EVALUATING INFORMATION: THE CORNERSTONE

OF CIVIC ONLINE REASONING

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
STANFORD HISTORY EDUCATION GROUP
PRODUCED WITH THE SUPPORT OF THE ROBERT R. McCORMICK FOUNDATION

SHEG.STANFORD.EDU
4 EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

8 HOME PAGE ANALYSIS

9 Task
10 Overview
11 Rubric

15 EVALUATING EVIDENCE
16 Task
17 Overview
18 Rubric

20 CLAIMS ON SOCIAL MEDIA

21 Task
23 Overview
24 Rubric
Over the last year and a half, the Stanford History Education Group has prototyped, field
tested, and validated a bank of assessments that tap civic online reasoning—the ability to
judge the credibility of information that floods young people’s smartphones, tablets, and
computers.

Between January 2015 and June 2016, we administered 56 tasks to students across 12
states. In total, we collected and analyzed 7,804 student responses. Our sites for field-
testing included under-resourced, inner-city schools in Los Angeles and well-resourced
schools in suburbs outside of Minneapolis. Our college assessments, which focused on
open web searches, were administered online at six different universities that ranged from
Stanford, an institution that rejects 94% of its applicants, to large state universities that
admit the majority of students who apply.

In what follows, we provide an overview of what we learned and sketch paths our
future work might take. We end by providing samples of our assessments of civic online
reasoning.
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
Evaluating Information: The Cornerstone of Civic Online Reasoning
November 22, 2016

THE BIG PICTURE

When thousands of students respond to would hope that middle school students could
dozens of tasks there are endless variations. distinguish an ad from a news story. By high
That was certainly the case in our experience. school, we would hope that students reading
However, at each level—middle school, high about gun laws would notice that a chart came
school, and college—these variations paled from a gun owners’ political action committee.
in comparison to a stunning and dismaying And, in 2016, we would hope college students,
consistency. Overall, young people’s ability to who spend hours each day online, would look
reason about the information on the Internet beyond a .org URL and ask who’s behind a site
can be summed up in one word: bleak. that presents only one side of a contentious
issue. But in every case and at every level,
Our “digital natives” may be able to flit we were taken aback by students’ lack of
between Facebook and Twitter while preparation.
simultaneously uploading a selfie to Instagram
and texting a friend. But when it comes to For every challenge facing this nation, there
evaluating information that flows through are scores of websites pretending to be
social media channels, they are easily duped. something they are not. Ordinary people once
We did not design our exercises to shake out relied on publishers, editors, and subject
a grade or make hairsplitting distinctions matter experts to vet the information they
between a “good” and a “better” answer. consumed. But on the unregulated Internet,
Rather, we sought to establish a reasonable all bets are off. Michael Lynch, a philosopher
bar, a level of performance we hoped was who studies technological change, observed
within reach of most middle school, high that the Internet is “both the world’s best fact-
school, and college students. For example, we checker and the world’s best bias confirmer—
often at the same time.”1 Never have we Firm Poses as Think Tank.”3 Among college
had so much information at our fingertips. students the results were actually worse:
Whether this bounty will make us smarter Ninety-three percent of students were snared.
and better informed or more ignorant and The simple act of Googling “Employment
narrow-minded will depend on our awareness Policies Institute” and the word “funding”
of this problem and our educational turns up the Salon article along with a host
response to it. At present, we worry that of other exposés. Most students never moved
democracy is threatened by the ease at which beyond the site itself.4
disinformation about civic issues is allowed to
spread and flourish. Validation. To ensure that our exercises
tapped what they were supposed to (rather
than measuring reading level or test taking
ability), we engaged in extensive piloting,
SEQUENCE OF ACTIVITIES sometimes tweaking and revising our exercises
up to a half-dozen times. Furthermore, we
Our work went through three phases during asked groups of students to verbalize their
the 18 months of this project. thinking as they completed our tasks. This
allowed us to consider what is known as
Prototyping assessments. Our development cognitive validity, the relationship between
process borrows elements of “design thinking” what an assessment seeks to measure and
from the world of product design, in which a what it actually does.5
new idea follows a sequence of prototyping,
user testing, and revision in a cycle of Field Testing. We drew on our extensive
continuous improvement.2 For assessment teacher networks for field-testing. The
development, this process is crucial, as it Stanford History Education Group’s online
is impossible to know whether an exercise Reading Like a Historian curriculum6 is
designed by adults will be interpreted similarly used all over the country and has been
by a group of 13-year-olds. adopted by Los Angeles Unified School
District,7 the second largest school district
In designing our assessments, we directly in the U.S. With help from teachers in L.A.
measured what students could and could not and elsewhere, we collected thousands
do. For example, one of our tasks sent high of responses and consulted with teachers
school and college students to about the appropriateness of the exercises.
MinimumWage.com, ostensibly a fair broker Together with the findings from the cognitive
for information on the relationship between validity interviews, we are confident that our
minimum wage policy and employment assessments reflect key competencies that
rates. The site links to reputable sources like students should possess.
the New York Times and calls itself a project
of the Employment Policies Institute, a non-
profit organization that describes itself as
sponsoring nonpartisan research. In open OVERVIEW OF THE EXERCISES
web searches, only nine percent of high
school students in an Advanced Placement We designed, piloted, and validated fifteen
history course were able to see through assessments, five each at middle school,
MinimumWage.com’s language to determine high school, and college levels. At the middle
that it was a front group for a D.C. lobbyist, school level, where online assessment is in
or as Salon’s headline put it, “Industry PR its infancy, we designed paper-and-pencil

5
STANFORD HISTORY EDUCATION GROUP EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
measures using digital content. We used 4) News Search: Students distinguish between
screen shots of Slate’s landing page to assess a news article and an opinion column.
students’ ability to distinguish between a
news item and an ad. Similarly, we used 5) Home Page Analysis: Students identify
screen shots of tweets, Facebook posts, and advertisements on a news website.
a reproduction of CNN’s website in crafting
other exercises. We are mindful of the criticism
High School
of using paper-and-pencil measures to assess
students’ ability to judge online sources. At the 1) Argument Analysis: Students compare and
same time, there is evidence from the OECD evaluate two posts from a newspaper’s
that important abilities for evaluating online comment section.
sources can be measured offline.8 Even more
crucial in our decision, however, was the hope 2) News on Facebook: Students identify
that our assessments would be used in under- the blue checkmark that distinguishes a
resourced schools where online assessment verified Facebook account from a fake one.
often remains a remote possibility. Our middle
school assessments provide easy-to-use 3) Facebook Argument: Students consider the
measures that teachers and others can use relative strength of evidence that two users
to gauge students’ basic skills. At the high present in a Facebook exchange.
school level, we designed more complex tasks
that asked students to reason about multiple 4) Evaluating Evidence: Students decide
sources; at the college level, the exercises whether to trust a photograph posted on
were administered online. When students are a photo-sharing website.
working at advanced levels, there is nothing
to prevent the high school exercises from 5) Comparing Articles: Students determine
being used with middle school students, or the whether a news story or a sponsored post
college exercises from being used with high is more reliable.
school students.
College
Summaries of each of our exercises are below.
The exercises in bold appear in the following 1) Article Evaluation: In an open web search,
pages. students decide if a website can be trusted.

2) Research a Claim: Students search online to

Middle School
verify a claim about a controversial topic.
1) News on Twitter: Students consider
3) Website Reliability: Students determine
tweets and determine which is the most
whether a partisan site is trustworthy.
trustworthy.
4) Social Media Video: Students watch an
2) Article Analysis: Students read a sponsored
online video and identify its strengths and
post and explain why it might not be
weaknesses.
reliable.
5) Claims on Social Media: Students read a
3) Comment Section: Students examine a
tweet and explain why it might or might
post from a newspaper comment section
not be a useful source of information.
and explain whether they would use it in a
research report.

6
STANFORD HISTORY EDUCATION GROUP EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
 demonstrate the link between digital literacy
NEXT STEPS
and citizenship. By drawing attention to this
We envision several next steps that build on connection, a series of videos could help to
what we have accomplished. These include: mobilize educators, policymakers, and others
to address this threat to democracy.
Assessment for Learning. Although our
tasks could be used in a variety of ways, we
think they are powerful tools for classroom
instruction. Rather than simply serving as
assessments of learning, they can also be
assessments for learning, or what are known
as “formative assessments.” Teachers can use
our tasks to track student understanding and
to adjust instruction accordingly. Similarly,
teachers can use these exercises as the
basis for broader lessons about the skills
these tasks measure. We also hope to create
accompanying materials that help teachers
incorporate these tasks into the flow of
classroom instruction.

Curriculum development. Teachers also

need curriculum focused on developing 1
Michael P. Lynch, “Googling is Believing: Trumping the Informed
Citizen,” New York Times, March 9, 2016. Retrieved from http://
students’ civic online reasoning. Drawing on opinionator.blogs.nytimes.com/2016/03/09/googling-is-believing-
our experience in developing the Reading Like trumping-the-informed-citizen/

a Historian curriculum, we have begun to pilot 2

Tim Brown, “Design Thinking,” Harvard Business Review 86, no. 6
lesson plans that can be used in conjunction (2008): 84-95.
with our assessments. In the coming months, 3
Lisa Graves, “Corporate America’s New Scam: Industry P.R. Firm
we will be working closely with teachers to Poses as Think Tank!” Salon, November 2013. Retrieved from http://
refine these materials and to implement them www.salon.com/2013/11/13/corporate_americas_new_scam_
industry_p_r_firm_poses_as_think_tank/
in classrooms.
4
We recommended that students spend about ten minutes on this
Awareness of the Problem. When we began task, but there was nothing that prevented them from spending
more, as the exercise was self-administered. We can say with some
our work we had little sense of the depth of the assurance that the issue here was not one of running out of time.
problem. We even found ourselves rejecting
James W. Pellegrino, Naomi Chudowsky, and Robert Glaser, eds.,
ideas for tasks because we thought they would
5

Knowing What Students Know: The Science and Design of Educational

be too easy. Our first round of piloting shocked Assessment. (Washington: National Academies Press, 2001).
us into reality. Many assume that because 6
http://sheg.stanford.edu
young people are fluent in social media they
are equally savvy about what they find there. 7
achieve.lausd.net/page/5965
Our work shows the opposite. We hope to 8
Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development, Students,
produce a series of high-quality web videos to Computers and Learning: Making the Connection (Paris: OECD
showcase the depth of the problem revealed Publishing, 2015).

by students’ performance on our tasks and

7
STANFORD HISTORY EDUCATION GROUP EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
H O M E PAG E A NA LYSIS
1. This is / is not (circle one) an
Here is the home page of Slate.com. Some of the H STORY
advertisement because_________ EDUCATION GROUP
things that appear on Slate.com are news stories,
____________________________ and others are advertisements.
____________________________
____________________________
____________________________
____________________________
____________________________

2. This is / is not (circle one) an

Slate
advertisement because_________ MOST RECENT SEE ALL >
____________________________ 24M AGO - JORDAN WEISSMAN - 1M TO READ
____________________________ Forget Steak and Seafood: Here’s How Welfare
____________________________ Recipients Actually Spend Their Money
____________________________ 30M AGO - BEN MATHIS-LILLEY

____________________________ Buckingham Palace Guard Falls Over (Video)

____________________________ When Is 45M AGO - L. BRADLEY & A.M. LINDEMANN - 2M
TO READ
Cheryl’s When is Cheryl’s Birthday? Solving a Logic
3. This is / is not (circle one) an
Birthday? Problem That Quickly Spread Around the World.
A simple chart that
advertisement because_________ explains the logic
SPONSORED CONTENT
____________________________ problem that spread

____________________________ The Real Reasons around the world.

____________________________ Women Don’t Go

____________________________ Into Tech
By Laura Bradley and
____________________________ Marie Lindemann
____________________________
 OVERV IEW

Many news organizations have turned to native advertising as a source of revenue. By

definition, native advertising tries to sell or promote a product in the guise of a news story.
Native advertising makes it difficult for unsuspecting readers to know if and when there is an
ulterior motive behind the information they encounter.

In this assessment, students are presented with the home page of Slate magazine’s website,
which includes both news items and advertisements. The task assesses students’ ability
to distinguish between an article and an advertisement. Students must evaluate three
different sections of the web page—a traditional advertisement, a news story, and a native
advertisement—and determine the nature of each. Successful students understand the
different forms that advertising can take and identify both traditional and native advertising.
They are also able to explain the features that distinguish a news story from an ad.

We piloted several drafts of this task with 350 middle school students. We completed final
piloting with 203 middle school students. Results indicated that students were able to identify
traditional news stories and traditional advertisements: more than three-quarters of the
students correctly identified the traditional advertisement and the news story. Unfortunately,
native advertising proved vexing for the vast majority of students. More than 80% of students
believed that the native advertisement, identified by the words “sponsored content,” was
a real news story. Some students even mentioned that it was sponsored content but still
believed that it was a news article. This suggests that many students have no idea what
“sponsored content” means and that this is something that must be explicitly taught as early
as elementary school.

10
STANFORD HISTORY EDUCATION GROUP HOME PAGE ANALYSIS
 RUBRIC
Student correctly identifies the item as an ad or non-ad and provides
MASTERY
coherent reasoning.

Student correctly identifies the item as an ad or non-ad but provides

EMERGING
limited or incoherent reasoning.

BEGINNING Student incorrectly identifies the item as an ad or non-ad.

SAMPLE RESPONSES

TRADITIONAL AD: GOTHAM WRITERS

M AST E RY

These students correctly categorized this as an ad based on several of its features.

It has the ”Ad Choices ” and ”Stop Seeing this Ad ” buttons

n
i the top right corner.

It has a coupon code , a big company logo , and has the words
” l i mi ted time offer.”

In the left side there is something that say

s save $20, and usuallymoneyis
involved if people are selling something .
11
STANFORD HISTORY EDUCATION GROUP HOME PAGE ANALYSIS
EMERGING

This student engages in circular reasoning.

It is an advertisement because it advertises something .

This student chooses an irrelevant factor: how “useful” the content seems as a reason it is an
advertisement.

•It is an advertisement because there’s no

”really useful” thing on it.

NEWS ARTICLE: CALIFORNIA ALMONDS

M A ST E RY

Student correctly identifies this story as an article and identifies several features of the article that
helped her categorize it as an article.

There is no little blue X, it has an author of the article, and it

doesn’t say it is sponsored content.

EMERGING

Student identifies a feature that may or may not indicate its status as an ad.

It is not an advertisement because it does not have a blue button on top.

12
STANFORD HISTORY EDUCATION GROUP HOME PAGE ANALYSIS
BE G I N N I N G

This student argues that the story is an advertisement.

It is an advertisement because they are trying to persuade

people that almonds aren’t bad and that you should buy them .

N AT I V E A D : W O M E N I N T E C H

M AST E RY

This student explains that the words “sponsored content” signify that the story is an advertisement.

Despite that the advertisement takes the form of an article, it is an ad as

it states ”Sponsored Content,” meaning the content is created by a company
who paid money to the publication.

EMERGING

This student correctly identifies the story but offers an inaccurate idea about what being
“sponsored” means.

It is being sponsored by the website to promote their company.

13
STANFORD HISTORY EDUCATION GROUP HOME PAGE ANALYSIS
BE G I N N I N G

This student argues that this story must be an article because it lacks traditional features of an ad.

There is nothing to suggest that something is sold. No money,deals,

etc.It sounds like an article.

This student notices the words “sponsored content” but still argues that it is an article.

It is another article . Even if it’s marked ”sponsored content,” it is

another article.

14
STANFORD HISTORY EDUCATION GROUP HOME PAGE ANALYSIS
EVALUATING EVIDENCE
 H STORY
EDUCATION GROUP

On March 11, 2011, there was a large nuclear disaster at the Fukushima Daiichi
Nuclear Power Plant in Japan. This image was posted on Imgur, a photo
sharing website, in July 2015.

Fukushima Nuclear Flowers

by pleasegoogleShakerAamerpleasegoogleDavidKelly • a month ago

Not much more to say, this is what happens when flowers get nuclear birth defects

Does this post provide strong evidence about the conditions near the
Fukushima Daiichi Power Plant? Explain your reasoning.
 OV ERV IEW
Given the vast amount of information available online, students need to be able to distinguish
between legitimate and dubious sources. Students need to ask a basic question: Where did this
document I’m looking at come from? This task assesses whether students will stop to ask this
question when confronted with a vivid photograph. Students are presented with a post from
Imgur, a photo sharing website, which includes a picture of daisies along with the claim that the
flowers have “nuclear birth defects” from Japan’s Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster.

Although the image is compelling and tempting to accept at face value, successful students will
argue that the photograph does not provide strong evidence about conditions near the nuclear
power plant. Students may question the source of the post, arguing that we know nothing
about the credentials of the person who posted this photo (especially since it appears on a site
where anyone can upload a photo). Alternatively, students may point out that the post provides
no proof that the picture was taken near the power plant or that nuclear radiation caused the
daisies’ unusual growth.

Various drafts of this task were piloted with 454 high school students. The final version was given
to 170 high school students. By and large, students across grade levels were captivated by the
photograph and relied on it to evaluate the trustworthiness of the post. They ignored key details,
such as the source of the photo. Less than 20% of students constructed “Mastery” responses, or
responses that questioned the source of the post or the source of the photo. On the other hand,
nearly 40% of students argued that the post provided strong evidence because it presented
pictorial evidence about conditions near the power plant. A quarter of the students argued that
the post did not provide strong evidence, but only because it showed flowers and not other
plants or animals that may have been affected by the nuclear radiation.

17
STANFORD HISTORY EDUCATION GROUP EVALUATING EVIDENCE
 RUBRIC
Student argues the post does not provide strong evidence and questions
the source of the post (e.g., we don’t know anything about the author
MASTERY
of the post) and/or the source of the photograph (e.g., we don’t know
where the photo was taken).

Student argues that the post does not provide strong evidence, but the
EMERGING explanation does not consider the source of the post or the source of the
photograph, or the explanation is incomplete.

Student argues that the post provides strong evidence or uses incorrect
BEGINNING
or incoherent reasoning.

SAMPLE RESPONSES
MASTERY

This student questions the source of the photo, arguing that there is no way to know whether the
photo was actually taken near the plant or if the mutations were a result of nuclear radiation.

No, it does not provide str o n g e v i d e n c e a b o u t t h e c o n d i t i o n s n e a r

the F ukushima Daiic h i power p l an t . I t d o e s n o t p r o v i d e s t r o n g
e v i d e nce b ec au se it c ou l d ju st be a m utatio n in th e pl an t. T h e r e a l s o
i sn’t e vi d enc e that th is is n ear th e Fuk us h im a D aiic h i p o w er p l ant .

This student questions the source of the post, arguing that we know nothing about the poster’s
credentials or whether the evidence was doctored.

No, itdoes not really provide strong evidence . A photo posted by a stranger
on l ine has little cred ibility.This photo could very easily be Photoshopped
or stolen from another completelydifferent source; we have no dea i given
this information, which makes it an unreliable source.

18
STANFORD HISTORY EDUCATION GROUP EVALUATING EVIDENCE
 E M ERGI N G

This student begins to question both the photo and the source of the post but does not fully explain
his thinking.

This post does not provide strong evidence about

conditions near the power plant. They just put a picture
of a flower. Plus the poster has a strange username.

This student critiques the evidence by arguing that it could have been digitally altered but does not
offer any further explanation or critique of the evidence.

No, because this picture could be Photoshopped.

B EGI N N I N G

This student accepts the evidence at face value, arguing that it provides visual proof of the effects
of the nuclear disaster.

This post does provide strong evidence because it shows how the
small and beautiful things were affected greatly , that theylook and
grow completelydifferent than theyare supposed to . Additionally , it
suggests what such a disaster could do to humans .

Although this student argues that the post does not provide strong evidence, she still accepts the
photo as evidence and simply wants more evidence about other damage caused by the radiation.

No, this photo does not provide strong evidence because it only shows a
small portion of the damage and effects caused by the nuclear disaster.

19
STANFORD HISTORY EDUCATION GROUP EVALUATING EVIDENCE
CLAIMS ON SOCIAL MEDIA
H STORY
EDUCATION GROUP
The assessment directs students to this webpage:
 OVERV IEW
Twitter is filled with individuals and groups seeking to further their agendas. In order to navigate
this sea of information, students need to be able to weigh the relative strengths and weaknesses
of tweets as sources of information. Specifically, students need to consider the sources of tweets
and the information contained in them.

This task presents students with a tweet from the liberal advocacy organization MoveOn.org that
reads: “New polling shows the @NRA is out of touch with gun owners and their own members.”
The tweet includes a graphic that asserts, “Two out of three gun owners say they would be more
likely to vote for a candidate who supported background checks.” The tweet contains a link to a
press release by the poll’s sponsor, the Center for American Progress, another liberal advocacy
organization. Both the news release and the tweet indicate that Public Policy Polling conducted
the poll in November 2015. Students are asked why this tweet might and might not be a useful
source of information. Strong responses will note that the tweet may provide useful information
given that it is based on a poll conducted by a professional polling firm. At the same time,
students must acknowledge how the political motivations of the Center for American Progress
and MoveOn.org, both of which support stronger gun control measures, may have shaped the
structure of the poll and how its results were publicized.

We piloted this task with 44 undergraduate students at three universities. Results indicated that
students struggled to evaluate tweets. Only a few students noted that the tweet was based on
a poll conducted by a professional polling firm and explained why this would make the tweet
a stronger source of information. Similarly, less than a third of students fully explained how
the political agendas of MoveOn.org and the Center for American Progress might influence the
content of the tweet. Many students made broad statements about the limitations of polling or
the dangers of social media content instead of investigating the particulars of the organizations
involved in this tweet.

23
STANFORD HISTORY EDUCATION GROUP CLAIMS ON SOCIAL MEDIA
An interesting trend that emerged from our think-aloud interviews was that more than half of
students failed to click on the link provided within the tweet. Some of these students did not click
on any links and simply scrolled up and down within the tweet. Other students tried to do outside
web searches. However, searches for “CAP” (the Center for American Progress’s acronym, which
is included in the tweet’s graphic) did not produce useful information. Together these results
suggest that students need further instruction in how best to navigate social media content,
particularly when that content comes from a source with a clear political agenda.

RUBRIC

Question 1: Why might this tweet be a useful source?

Student fully explains that the tweet may be useful because it includes
MASTERY
data from a poll conducted by a polling firm.

Student addresses the polling data and/or the source of the polling
EMERGING data but does not fully explain how those elements may make the tweet
useful.

Student does not address the polling data or the source of the polling
BEGINNING
data as a reason the tweet may be useful.

24
STANFORD HISTORY EDUCATION GROUP CLAIMS ON SOCIAL MEDIA
 SAMPLE RESPONSES

M ASTE RY

This student identifies the polling firm and provides evidence of the firm’s reliability.

The polling information which the tweet references was collected by Public Policy Polling,
which appears to have a fairly strong accuracy record, though with a Democratic bent (e.g.,
Wall Street Journal article: http://www.wsj.com/articles/SB122592455567202805)

EME RGI N G

This student references the poll but does not explain why that makes the tweet a useful source of
information.

The photo used in this tweet was compiled from a public policy polling survey.

BEGINNING

This student focuses on the tweet’s appearance rather than its content.

It could be useful because a graphic with a strong message can be enlightening or more likely
thought provoking.

This student equates Twitter followers with trustworthiness.

MoveOn.org has a large following on Twitter.

25
STANFORD HISTORY EDUCATION GROUP CLAIMS ON SOCIAL MEDIA
 Question 2: Why might this tweet not be a useful source?

Student fully explains how the political motivations of the organizations

MASTERY involved may have influenced the content of the tweet and/or poll, which
may make the tweet less useful.

Student addresses the source of the tweet or the source of the news release
EMERGING but does not fully explain how those elements may make the tweet less
useful.

Student does not address the source of the tweet or the source of the news
BEGINNING
release as reasons the tweet may be less useful.

SAMPLE RESPONSES

MASTERY

This student explains how MoveOn.org’s work as a political advocacy organization might influence
the tweet’s contents.

According to the MoveOn.org Wikipedia page, MoveOn.org is a “progressive public policy”

group and thus will most likely be against most any media or information distributed by the
NRA. The criticisms section of the Wikipedia page cited more than one instance of MoveOn.org
distorting the truth and even attempting to alter Google searches for their own benefit. I would
seek a different source to know NRA members’ opinions on background checks.

26
STANFORD HISTORY EDUCATION GROUP CLAIMS ON SOCIAL MEDIA
 E M ERGI N G

The student suggests that the tweet is politically motivated but does not explain how this might
influence the content of the tweet.

Although MoveOn.org claims to be independent, they also were paid to work on Obama’s
campaign so are clearly Democrat-oriented, and the NRA members tend to be Republicans
(http://front.moveon.org/about/#.V0NYK5MrLBI).

B EGI N N I N G

This student focuses on the nature of Twitter rather than the source of the tweet.

Twitter is a social platform built for sharing opinions, and though there are plenty of news
organizations sharing facts on Twitter, I’d be more likely to trust an article than a tweet.

27
STANFORD HISTORY EDUCATION GROUP CLAIMS ON SOCIAL MEDIA