199.

Culture Contact and Schismogenesis

Author(s): Gregory Bateson
Source: Man, Vol. 35 (Dec., 1935), pp. 178-183
Published by: Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland
Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/2789408
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 December, 1935.] MAN [No. 199

behaviour, or for supplying the individuals with food.2 From this exhaustive demonstration we
must expect that any single trait of a culture will prove on examination to be not simply economic
or religious or structural, but to partake of all these qualities according to the point of view from which
we look at it. If this be true of a culture seen in synchronic section, then it must also apply to the
diachronic processes of culture contact and change; and we must expect that for the offering, acceptance
or refusal of every trait there are simultaneous causes of an economic, structural, sexual and religious
nature.
(6) From this it follows that our categories 'religious,' ' economic,' etc., are not real subdivisions
which are present in the cultures which we study, but are merely abstractions which we make for our
own convenience when we set out to describe cultures in words. They are not phenomena present
in culture, but are labels for various points of view which we adopt in our studies. In handling such
abstractions we must be careful to avoid Whitehead's " fallacy of misplaced concreteness," a fallacy
into which, for example, the Marxian historians fall when they maintain that economic ' phenomena'
are ' primary.'

With this preamble, we may now consider an alternative scheme for the study of contact
phenomena.
(7) Scope of the inquiry.-I suggest that we should consider under the head of ' culture contact'
not only those cases in which the contact occurs between two communities with different cultures and
results in profound disturbance of the culture of one or both groups; but also cases of contact within
a single community. In these cases the contact is between differentiated groups of individuals, e.g.,
between the sexes, between old and young, between aristocracy and plebs, between clans, etc., groups
which live together in approximate equilibrium. I would even extend the idea of ' contact ' so widely
as to include those processes whereby a child is moulded and trained to fit the culture into which he
was born,3 but for the present we may confine ourselves to contacts between groups of individuals,
with different cultural norms of behaviour in each group.
(8) If we consider the possible end of the drastic disturbances which follow contacts between
profoundly different communities, we see that the changes must theoretically result in one or other of
the following patterns:
(a) the complete fusion of the originally different groups,
(b) the elimination of one or both groups,
(c) the persistence of both groups in dynamic equilibrium within one major community.
(9) My purpose in extending the idea of contact to cover the conditions of differentiation inside a
single culture is to use our knowledge of these quiescent states to throw light upon the factors which
are at work in states of disequilibrium. It may be easy to obtain a knowledge of the factors from

2 Cf. Malinowski, Sexual Life and Crime and Custom; institutions and must expect to find a great deal of over-
A. I. Richards, Hunger and Work. This question of the lapping between various institutions.
subdivision of a culture into 'institutions' is not quite An analogous fallacy occurs in psychology, and con-
as simple as I have indicated; and, in spite of their own sists in regarding behaviour as classifiable according to
works, I believe that the London School still adheres the impulses which inspire it, e.g., into such categories
to a theory that some such division is practicable. It is as self-protective, assertive, sexual, acquisitive, etc.
likely that confusion arises from the fact that certain Here, too, confusion results from the fact that not only
native peoples-perhaps all, but in any case those of the psychologist, but also the individual studied, is
Western Europe-actually think that their culture is so prone to think in terms of these categories. The psycho-
subdivided. Various cultural phenomena also contribute logists would do well to accept the probability that every
something towards such a subdivision, e.g., (a) the bit of behaviour is-at least in a well integrated individual
division of labour and differentiation of norms of be- -simultaneously relevant to all these abstractions.
haviour between different groups of individuals in the 3 The present scheme is oriented towards the study
same community, and (b) an emphasis, present in certain of social rather than psychological processes, but a
cultures, upon the subdivisions of place and time upon closely analogous scheme might be constructed for the
which behaviour is ordered. These phenomena lead to study of psychopathology. Here the idea of 'contact'
the possibility, in such cultures, of dubbing all behaviour would be studied, especially in the contexts of the
which, for example, takes place in church between moulding of the individual, and the processes of schismo-
11.30 and 12.30 on Sundays as 'religious.' But even in genesis would be seen to play an important part not only
the study of such cultures the anthropologist must look in accentuating the maladjustments of the deviant, but
with some suspicion upon his classification of traits into also in assimilating the normal individual to his group.
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 No. 199] MAN [December, 1935.

their quiet working, but impossible to i

conveniently be studied by observation of houses collapsing in an earthquake.
(10) Complete fusion.-Since this is one of the possible ends of the process we must know what
factors are present in a group of individuals with consistent homogeneous patterns of behaviour in all
members of the group. An approach to such conditions may be found in any community which is in a
state of approximate equilibrium but, unfortunately, our own communities in Europe are in a state of
such flux that these conditions scarcely occur. Moreover, even in primitive communities the conditions
are usually complicated by differentiation, so that we must be content with studies of such homogeneous
groups as can be observed within the major differentiated communities.
Our first task will be to ascerta-in what sorts of unity obtain within such groups, or rather-bearing
in mind that we are concerned with aspects and not classes of phenomena-what aspects of the unity
of the body of traits we must describe in order to get a whole view of the situation. I submit that the
material, to be fully understood, must be examined in, at least, the following five separable aspects:
(a) A structural aspect of unity.-The behaviour of any one individual in any one context is, in
some sense, cognitively consistent with the behaviour of all the other individuals in all other contexts.
Here we must be prepared to find that the inherent logic of one culture differs profoundly from that
of others. From this point of view we shall see, for example, that when individual A gives a drink to
individual B, that behaviour is consistent with other norms of behaviour obtaining within the group
which contains A and B.
This aspect of the unity of the body of behaviour patterns may be re-stated in terms of a
standardization of the cognitive aspects of the personalities of the individuals. We may say that the
patterns of thought of the individuals are so standardized that their behaviour appears to them logical.
(b) Affective aspects of unity.-In studying the culture from this point of view, we are concemed
to show the emotional setting of all the details of behaviour. We shall see the whole body of behaviour
as a concerted mechanism oriented towards affective satisfaction and dissatisfaction of the individuals.
This aspect of a culture may also be described in terms of a standardization of affective aspects
of the personalities of the individuals, which are so modified by their culture that their behaviour is
to them emotionally consistent.
(c) Economic unity.-Here we shall see the whole body of behaviour as a mechanism oriented
towards the production and distribution of material objects.
(d) Chronological and spatial unity.-Here we shall see the behaviour patterns as schematic-
ally ordered according to time and place. We shall see A as giving the drink to B 'because it is
Saturday evening in the Blue Boar.'
(e) Sociological unity.-Here we shall see the behaviour of the individuals as oriented toward
the integration and disintegration of the major unit, the Group as a whole' We shall see the givi
of drinks as a factor which promotes the solidarity of the group.
(11) In addition to studying the behaviour of members of the homogeneous group from all these
points of view, we must examine a number of such groups to discover the effects of standardizat
of these various points of view in the people we are studying. We have stated above that every
of behaviour must be regarded as probably relevant to all these viewpoints, but the fact remains that.
some peoples are more inclined than others to see and phrase their own behaviour as ' logical ' or ' for
the good of the State.'
(12) With this knowledge of the conditions which obtain in homogeneous groups, we shall be i
a position to examine the processes of fusion of two diverse groups into one. We may even be ab
to prescribe measures which will either promote or retard such fusion, and predict that a trait which
fits the five aspects of unity can be added to a culture without other changes. If it does not fit,
then we can search for appropriate modifications either of the culture or of the trait.
(13) The elimination of one or both groups.-This end result is perhaps scarcely worth studying
but we should at least examine any material that is available, to determine what sort of effects su
hostile activity has upon the culture of the survivors. It is possible, for example, that the patterns of
behaviour associated with elimination of other groups may be assimilated into their culture so tha
they are impelled to eliminate more and more.
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 December, 1935.] MAN [No. 199

(14) Persistence of both groups in

the possible end results of contact, since the factors active in the dynamic equilibrium are likely to be
identical or analogous with those which, in disequilibrium, are active in cultural change. Our first
task is to study the relationships obtaining between groups of individuals with differentiated behaviour
patterns, and later to consider what light these relationships throw upon what are more usually called
'contacts.' Every anthropologist who has been in the field has had opportunity of studying such
differentiated groups.
(15) The possibilities of differentiation of groups are by no means infinite, but fall clearly into two
categories (a) cases in which the relationship is chiefly symmetrical, e.g., in the differentiation of
moieties, clans, villages and the nations of Europe; and (b) cases in which the relationship is comple-
mentary, e.g., in the differentiation of social strata, classes, castes, age grades, and, in some cases
cultural differentiation between the sexes.4 Both these types of differentiation contain dynamic
elements, such that when certain restraining factors are removed the differentiation or split between
the groups increases progressively towards either breakdown or a new equilibrium.
(16) Symmetrical differentiation.-To this category may be referred all those cases in which the
individuals in two groups A and B have the same aspirations and the same behaviour patterns, but
are differentiated in the orientation of these patterns. Thus members of group A exhibit behaviour
patterns A,B,C, in their dealings with each other, but adopt the patterns X,Y,Z, in their dealings with
members of group B. Similarly, group B adopt the patterns A,B,C, among themselves, but exhibit
X,Y,Z, in dealing with group A. Thus a position is set up in which the behaviour X,Y,Z, is the stan-
dard reply to X,Y,Z. This position contains elements which may lead to progressive differentiation
or schismogenesis along the same lines. If, for example, the patterns X,Y,Z include boa
shall see that there is a likelihood, if boasting is the reply to boasting, that each group will drive the
other into excessive emphasis of the pattern, a process which if not restrained can only lead
to more and more extreme rivalry and ultimately to hostility and the breakdown of the whole
system.
(17) Complementary differentiation.-To this category we may refer all those cases in which the
behaviour and aspirations of the members of the two groups are fundamentally different. Thus
members of group A treat each other with patterns L,M,N, and exhibit the patterns O,P,Q, in dealings
with group B. In reply to O,P,Q, the members of group B exhibit the patterns U,V,W, but among
themselves they adopt patterns R,S,T. Thus it comes about that O,P,Q is the reply to U,V,W, and
vice versa. This differentiation may become progressive. If, for example, the series, O,P,Q includes
patterns culturally regarded as assertive, while U,V,W includes cultural submissiveness, it is likely
that submissiveness will promote further assertiveness which in turn will promote further submissive-
ness. This schismogenesis, unless it is restrained, leads to a progressive unilateral distortion
personalities of the members of both groups, which results in mutual hostility between them and
must end in the breakdown of the system.
(18) Reciprocity.-Though relationships between groups can broadly be classified into two
categories, symmetrical and complementary, this subdivision is to some extent blurred by another
type of differentiation which we may describe as reciprocal. In this type the behaviour patterns
X and Y are adopted by members of each group in their dealings with the other group, but instead
of the symmetrical system whereby X is the reply to X and Y is the reply to Y, we find here that
X is the reply to Y. Thus in every single instance the behaviour is asymmetrical, but symmetry is
regained over a large number of instances since sometimes group A exhibit X to which group B reply
with Y, and sometimes group A exhibit Y and group B reply with X. Cases, in which group A some-
times sell sago to group B and the latter sometimes sell the same commodity to A, may be regarded

4 Cf. Margaret Mead, Sex and Temperament, 1935. tionship between the sexes is complementary, but on
Of the communities described in this book, the Arapesh rather different lines from that of the Chambuli. I hope
and the Mundugumor have a preponderantly symmetrical shortly to publish a book on the Iatmul with sketches
relationship between the sexes, while the Tchambuli of their culture from the points of view (a), (b) and (e)
have a complementary relationship. Among the latmul, outlined in paragraph 10.
a tribe in the same area, which I have studied, the rela-

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 No. 199] MAN [December, 1935.

as reciprocal; but if group A habituall

I think, regard the pattern as complementary. The reciprocal pattern, it may be noted, is compen-
sated and balanced within itself and therefore does not tend towards schismogenesis.
(19) Points for investigation.-(a) We need a proper survey of the types of behaviour which can
lead to schismogeneses of the symmetrical type. At present it is only possible to point to boasting
and commercial rivalry, but no doubt there are many other patterns which will be found to be accom-
panied by the same type of effect.
(b) We need a survey of the types of behaviour which are mutually complementary and lead to
schismogeneses of the second type. Here we can at present only cite assertiveness versus submissive-
ness, exhibitionism versus admiration, fostering versus expressions of feebleness and, in addition, the
various possible combinations of these pairs.
(c) We need verification of the general law assumed above, that when two groups exhibit com-
plementary behaviour to each other, the internal behaviour between members of group A must
necessarily differ from the internal behaviour between members of group B.
(d) We need a systematic examination of schismogeneses of both types from the various points
of view outlined in paragraph 10. At present I have only looked at the matter from the ethological
and structural points of view (para. 10, aspects (a) and (b)). In addition to this, the Marxian historians
have given us a picture of the economic aspect of complementary schismogenesis in Western Europe.
It is likely, however, that they themselves have been influenced unduly by the schismogenesis which
they studied and have been thereby prompted into exaggeration.
(e) We need to know something about the occurrence of reciprocal behaviour in relationships
which are preponderantly either symmetrical or complementary.
(20) Restraining factors.-But, more important than any of the problems in the previous para-
graph, we need a study of the factors which restrain both types of schismogenesis. At the present
moment, the nations of Europe are far advanced in symmetrical schismogenesis and are ready to fly
at each other's throats; while within each nation are to be observed growing hostilities between the
various social strata, symptoms of complementary schismogenesis. Equally, in the countries ruled
by new dictatorships we may observe early stages of complementary schismogenesis, the behaviour
of his associates pushing the dictator into ever greater pride and assertiveness.
The purpose of the present article is to suggest problems and lines of investigation rather than to
state the answers, but, tentatively, suggestions may be offered as to the factors controlling schismo-
genesis:
(a) It is possible that, actually, no healthy equilibrated relationship between groups is either
purely symmetrical or purely complementary, but that every such relationship contains elements of
the other type. It is true that it is easy to classify relationships into one or the other category according
to their predominant emphases, but it is possible that a very small admixture of complementary
behaviour in a symmetrical relationship, or a very small admixture of symmetrical behaviour in a
complementary relationship, may go a long way towards stabilizing the position. Examples of this
type of stabilization are perhaps common. The squire is in a predominantly complementary and not
always comfortable relationship with his villagers, but if he participate in village cricket (a sym-
metrical rivalry) but once a year, this may have a curiously disproportionate effect upon his relation-
ship with them.
(b) It is certain that, as in the case quoted above in which group A sell sago to B while the latter
sell fish to A, complementary patterns may sometimes have a real stabilizing effect by promoting a
mutual dependance between the groups.
(c) It is possible that the presence of a number of truly reciprocal elements in a relationship may
tend to stabilize it, preventing the schismogenesis which otherwise might result either from sym-
metrical or complementary elements. But this would seem to be at best a very weak defence: on
the one hand, if we consider the effects of symmetrical schismogenesis upon the reciprocal behaviour
patterns we see that the latter tend to be less and less exhibited. Thus, as the individuals composin
the nations of Europe become more and more involved in their symmetrical international rivalrie
they gradually leave off behaving in a reciprocal manner, deliberately reducing to a minimum the
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 December, 1935.] MAN [Nos. 199-200

former reciprocal commercial behaviour.5 On the other hand, if we consider the effects of comple-
mentary schismogenesis upon the reciprocal behaviour patterns, we see that one-half of the reciprocal
pattern is liable to lapse. -Where formerly both groups exhibited both X and Y, a system gradually
evolves in which one of the groups exhibits only X, while the other exhibits only Y. In fact, behaviour
which was formerly reciprocal is reduced to a typical complementary pattern and is likely after that to
contribute to the complementary schismogenesis.
(d) It is certain that either type of schismogenesis between two groups can be checked by factors
which unite the two groups either in loyalty or opposition to some outside element. Such an outside
element may be either a symbolic individual, an enemy people or some quite impersonal circumstance
-the lion will lie down with the lamb if only it rain hard enough. But it must be noted that where
the outside element is a person or group of persons, the relationship of the combined groups A and B
to the outside group will always be itself a potentially schismogenic relationship of one or the other
type. Examination of multiple systems of this kind is badly needed and especially we need to know
more about the systems (e.g., military hierarchies) in which the distortion of personality is m
in the middle groups of the hierarchy by permitting the individuals to exhibit respect and submission
in dealings with higher groups while they exhibit assertiveness and pride in dealing with the lower.
(e) In the case of the European situation, there is one other possibility-a special case of control
by diversion of attention to outside circumstances. It is possible that those responsible for the policy
of classes and nations might become conscious of the processes with which they are playing and
co-operate in an attempt to solve the difficulties. This, however, is not very likely to occur since
anthropology and social psychology lack the prestige necessary to advise; and, without such advice,
governments will continue to react to each other's reactions rather than pay attention to circumstances.
(21) In concluLsion, we may turn to the problems of the administrator faced with a black-white
culture contact. His first task is to decide which of the end results outlined in paragraph 8 is desirable
and possible of attainment. This decision he must make without hypocrisy. If he chooses fusion,
then he must endeavour to contrive every step so as to promote the conditions of consistency which
are outlined (as problems for investigation) in paragraph 10. If he chooses that both groups shall
persist in some form of dynamic equilibrium, then he must contrive to establish a system in which
the possibilities of schismogenesis are properly compensated or balanced against each other. But at
every step in the scheme which I have outlined there are problems which must be studied by trained
students and which when solved will contribute, not only to applied sociology, but to the very basis
of our understanding of human beings in society. GREGORY BATESON.

The Diffusion of the Horse to the Flatheads. By Harry Turney-High, M.A., Ph.D., State
University of Montana.
Introductory Note.-For the benefit of those workers whose fields of consistent endeavour
are distant from North-west United States, the following note of review is offered. The UU
Flatheads are a people of western Montana, speaking a language within the Salishan family, and are of
Plateau type culture.
The people themselves vigorously object to the term Flathead in reference to themselves, although
many other Indians so call them, particularly those to the east. They call themselves the Salish (se * lic
Most of the tribes to the west speaking member languages of the Salishan stock, even as far as
Pacific Ocean, also refer to the Flatheads by some variant of this word.
For many centuries their principal home has been in the Bitter Root Valley of western Montana.
At some time long ago they seem to have migrated from another locale. Teit has published mater
indicating that their original home was east on the Great Plains.' The great majority of my informant
5 In this, as in the other examples given, no attempt 1 Teit, James A., I Salishan Tribes of the Western
is made to consider the schismogenesis from all the Plateaus,' 45th Annual Rept., Bureau of American
points of view outlined in paragraph 10. Thus, inasmuch Ethnology, 1927-1928. Perhaps it is impossible to solve
as the economic aspect of the matter is not here being this question. All that I can say for my own position
considered, the effects of the slump upon the schismo- is that I have lived with the Flatheads for nine years in
genesis are ignored. A complete study would be sub- contrast with Mr. Teit's extremely short visit, and that
divided into separate sections, each treating one of I have used many informants in comparison with Mr.
the aspects of the phenomena. Teit's almost complete reliance on the late Nlichel Revais.
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