped, (001), good on polysynthetic or
u Andesine granular (010), angle of twins e
0 Labradorite cleavage sets
';;,
Bytownite
c::'"
approx.86"
Anorthite
129 tricl.
Tables for the microscopic identification of rock-forming minerals 191
Refraction Max.!!. Extinction angle Axial angle 2V Special diagnostic features Occurrence; paragenesis
(n)
1.562-1.606 0.012 00_5 0 anomalous blue interference colours in ultrabasic rocks, palaeo·
00_300 (pennine); normal interference rhyolites and acidic plutonic
colours (clinochlore) rocks; olivine, serpentine,
pyroxene or quartz, orthoclase,
microcline, biotite, brown or
green hornblende
delessite in amygdules, in
fractures and in the matrix of
intermediary to basic
volcanic rocks, otherwise
similar to MgFe-chlorite;
orthochlorite, calcite, zeolite,
quartz
1.532-1.561 0.013 100-90 0 forms from olivine in mesh texture; in hydrothermally altered
1.538-1.567 0.008 30 0-350 asbestos-forming in fractures ultrabasic and basic rocks; in
00 greenschist facies (stress-free
diaphthoresis); for paragenesis
see antigorite
1.518-1.532 0.007 60 0-650 platy laths with twinning after in young volcanic rocks; quartz,
(00) Carlsbad law plag., biotite, hbl, opx, cpx,
rock-glass or nepheline,
sodalite group, aegirine-augite,
titanbiotite
1.522-1.535 0.008 1100-900 microcline-like twinning; rare zonar in Na-rich volcanic and
600-840 growth (similar to plagioclase) subvolcanic rocks; aegirine-
augite, aenigmatite,
artvedsonite, rock-glass, foids
or quartz
1.527-1.539 0.007 500-105 0 size of axial angle and anorthite in almost all magmatic and
content dependent on conditions of metamorphic rocks, in arkoses
formation: zonar growth is typically and greywacke; orthoclase,
resorbed and corroded, commonly microcline, quartz, biotite,
altered hornblende, orthopyroxene,
clinopyroxene or olivine,
1.575-1.588 0.013 titanaugite, glass, foids
192 Appendix 1
Table 7d Continued
No.1 Mineral Form and Cleavage Twinning Colour Pleochroism Opt Main
Page habit ch. zone
135 rhomb.
Q,
:J
4.11.1.2 2 Mesolite fibrous not distinct colourless Ell
136 '"
~ monocl.
e1i
4.11.1.3 z Thomsonite radially or perfect sometimes Ell (±)
randomly simple
~ oriented fibres,
136
4.11.1.4
.
~
:J
Scolecite
rhomb. columnar, flaky
138 Q,
:J
rhomb.
2
4.11.1.6 '" Laumontite radial, columnar, sometimes e
.
(+)
~ spherolitic simple
"20
:I
138 monocl.
139 .. 2
'" monocl.
~ I
. 1
'0
4.11.2.2 I!I Stilbite radial, fibrous interpentrating e (±)
(desmine) to bundled twins are
~
...
ii: c
aggregates, rare common
..
140 .!! monocl. platy
:J
Q,
:J
142
.. 2
'"
.!! monocl.
thick columnar,
mostly as
clear interpenetrating
twins or
!
~
4.11.3.2 ~ :E Harmotome
interpenetrating
twins
interpenetrating
quadruplets Ell (±)
....2
:J
a..
U
143 monocl. colourless
Refraction Max. A Extinction angle Axial angle 2V Special diagnostic features Occurrence; paragenesis
1.486-1.487 0.001 very small weakly birefringent subgrains; in cavities and as interstitial
pseudocubic habit (see Part B, material in volcanic rocks;
section 2.7) heulandite, stilbite,
laumontite
1.473-1.50t 0.Ot2 0° 58°-64° pseudomorphs after plagioclase and in cavities and fractures in
foids are common; sometimes in the basic to intermediary
form of 'ice flowers' magmatic rocks; nepheline,
Na-sanidine, heulandite,
stilbite, analCite, calcite,
laumontite, scolecite,
thomsonite
1.505-1.506 0.001 2°-5° 80° isotypic with natrolite and scolecite in cavities in basic flows, (e.g.
~AC phonolites, basalts); zeolite,
chalcedony, calcite
1.502-1.525 0.012 8°_11° 33°-4]0 extinction angle dependent on the in cavities and in fractures in
r Ac degree of water loss acidic to basic magmatic
rocks, in metatuffs and
metagreywackes in the zeolite
facies; zeolite, apophyllite,
albite, quartz, calCite, prehnite,
datolite, chlorite, epidote
1.496-1.505 0.006 0°-32° 0°-50° conoscopic images in sections parallel in cavities and in fractures in
~AC to (010) show crossed dispersion basic to acidic volcanic
rocks, as devitrification product,
in sedimentary rocks and in
the zeolite facies; laumontite,
analcite, quartz, stilbite
1.486-1.509 0.011 3°_12° 30°-49° twins with subdivisions in grains in cavities and fractures in
uAc basic to acidic volcanic
rocks; heulandite, laumontite,
calcite, quartz, clay minerals
1.502-1.519 0.014 10° 44° high birefringence compared to other in hydrothermal amygdules in
r Ac zeolites basalts and andesites; stilbite,
mordenite, heulandite,
chabazite, laumontite, scolecite
1.483-1.514 0.010 11°-30° 60°-80° interpenetrating twins result in in cavities and fractures in
r Ac pseudorhombic or pseudocubic basic volcanic rocks, in
symmetry nepheline syenite, as alteration
product of rock-glass;
analCite, natrolite, thomsonite,
chabazite, chalcedony, calcite
1.503-1.514 0.008 28°-32° 79° heating during thin-section making in cavities in basic volcanic
(..... 82°) (..... 32°) changes the optical characteristics rocks, in veins in plutonic
~AC rocks; hyalophane,
laumontite, natrolite, calcite
Table 7d Continued
No.1 Mineral Form and Cleavage Twinning Colour Pleochroism Opt Main
Page habit ch. zone
4.12 Aenigmatite columnar to good, polysynthetic dark brown to strong in very Ell
(cossyrite) acicular intersection twinning opaque thin sections
angle 66 0
143 tricl.
144 monael.
4.15 Cordierite short columnar, poor, not visible simple lamellar, colourless, in weak @
xenomorphic, under the interpenetrating thick thin
granular microscope and contact sections bluish
twins to purple
146 rhomb.
148 rhomb.
CL
4.16.2
"
I!
Sillimanite acicular, fibrous,
hair-like, brush-
pertect on (010) colourless, rarely
brownish
weak Ell (+)
4.16.3 Kyanite tabular, lath- good on (100), simple or colourless, pale sometimes e (+)
shaped, rarely very good on lamellar bluish, pale patchy blue
radial (OtO) purple, blue
152 tricl.
4.17 Staurolite wide lath-shaped, clear on (010), interpenetrating yellowish, clear in Ell (+)
tabular often not visible twins orange, longitudinal also
brownish to sections e
orange
153 rhomb.
154 tricl.
4.19 Chloritoid platy, angular, pertect on simple and colourless, strong © (-)
spherical (001), good on multiple twins greenish,
(110) grey-blue
155 tricl.
Tables for the microscopic identification of rock-forming minerals 195
Refraction Max. '" Extinction angle Axial angle 2V Special diagnostic features Occurrence; paragenesis
(n)
1.81-1.88 0.07 4° parallel (100) 27°-55° homoaxial intergrowths with in felsic, Na-rich magmatic
45° parallel (010) arfvedsonite are common; black to rocks; aegirine-augite,
yAc smoky haloes around orthite inclusions arfvedsonite or riebeckite,
anorthoclase
1.606-1.644 0.011 0° 48°-68" swarms of fluid inclusions, divergent in 'greisen' and in granitic
aggregates (pycnite) contact aureoles; quartz,
Li-mica, tourmaline, cassiterite
wolframite, beryl, fluorite
1.527-1.578 0.018 0° 35°-106° commonly alteration around margins rare in acidic to intermediary
and along cracks in orange to yellow magmatic rocks, in pegmatites,
pinite; yellow pleochroiC haloes around in knobby schist, in cordie rite
radioactive inclusions; in metamorphic hornfels, in paragneiss,
rocks common with inclusions of granulite and charnockite;
biotite and quartz or graphite quartz, K-feldspar, plagioclase,
andalusite, sillimanite, biotite,
garnet, hypersthene or quartz,
plagioclase, biotite, muscovite,
sillimanite, garnet, hercynite,
andalusite
1.633-1.650 0.012 0° 73°-86° common patchy pink coloration; in knobby schist and hornfels,
sieve texture; graphite inclusions andalusite-bearing mica schists,
(chiastolite); pleochroic haloes are pegmatoidal metatectites;
common sericite or muscovite, biotite,
quartz, cordierite
1.653-1.683 0.022 21°-30 0 needle-rich swarms in quartz, in mica schist, cordierite gneiss
(in most cases cordierite; diverging fibrous and rocks of the sanidinite
cannot be aggregates of sillimanite needles facies; cordierite, quartz, K-
measured) (fibrolite) feldspar, plagioclase, biotite,
muscovite, kyanite, andalusite
1.710-1.734 0.017 oblique 78°-83° patchy blue pleochroic coloration; in mica schist and quartzite, in
stress-induced bending granulites and eclogites;
staurolite, almandine, biotite,
muscovite, quartz, K-feldspar,
plagioclase
1.705-1.740 0.012 20° 36°-70 0 zonar, hourglass texture, sieve texture typical for low-grade
PAb (124°) metamorphic rocks; quartz,
albite, sericite, chlorite, biotite,
almandine, rutile
196 Appendix 1
Table 7d Continued
No.! Mineral Form and Cleavage Twinning Colour Pleochroism Opt Main
Page habit ch. zone
156 rhomb.
lath-shaped,
a.
4.20.2 Epidote hexagonal cross- rarely simple greenish-yellow, weak to e
e
::I
(piemontite) section, divergent patchy or zonar (strong)
'"
~ radiating, (red-purple)
III granular
'0
N
157
..,S
0
monocl. @
'0.
4.20.3 w Clinozoisite perfect on sometimes colourless Ell (±)
158 monoel. (001), clear on lamellar
(100)
4.20.4 Orthite granular, acicular, commonly pale grey- quite clear e
(allanite) needle-shaped simple yellow, orange- also
brown Ell
159 monocl.
4.21 Pumpellyite lath-shaped, perfect on common colourless to very weak Ell (±)
needle-shaped, (100), clear on blue-green to clear
acicular, fibrous, (001)
radial rosettes
160 monael.
4.22 Lawsonite platy, lath-shaped very good on polysynthetic colourless, rare in most Ell H
(010), good on twinning bluish cases
(100) absent
160 rhomb.
4.28 Prehnite platy, flaky, fan- good on (001) rare fine colourless Ell (±)
shaped, in lamellar on
radiating (110) and (001)
aggregates or
166 rhomb. dendritic
Tables for the microscopic identification of rock-forming minerals 197
Refraction Max. '" Extinction angle Axial angle 2V Special diagnostic features Occurrence; paragenesis
(n)
1.663-1.686 0.021 00 760 -870 parquet floor-like subgrains with in lawsonite-glaucophane schist,
undulatory extinction in stressed in greenschist and
metamorphic rocks amphibolites; glaucophane,
albite, jadeite, pumpellyite
1.570-1.613 0.044 00 42 0 often bent cleavage planes; with in evaporites, rare in cavities
addition of water alteration into in volcanic rocks; gypsum,
gypsum halite, K-salt, quartz, calcite
1.611-1.669 0.039 00 64 0 -71 0 sometimes anomalous blue to brown in basic volcanic rocks, rare
interference colours; commonly in gabbros to granodiorite, in
anomalous subgrains (parquet- greenschists, metabasalts and
floor-like); smaller axial angle in metamorphic siliceous
2V ~ 0 0 in subgrains limestone; for paragenesis see
Part S, section 4.28
198 Appendix 1
Table 8 Reflected colours and habit of opaque and nearly opaque minerals (important minerals are shown in
bold)
Table 9 Anomalous birefringence in isotropic miner- Table 10 Anisotropic minerals with optical isotropic
als and substances (important minerals are shown in behaviour (submicroscopic and metamictic minerals
bold) respectively) (important minerals are shown in bold)
1.3 Hematite +
2.1 Perovskite lamellar subgrains (crumbly)
2.4 Grossularite zonar subgrains Leucoxene +
2.4 Andradite cyclic subgrains 3.1.3 Zircon +
3.2.6 Apatite (in +
2.4 Uvarovite cyclic subgrains phosphorites)
2.5 Leucite lamellar subgrains Clay minerals +
(Fig. 51) 4.9 Serpentine +
2.6 Sodalite inclusions surrounded by 4.20.4 Orthite +
tension-induced
birefringence
2.7 Analcite lamellar subgrains (Fig.
58)
2.8 Cristobalite ball-shaped subgrains
with weak birefringence
2.10.2 Opal tension-induced
birefringence due to
changes in water content
2.10.3 Rock- tension-induced
glass birefringence around
inclusions
Tables for the microscopic identification of rock-forming minerals 199
Table 11 Rock-forming minerals sorted according to their colours in thin section and pleochroism respectively,
viewed in plain polarized light (strongly coloured minerals are shown in bold)
yellow, orange gold- reddish, red purple grey-purple bluish, blue greenish, brownish,
yellowish yellow green brown
.,
.2!
stilpnomelane
staurolite
piemontlte riebeckite chlorite
chloritoid
katophorite
orthite
iii epidote oxybiotite
.,c:
C>
fayalite oxyhornblende
fuchsite phlogopite
glauconite stilpnomelane
hastingsite titanbiotlte
hypersthene
celadonite
serpentine
smaragdite
stilpnomelane
tschermakite
200 Appendix 1
Table 12 Optically uniaxial minerals with anomalous biaxial behaviour (bold = commonly biaxial)
Table 13 Optically biaxial minerals with nearly optically uniaxial behaviour (bold = mainly uniaxial)
Table 14 Minerals with distinct, strong zonar growth Table 15 Minerals with a distinct hourglass structure
(bold = very strong)
yellowish, yellow epidote, grossularite
Aegirine-augite Oxidized amphibole
orange, golden- cassiterite, orthite, tourmaline Chloritoid Prehnite
yellow Epidote Titanaugite
Table 17 Minerals in which pleochroic haloes surrounding radioactive inclusions are common
Table 18 Minerals which cause radioactive haloes in Table 19 Minerals with a characteristic cleavage
their immediate environment
In one In two In three
Cassiterite Sphene direction directions directions
Orthite Xenotime
Rutile Zircon cancrinite alkali feldspars anhydrite
chlorite amphiboles barite
chloritoid andalusite calcite
epidote meso lite cancrinite
gypsum natrolite corundum
glauconite plagioclase dolomite
mica pyroxene fluorite
heulandite rutile kyanite
clinozoisite scapolite lawsonite
corundum scolecite magnesite
piemontite sphene perovskite
prehnite wollastonite rutile
sillimanite siderite
staurolite scapolite
stilbite
stilpnomelane
thomsonite
topaz
zoisite
0
fluorite andradite almandine fluorite andradite fluorite hematite
"a. rock-glass rock-glass fluorite spinel fluorite rock-glass ilmenite
e
(5 grossularite grossularite perovskite g rossu larite melanite magnetite
"!!l spinel melanite picotite hercynite perovskite pyrite
picotite pyrope pleonaste pictotite pyrrhotite
spessartine spessartine spinel spessartine
uvarovite spinel
..
CIl
>
"iii
0
a.
cassiterite
quartz
xenotime
zircon
cassiterite
quartz
rutile
xenotime
rutile
xenotime
zircon
xenotime
zircon
cassiterite
quartz
rutile
xenotime
1ii zircon zircon
"xctI
"c
:::l
anatase anatase apatite anatase apatite anatase
~ apatite beryl beryl beryl beryl apatite
1ii beryl corundum corundum corundum tourmaline hematite
0 CIl
""5. > corundum dolomite hematite tourmaline vesuvianite magnesite
0 iii
C) dolomite tourmaline tourmaline vesuvianite tourmaline
CIl
c magnesite vesuvianite vesuvianite vesuvianite
siderite
tourmaline
vesuvianite
..
CIl
>
"iii
0
a.
diopside
enstatite
lawsonite
olivine
sphene
staurolite
thulite
titanaugite
topaz pigeonite
pumpellyite
sphene
topaz
pumpellyite
sillimanite
sphene
staurolite
pigeonite topaz titanaugite
pumpellyite
sillimanite
sphene
1ii
"xctI staurolite
:0 topaz
~ zoisite
1ii
0
a0 actinolite actinolite andalusite arfvedsonite aegirine-augite biotite
andalusite aragonite biotite chloritoid actinolite chlorite
aragonite biotite crossite glaucophane andalusite goethite
biotite epidote glaucophane hornblende arfvedsonite hornblende
chlorite hornblende goethite kyanite biotite hypersthene
chloritoid hypersthene hornblende riebeckite chlorite olivine
CIl
> clinozoisite muscovite hyperstene chloritoid orthite
1a
C) kyanite olivine orthite epidote piemontite
CIl
c muscovite orthite piemontite fayalite siderite
olivine piemontite glaucophane
tremolite wollastonite hornblende
wollastonite hypersthene
zoisite muscovite
orthite
riebeckite
Appendix 2 Diagrams for the classification of magmatic rocks
M = 0-90 M = 90-100
Monzogranite
A p
Foid-bearing
monzonite
(synonym: essexite)
F
Fig. 254 Classification of plutonic rocks.
206 Appendix 2
M = 0-90 M =90-100
QuartzJatite
Latite
A p
Foid-bearing
latite
Tephritic Phonolitic
phonolite tephrite (01 < 10)
\
P = Plagioclase An 05-1 00
F = Foids
M =Mafic minerals
: /
~oo··'~~f7-··
Foidite
V
F
Fig. 255 Classification of volcanic rocks.
Diagrams for the classification of magmatic rocks 207
01
I
1\
Dunite
CI = 90-100
2
:g
'0
.~
Q.
Lherzolite
j
'"
~
e'">-x
Olivine websterite
Q.
Q
CI <90 CI ~90
I
Alnoite I
~ , .~
.
. ,~
~
,
Fig. 258
Various
mineral
(m) Oolitic (n) Variolitic (0) Spherulitic
forms and
textures.
Diagrams of mineral and rock structures 209
Fig. 259 Hyaline vesicular texture of a pumice with- Fig. 260 Spherulitic texture, typical for hyaline vol-
out phenocrysts. canic rocks (obsidian) . Glass has recrystallized to
alkali feldspar and Si0 2 minerals .
~~ ~..~~ .••.••...••.. ..
Fig. 261 Vitrophyric texture. Phenocrysts embedded Fig. 262 Hyaline-porphyric texture in an ignimbrite
in a glass matrix (dacite) . with quartz, feldspar and biotite phenocrysts.
21 0 Appendix 3
Fig. 263 Microcrystalline-porphyric texture. Very Fig. 264 Hypocrystalline trachytic flow texture with
common in volcanic rocks. Phenocrysts of at least two aligned sanidine phenocrysts embedded in a matrix
generations are embedded in a matrix comprised of of oriented sanidine microlites and rock-glass
microlites and glass (dacite). (phonolite) .
Fig. 265 Intersertal texture. Plagioclase laths ran- Fig. 266 Amygdaloidal texture of a volcanic rock.
domly oriented embedded in a matrix of pyroxene and Filling of the amygdules by calcite, zeolite and
rock-glass (basalt). chalcedony.
Diagrams of mineral and rock structures 211
Fig. 269 Ophitic texture : idiomorphic plagioclase Fig. 270 Intergrowth texture of 'aggressive' quartz
phenocrysts surrounded by a matrix of pyroxene with plagioclase (myrmekitic texture).
(dolerite) .
212 Appendix 3
Fig. 271 Intergrowth texture: intergrowth of quartz Fig. 272 Corona texture in an olivine gabbro.
and alkali feldspar = graphic texture = granophyric
texture.
Fig. 275 Nematoblastic-Iepidoblastic texture with Fig. 276 Granoblastic texture, orthogneiss with mica
lath-shaped actinolite phenocrysts in an actinolite- layers. Polygonal texture with some serrated-grain
chlorite schist with lepidoblastic chlorite. boundaries between quartz and feldspar.
Fig. 277 Granoblastic marble with polygonal grains. Fig. 278 Porphyroclastic texture. Broken up quartz
porphyroblasts surrounded by a matrix of quartz, feld-
spar and mica (cataclastic gneiss).
214 Appendix 3
Fig. 279 Granular texture in a calcareous sandstone Fig. 280 Pseudosparitic-cataclastic texture with an-
with carbonate cement. gular quartz and calcite phenocryst fragments in a
carbonate cement.
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Index
Page numbers appearing in bold refer to figures and page numbers appearing in italics refer to tables.
Magnesite 69,69,171,180-1,201, Nosean 43-4, 45, 46, 176-7, 199, Phonolite 41, 42, 45, 46
202,204 201 Phyllites 34, 62
Magnesium chlorite 190-1 Numerical aperture 24, 25 Phyllosilicates 104-13,105
Magnetite 6,30,172-3,201,202, Picotite 35,35,36,37,40,174-5,
204 Objective lenses 3, 3 199,204
Main zone 15-17 Obsidian 51, 53, 209 Picrites 37
Marialite 76-7,170,183 Oculars 3,4 Piemontite 157-8,171,196,199,
Medium lines, see Bisectrix Oligoclase 121,129,129,131-3, 200,201,202,204
Meionite 76-7,171 190-1 Pigeonite 90,90,171,184-5,199,
Mejonite, see Meionite Olivine 8,17,37,69,79-81,80, 200,204
Melanite 35,37,40,41,42,174-5, 184-5,201,202,204,207,212 Pitchstone 51, 53
199,204 Omphacite 93, 93-4, 94, 170, Plagioclase series 129-34, 130,
Melatope 19,20,20,22,23 184-5 131, 132, 133, 170,200,201,
Melilite group 12, 35, 37, 57-9, Opal 46, 49, 49, 172-3, 176-7, 202, 210, 211
178-9,200,201,202 198,199,203 A-Plate, see Gypsum plates
Meroxene 109-10 Opaque minerals 6,30-4, 172-3, Plates, anisotropic, see Gypsum
Mesolite 136, 136, 170, 192-3,201, 198 plates
202 Optic axial angle 23-5, 24, 25 Platy crystals 16, 208
Mica 7,7,8,24, 104-11, 105, Optic axis 13, 20, 22, 22 Pleochroic haloes 201
188-9,201,202 Optical Pleochroism 7,199
Microcline 122-5, 127-8, 128, anomalies 9,200 Pleonaste 36-7,174-5,199,204
190-1,201 character 15-17,20-3,21 Plutonite 131, 205
Minerals main zone viii Polarizer 2, 3, 7
anisotropic 9-19,198 Optically Polarizing microscope
biaxial 6,7,79-167,184-97, biaxial crystals 13-14, 15, 22, accessories 4
199,200,204 22-3,79-167,184-97,199, components 2, 2
form and texture 208-14 200,204 Polarizing microscope viii
heavy 204 neutral crystals 14 Prehnite 166,166-7,171,196-7,
identification uniaxial crystals 13, 13-14, 16, 200, 201, 202-3
colours 199 19,19-22,20,54-78, Principal zone, see Main zone
path 26 178-83,199,200,204 Prismatic crystals 16, 17
protocol 27 Orthite 55, 159, 171, 196-7, 198, Protocol 27
idiornorphic 6,6,201,208 199,200,201,202,204 Pumpellyite 160, 160,170,196-7,
isotropic 6,6,174-7,204 Orthochlorite 115-18,117 199,200,204
monoclinic 7, 12, 14 Orthoclase 120, 122-5, 125, 126, Pyrite 32, 32, 172-3, 198,201,204
opaque 6,30-4,172-3,198 126,190-1,201,203 Pyrochlore 35,37,174-5
rhombic 14 Orthopyroxene group 14,17, Pyrope 38,38,40,174-5,204
transparent 6-8 81-5, 184-5 Pyroxene group 81-96,211
triclinic 7, 12, 14 Orthoscopic viewing 2, 6-17 Pyroxenites 7,8,37,184-5, 199,
uniaxial 6,6,54-78,178-83, Oxybiotite 111, 171, 188-9, 199 201,202,207
199,200,204 Oxyhornblende 99,101-2,171, Pyrrhotite 33,172-3,198,204
Miscibility 121 186-7,199
Molybdenite 34 Quartz 8, 12, 14,20,59-62,60,61,
Montmorillonite 53 Palaeorhyolites 32 170,178-9,200,201,202-3,
Mordenite 59, 138, 170, 192-3, Paragenesis viii 204,213
199 Paragonite 104, 106 Quartz porphyry 32, 60
Muscovite 24, 25, 105-6, 106, 171, Pegmatites 37, 48, 62 Quartz wedges 4, 4, 12, 21, 22, 23,
188-9,201,204,212 Pelites 34 23
Pennine, see Penninite
Natrolite 17, 44, 46, 53, 135, Penninite 170, 199,200 Radioactive
135-6,170,192-3,201, Peridotites 33, 37, 207 haloes 201
202-3 Perlite 50, 53 inclusions 201
Nepheline 8, 12, 20, 30, 75, 75-6, Perovskite 35,35,37,40,174-5, Radiolarite 49
76,170,182-3,200,201, 198,199,201,204 Record sheet, see Protocol
202-3 Perthite 121, 124-5, 125 Red 1 plates, see Gypsum plates
Nephrite 202 Phengite 107, 171, 188-9, 200 Refractive index 7-8,8,24,170-1,
Nicols, see Crossed polars Phillipsite 142,142,170,192-3 174,176
Nontronite 53 Phlogopite 108,109,171,88-9, Relief 8, 8, 8, 9
Norites 37, 70 199,200,201 Retardation 10, 11
220 Index