Strength of Materials by S.K.mondal

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in
S K Mondal’s
Strength of Materials
t.in
Contents
Chapter – 1: Stress and Strain
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Chapter - 2 : Principal Stress and Strain
Chapter - 3 : Moment of Inertia and Centroid
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Chapter - 4 : Bending Moment and Shear Force Diagram
Chapter - 5 : Deflection of Beam
Chapter - 6 : Bending Stress in Beam
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Chapter - 7 : Shear Stress in Beam
Chapter - 8 : Fixed and Continuous Beam
Chapter - 9 : Torsion
.
Chapter-10 : Thin Cylinder

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Chapter-11 : Thick Cylinder

Chapter-12 : Spring
Chapter-13 : Theories of Column
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Chapter-14 : Strain Energy Method

Chapter-15 : Theories of Failure
Chapter-16 : Riveted and Welded Joint
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Er. S K Mondal
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IES Officer (Railway), GATE topper, NTPC ET-2003 batch, 12 years teaching
experienced, Author of Hydro Power Familiarization (NTPC Ltd)
Page 1 of 429
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Note
“Asked Objective Questions” is the total collection of questions from:-
t.in
20 yrs IES (2010-1992) [Engineering Service Examination]
21 yrs. GATE (2011-1992)
and 14 yrs. IAS (Prelim.) [Civil Service Preliminary]
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gs
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Copyright © 2007 S K Mondal

.
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Every effort has been made to see that there are no errors (typographical or otherwise) in the
material presented. However, it is still possible that there are a few errors (serious or
otherwise). I would be thankful to the readers if they are brought to my attention at the
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following e-mail address: [email protected]
S K Mondal
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Page 2 of 429
1. Stress and Strain
Theory at a Glance (for IES, GATE, PSU)

1.1 Stress (ı)
When a material is subjected to an external force, a resisting force is set up within the component.
The internal resistance force per unit area acting on a material or intensity of the forces distributed
t.in
over a given section is called the stress at a point.
x It uses original cross section area of the specimen and also known as engineering stress or
conventional stress.
P
Therefore, T
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A
x P is expressed in Newton (N) and A, original area, in square meters (m2), the stress ǔ will be
expresses in N/ m2. This unit is called Pascal (Pa).
gs
x As Pascal is a small quantity, in practice, multiples of this unit is used.
1 kPa = 103 Pa = 103 N/ m2 (kPa = Kilo Pascal)
1 MPa = 106 Pa = 106 N/ m2 =1 N/mm2 (MPa = Mega Pascal)
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1 GPa = 109 Pa = 109 N/ m2 (GPa = Giga Pascal)
Let us take an example: A rod 10 mm q 10 mm cross-section is carrying an axial tensile load 10
kN. In this rod the tensile stress developed is given by
P 10 kN 10q103 N
.
Tt
2
100N/mm2 100MPa
A 10 mm q10 mm
100 mm
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x The resultant of the internal forces for an axially loaded member is

normal to a section cut perpendicular to the member axis.
x The force intensity on the shown section is defined as the normal stress.
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%F P
T lim and Tavg
%Al 0 %A A
x Tensile stress (ıt)

If ǔ > 0 the stress is tensile. i.e. The fibres of the component
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tend to elongate due to the external force. A member

subjected to an external force tensile P and tensile stress
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distribution due to the force is shown in the given figure.
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Chapter-1 Stress and Strain S K Mondal’s
x Compressive stress (ıc)
If ǔ < 0 the stress is compressive. i.e. The fibres of the
component tend to shorten due to the external force. A
member subjected to an external compressive force P and
compressive stress distribution due to the force is shown in
the given figure.
x Shear stress ( U )
When forces are transmitted from one part of a body to other, the stresses
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developed in a plane parallel to the applied force are the shear stress. Shear
stress acts parallel to plane of interest. Forces P is applied
transversely to the member AB as shown. The corresponding
internal forces act in the plane of section C and are called shearing
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P
forces. The corresponding average shear stress U

Area
1.2 Strain (İ)

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The displacement per unit length (dimensionless) is
known as strain.
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x Tensile strain ( F t)
The elongation per unit length as shown in the
figure is known as tensile strain.
ǆt = ƦL/ Lo
.
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It is engineering strain or conventional strain.

Here we divide the elongation to original length
not actual length (Lo + % L)
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Let us take an example: A rod 100 mm in original length. When we apply an axial tensile load 10
kN the final length of the rod after application of the load is 100.1 mm. So in this rod tensile strain is
developed and is given by
%L L Lo 100.1mm 100 mm 0.1mm
Ft
0.001 (Dimensionless)Tensile
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Lo Lo 100 mm 100 mm
x Compressive strain ( F c)
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If the applied force is compressive then the reduction of length per unit length is known
as compressive strain. It is negative. Then İc = (-ǻL)/ Lo
Let us take an example: A rod 100 mm in original length. When we apply an axial compressive
load 10 kN the final length of the rod after application of the load is 99 mm. So in this rod a
compressive strain is developed and is given by
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%L L Lo 99 mm 100 mm 1mm
Fc
0.01 (Dimensionless)compressive
Lo Lo 100 mm 100 mm
x Shear Strain ( H ): When a
force P is applied tangentially to

the element shown. Its edge
displaced to dotted line. Where
E is the lateral displacement of
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the upper face
of the element relative to the lower face and L is the distance between these faces.
E
Then the shear strain is (H )
L
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Let us take an example: A block 100 mm × 100 mm base and 10 mm height. When we apply a
tangential force 10 kN to the upper edge it is displaced 1 mm relative to lower face.
Then the direct shear stress in the element
(U )
10 kN

10q103 N
100 mmq100 mm 100 mmq100 mm
gs
1 N/mm2 1 MPa
1mm
And shear strain in the element ( H ) = 0.1 Dimensionless
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10 mm
1.3 True stress and True Strain

The true stress is defined as the ratio of the load to the cross section area at any instant.
.
T 1 F
tas
load
TT

Instantaneous area
Where T and F is the engineering stress and engineering strain respectively.
x True strain
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L
dl L¬ A ¬ d ¬
FT
¨ ln ln 1 F
ln o 2ln o
Lo
l Lo ® A ® d ®
or engineering strain ( F ) = eFT -1

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The volume of the specimen is assumed to be constant during plastic deformation.

[ ' Ao Lo AL ] It is valid till the neck formation.
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x Comparison of engineering and the true stress-strain curves shown below
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x The true stress-strain curve is also known as
the flow curve.
x True stress-strain curve gives a true indication
of deformation characteristics because it is
based on the instantaneous dimension of
the specimen.
x In engineering stress-strain curve, stress drops
down after necking since it is based on the
original area.
x In true stress-strain curve, the stress however increases after necking since the cross-
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sectional area of the specimen decreases rapidly after necking.
x The flow curve of many metals in the region of uniform plastic deformation can be
expressed by the simple power law.
ǔT = K(ǆT)n Where K is the strength coefficient
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n is the strain hardening exponent
n = 0 perfectly plastic solid
n = 1 elastic solid
For most metals, 0.1< n < 0.5
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x Relation between the ultimate tensile strength and true stress at maximum
load
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Pmax
The ultimate tensile strength Tu

Ao
Pmax
The true stress at maximum load Tu
T
A
.
Ao ¬ Ao
And true strain at maximum load F
T ln or e FT
tas
A ® A
Pmax Pmax Ao
Eliminating Pmax we get , Tu
T q Tu e FT
A Ao A
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Where Pmax = maximum force and Ao = Original cross section area

A = Instantaneous cross section area
Let us take two examples:
(I.) Only elongation no neck formation
In the tension test of a rod shown initially it was Ao
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= 50 mm2 and Lo = 100 mm. After the application of

load it’s A = 40 mm2 and L = 125 mm.
Determine the true strain using changes in both
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length and area.
Answer: First of all we have to check that does the (If no neck formation
member forms neck or not? For that check Ao Lo AL occurs both area and
or not? gauge length can be used
Here 50 × 100 = 40 × 125 so no neck formation is for a strain calculation.)
there. Therefore true strain Page 6 of 429
L
dl 125 ¬
FT
¨ ln 0.223
l 100 ®
Lo
Ao ¬ 50 ¬
FT
ln ln 0.223
A® 40 ®
(II.) Elongation with neck formation
A ductile material is tested such and necking occurs
then the final gauge length is L=140 mm and the
final minimum cross sectional area is A = 35 mm2.
Though the rod shown initially it was Ao = 50 mm2
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and Lo = 100 mm. Determine the true strain using
changes in both length and area.
Answer: First of all we have to check that does the (After necking, gauge
member forms neck or not? For that check Ao Lo AL length gives error but
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or not? area and diameter can
Here AoLo = 50 × 100 = 5000 mm3 and AL=35 × 140 be used for the
= 4200 mm3. So neck formation is there. Note here calculation of true strain
AoLo > AL. gs at fracture and before
Therefore true strain fracture also.)
Ao ¬ 50 ¬
FT
ln ln 0.357
A ® 35 ®
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L
dl 140 ¬
But not FT
¨ ln 0.336 (it is wrong)
l 100 ®
Lo
1.4 Hook’s law

.
According to Hook’s law the stress is directly proportional to strain i.e. normal stress (ǔ) B normal
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strain (ǆ) and shearing stress ( U ) B shearing strain ( H ).
ǔ = Eǆ and U GH
The co-efficient E is called the modulus of elasticity i.e. its resistance to elastic strain. The co-
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efficient G is called the shear modulus of elasticity or modulus of rigidity.

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1.5 Volumetric strain Fv
A relationship similar to that for length changes holds for three-dimensional (volume) change. For
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P
volumetric strain, Fv
, the relationship is Fv
= (V-V0)/V0 or Fv
= ƦV/V0
K
x Where V is the final volume, V0 is the original volume, and ƦV is the volume change.
x Volumetric strain is a ratio of values with the same units, so it also is a dimensionless
quantity.
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x ƦV/V= volumetric strain = ǆx +ǆy + ǆz = ǆ1 +ǆ2 + ǆ3
x Dilation: The hydrostatic component of the total stress contributes to deformation by

changing the area (or volume, in three dimensions) of an object. Area or volume change is
called dilation and is positive or negative, as the volume increases or decreases,
p
respectively. e Where p is pressure.
K
PL ı
1.6 Young’s modulus or Modulus of elasticity (E) = =
Aį
t.in
W PL
1.7 Modulus of rigidity or Shear modulus of elasticity (G) = =
J AG
'p 'p
1.8 Bulk Modulus or Volume modulus of elasticity (K) =
'v 'R
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v R
1.10 Relationship between the elastic constants E, G, K, μ
9KG
E 2G 1 P 3K 1 2P
gs 3K G [VIMP]
Where K = Bulk Modulus, N = Poisson’s Ratio, E= Young’s modulus, G= Modulus of rigidity

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x For a linearly elastic, isotropic and homogeneous material, the number of elastic
constants required to relate stress and strain is two. i.e. any two of the four must be
known.
x If the material is non-isotropic (i.e. anisotropic), then the elastic modulii will vary with
.
additional stresses appearing since there is a coupling between shear stresses and
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normal stresses for an anisotropic material.

Let us take an example: The modulus of elasticity and rigidity of a material are 200 GPa and 80
GPa, respectively. Find all other elastic modulus.
9KG
Answer: Using the relation E 2G 1 P 3K 1 2 P we may find all other elastic modulus
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3K G
easily
E E 200
Poisson’s Ratio ( P ) : 1 P P 1 1 0.25
2G 2G 2 u 80
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E E 200
Bulk Modulus (K) : 3K K 133.33GPa
1 2P 3 1 2 P 3 1 2 u 0.25
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1.11 Poisson’s Ratio (μ)

Transverse strain or lateral strain y
= =
Longitudinal strain x
(Under unidirectional stress in x-direction)
x The theory of isotropic elasticity allows Poisson's ratios in the range from -1 to 1/2.
x Poisson's ratio in various materials Page 8 of 429
Material Poisson's ratio Material Poisson's ratio
Steel 0.25 – 0.33 Rubber 0.48 – 0.5
C.I 0.23 – 0.27 Cork Nearly zero
Concrete 0.2 Novel foam negative
x We use cork in a bottle as the cork easily inserted and removed, yet it also withstand the
pressure from within the bottle. Cork with a Poisson's ratio of nearly zero, is ideal in this
application.
1.12 For bi-axial stretching of sheet
t.in
§L ·
1 ln ¨ f 1 ¸ Lo Original length
© Lo1 ¹
§L ·
2 ln ¨ f 2 ¸ L f -Final length
© Lo 2 ¹
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Initial thickness(t o )
Final thickness (tf) =
e1 u e2
1.13 Elongation gs
x A prismatic bar loaded in tension by an axial force P
For a prismatic bar loaded in tension by
an axial force P. The elongation of the bar
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can be determined as
PL
G
AE
Let us take an example: A Mild Steel wire 5 mm in diameter and 1 m long. If the wire is subjected
.
to an axial tensile load 10 kN find its extension of the rod. (E = 200 GPa)
tas
PL
Answer: We know that G
AE
Here given, Force (P) 10 kN 10 u 1000N
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Length(L) 1 m
2
Sd2 S u 0.005
Area(A) m2 1.963 u 105 m2
4 4
Modulous of Elasticity (E ) 200 GPa 200 u 109 N/m2
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Therefore Elongation(G )
PL 10 u 1000 u 1 m
AE 1.963 u10 u 200 u 10
5 9
2.55 u 103 m 2.55 mm

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x Elongation of composite body

Elongation of a bar of varying cross section A1, A2,----------,An of lengths l1, l2,--------ln respectively.
P ª l1 l2 l3 l º
G « n »
E ¬ A1 A2 A3 An ¼
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Let us take an example: A composite rod is 1000 mm long, its two ends are 40 mm2 and 30 mm2 in
area and length are 300 mm and 200 mm respectively. The middle portion of the rod is 20 mm2 in
area and 500 mm long. If the rod is subjected to an axial tensile load of 1000 N, find its total
elongation. (E = 200 GPa).
Answer: Consider the following figure
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Given, Load (P) =1000 N
Area; (A1) = 40 mm2, A2 = 20 mm2, A3 = 30 mm2
Length; (l1) = 300 mm, l2 = 500 mm, l3 = 200 mm
E = 200 GPa = 200 u 109 N/m2 = 200 u 103 N/mm2
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Therefore Total extension of the rod
P ª l1 l 2 l 3 º
G « »
E ¬ A1 A2 A3 ¼ gs
1000 N ª 300 mm 500 mm 200 mm º
u« »
200 u 10 N / mm ¬ 40 mm 2 20 mm 2 30 mm 2 ¼
3 2
0.196mm
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x Elongation of a tapered body
Elongation of a tapering rod of length ‘L’ due to load ‘P’ at the end
4PL
į= (d1 and d2 are the diameters of smaller & larger ends)
S Ed1 d 2
.
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PL PL
You may remember this in this way, į= i.e.
§S · EA eq
E ¨ d1 d 2 ¸
©4 ¹
lda
Let us take an example: A round bar, of length L, tapers uniformly from small diameter d1 at one
end to bigger diameter d2 at the other end. Show that the extension produced by a tensile axial load
4PL
P is į = .
S d1 d 2 E
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If d2 = 2d1, compare this extension with that of a uniform cylindrical bar having a diameter equal to
the mean diameter of the tapered bar.
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Answer: Consider the figure below d1 be the radius at the smaller end. Then at a X cross section XX
located at a distance × from the smaller end, the value of diameter ‘dx’ is equal to
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t.in
dx d1 x § d 2 d1 ·
¨ ¸
2 2 L© 2 2 ¹
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x
or d x d1 d 2 d1
L
d 2 d1 1
d1 1 kx gs Where k u
L d1
We now taking a small strip of diameter 'd x 'and length 'd x 'at section XX .
Elongation of this section 'd x ' length
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PL P .dx 4P .dx
d G 2
AE § S d x2 · S .^d1 1 kx ` E
¨ ¸uE
© 4 ¹
Therefore total elongation of the taper bar
.
x L
4P dx
G ³ d G ³ S Ed 1 kx
tas
2 2
x 0 1
4PL
S E d1d 2
Comparison: Case-I: Where d2 = 2d1
lda
4PL 2PL
Elongation G I
S Ed1 u 2d1 S Ed12
Case –II: Where we use Mean diameter
d1 d 2 d1 2d1 3
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dm d1
2 2 2
PL P .L
Elongation of such bar G II 2
AE S §3 ·
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¨ d1 ¸ .E
4©2 ¹
16PL
9S Ed12
Extension of taper bar 2 9
Extension of uniform bar 16 8
9
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x Elongation of a body due to its self weight
(i) Elongation of a uniform rod of length ‘L’ due to its own weight ‘W’
WL
į=
2AE
The deformation of a bar under its own weight as compared to that when subjected to
a direct axial load equal to its own weight will be half.
(ii) Total extension produced in rod of length ‘L’ due to its own weight ‘ X ’ per with
t.in
Z L2
length. į=
2EA
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(iii) Elongation of a conical bar due to its self weight
U gL2 WL
į=
6E 2 Amax E
gs
1.14 Structural members or machines must be designed such that the working stresses are less
than the ultimate strength of the material.

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Vy ½
Working stress V w n=1.5 to 2 °
n °
¾ factor of safety
V ult
n1 2 to 3 °
n1 °¿
.
Vp
Vp Proof stress
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n
V y or V p or V ult
1.15 Factor of Safety: (n) =
Vw
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1.16 Thermal or Temperature stress and strain

x When a material undergoes a change in temperature, it either elongates or contracts
depending upon whether temperature is increased or decreased of the material.
x If the elongation or contraction is not restricted, i. e. free then the material does not
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experience any stress despite the fact that it undergoes a strain.
x The strain due to temperature change is called thermal strain and is expressed as,
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H D 'T
x Where ǂ is co-efficient of thermal expansion, a material property, and ƦT is the change in
temperature.
x The free expansion or contraction of materials, when restrained induces stress in the
Page 12 of 429
material and it is referred to as thermal stress.
Vt D E 'T Where, E = Modulus of elasticity
x Thermal stress produces the same effect in the material similar to that of mechanical
stress. A compressive stress will produce in the material with increase in temperature
and the stress developed is tensile stress with decrease in temperature.
Let us take an example: A rod consists of two parts that are made of steel and copper as shown in
figure below. The elastic modulus and coefficient of thermal expansion for steel are 200 GPa and
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11.7 × 10-6 per °C respectively and for copper 70 GPa and 21.6 × 10-6 per °C respectively. If the
temperature of the rod is raised by 50°C, determine the forces and stresses acting on the rod.
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Answer: If we allow this rod to freely expand then free expansion
gs
GT D 'T L
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11.7 u10 u 50 u 500 21.6 u10 u 50 u 750
6 6
1.1025 mm Compressive
But according to diagram only free expansion is 0.4 mm.

Therefore restrained deflection of rod =1.1025 mm – 0.4 mm = 0.7025 mm
.
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Let us assume the force required to make their elongation vanish be P which is the reaction force at
the ends.
§ PL · § PL ·
G ¨ ¸ ¨ ¸
© AE ¹Steel © AE ¹Cu
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P u 500 P u 750
or 0.7025
S 2½ S 2½
® u 0.075 ¾ u 200 u 10 ® u 0.050 ¾ u 70 u 10
9 9
¯ 4 ¿ ¯ 4 ¿
or P 116.6 kN
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Therefore, compressive stress on steel rod
P 116.6 u 103
V Steel N/m2 26.39 MPa
ASteel S 2
u 0.075
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4
And compressive stress on copper rod
P 116.6 u 103
V Cu N/m2 59.38 MPa
ACu S 2
u 0.050
4
Page 13 of 429
1.17 Thermal stress on Brass and Mild steel combination
A brass rod placed within a steel tube of exactly same length. The assembly is making in such a
way that elongation of the combination will be same. To calculate the stress induced in the brass
rod, steel tube when the combination is raised by toC then the following analogy have to do.
(a) Original bar before heating.
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(b) Expanded position if the members are allowed to
expand freely and independently after heating.
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(c) Expanded position of the compound bar i.e. final
position after heating.
x Compatibility Equation:
gs Assumption:
1. L = Ls LB
G G st G sf G Bt G Bf
2. D b ! D s
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x Equilibrium Equation:
3. Steel Tension
V s As V B AB Brass Compression
Where, G = Expansion of the compound bar = AD in the above figure.
G st = Free expansion of the steel tube due to temperature rise toC = D s L t
.
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= AB in the above figure.

G sf = Expansion of the steel tube due to internal force developed by the unequal expansion.
= BD in the above figure.
G Bt = Free expansion of the brass rod due to temperature rise toC = D b L t
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= AC in the above figure.

G Bf = Compression of the brass rod due to internal force developed by the unequal expansion.
= BD in the above figure.
And in the equilibrium equation
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Tensile force in the steel tube = Compressive force in the brass rod
Where, V s = Tensile stress developed in the steel tube.
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V B = Compressive stress developed in the brass rod.

As = Cross section area of the steel tube.
AB = Cross section area of the brass rod.
Let us take an example: See the Conventional Question Answer section of this chapter and the
question is “Conventional Question IES-2008”Page
and14it’s
of 429
answer.
1.18 Maximum stress and elongation due to rotation
UZ 2L2 UZ 2L3
(i) V max and G L
8 12E
UZ 2L2 UZ 2L3
(ii) V max and G L
2 3E
For remember: You will get (ii) by multiplying by 4 of (i)
t.in
1.18 Creep
When a member is subjected to a constant load over a long period of time it undergoes a slow
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permanent deformation and this is termed as “creep”. This is dependent on temperature. Usually at
elevated temperatures creep is high.
x The materials have its own different melting point; each will creep when the homologous
Testing temperature
temperature > 0.5. Homologous temp =
gs Melting temperature
> 0.5
A typical creep curve shows three distinct stages

with different creep rates. After an initial rapid
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elongation ǆo, the creep rate decrease with time
until reaching the steady state.
1) Primary creep is a period of transient creep.

The creep resistance of the material increases
.
due to material deformation.

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2) Secondary creep provides a nearly constant

creep rate. The average value of the creep rate
during this period is called the minimum creep
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rate. A stage of balance between competing.

Strain hardening and recovery (softening) of the material.
3) Tertiary creep shows a rapid increase in the creep rate due to effectively reduced cross-
sectional area of the specimen leading to creep rupture or failure. In this stage intergranular
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cracking and/or formation of voids and cavities occur.

c2
Creep rate =c1 V
Creep strain at any time = zero time strain intercept + creep rate ×Time
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= 0 c1 V c2 u t
Where, c1 , c2 are constants V stress
1.19 If a load P is applied suddenly to a bar then the stress & strain induced will be double
than those obtained by an equal load applied gradually.
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1.20 Stress produced by a load P in falling from height ’h’
ª 2h º ½°
Vd V «1 1 »¾ ı,
«¬ L »¼ °¿
being stress & strain produced by static load P & L=length of bar.
Aª 2 AEh º
«1 1 »
P¬ PL ¼
1.21 Loads shared by the materials of a compound bar made of bars x & y due to load W,
Ax Ex
Px W.
t.in
Ax Ex Ay E y
Ay E y
Py W.
Ax Ex Ay E y
PL
1.22 Elongation of a compound bar, G
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Ax Ex Ay E y
1.23 Tension Test
gs
. blo
tas
lda
i) True elastic limit: based on micro-strain measurement at strains on order of 2 × 10-6. Very low
value and is related to the motion of a few hundred dislocations.
ii) Proportional limit: the highest stress at which stress is directly proportional to strain.
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iii) Elastic limit: is the greatest stress the material can withstand without any measurable
permanent strain after unloading. Elastic limit > proportional limit.
iv) Yield strength is the stress required to produce a small specific amount of
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deformation. The offset yield strength can be determined by the stress

corresponding to the intersection of the stress-strain curve and a line
parallel to the elastic line offset by a strain of 0.2 or 0.1%. ( H = 0.002 or
0.001).
Page 16 of 429
x The offset yield stress is referred to proof stress either at 0.1 or 0.5% strain used for design
and specification purposes to avoid the practical difficulties of measuring the elastic limit or
proportional limit.
v) Tensile strength or ultimate tensile strength (UTS) V u is the maximum load Pmax divided
by the original cross-sectional area Ao of the specimen.
Lf Lo
vi) % Elongation, , is chiefly influenced by uniform elongation, which is dependent on the
Lo
t.in
strain-hardening capacity of the material.
Ao Af
vii) Reduction of Area: q
Ao
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x Reduction of area is more a measure of the deformation required to produce failure and
its chief contribution results from the necking process.
x Because of the complicated state of stress state in the neck, values of reduction of area
gs
are dependent on specimen geometry, and deformation behaviour, and they should not be
taken as true material properties.
x RA is the most structure-sensitive ductility parameter and is useful in detecting quality

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changes in the materials.
viii) Stress-strain response

.
tas
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1.24 Elastic strain and Plastic strain

The strain present in the material after unloading is called the residual strain or plastic strain
and the strain disappears during unloading is termed as recoverable or elastic strain.
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Equation of the straight line CB is given by

V total uE Plastic uE Elastic uE
Carefully observe the following figures and understand which one is Elastic strain and which one is
Plastic strain
Page 17 of 429
t.in
Let us take an example: A 10 mm diameter tensile specimen has a 50 mm gauge length. The load
corresponding to the 0.2% offset is 55 kN and the maximum load is 70 kN. Fracture occurs at 60 kN.
The diameter after fracture is 8 mm and the gauge length at fracture is 65 mm. Calculate the
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following properties of the material from the tension test.
(i) % Elongation
(ii) Reduction of Area (RA) %
(iii) Tensile strength or ultimate tensile strength (UTS) gs
(iv) Yield strength
(v) Fracture strength
(vi) If E = 200 GPa, the elastic recoverable strain at maximum load
blo
(vii) If the elongation at maximum load (the uniform elongation) is 20%, what is the plastic strain
at maximum load?
S 2
Answer: Given, Original area A0 u 0.010 m2 7.854 u 105 m2
4
.
S 2
Area at fracture Af u 0.008 m2 5.027 u 105 m2
tas
4
Original gauge length (L0) = 50 mm
Gauge length at fracture (L) = 65 mm
Therefore
lda
L L0 65 50
(i) % Elongation u 100% u 100 30%
L0 50
A0 Af 7.854 5.027
(ii) Reduction of area (RA) = q u 100% u 100% 36%
A0 7.854
vi
Pmax 70 u 103
(iii) Tensile strength or Ultimate tensile strength (UTS), V u 5
N/m2 891 MPa
Ao 7.854 u 10
Ci
Py 55 u 103
(iv) Yield strength V y 5
N/m2 700 MPa
Ao 7.854 u 10
PFracture 60 u 103
(v) Fracture strength V F 5
N/m2 764MPa
Ao 7.854 u 10
Pmax / Ao 891u 106

(vi) Elastic recoverable strain at maximum load H E 9
0.0045
Page 18Eof 429 200 u 10
(vii) Plastic strain H P H total H E 0.2000 0.0045 0.1955
1.25 Elasticity
This is the property of a material to regain its original shape
after deformation when the external forces are removed. When
the material is in elastic region the strain disappears
completely after removal of the load, The stress-strain
t.in
relationship in elastic region need not be linear and can be
non-linear (example rubber). The maximum stress value below
which the strain is fully recoverable is called the elastic limit.
It is represented by point A in figure. All materials are elastic
po
to some extent but the degree varies, for example, both mild
steel and rubber are elastic materials but steel is more elastic
than rubber.
1.26 Plasticity
gs
When the stress in the material exceeds the elastic limit, the
material enters into plastic phase where the strain can no
blo
longer be completely removed. Under plastic conditions
materials ideally deform without any increase in stress. A
typical stress strain diagram for an elastic-perfectly plastic
material is shown in the figure. Mises-Henky criterion gives a
.
good starting point for plasticity analysis.

tas
1.27 Strain hardening

If the material is reloaded from point C, it will follow the
lda
previous unloading path and line CB becomes its new elastic

region with elastic limit defined by point B. Though the new
elastic region CB resembles that of the initial elastic region
OA, the internal structure of the material in the new state has
vi
changed. The change in the microstructure of the material is

clear from the fact that the ductility of the material has come
down due to strain hardening. When the material is reloaded,
Ci
it follows the same path as that of a virgin material and fails

on reaching the ultimate strength which remains unaltered
due to the intermediate loading and unloading process.
Page 19 of 429
1.28 Stress reversal and stress-strain hysteresis loop
We know that fatigue failure begins at a local discontinuity and when the stress at the discontinuity
exceeds elastic limit there is plastic strain. The cyclic plastic strain results crack propagation and
fracture.
When we plot the experimental data with reversed loading and the true stress strain hysteresis
loops is found as shown below.
t.in
po
gs
blo
True stress-strain plot with a number of stress reversals
Due to cyclic strain the elastic limit increases for annealed steel and decreases for cold drawn steel.
Here the stress range is Ʀǔ. Ʀǆp and Ʀǆe are the plastic and elastic strain ranges, the total strain
.
range being Ʀǆ. Considering that the total strain amplitude can be given as
tas
Ʀǆ = Ʀǆp+ Ʀǆe
vi lda
Ci
Page 20 of 429
OBJECTIVE QUESTIONS (GATE, IES, IAS)
Previous 20-Years GATE Questions
Stress in a bar due to self-weight

GATE-1. Two identical circular rods of same diameter and same length are subjected to
t.in
same magnitude of axial tensile force. One of the rods is made out of mild steel
having the modulus of elasticity of 206 GPa. The other rod is made out of cast
iron having the modulus of elasticity of 100 GPa. Assume both the materials to
be homogeneous and isotropic and the axial force causes the same amount of
uniform stress in both the rods. The stresses developed are within the
proportional limit of the respective materials. Which of the following
observations is correct? [GATE-2003]
po
(a) Both rods elongate by the same amount
(b) Mild steel rod elongates more than the cast iron rod
(c) Cast iron rod elongates more than the mild steel rod
(d) As the stresses are equal strains are also equal in both the rods
PL 1 gs
GATE-1. Ans. (c) G L or G L f [AsP, L and A is same]
AE E
G L mild steel ECI 100
? G L CI ! G L MS
G L C.I EMS 206
blo
GATE-2. A steel bar of 40 mm × 40 mm square cross-section is subjected to an axial
compressive load of 200 kN. If the length of the bar is 2 m and E = 200 GPa, the
elongation of the bar will be: [GATE-2006]
(a) 1.25 mm (b) 2.70 mm (c) 4.05 mm (d) 5.40 mm
PL 200 u 1000 u 2
.
GATE-2. Ans. (a) G L m 1.25mm

AE 0.04 u 0.04 u 200 u 109
tas
True stress and true strain

GATE-3. The ultimate tensile strength of a material is 400 MPa and the elongation up to
maximum load is 35%. If the material obeys power law of hardening, then the
lda
true stress-true strain relation (stress in MPa) in the plastic deformation range
is: [GATE-2006]
0.30 0.30 0.35
(a) V 540H (b) V 775H (c) V 540H (d) V 775H 0.35
GATE-3. Ans. (c)
A true stress – true strain curve in
vi
tension V kH n
k = Strength co-efficient = 400 ×
(1.35) = 540 MPa
n = Strain – hardening exponent =
Ci
0.35
Elasticity and Plasticity

GATE-4. An axial residual compressive stress due to a manufacturing process is present
on the outer surface of a rotating shaft subjected to bending. Under a given
Page 21 of 429
bending load, the fatigue life of the shaft in the presence of the residual
compressive stress is: [GATE-2008]
(a) Decreased
(b) Increased or decreased, depending on the external bending load
(c) Neither decreased nor increased
(d) Increased
GATE-4. Ans. (d)
t.in
A cantilever-loaded rotating beam, showing the normal distribution of surface stresses.
(i.e., tension at the top and compression at the bottom)
po
gs
The residual compressive stresses induced.
blo
Net stress pattern obtained when loading a surface treated beam. The reduced
.
magnitude of the tensile stresses contributes to increased fatigue life.

tas
GATE-5. A static load is mounted at the centre of a shaft rotating at uniform angular
velocity. This shaft will be designed for [GATE-2002]
(a) The maximum compressive stress (static) (b) The maximum tensile stress (static)
(c) The maximum bending moment (static) (d) Fatigue loading
GATE-5. Ans. (d)
lda
GATE-6. Fatigue strength of a rod subjected to cyclic axial force is less than that of a
rotating beam of the same dimensions subjected to steady lateral force because
(a) Axial stiffness is less than bending stiffness [GATE-1992]
(b) Of absence of centrifugal effects in the rod
(c) The number of discontinuities vulnerable to fatigue are more in the rod
vi
(d) At a particular time the rod has only one type of stress whereas the beam has both
the tensile and compressive stresses.
GATE-6. Ans. (d)
Ci
Relation between the Elastic Modulii

GATE-7. A rod of length L and diameter D is subjected to a tensile load P. Which of the
following is sufficient to calculate the resulting change in diameter?
(a) Young's modulus (b) Shear modulus [GATE-2008]
(c) Poisson's ratio (d) Both Young's modulus and shear modulus
Page 22 of 429
GATE-7. Ans. (d) For longitudinal strain we need Young's modulus and for calculating transverse
strain we need Poisson's ratio. We may calculate Poisson's ratio from E 2G (1 P ) for
that we need Shear modulus.
GATE-8. In terms of Poisson's ratio (μ) the ratio of Young's Modulus (E) to Shear
Modulus (G) of elastic materials is
[GATE-2004]
1 1
(a) 2(1 P ) (b) 2(1 P ) (c) (1 P ) (d ) (1 P )
2 2
GATE-8. Ans. (a)
t.in
GATE-9. The relationship between Young's modulus (E), Bulk modulus (K) and Poisson's
ratio (μ) is given by: [GATE-2002]
(a) E 3 K 1 2P (b) K 3 E 1 2P
(c) E 3 K 1 P (d) K 3 E 1 P
po
9KG
GATE-9. Ans. (a) Remember E 2G 1 P 3K 1 2P
3K G
Stresses in compound strut gs

GATE-10. In a bolted joint two members
are connected with an axial
tightening force of 2200 N. If
the bolt used has metric
blo
threads of 4 mm pitch, then
torque required for achieving
the tightening force is
(a) 0.7Nm (b) 1.0 Nm
(c) 1.4Nm (d) 2.8Nm [GATE-2004]
0.004
.
GATE-10. Ans. (c) T Fur 2200 u Nm 1.4Nm

2S
tas
GATE-11. The figure below shows a steel rod of 25 mm2 cross sectional area. It is loaded
at four points, K, L, M and N. [GATE-2004, IES 1995, 1997, 1998]
lda
Assume Esteel = 200 GPa. The total change in length of the rod due to loading is:
(a) 1 μm (b) -10 μm (c) 16 μm (d) -20 μm
vi
GATE-11. Ans. (b) First draw FBD of all parts separately then
Ci
PL
Total change in length = AE
GATE-12. A bar having a cross-sectional area of 700mm2 is subjected to axial loads at the
positions indicated. The value of stress in the segment QR is: [GATE-2006]
Page 23 of 429
P Q R S
(a) 40 MPa (b) 50 MPa (c) 70 MPa (d) 120 MPa
GATE-12. Ans. (a)
t.in
F.B.D
P 28000
V QR MPa 40MPa
A 700
po
GATE-13. An ejector mechanism consists of a
helical compression spring having a
spring constant of K = 981 × 103 N/m.
It is pre-compressed by 100 mm gs
from its free state. If it is used to
eject a mass of 100 kg held on it, the
mass will move up through a
distance of
blo
(a) 100mm (b) 500mm
(c) 981 mm (d) 1000mm
[GATE-2004]
GATE-13. Ans. (a) No calculation needed it is pre-

compressed by 100 mm from its free
.
state. So it can’t move more than 100

mm. choice (b), (c) and (d) out.
tas
GATE-14. The figure shows a pair of pin-jointed

gripper-tongs holding an object
weighing 2000 N. The co-efficient of
friction (μ) at the gripping surface is
lda
0.1 XX is the line of action of the

input force and YY is the line of
application of gripping force. If the
pin-joint is assumed to be
frictionless, then magnitude of force
F required to hold the weight is:
vi
(a) 1000 N
(b) 2000 N
(c) 2500 N
Ci
(d) 5000 N
[GATE-2004]
GATE-14. Ans. (d) Frictional force required = 2000 N
2000
Force needed to produce 2000N frictional force at Y-Y section = 20000N
0.1
Page 24 of 429
So for each side we need (Fy) = 10000 N force
Taking moment about PIN
Fy u 50 10000 u 50
Fy u 50 F u 100 or F 5000N
100 100
GATE-15. A uniform, slender cylindrical rod is made of a homogeneous and isotropic

material. The rod rests on a frictionless surface. The rod is heated uniformly. If
the radial and longitudinal thermal stresses are represented by ǔr and ǔz,
respectively, then [GATE-2005]
(a) V r 0, V z 0 (b) V r z 0, V z 0 (c ) V r 0, V z z 0 (d ) V r z 0, V z z 0
GATE-15. Ans. (a) Thermal stress will develop only when you prevent the material to
contrast/elongate. As here it is free no thermal stress will develop.
t.in
Tensile Test
GATE-16. A test specimen is stressed slightly beyond the yield point and then unloaded.
Its yield strength will [GATE-1995]
(a) Decrease (b) Increase
po
(c) Remains same (d) Becomes equal to ultimate tensile strength
GATE-16. Ans. (b)
gs
blo
GATE-17. Under repeated loading a

material has the stress-strain
curve shown in figure, which of
.
the following statements is

tas
true?
(a) The smaller the shaded area,
the better the material damping
(b) The larger the shaded area, the
better the material damping
lda
(c) Material damping is an

independent material property
and does not depend on this
curve
[GATE-1999]
(d) None of these
GATE-17. Ans. (a)
vi
Previous 20-Years IES Questions

Ci

IES-1. A solid uniform metal bar of diameter D and length L is hanging vertically
from its upper end. The elongation of the bar due to self weight is: [IES-2005]
(a) Proportional to L and inversely proportional to D2
(b) Proportional to L2 and inversely proportional to D2
(c) Proportional of L but independent of D
(d) Proportional of U but independent of D
Page 25 of 429
WL WL 1
IES-1. Ans. (a) G ?G u L & Gu
2AE S D2 D2
2u uE
4
IES-2. The deformation of a bar under its own weight as compared to that when
subjected to a direct axial load equal to its own weight will be: [IES-1998]
(a) The same (b) One-fourth (c) Half (d) Double
IES-2. Ans. (c)
IES-3. A rigid beam of negligible weight is supported in a horizontal position by two

rods of steel and aluminum, 2 m and 1 m long having values of cross - sectional
areas 1 cm2 and 2 cm2 and E of 200 GPa and 100 GPa respectively. A load P is
t.in
applied as shown in the figure [IES-2002]
po
gs
blo
If the rigid beam is to remain horizontal then
(a) The forces on both sides should be equal
(b) The force on aluminum rod should be twice the force on steel
(c) The force on the steel rod should be twice the force on aluminum
(d) The force P must be applied at the centre of the beam
IES-3. Ans. (b)
.
tas
Bar of uniform strength

IES-4. Which one of the following statements is correct? [IES 2007]
A beam is said to be of uniform strength, if
(a) The bending moment is the same throughout the beam
lda
(b) The shear stress is the same throughout the beam

(c) The deflection is the same throughout the beam
(d) The bending stress is the same at every section along its longitudinal axis
IES-4. Ans. (d)
IES-5. Which one of the following statements is correct? [IES-2006]

vi
Beams of uniform strength vary in section such that

(a) bending moment remains constant (b) deflection remains constant
(c) maximum bending stress remains constant (d) shear force remains constant
IES-5. Ans. (c)
Ci
IES-6. For bolts of uniform strength, the shank diameter is made equal to [IES-2003]
(a) Major diameter of threads (b) Pitch diameter of threads
(c) Minor diameter of threads (d) Nominal diameter of threads
IES-6. Ans. (c)
IES-7. A bolt of uniform strength can be developed by [IES-1995]

(a) Keeping the core diameter of threads equal to the diameter of unthreaded portion
of the bolt Page 26 of 429
(b) Keeping the core diameter smaller than the diameter of the unthreaded portion
(c) Keeping the nominal diameter of threads equal the diameter of unthreaded portion
of the bolt
(d) One end fixed and the other end free
IES-7. Ans. (a)
Elongation of a Taper Rod

IES-8. Two tapering bars of the same material are subjected to a tensile load P. The
lengths of both the bars are the same. The larger diameter of each of the bars is
D. The diameter of the bar A at its smaller end is D/2 and that of the bar B is
D/3. What is the ratio of elongation of the bar A to that of the bar B? [IES-2006]
(a) 3 : 2 (b) 2: 3 (c) 4 : 9 (d) 1: 3
t.in
PL
IES-8. Ans. (b) Elongation of a taper rod G l
S
ddE
4 1 2
G lA d2 B § D / 3 · 2
or
G lB d2 A ¨© D / 2 ¸¹ 3
po
IES-9. A bar of length L tapers uniformly from diameter 1.1 D at one end to 0.9 D at
the other end. The elongation due to axial pull is computed using mean
diameter D. What is the approximate error in computed elongation? [IES-2004]
(a) 10% (b) 5%
gs (c) 1% (d) 0.5%
PL PL
IES-9. Ans. (c) Actual elongation of the bar G l act
§S · §S ·
¨ 4 d1d2 ¸ E ¨ 4 u 1.1D u 0.9D ¸ E
© ¹ © ¹
PL
Calculated elongation of the bar G l Cal
blo
S D2
uE
4
G l act G l cal § D2 ·
? Error % u 100 ¨ 1¸ u 100% 1%
G l cal © 1.1D u 0.9D ¹
.
tas
IES-10. The stretch in a steel rod of circular section, having a length 'l' subjected to a
tensile load' P' and tapering uniformly from a diameter d1 at one end to a
diameter d2 at the other end, is given [IES-1995]
Pl pl.S pl.S 4 pl
(a) (b) (c) (d)
4 Ed1d 2 Ed1d 2 4 Ed1d 2 S Ed1d 2
lda
PL
IES-10. Ans. (d) Actual elongation of the bar G lact
§S ·
¨ d1d2 ¸ E
©4 ¹
IES-11. A tapering bar (diameters of end sections being d1 and d2 a bar of uniform
vi
cross-section ’d’ have the same length and are subjected the same axial pull.
Both the bars will have the same extension if’d’ is equal to [IES-1998]
d1 d 2 d1d 2 d1 d 2
a b d1d 2 c d
Ci
2 2 2
IES-11. Ans. (b)
Poisson’s ratio
IES-12. In the case of an engineering material under unidirectional stress in the x-
direction, the Poisson's ratio is equal to (symbols have the usual meanings)
[IAS 1994, IES-2000]
Page 27 of 429
Hy Hy Vy Vy
(a) (b) (c) (d)
Hx Vx Vx Hx
IES-12. Ans. (a)
IES-13. Which one of the following is correct in respect of Poisson's ratio (v) limits for
an isotropic elastic solid? [IES-2004]
(a) f dQ d f (b) 1/ 4 dQ d1/ 3 (c) 1dQ d1/ 2 (d) 1/ 2 dQ d1/ 2
IES-13. Ans. (c) Theoretically 1 P 1/ 2 but practically 0 P 1/ 2
IES-14. Match List-I (Elastic properties of an isotropic elastic material) with List-II
t.in
(Nature of strain produced) and select the correct answer using the codes
given below the Lists: [IES-1997]
List-I List-II
A. Young's modulus 1. Shear strain
B. Modulus of rigidity 2. Normal strain
C. Bulk modulus 3. Transverse strain
D. Poisson's ratio 4. Volumetric strain
po
Codes: A B C D A B C D
(a) 1 2 3 4 (b) 2 1 3 4
(c) 2 1 4 3 (d) 1 2 4 3
IES-14. Ans. (c)
IES-15.
gs
If the value of Poisson's ratio is zero, then it means that
(a) The material is rigid.
[IES-1994]
(b) The material is perfectly plastic.

(c) There is no longitudinal strain in the material
blo
(d) The longitudinal strain in the material is infinite.
IES-15. Ans. (a) If Poisson's ratio is zero, then material is rigid.
IES-16. Which of the following is true (μ= Poisson's ratio) [IES-1992]

(a) 0 P 1/ 2 (b) 1 P 0 (c) 1 P 1 (d) f P f
IES-16. Ans. (a)
.
tas

IES-17. If the area of cross-section of a wire is circular and if the radius of this circle
decreases to half its original value due to the stretch of the wire by a load, then
the modulus of elasticity of the wire be: [IES-1993]
(a) One-fourth of its original value (b) Halved (c) Doubled (d) Unaffected
lda
IES-17. Ans. (d) Note: Modulus of elasticity is the property of material. It will remain same.
IES-18. The relationship between the Lame’s constant ‘ǌ’, Young’s modulus ‘E’ and the
Poisson’s ratio ‘Ǎ’ [IES-1997]
EP EP EP EP
a O (b)O c O d O
vi
1 P 1 2P 1 2P 1 P 1 P 1 P
IES-18. Ans. (a)
IES-19. Which of the following pairs are correctly matched? [IES-1994]

Ci
1. Resilience…………… Resistance to deformation.

2. Malleability …………..Shape change.
3. Creep ........................ Progressive deformation.
4. Plasticity .... ………….Permanent deformation.
Select the correct answer using the codes given below:
Codes: (a) 2, 3 and 4 (b) 1, 2 and 3 (c) 1, 2 and 4 (d) 1, 3 and 4
IES-19. Ans. (a) Strain energy stored by a body within elastic limit is known as resilience.
Page 28 of 429
Creep and fatigue

IES-20. What is the phenomenon of progressive extension of the material i.e., strain
increasing with the time at a constant load, called? [IES 2007]
(a) Plasticity (b) Yielding (b) Creeping (d) Breaking
IES-20. Ans. (c)
IES-21. The correct sequence of creep deformation in a creep curve in order of their
elongation is: [IES-2001]
(a) Steady state, transient, accelerated (b) Transient, steady state, accelerated
(c) Transient, accelerated, steady state (d) Accelerated, steady state, transient
IES-21. Ans. (b)
t.in
IES-22. The highest stress that a material can withstand for a specified length of time
without excessive deformation is called [IES-1997]
(a) Fatigue strength (b) Endurance strength
(c) Creep strength (d) Creep rupture strength
IES-22. Ans. (c)
po
IES-23. Which one of the following features improves the fatigue strength of a metallic
material? [IES-2000]
(a) Increasing the temperature (b) Scratching the surface
(c) Overstressing gs (d) Under stressing
IES-23. Ans. (d)
IES-24. Consider the following statements: [IES-1993]

For increasing the fatigue strength of welded joints it is necessary to employ
1. Grinding 2. Coating 3. Hammer peening
blo
Of the above statements
(a) 1 and 2 are correct (b) 2 and 3 are correct
(c) 1 and 3 are correct (d) 1, 2 and 3 are correct
IES-24. Ans. (c) A polished surface by grinding can take more number of cycles than a part with
rough surface. In Hammer peening residual compressive stress lower the peak tensile
stress
.
tas

IES-25. For a linearly elastic, isotropic and homogeneous material, the number of
elastic constants required to relate stress and strain is: [IAS 1994; IES-1998]
(a) Two (b) Three (c) Four (d) Six
IES-25. Ans. (a)
lda
IES-26. E, G, K and Ǎ represent the elastic modulus, shear modulus, bulk modulus and
Poisson's ratio respectively of a linearly elastic, isotropic and homogeneous
material. To express the stress-strain relations completely for this material, at
least [IES-2006]
(a) E, G and Ǎ must be known (b) E, K and Ǎ must be known
vi
(c) Any two of the four must be known (d) All the four must be known
IES-26. Ans. (c)
IES-27. The number of elastic constants for a completely anisotropic elastic material
Ci
which follows Hooke's law is: [IES-1999]

(a) 3 (b) 4 (c) 21 (d) 25
IES-27. Ans. (c)
IES-28. What are the materials which show direction dependent properties, called?
(a) Homogeneous materials (b) Viscoelastic materials [IES 2007]
(c) Isotropic materials (d) Anisotropic materials
IES-28. Ans. (d)
Page 29 of 429
IES-29. An orthotropic material, under plane stress condition will have: [IES-2006]
(a) 15 independent elastic constants (b) 4 independent elastic constants
(c) 5 independent elastic constants (d) 9 independent elastic constants
IES-29. Ans. (d)
IES-30. Match List-I (Properties) with List-II (Units) and select the correct answer
using the codes given below the lists: [IES-2001]
List I List II
A. Dynamic viscosity 1. Pa
B. Kinematic viscosity 2. m2/s
C. Torsional stiffness 3. Ns/m2
D. Modulus of rigidity 4. N/m
t.in
(a) 3 2 4 1 (b) 5 2 4 3
(b) 3 4 2 3 (d) 5 4 2 1
IES-30. Ans. (a)
IES-31. Young's modulus of elasticity and Poisson's ratio of a material are 1.25 × 105
MPa and 0.34 respectively. The modulus of rigidity of the material is:
po
[IAS 1994, IES-1995, 2001, 2002, 2007]
(a) 0.4025 ×105 Mpa (b) 0.4664 × 105 Mpa
(c) 0.8375 × 105 MPa (d) 0.9469 × 105 MPa
IES-31. Ans.(b) E 2G (1 P ) or 1.25x10 = 2G(1+0.34) or G = 0.4664 × 105 MPa
5
IES-32.
gs
In a homogenous, isotropic elastic material, the modulus of elasticity E in
terms of G and K is equal to [IAS-1995, IES - 1992]
G 3K 3G K 9 KG 9 KG
(a) (b) (c) (d)
9 KG 9 KG G 3K K 3G
blo
IES-32. Ans. (c)
IES-33. What is the relationship between the linear elastic properties Young's modulus
(E), rigidity modulus (G) and bulk modulus (K)? [IES-2008]
1 9 3 3 9 1 9 3 1 9 1 3
(a) (b) (c) (d)
E K G E K G E K G E K G
.
9KG
tas
IES-33. Ans. (d) E 2G 1 P 3K 1 2 P

3K G
IES-34. What is the relationship between the liner elastic properties Young’s modulus
(E), rigidity modulus (G) and bulk modulus (K)? [IES-2009]
KG 9KG 9 KG 9 KG
lda
(a) E (b) E (c) E (d) E

9K G K G K 3G 3K G
9KG
IES-34. Ans. (d) E 2G 1 P 3K 1 2P
3K G
IES-35. If E, G and K denote Young's modulus, Modulus of rigidity and Bulk Modulus,
vi
respectively, for an elastic material, then which one of the following can be
possibly true? [IES-2005]
(a) G = 2K (b) G = E (c) K = E (d) G = K = E
9KG
Ci
IES-35. Ans.(c) E 2G 1 P 3K 1 2P
3K G
1
the value of P must be between 0 to 0.5 so E never equal to G but if P then
3
E k so ans. is c
IES-36. If a material had a modulus of elasticity of 2.1 × 106 kgf/cm2 and a modulus of
rigidity of 0.8 × 106 kgf/cm2 then the approximate value of the Poisson's ratio of
the material would be: Page 30 of 429 [IES-1993]
(a) 0.26 (b) 0.31 (c) 0.47 (d) 0.5
IES-36. Ans. (b) Use E 2G 1 P
IES-37. The modulus of elasticity for a material is 200 GN/m2 and Poisson's ratio is 0.25.
What is the modulus of rigidity? [IES-2004]
(a) 80 GN/m2 (b) 125 GN/m2 (c) 250 GN/m2 (d) 320 GN/m2
E 200
IES-37. Ans. (a) E 2G 1 P or G 80GN / m2
2 1 P 2 u 1 0.25

1. Two-dimensional stresses applied to a thin plate in its own plane
represent the plane stress condition.
t.in
2. Under plane stress condition, the strain in the direction perpendicular to
the plane is zero.
3. Normal and shear stresses may occur simultaneously on a plane.
Which of the above statements is /are correct?
(a) 1 only (b) 1 and 2 (c) 2 and 3 (d) 1 and 3
IES-38. Ans. (d) Under plane stress condition, the strain in the direction perpendicular to the plane
po
is not zero. It has been found experimentally that when a body is stressed within elastic
limit, the lateral strain bears a constant ratio to the linear strain. [IES-2009]
Stresses in compound strut gs

IES-39. Eight bolts are to be selected for fixing the cover plate of a cylinder subjected
to a maximum load of 980·175 kN. If the design stress for the bolt material is
315 N/mm2, what is the diameter of each bolt? [IES-2008]
(a) 10 mm (b) 22 mm (c) 30 mm (d) 36 mm
blo
S d2 P 980175
IES-39. Ans. (b) Total load P 8 uV u or d 22.25 mm
4 2SV 2S u 315
IES-40. For a composite consisting of a bar enclosed inside a tube of another material
when compressed under a load 'w' as a whole through rigid collars at the end
of the bar. The equation of compatibility is given by (suffixes 1 and 2) refer to
.
bar and tube respectively [IES-1998]

tas
W1 W2 W1 W2
(a) W1 W2 W (b) W1 W2 Const. (c) (d )
A1 E1 A2 E2 A1 E2 A2 E1
IES-40. Ans. (c) Compatibility equation insists that the change in length of the bar must be
compatible with the boundary conditions. Here (a) is also correct but it is equilibrium
equation.
lda
IES-41. When a composite unit consisting of a steel rod surrounded by a cast iron tube
is subjected to an axial load. [IES-2000]
Assertion (A): The ratio of normal stresses induced in both the materials is
equal to the ratio of Young's moduli of respective materials.
Reason (R): The composite unit of these two materials is firmly fastened
vi
together at the ends to ensure equal deformation in both the materials.

(a) Both A and R are individually true and R is the correct explanation of A
(b) Both A and R are individually true but R is not the correct explanation of A
(c) A is true but R is false
Ci
(d) A is false but R is true

IES-41. Ans. (a)
IES-42. The figure below shows a steel rod of 25 mm2 cross sectional area. It is loaded
at four points, K, L, M and N. [GATE-2004, IES 1995, 1997, 1998]
Page 31 of 429
Assume Esteel = 200 GPa. The total change in length of the rod due to loading is
(a) 1 μm (b) -10 μm (c) 16 μm (d) -20 μm
IES-42. Ans. (b) First draw FBD of all parts separately then
t.in
PL
Total change in length = AE
IES-43. The reactions at the rigid
supports at A and B for
the bar loaded as shown
po
in the figure are
respectively.
(a) 20/3 kN,10/3 kN
(b) 10/3 kN, 20/3 kN
(c) 5 kN, 5 kN
(d) 6 kN, 4 kN
gs
[IES-2002; IAS-
2003]
blo
IES-43. Ans. (a) Elongation in AC = length reduction in CB
R A u 1 RB u 2
AE AE
And RA + RB = 10
IES-44. Which one of the following is correct? [IES-2008]

.
When a nut is tightened by placing a washer below it, the bolt will be subjected
tas
to
(a) Compression only (b) Tension
(c) Shear only (d) Compression and shear
IES-44. Ans. (b)
IES-45. Which of the following stresses are associated with the tightening of nut on a
lda
bolt? [IES-1998]
1. Tensile stress due to the stretching of bolt
2. Bending stress due to the bending of bolt
3. Crushing and shear stresses in threads
4. Torsional shear stress due to frictional resistance between the nut and
the bolt.
vi
Select the correct answer using the codes given below

Codes: (a) 1, 2 and 4 (b) 1, 2 and 3 (c) 2, 3 and 4 (d) 1, 3 and 4
IES-45. Ans. (d)
Ci
Thermal effect
IES-46. A 100 mm × 5 mm × 5 mm steel bar free to expand is heated from 15°C to 40°C.
What shall be developed? [IES-2008]
(a) Tensile stress (b) Compressive stress (c) Shear stress (d) No stress
IES-46. Ans. (d) If we resist to expand then only stress will develop.
IES-47. Which one of the following statements is correct? [GATE-1995; IES 2007]
Page
If a material expands freely due to 32 of 429 it will develop
heating,
(a) Thermal stress (b) Tensile stress (c) Compressive stress (d) No stress
IES-47. Ans. (d)
IES-48. A cube having each side of length a, is constrained in all directions and is
heated uniformly so that the temperature is raised to T°C. If ǂ is the thermal
coefficient of expansion of the cube material and E the modulus of elasticity,
the stress developed in the cube is: [IES-2003]
D TE D TE D TE D TE
(a) (b) (c) (d)
J 1 2J 2J 1 2J
3
%V T p
a 1 BT
a
3 3
IES-48. Ans. (b)
t.in
V K a3
P
Or 3BT
E
3 1 2H
po
Thermal stress is induced in a component in general, when
1. A temperature gradient exists in the component
2. The component is free from any restraint
3. It is restrained to expand or contract freely
Which of the above statements are correct?
gs
(a) 1 and 2 (b) 2 and 3 (c) 3 alone (d) 2 alone
IES-49. Ans. (c)
IES-50. A steel rod 10 mm in diameter and 1m long is heated from 20°C to 120°C, E = 200
blo
GPa and ǂ = 12 × 10-6 per °C. If the rod is not free to expand, the thermal stress
developed is: [IAS-2003, IES-1997, 2000, 2006]
(a) 120 MPa (tensile) (b) 240 MPa (tensile)
(c) 120 MPa (compressive) (d) 240 MPa (compressive)
IES-50. Ans. (d) D E't 12 u 10 u 200 u 10 u 120 20
6 3
240MPa
.
It will be compressive as elongation restricted.

tas
IES-51. A cube with a side length of 1 cm is heated uniformly 1° C above the room
temperature and all the sides are free to expand. What will be the increase in
volume of the cube? (Given coefficient of thermal expansion is ǂ per °C)
(a) 3 ǂ cm3 (b) 2 ǂ cm3 (c) ǂ cm3 (d) zero [IES-2004]
IES-51. Ans. (a) co-efficient of volume expansion J 3 u co efficient of linear exp ansion D
lda
IES-52. A bar of copper and steel form a composite system. [IES-2004]

They are heated to a temperature of 40 ° C. What type of stress is induced in the
copper bar?
(a) Tensile (b) Compressive (c) Both tensile and compressive (d) Shear
IES-52. Ans. (b)
vi
IES-53. Į =12.5×10-6 / o C, E = 200GPa If the rod fitted strongly between the supports as
shown in the figure, is heated, the stress induced in it due to 20oC rise in
Ci
temperature will be: [IES-1999]

(a) 0.07945 MPa (b) -0.07945 MPa (c) -0.03972 MPa (d) 0.03972 MPa
Page 33 of 429
IES-53. Ans. (b) Let compression of the spring = x m
t.in
Therefore spring force = kx kN
Expansion of the rod due to temperature rise = LD't
kx u L
Reduction in the length due to compression force =
AE
kx u L
Now LD't
po
x
AE
0.5 u 12.5 u 106 u 20
Or x 0.125 mm
½
°° 50 u 0.5 °°
®1 2
° S u 0.010 u 200 u 106 °
¯° 4
¾
¿°
gs
kx 50 u 0.125
? Compressive stress = 0.07945MPa
blo
A § S u 0.0102 ·
¨ ¸
© 4 ¹
IES-54. The temperature stress is a function of [IES-1992]

1. Coefficient of linear expansion 2. Temperature rise 3. Modulus of elasticity
The correct answer is:
.
(a) 1 and 2 only (b) 1 and 3 only (c) 2 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3
tas
IES-54. Ans. (d) Stress in the rod due to temperature rise = D't u E
Impact loading
IES-55. Assertion (A): Ductile materials generally absorb more impact loading than a
lda
brittle material [IES-2004]

Reason (R): Ductile materials generally have higher ultimate strength than
brittle materials
vi

IES-55. Ans. (c)
IES-56. Assertion (A): Specimens for impact testing are never notched. [IES-1999]
Ci
Reason (R): A notch introduces tri-axial tensile stresses which cause brittle
fracture.
(b) Both A and R are individually true but R is NOT the correct explanation of A
IES-56. Ans. (d) A is false but R is correct.
Page 34 of 429
Tensile Test
IES-57. During tensile-testing of a specimen using a Universal Testing Machine, the
parameters actually measured include [IES-1996]
(a) True stress and true strain (b) Poisson’s ratio and Young's modulus
(c) Engineering stress and engineering strain (d) Load and elongation
IES-57. Ans. (d)
IES-58. In a tensile test, near the elastic limit zone [IES-2006]

(a) Tensile stress increases at a faster rate
(b) Tensile stress decreases at a faster rate
(c) Tensile stress increases in linear proportion to the stress
t.in
(d) Tensile stress decreases in linear proportion to the stress
IES-58. Ans. (b)
IES-59. Match List-I (Types of Tests and Materials) with List-II (Types of Fractures)
and select the correct answer using the codes given below the lists:
List I List-II [IES-2002; IAS-2004]
po
(Types of Tests and Materials) (Types of Fractures)
A. Tensile test on CI 1. Plain fracture on a transverse plane
B. Torsion test on MS 2. Granular helecoidal fracture
C. Tensile test on MS 3. Plain granular at 45° to the axis
D. Torsion test on CI gs4. Cup and Cone
5. Granular fracture on a transverse plane
Codes:
A B C D A B C D
(a) 4 2 3 1 (c) 4 1 3 2
(b) 5 1 4 2 (d) 5 2 4 1
blo
IES-59. Ans. (d)
IES-60. Which of the following materials generally exhibits a yield point? [IES-2003]
(a) Cast iron (b) Annealed and hot-rolled mild steel
(c) Soft brass (d) Cold-rolled steel
IES-60. Ans. (b)
.
tas
IES-61. For most brittle materials, the ultimate strength in compression is much large
then the ultimate strength in tension. The is mainly due to [IES-1992]
(a) Presence of flaws and microscopic cracks or cavities
(b) Necking in tension
(c) Severity of tensile stress as compared to compressive stress
(d) Non-linearity of stress-strain diagram
lda
IES-61. Ans. (a)
IES-62. What is the safe static tensile load for a M36 × 4C bolt of mild steel having yield
stress of 280 MPa and a factor of safety 1.5? [IES-2005]
(a) 285 kN (b) 190 kN (c) 142.5 kN (d) 95 kN
vi
W S d2
IES-62. Ans. (b) V c or W V c u ;
S d2 4
4
W V c u S u d2 280 u S u 362
Ci
Wsafe N 190kN
fos fos u 4 1.5 u 4
IES-63. Which one of the following properties is more sensitive to increase in strain
rate? [IES-2000]
(a) Yield strength (b) Proportional limit (c) Elastic limit (d) Tensile strength
IES-63. Ans. (b)
Page 35 of 429
IES-64. A steel hub of 100 mm internal diameter and uniform thickness of 10 mm was
heated to a temperature of 300oC to shrink-fit it on a shaft. On cooling, a crack
developed parallel to the direction of the length of the hub. Consider the
following factors in this regard: [IES-1994]
1. Tensile hoop stress 2. Tensile radial stress
3. Compressive hoop stress 4. Compressive radial stress
The cause of failure is attributable to
(a) 1 alone (b) 1 and 3 (c) 1, 2 and 4 (d) 2, 3 and 4
IES-64. Ans. (a) A crack parallel to the direction of length of hub means the failure was due to
tensile hoop stress only.
IES-65. If failure in shear along 45° planes is to be avoided, then a material subjected
t.in
to uniaxial tension should have its shear strength equal to at least [IES-1994]
(a) Tensile strength (b) Compressive strength
(c) Half the difference between the tensile and compressive strengths.
(d) Half the tensile strength.
IES-65. Ans. (d)
IES-66. Select the proper sequence [IES-1992]
po
1. Proportional Limit 2. Elastic limit 3. Yielding 4. Failure
(a) 2, 3, 1, 4 (b) 2, 1, 3, 4 (c) 1, 3, 2, 4 (d) 1, 2, 3, 4
IES-66. Ans. (d)
gs
. blo
Previous 20-Years IAS Questions

tas

IAS-1. A heavy uniform rod of length 'L' and material density 'ǅ' is hung vertically
with its top end rigidly fixed. How is the total elongation of the bar under its
lda
own weight expressed? [IAS-2007]

2G L2 g G L2 g G L2 g G L2 g
(a) (b) (c) (d)
E E 2E 2E
IAS-1. Ans. (d) Elongation due to self weight =

WL G ALg L G L2 g
vi
2 AE 2 AE 2E
IAS-2. A rod of length 'l' and cross-section area ‘A’ rotates about an axis passing
through one end of the rod. The extension produced in the rod due to
Ci
centrifugal forces is (w is the weight of the rod per unit length and Z is the
angular velocity of rotation of the rod). [IAS 1994]
Zwl 2 Z 2 wl 3 Z 2 wl 3 3 gE
(a) (b) (c) (d)
gE 3 gE gE Z 2 wl 3
IAS-2. Ans. (b)
Page 36 of 429
Elongation of a Taper Rod

IAS-3. A rod of length, " L " tapers uniformly from a diameter ''D1' to a diameter ''D2' and
carries an axial tensile load of "P". The extension of the rod is (E represents the
modulus of elasticity of the material of the rod) [IAS-1996]
4 P1 4 PE1 S EP1 S P1
(a) (b) (c) (d)
S ED1 D2 S D1 D2 4 D1D2 4 ED1D2
Pl
IAS-3. Ans. (a) The extension of the taper rod =
§S ·
¨ 4 D1D2 ¸ .E
© ¹
t.in
Poisson’s ratio
IAS-4. In the case of an engineering material under unidirectional stress in the x-
direction, the Poisson's ratio is equal to (symbols have the usual meanings)
[IAS 1994, IES-2000]
Hy Hy Vy Vy
po
(a) (b) (c) (d)
Hx Vx Vx Hx
IAS-4. Ans. (a)
IAS-5. Assertion (A): Poisson's ratio of a material is a measure of its ductility.

gs
Reason (R): For every linear strain in the direction of force, Poisson's ratio of
the material gives the lateral strain in directions perpendicular to the
direction of force. [IAS-1999]
blo
IAS-5. ans. (d)
IAS-6. Assertion (A): Poisson's ratio is a measure of the lateral strain in all direction
perpendicular to and in terms of the linear strain. [IAS-1997]
.
Reason (R): The nature of lateral strain in a uni-axially loaded bar is opposite
tas
to that of the linear strain.

lda
IAS-6. Ans. (b)

IAS-7. A weight falls on a plunger fitted in a container filled with oil thereby
producing a pressure of 1.5 N/mm2 in the oil. The Bulk Modulus of oil is 2800
vi
N/mm2. Given this situation, the volumetric compressive strain produced in the
oil will be: [IAS-1997]
(a) 400 × 10-6 (b) 800 × 106 (c) 268 × 106 (d) 535 × 10-6
P P 1.5
535 u 106
Ci
IAS-7. Ans. (d) Bulk modulus of elasticity (K) = or H v

Hv K 2800

IAS-8. For a linearly elastic, isotropic and homogeneous material, the number of
elastic constants required to relate stress and strain is: [IAS 1994; IES-1998]
(a) Two (b) Three (c) Four (d) Six
IAS-8. Ans. (a)
Page 37 of 429
IAS-9. The independent elastic constants for a homogenous and isotropic material are
(a) E, G, K, v (b) E, G, K (c) E, G, v (d) E, G [IAS-1995]
IAS-9. Ans. (d)
IAS-10. The unit of elastic modulus is the same as those of [IAS 1994]
(a) Stress, shear modulus and pressure (b) Strain, shear modulus and force
(c) Shear modulus, stress and force (d) Stress, strain and pressure.
IAS-10. Ans. (a)
IAS-11. Young's modulus of elasticity and Poisson's ratio of a material are 1.25 × 105
MPa and 0.34 respectively. The modulus of rigidity of the material is:
[IAS 1994, IES-1995, 2001, 2002, 2007]
t.in
(a) 0.4025 × 105 MPa (b) 0.4664 × 105 MPa
(c) 0.8375 × 10 MPa
5 (d) 0.9469 × 105 MPa
IAS-11. Ans.(b) E 2G (1 P ) or 1.25x10 = 2G(1+0.34) or G = 0.4664 × 105 MPa
5
IAS-12. The Young's modulus of elasticity of a material is 2.5 times its modulus of
rigidity. The Posson's ratio for the material will be: [IAS-1997]
po
(a) 0.25 (b) 0.33 (c) 0.50 (d) 0.75
E § E · § 2.5 ·
IAS-12. Ans. (a) E 2G 1 P 1 P P ¨ 1¸ ¨ 1¸ 0.25
2G © 2G ¹ © 2 ¹
IAS-13.
gs
In a homogenous, isotropic elastic material, the modulus of elasticity E in
terms of G and K is equal to [IAS-1995, IES - 1992]
G 3K 3G K 9 KG 9 KG
(a) (b) (c) (d)
blo
9 KG 9 KG G 3K K 3G
IAS-13. Ans. (c)
IAS-14. The Elastic Constants E and K are related as ( P is the Poisson’s ratio) [IAS-1996]
(a) E = 2k (1 – 2 P ) (b) E = 3k (1- 2 P ) (c) E = 3k (1 + P ) (d) E = 2K(1 + 2 P )
IAS-14. Ans. (b) E = 2G (1 + P ) = 3k (1- 2 P )
.
tas
IAS-15. For an isotropic, homogeneous and linearly elastic material, which obeys
Hooke's law, the number of independent elastic constant is: [IAS-2000]
(a) 1 (b) 2 (c) 3 (d) 6
IAS-15. Ans. (b) E, G, K and μ represent the elastic modulus, shear modulus, bulk modulus and
poisons ratio respectively of a ‘linearly elastic, isotropic and homogeneous material.’ To
lda
express the stress – strain relations completely for this material; at least any two of the
9 KG
four must be known. E 2G 1 P 3K 1 3P
3K G
IAS-16. The moduli of elasticity and rigidity of a material are 200 GPa and 80 GPa,
respectively. What is the value of the Poisson's ratio of the material? [IAS-2007]
vi
(a) 0·30 (b) 0·26 (c) 0·25 (d) 0·24

E 200
IAS-16. Ans. (c) E = 2G (1+ P ) or P= 1 1 0.25
2G 2 u 80
Ci
Stresses in compound strut

IAS-17. The reactions at the rigid supports at A and B for the bar loaded as shown in
the figure are respectively. [IES-2002; IAS-2003]
(a) 20/3 kN,10/3 Kn (b) 10/3 kN, 20/3 kN (c) 5 kN, 5 kN (d) 6 kN, 4 kN
Page 38 of 429
IAS-17. Ans. (a) Elongation in AC = length reduction in CB

RA u 1 RB u 2
t.in
AE AE
And RA + RB = 10
Thermal effect
IAS-18. A steel rod 10 mm in diameter and 1m long is heated from 20°C to 120°C, E = 200
po
GPa and ǂ = 12 × 10-6 per °C. If the rod is not free to expand, the thermal stress
developed is: [IAS-2003, IES-1997, 2000, 2006]
(a) 120 MPa (tensile) (b) 240 MPa (tensile)
(c) 120 MPa (compressive) (d) 240 MPa (compressive)
12 u 10 u 200 u 10 u 120 20
IAS-18. Ans. (d) D E't 6
gs 3
It will be compressive as elongation restricted.

240MPa
IAS-19. A. steel rod of diameter 1 cm and 1 m long is heated from 20°C to 120°C. Its
blo
D 12 u106 / K and E=200 GN/m2. If the rod is free to expand, the thermal
stress developed in it is: [IAS-2002]
(a) 12 × 104 N/m2 (b) 240 kN/m2 (c) zero (d) infinity
IAS-19. Ans. (c) Thermal stress will develop only if expansion is restricted.
IAS-20. Which one of the following pairs is NOT correctly matched? [IAS-1999]
.
(E = Young's modulus, ǂ = Coefficient of linear expansion, T = Temperature

tas
rise, A = Area of cross-section, l= Original length)

(a) Temperature strain with permitted expansion G ….. ( DTl G )
(b) Temperature stress ….. DTE
(c) Temperature thrust ….. DTEA
E (D Tl G )
lda
(d) Temperature stress with permitted expansion …..

l
IAS-20. Ans. (a) Dimensional analysis gives (a) is wrong
Impact loading
vi
IAS-21. Match List I with List II and select the correct answer using the codes given
below the lists: [IAS-1995]
List I (Property) List II (Testing Machine)
A. Tensile strength 1. Rotating Bending Machine
Ci
B. Impact strength 2. Three-Point Loading Machine

C. Bending strength 3. Universal Testing Machine
D. Fatigue strength 4. Izod Testing Machine
(a) 4 3 2 1 (b) 3 2 1 4
(c) 2 1 4 3 (d) 3 4 2 1
IAS-21. Ans. (d)
Page 39 of 429
Tensile Test
IAS-22. A mild steel specimen is tested in tension up to fracture in a Universal Testing
Machine. Which of the following mechanical properties of the material can be
evaluated from such a test? [IAS-2007]
1. Modulus of elasticity 2. Yield stress 3. Ductility
4. Tensile strength 5. Modulus of rigidity
Select the correct answer using the code given below:
(a) 1, 3, 5 and 6 (b) 2, 3, 4 and 6 (c) 1, 2, 5 and 6 (d) 1, 2, 3 and 4
IAS-22. Ans. (d)
IAS-23. In a simple tension test, Hooke's law is valid upto the [IAS-1998]
t.in
(a) Elastic limit (b) Limit of proportionality (c) Ultimate stress (d) Breaking point
IAS-23. Ans. (b)
IAS-24. Lueder' lines on steel specimen under simple tension test is a direct indication
of yielding of material due to slip along the plane [IAS-1997]
(a) Of maximum principal stress (b) Off maximum shear
po
(c) Of loading (d) Perpendicular to the direction of loading
IAS-24. Ans. (b)
IAS-25. The percentage elongation of a material as obtained from static tension test
depends upon the gs [IAS-1998]
(a) Diameter of the test specimen (b) Gauge length of the specimen
(c) Nature of end-grips of the testing machine (d) Geometry of the test specimen
IAS-25. Ans. (b)
IAS-26. Match List-I (Types of Tests and Materials) with List-II (Types of Fractures)
blo
and select the correct answer using the codes given below the lists:
List I List-II [IES-2002; IAS-2004]
(Types of Tests and Materials) (Types of Fractures)
A. Tensile test on CI 1. Plain fracture on a transverse plane
B. Torsion test on MS 2. Granular helecoidal fracture
C. Tensile test on MS 3. Plain granular at 45° to the axis
.
D. Torsion test on CI 4. Cup and Cone

tas
5. Granular fracture on a transverse plane

(a) 4 2 3 1 (c) 4 1 3 2
(b) 5 1 4 2 (d) 5 2 4 1
IAS-26. Ans. (d)
lda
IAS-27. Assertion (A): For a ductile material stress-strain curve is a straight line up to
the yield point. [IAS-2003]
Reason (R): The material follows Hooke's law up to the point of proportionality.
vi

IAS-27. Ans. (d)
Ci
IAS-28. Assertion (A): Stress-strain curves for brittle material do not exhibit yield
point. [IAS-1996]
Reason (R): Brittle materials fail without yielding.
IAS-28. Ans. (a) Up to elastic limit.
Page 40 of 429
IAS-29. Match List I (Materials) with List II (Stress-Strain curves) and select the
correct answer using the codes given below the Lists: [IAS-2001]
t.in
po
(a) 3 1 4 gs 1 (b) 3 2 4 2
(c) 2 4 3 1 (d) 4 1 3 2
IAS-29. Ans. (b)
IAS-30. The stress-strain curve of an ideal elastic strain hardening material will be as
. blo
tas
[IAS-1998]
IAS-30. Ans. (d)
lda
IAS-31. An idealised stress-strain curve for a perfectly plastic material is given by

vi
Ci
[IAS-1996]
IAS-31. Ans. (a)
below the Lists: [IAS-2002]
List I List
Page 41 II
of 429
A. Ultimate strength 1. Internal structure
B. Natural strain 2. Change of length per unit instantaneous length
C. Conventional strain 3. Change of length per unit gauge length
D. Stress 4. Load per unit area
(a) 1 2 3 4 (b) 4 3 2 1
(c) 1 3 2 4 (d) 4 2 3 1
IAS-32. Ans. (a)
IAS-33. What is the cause of failure of a short MS strut under an axial load? [IAS-2007]
(a) Fracture stress (b) Shear stress (c) Buckling (d) Yielding
IAS-33. Ans. (d) In compression tests of ductile materials fractures is seldom obtained.
Compression is accompanied by lateral expansion and a compressed cylinder ultimately
t.in
assumes the shape of a flat disc.
the lists: [IAS-1995]
List I List II
A. Rigid-Perfectly plastic
B. Elastic-Perfectly plastic
po
gs
blo
C. Rigid-Strain hardening
D. Linearly elastic
.
tas
(a) 3 1 4 2 (b) 1 3 2 4
lda
(c) 3 1 2 4 (d) 1 3 4 2
IAS-34. Ans. (a)
IAS-35. Which one of the following materials is highly elastic? [IAS-1995]

(a) Rubber (b) Brass (c) Steel (d) Glass
IAS-35. Ans. (c) Steel is the highly elastic material because it is deformed least on loading, and
vi
regains its original from on removal of the load.
IAS-36. Assertion (A): Hooke's law is the constitutive law for a linear elastic material.
Reason (R) Formulation of the theory of elasticity requires the hypothesis that there
Ci
exists a unique unstressed state of the body, to which the body returns
whenever all the forces are removed. [IAS-2002]
IAS-36. Ans. (a)
IAS-37. Page 42 of 429

Consider the following statements: [IAS-2002]
1. There are only two independent elastic constants.
2. Elastic constants are different in orthogonal directions.
3. Material properties are same everywhere.
4. Elastic constants are same in all loading directions.
5. The material has ability to withstand shock loading.
Which of the above statements are true for a linearly elastic, homogeneous and
isotropic material?
(a) 1, 3, 4 and 5 (b) 2, 3 and 4 (c) 1, 3 and 4 (d) 2 and 5
IAS-37. Ans. (a)
IAS-38. Which one of the following pairs is NOT correctly matched? [IAS-1999]
(a) Uniformly distributed stress …. Force passed through the centroid of the
t.in
cross-section
(b) Elastic deformation …. Work done by external forces during
deformation is dissipated fully as heat
(c) Potential energy of strain …. Body is in a state of elastic deformation
(d) Hooke's law …. Relation between stress and strain
IAS-38. Ans. (b)
po
IAS-39. A tensile bar is stressed to 250 N/mm2 which is beyond its elastic limit. At this
stage the strain produced in the bar is observed to be 0.0014. If the modulus of
elasticity of the material of the bar is 205000 N/mm2 then the elastic component
of the strain is very close to gs [IAS-1997]
(a) 0.0004 (b) 0.0002 (c) 0.0001 (d) 0.00005
IAS-39. Ans. (b)
. blo
tas
vi lda
Ci
Page 43 of 429
Previous Conventional Questions with Answers

Conventional Question IES-2010
Q. If a load of 60 kN is applied to a rigid
bar suspended by 3 wires as shown
in the above figure what force will
be resisted by each wire?
The outside wires are of Al, cross-

sectional area 300 mm2 and length 4
t.in
m. The central wire is steel with area
200 mm2 and length 8 m.
Initially there is no slack in the
wires E 2 u 105 N / mm 2 for Steel
0.667 u 105 N / mm 2 for Aluminum
po
[2 Marks]
Ans.
gs
blo
Aluminium wire
FA1
.
FSt FA1
tas
Steel wire
60kN
P 60 kN
lda
a A1 300mm 2 l A1 4m
ast 200mm 2 lst 8m
EA1 0.667 u 105 N / mm 2
vi
Est 2 u 105 N / mm 2
Force balance along vertical direction
2FA1 Fst 60 kN (1)
Ci
Elongation will be same in all wires because rod is rigid remain horizontal after
loading
FA1 u l A1 Fst .lst
(2)
a Al .EAl ast .Est
FA1 u 4 Fst u 8
5
300 u 0.667 u 10 200 u 2 u 105
FA1 1.0005 Fst (3)
Page 44 of 429
60 u 103
From equation (1) Fst 19.99 kN or 20 kN
3.001
FA1 20 kN
FA1 20 kN ½
¾ Answer.
Fst 20 kN ¿
Conventional Question GATE

Question: The diameters of the brass and steel segments of the axially loaded bar
shown in figure are 30 mm and 12 mm respectively. The diameter of the
hollow section of the brass segment is 20 mm.
t.in
Determine: (i) The maximum normal stress in the steel and brass (ii) The displacement of the free
end ; Take Es = 210 GN/m2 and Eb = 105 GN/m2
po
gs
S
blo
2
Answer: As u 12 36S mm2 36S u 10 6 m2
4
S 2
A b BC u 30 225S mm2 225S u 106 m2
4
S
Ab CD
4

u 302 202 125S mm2 125S u 106 m2
.
tas
(i) The maximum normal stress in steel and brass:

10 u 103
Vs 6
u 10 6 MN / m2 88.42MN / m2
36S u 10
5 u 103
V b BC u 10 6 MN / m2 7.07MN / m2
225S u 10 6
lda
5 u 103
V b CD u 106 MN / m2 12.73MN / m2
125S u 10 6
(ii) The displacement of the free end:
Gl G ls AB G lb BC G lb CD
vi
88.42 u 0.15 7.07 u 0.2 12.73 u 0.125 § Vl ·

9
210 u 10 u 10 6
9
105 u 10 u 10 6

105 u 109 u 10 6 ¨ G l E ¸¹
©
9.178 u 105 m 0.09178 mm
Ci

Question: Distinguish between fatigue strength and fatigue limit.
Answer: Fatigue strength as the value of cyclic stress at which failure occurs after N cycles. And
fatigue limit as the limiting value of stress at which failure occurs as N becomes very
large (sometimes called infinite cycle)
Conventional Question IES-1999 Page 45 of 429
Question: List at least two factors that promote transition from ductile to brittle
fracture.
Answer: (i) With the grooved specimens only a small reduction in area took place, and the
appearance of the facture was like that of brittle materials.
(ii) By internal cavities, thermal stresses and residual stresses may combine with
the effect of the stress concentration at the cavity to produce a crack. The
resulting fracture will have the characteristics of a brittle failure without
appreciable plastic flow, although the material may prove ductile in the usual
tensile tests.

Question: Distinguish between creep and fatigue.
t.in
Answer: Fatigue is a phenomenon associated with variable loading or more precisely to cyclic
stressing or straining of a material, metallic, components subjected to variable loading
get fatigue, which leads to their premature failure under specific conditions.
When a member is subjected to a constant load over a long period of time it undergoes
a slow permanent deformation and this is termed as ''Creep''. This is dependent on
temperature.
po
Question: What different stresses set-up in a bolt due to initial tightening, while used as
a fastener? Name all the stresses in detail.
Answer: (i) When the nut is initially tightened there will be some elongation in the bolt so
gs
tensile stress will develop.
(ii) While it is tightening a torque across some shear stress. But when tightening will
be completed there should be no shear stress.
blo
Question: A Copper rod 6 cm in diameter is placed within a steel tube, 8 cm external
diameter and 6 cm internal diameter, of exactly the same length. The two
pieces are rigidly fixed together by two transverse pins 20 mm in diameter,
one at each end passing through both rod and the tube.
Calculated the stresses induced in the copper rod, steel tube and the pins if
.
the temperature of the combination is raised by 50oC.

tas
[Take ES=210 GPa, Bs 0.0000115 / o C ; Ec=105 GPa, Bc 0.000017 / o C ]

Answer:
lda
Tc Ts
vi
%t (Bc Bs )
Ec Es
2
Qd 2 Q 6 ¬ 2 3 2
Area of copper rod(A c ) = m 2.8274 q10 m
Ci
4 4 100 ®
Qd 2 Q ¡ 8 ¬ 6 ¬ ¯° 2
2 2
3 2
Area of steel tube (A s ) = ¡ m 2.1991q10 m
4 4 ¡¢100 ® 100 ® °±°
Rise in temperature,%t 50o C
Free expansion of copper bar=Bc L+t
Free expansion of steel tube =Page +tof 429
Bs L46
Difference in free expansion = Bc Bs
L+t
= 17-11.5
×106 q L q 50=2.75×10-4L m
A compressive force (P) exerted by the steel tube on the copper rod opposed the extra
expansion of the copper rod and the copper rod exerts an equal tensile force P to pull
the steel tube. In this combined effect reduction in copper rod and increase in length of
steel tube equalize the difference in free expansions of the combined system.
Reduction in the length of copper rod due to force P Newton=
PL PL
+L
C m
Ac Ec 2.8275 q103
105 q109
Increase in length of steel tube due to force P
t.in
PL P .L
+L
S m
As Es 2.1991 q103
210 q109
Difference in length is equated

+L
c +L
s 2.75 q104 L
po
PL P.L
2.75 q104 L
2.8275 q 103

105 q 10 9

2.1991q 103

210 q 10 9

Or P = 49.695 kN
P gs 49695
Stress in copper rod, Tc MPa=17.58MPa
Ac 2.8275 q103
P 49695
Stress in steel tube, Ts MPa 22.6MPa
As 2.1991q103
blo
Since each of the pin is in double shear, shear stress in pins ( U pin )
P 49695
= = 79 MPa
2 q Apin 2 q Q 0.02
2
4
.

tas
Question: Why are the bolts, subjected to impact, made longer?

Answer: If we increase length its volume will increase so shock absorbing capacity will
increased.

lda
Question: Explain the following in brief:

(i) Effect of size on the tensile strength
(ii) Effect of surface finish on endurance limit.
Answer: (i) When size of the specimen increases tensile strength decrease. It is due to the
reason that if size increases there should be more change of defects (voids) into
the material which reduces the strength appreciably.
vi
(ii) If the surface finish is poor, the endurance strength is reduced because of
scratches present in the specimen. From the scratch crack propagation will start.

Ci
Question: Mention the relationship between three elastic constants i.e. elastic modulus
(E), rigidity modulus (G), and bulk modulus (K) for any Elastic material. How
is the Poisson's ratio ( ȝ ) related to these modulli?
9KG
Answer: E
3K G
9KG
E 3K (1 2μ) = 2G(1 + μ) =
3K + G
Page 47 of 429
Question: The elastic and shear moduli of an elastic material are 2×1011 Pa and 8×1010
Pa respectively. Determine Poisson's ratio of the material.
9KG
Answer: We know that E = 2G(1+ μ ) = 3K(1 - 2μ) =
3K + G
E
or,1 μ
2G
E 2 q1011
or μ 1 1 0.25
2G 2 q (8 q1010 )
t.in
Question: A steel bolt of diameter 10 mm passes through a brass tube of internal
diameter 15 mm and external diameter 25 mm. The bolt is tightened by a nut
so that the length of tube is reduced by 1.5 mm. If the temperature of the
assembly is raised by 40oC, estimate the axial stresses the bolt and the tube
before and after heating. Material properties for steel and brass are:
ES 2q105 N / mm 2 BS 1.2q105 / o C and Eb= 1×105 N/mm2 B b=1.9×10-15/oC
po
Answer:
gs
. blo
tas
ʌ
Area of steel bolt (A s )= q (0.010)2 m 2 7.854 q105 m 2
4
ʌ
Area of brass tube (A b )= ¡¢(0.025)2 (0.015)2 ¯°± 3.1416 q104
4
Stress due to tightening of the nut
lda
Compressive force on brass tube= tensile fore on steel bolt

or, ıb Ab ıS As
¯
¡ °
(%l )b ¡ ı ı °
¡' E= °
vi
or , Eb. .Ab ıs As
A ¡ +L ¬ °
¡ °°
¡¢ L ®±
Let assume total length (A )=1m
Ci
(1.5 q103 )
Therefore (1×105 q106 ) q q 3.1416 q104
Ts q 7.854×10-5
1
or Ts 600 MPa (tensile )
(%l )b (1.5 q103 )
and Tb =Eb. (1×105 ) q MPa 150MPa (Compressive )
A 1
Page 48 of 429
So before heating
Stress in brass tube (ıb ) 150MPa (compressive )
Stress in steel bolt(ı s ) 600MPa (tensile)
Stress due to rise of temperature

Let stress ı 'b & ı 's are due to brass tube and steel bolt.
If the two members had been free to expand,
Free expansion of steel = Bs q+t q1
Free expansion of brass tube = Bb q+t q1
t.in
Since Bb ıs free expansion of copper is greater than the free expansion of steel. But
they are rigidly fixed so final expansion of each members will be same. Let us assume
this final expansion is ' į ', The free expansion of brass tube is grater than į , while the
free expansion of steel is less than E . Hence the steel rod will be subjected to a tensile
stress while the brass tube will be subjected to a compressive stress.
po
For the equilibrium of the whole system,
Total tension (Pull) in steel =Total compression (Push) in brass tube.

As 7.854 q105 '
ı 'b Ab ıs' As or , ıb' ı's q
gs ıS 0.25ıS'
Ab 3.14 q104
Final expansion of steel =final expansion of brass tube
ı s' T'
Bs (+t ).1 q1 Bb (+t ) q1 b q1
blo
Es Eb
ıs' ı 'b
or , 1.2 q105
q 40 q1 (1.9 q 105
) q 40 q 1 (ii )
2 q105 q106 1q105 q106
From(i) & (ii) we get
1 0.25 ¯
ıs' ¡ 11 ° 2.8 q104
.
¡ 2 q10 11
10 °±
¢
tas
or , ı s' 37.33 MPa (Tensile stress)

or, ı b' = 9.33MPa (compressive)
Therefore, the final stresses due to tightening and temperature rise
Stress in brass tube =ı b +ıb' =150+9.33MPa=159.33MPa
lda
Stress in steel bolt =ı s +ı 's = 600 + 37.33 = 637.33MPa.

Question: A Solid right cone of axial length h is made of a material having density S
vi
and elasticity modulus E. It is suspended from its circular base. Determine its
elongation due to its self weight.
Answer: See in the figure MNH is a solid right cone of
length 'h' .
Ci
Let us assume its wider end of diameter’d’ fixed

rigidly at MN.
Now consider a small strip of thickness dy at a
distance y from the lower end.
Let 'ds' is the diameter of the strip.
1 ʌd 2 ¬
= Weight of portion UVH= s y q Sg (i )
3 4 ®
Page 49 of 429
From the similar triangles MNH and UVH,
MN d A

UV ds y
d .y
or , ds ( ii )
A
t.in
force at UV Weight of UVH
= Stress at section UV =
cross sec tion area at UV ʌd s2 ¬

4 ®
po
1 ʌd s2
. .y .Sg
3 4 1
= y Sg
ʌd 2 ¬ 3
s
4 ®
1 ¬
y Sg .dy
3 ®
gs
So, extension in dy=
E
blo
1
h y Sgdy
3 Sgh 2
= Total extension of the bar =¨
0
E 6E
From stress-strain relation ship

į į E.A
.
E= or , d A
d A E
tas

Question: Which one of the three shafts listed hare has the highest ultimate tensile
strength? Which is the approximate carbon content in each steel?
lda
(i) Mild Steel (ii) cast iron (iii) spring steel

Answer: Among three steel given, spring steel has the highest ultimate tensile strength.
Approximate carbon content in
(i) Mild steel is (0.3% to 0.8%)
(ii) Cost iron (2% to 4%)
(iii) Spring steel (0.4% to 1.1%)
vi

Question: If a rod of brittle material is subjected to pure torsion, show with help of a
Ci
sketch, the plane along which it will fail and state the reason for its failure.
Answer: Brittle materials fail in tension. In a torsion test the maximum tensile test Occurs at
45° to the axis of the shaft. So failure will occurs along a 45o to the axis of the shaft. So
failure will occurs along a 45° helix
X
X
So failures will occurs according toPage 50 of 429
45° plane.
Conventional Question IAS-1995

Question: The steel bolt shown in Figure has a thread pitch of 1.6 mm. If the nut is
initially tightened up by hand so as to cause no stress in the copper spacing
tube, calculate the stresses induced in the tube and in the bolt if a spanner is
then used to turn the nut through 90°.Take Ec and Es as 100 GPa and 209 GPa
respectively.
Answer: Given: p = 1.6 mm, Ec= 100 GPa ; Es = 209 CPa.
t.in
po
Stresses induced in the tube and the bolt, V c ,V s :
2
S § 10 ·
As u¨ ¸ 7.584 u 10 5 m2
4 © 1000 ¹ gs
2 2
S ª§ 18 · § 12 · º 5 2
As u «¨ ¸ ¨ ¸ » 14.14 u 10 m
4 «¬© 1000 ¹ © 1000 ¹ »¼
Tensile force on steel bolt, Ps = compressive force in copper tube, Pc = P
blo
Also, Increase in length of bolt + decrease in length of tube = axial displacement of nut
90
i,e G l s G l c 1.6 u 0.4mm 0.4 u 10 3 m
360
Pl Pl
or 0.4 u 103 ls lc l
A sEs A cEc
.
§ 100 · ª 1 1 º
or Pu¨ ¸ 0.4 u 103
tas
« 5 9 5 9 »
© 1000 ¹ ¬ 7.854 u 10 u 209 u 10 14.14 u 10 u 100 u 10 ¼
or P 30386N
P P
? 386.88MPa and 214.89MPa
As Ac
lda
Conventional Question AMIE-1997

Question: A steel wire 2 m long and 3 mm in diameter is extended by 0·75 mm when a
weight W is suspended from the wire. If the same weight is suspended from a
brass wire, 2·5 m long and 2 mm in diameter, it is elongated by 4 -64 mm.
Determine the modulus of elasticity of brass if that of steel be 2.0 × 105 N /
vi
mm2
Answer: Given, ls 2 m, ds = 3 mm, G ls 0·75 mm; Es = 2·0 × 105 N / mm2; lb 2.5 m, db
=2 mm G lb 4.64m m and let modulus of elasticity of brass = Eb
Ci
Pl
Hooke's law gives, G l [Symbol has usual meaning]
AE
Case I: For steel wire:
Page 51 of 429
Pls
G ls
A sEs
P u 2 u 1000 ---- (i)
or 0.75
§S 2· 5 1
¨ 4 u 3 ¸ u 2.0 u 10 u 2000
© ¹
Case II: For bass wire:
Plb
G lb
A bEb
P u 2.5 u 1000
4.64 ---- (ii)
t.in
§S 2·
¨ 4 u 2 ¸ u Eb
© ¹
§S · 1
or P 4.64 u ¨ u 22 ¸ u Eb u
©4 ¹ 2500
From (i) and (ii), we get
po
§S · 1 §S · 1
0.75 u ¨ u 32 ¸ u 2.0 u 105 u 4.64 u ¨ u 22 ¸ u Eb u
©4 ¹ 2000 ©4 ¹ 2500
or Eb 0.909 u 10 N / mm2
5

Question:
gs
A steel bolt and sleeve assembly is shown in figure below. The nut is
tightened up on the tube through the rigid end blocks until the tensile force
in the bolt is 40 kN. If an external load 30 kN is then applied to the end
blo
blocks, tending to pull them apart, estimate the resulting force in the bolt
and sleeve.
.
tas
lda
2
§ 25 ·
Answer: Area of steel bolt, A b ¨ 1000 ¸ 4.908 u 104 m2
© ¹
vi
2 2
S ª§ 62.5 · § 50 · º
Area of steel sleeve, A s «¨ » 1.104 u 10 3 m2
4 ¬«© 1000 ¸¹ ¨© 1000 ¸¹ ¼»
Forces in the bolt and sleeve:
Ci
(i) Stresses due to tightening the nut:

Let V b = stress developed in steel bolt due to tightening the nut; and
V s = stress developed in steel sleeve due to tightening the nut.
Tensile force in the steel bolt = 40 kN = 0·04 MN
Page 52 of 429
V b u Ab 0.04
or V b u 4.908 u 104 0.04
0.04
? Vb 81.5MN / m2 tensile
4.908 u 104
Compressive force in steel sleeve = 0·04 MN
V s u As 0.04
or V s u 1.104 u 103 0.04
0.04
? Vs 36.23MN / m2 compressive
1.104 u 10 3
t.in
(ii) Stresses due to tensile force:
Let the stresses developed due to tensile force of 30 kN = 0·03 MN in steel bolt and
sleeve be V 'b and V 's respectively.
Then, V 'b u A b V 's u A s 0.03
V 'b u 4.908 u 10 V 's u 1.104 u 103
4
0.03 (i)
po
In a compound system with an external tensile load, elongation caused in each will be
the same.
V 'b
G lb u lb
Eb
or G lb
V 'b
Eb
u 0.5
gs
Given,lb 500mm 0.5
V 's
and G ls u 0.4 Given,ls 400mm 0.4
Es
blo
But G lb Gs
V 'b V 's
? u 0.5 u 0.4
Eb Es
or V 'b 0.8V 's Given,Eb Es (2)
.
Substituting this value in (1), we get

tas
0.8V 's u 4.908 u 10 4 V 's u 1.104 u 10 3 0.03

gives V 's 20MN / m tensile
2
and V 'b 0.8 u 20 16MN / m2 tensile

Re sulting stress in steel bolt,
lda
V b r V b V 'b 81.5 16 97.5MN / m2

Re sulting stress in steel sleeve,
V s r V s V 's 36.23 20 16.23MN / m2 compressive
V b r u A b
vi
Re sulting force in steel bolt,

97.5 u 4.908 u 104 0.0478MN tensile
Re sulting force in steel sleeve V b r u A s
Ci
16.23 u 1.104 u 10 3 0.0179MN compressive
Page 53 of 429
2. Principal Stress and Strain

2.1 States of stress
x Uni-axial stress: only one non-zero
t.in
principal stress, i.e. ǔ1
Right side figure represents Uni-axial state of
stress.
po
x Bi-axial stress: one principal stress
equals zero, two do not, i.e. ǔ1 > ǔ3 ; ǔ2 = 0
Right side figure represents Bi-axial state of
stress.
gs
blo
x Tri-axial stress: three non-zero
principal stresses, i.e. ǔ1 > ǔ2 > ǔ3
Right side figure represents Tri-axial state of
stress.
.
tas
x Isotropic stress: three principal

stresses are equal, i.e. ǔ1 = ǔ2 = ǔ3
lda
Right side figure represents isotropic state of

stress.
x Axial stress: two of three principal

vi
stresses are equal, i.e. ǔ1 = ǔ2 or ǔ2 = ǔ3

Right side figure represents axial state of
Ci
stress.
Page 54 of 429
Chapter-2 Principal Stress and Strain S K Mondal’s
x Hydrostatic pressure: weight of column of
fluid in interconnected pore spaces.
Phydrostatic = ǒfluid gh (density, gravity, depth)
x Hydrostatic stress: Hydrostatic stress is

used to describe a state of tensile or
compressive stress equal in all directions
within or external to a body. Hydrostatic Or
stress causes a change in volume of a
t.in
material. Shape of the body remains
unchanged i.e. no distortion occurs in the
body.
Right side figure represents Hydrostatic state of
po
stress.
2.2 Uni-axial stress on oblique plane

gs
Let us consider a bar of uniform cross sectional area A under direct tensile load P giving rise to axial
normal stress P/A acting on a cross section XX. Now consider another section given by the plane YY
inclined at T with the XX. This is depicted in following three ways.
. blo
tas
Fig. (a)
Fig. (b)
vi lda
Fig. (c)
Ci
A
Area of the YY Plane = ; Let us assume the normal stress in the YY plane is Vn and there is
cos T
a shear stress W acting parallel to the YY plane.
Now resolve the force P in two perpendicular direction one normal to the plane YY = P cos T and
another parallel to the plane YY = Pcosș

Page 55 of 429
A P
Therefore equilibrium gives, Vn
cos T
P cos T or Vn cos 2 T
A
P
Wu
A
P sin T W
P
sin T cos T
W sin 2T
and
cos T
or
A
or 2A
x Note the variation of normal stress Vn and shear stress W with the variation of T .
t.in
When T 0 , normal stress V n is maximum i.e. V n max and shear stress W 0 . As T is
A
increased, the normal stress V n diminishes, until when T 0, V n 0. But if angle
P S
T increased shear stress W increases to a maximum value W max at T 45o and then
2A 4
po
diminishes to W 0 at T 90o
x The shear stress will be maximum when sin 2T 1 or T 45o
P
x And the maximum shear stress, W max
gs
2A
x In ductile material failure in tension is initiated by shear stress i.e. the failure occurs across
blo
the shear planes at 45o (where it is maximum) to the applied load.
Let us clear a concept about a common mistake: The angle T is not between the applied load
and the plane. It is between the planes XX and YY. But if in any question the angle between the
applied load and the plane is given don’t take it as T . The angle between the applied load and the
.
plane is 90 - T. In this case you have to use the above formula as

tas
P P
Vn cos2 (90 T ) and W sin(180 2T ) where T is the angle between the applied load and the
A 2A
plane. Carefully observe the following two figures it will be clear.
vi lda
Let us take an example: A metal block of 100 mm2 cross sectional area carries an axial tensile load
of 10 kN. For a plane inclined at 300 with the direction of applied load, calculate:
Ci
(a) Normal stress

(b) Shear stress
(c) Maximum shear stress.
Answer: Here T 90o 30o 60o
Page 56 of 429
P 10 u 103 N
(a) Normal stress V n cos2 T 2
u cos2 60o 25MPa
A 100 mm
P 10 u 103 N
(b) Shear stress W sin2T 2
u sin120o 43.3MPa
2A 2 u 100 mm
P 10 u 103 N
(c) Maximum shear stress W max 50MPa
2A 2 u 100 mm 2
t.in
po
x Complementary stresses
Now if we consider the stresses on an oblique plane Y’Y’ which is perpendicular to the previous
gs
plane YY. The stresses on this plane are known as complementary stresses. Complementary
normal stress is V nc and complementary shear stress is W c . The following figure shows all
blo
the four stresses. To obtain the stresses V nc and W c we need only to replace T by T 900 in the
previous equation. The angle T 900 is known as aspect angle.
.
tas
lda
Therefore
P P 2
V nc cos 2 90o T sin T
A A
vi
P P
Wc sin 2 90o T sin 2T
2A 2A
P
V nc V n W c W
Ci
It is clear and
A
i.e. Complementary shear stresses are always equal in magnitude but opposite in sign.
x Sign of Shear stress

For sign of shear stress following rule have to be followed:
Page 57 of 429
The shear stress W on any face of the element will be considered positive when it has a
clockwise moment with respect to a centre inside the element. If the moment is counter-
clockwise with respect to a centre inside the element, the shear stress in negative.
Note: The convention is opposite to that of moment of force. Shear stress tending to turn clockwise is
positive and tending to turn counter clockwise is negative.
t.in
Let us take an example: A prismatic bar of 500 mm2 cross sectional area is axially loaded with a
tensile force of 50 kN. Determine all the stresses acting on an element which makes 300 inclination
po
with the vertical plane.
Answer: Take an small element ABCD in 300 plane as shown in figure below,
Given, Area of cross-section, A = 500 mm2, Tensile force (P) = 50 kN
gs
blo
P 50×103 N
Normal stress on 30° inclined plane, n
ı = cos 2
ș = 2
×cos2 30o =75MPa (+ive means tensile).
A 500 mm
.
tas
P 50 u 103 N
Shear stress on 30° planes, W sin2T u sin 2 u 30o 43.3MPa
2A 2 u 500 mm 2
(+ive means clockwise)
Complementary stress on T 90 30 120o
lda
P 50 u 103 N
Normal stress on 1200 inclined plane, V nc cos2 T u cos2 120o 25MPa
A 500 mm 2
(+ ive means tensile)
vi
P 50 u 103 N
Shear stress on 1200 nclined plane, W c sin2T 2
u sin 2 u 120o 43.3MPa
2A 2 u 500 mm
(- ive means counter clockwise)
Ci
State of stress on the element ABCD is given below (magnifying)
Page 58 of 429
t.in
2.3 Complex Stresses (2-D Stress system)
i.e. Material subjected to combined direct and shear stress
We now consider a complex stress system below. The given figure ABCD shows on small element of
material
po
gs
. blo
Stresses in three dimensional element Stresses in cross-section of the element

tas
Vx and Vy are normal stresses and may be tensile or compressive. We know that normal stress
may come from direct force or bending moment. W xy is shear stress. We know that shear stress may
comes from direct shear force or torsion and W xy and W yx are complementary and
lda
W xy = W yx
Let Vn is the normal stress and W is the shear stress on a plane at angle T .
Considering the equilibrium of the element we can easily get

vi
V x V y V x V y
Normal stress V n cos 2T W xy sin 2T
Ci
2 2
and
ıx ıy
Shear stress W sin 2ș - W xy cos 2ș
2
Above two equations are coming from considering equilibrium. They do not depend on material
Page 59 of 429
properties and are valid for elastic and in elastic behavior.
x Location of planes of maximum stress

(a) Normal stress, V n max
For Vn maximum or minimum
wV n
0, where V n
V x Vy

V x Vy
cos 2T W xy sin 2T
wT 2 2
or
V x Vy
u sin 2T u 2 W xy cos 2T u 2 0 or tan2T p =
2W xy
t.in
2 (V x V y )
(b) Shear stress, W max

For W maximum or minimum
wW Vx Vy
po
0, where W sin 2T W xy cos 2T
wT 2
Vx Vy
or cos 2T u 2 W xy sin 2T u 2 0
2 gs
W xy
or cot 2T
Vx Vy
Let us take an example: At a point in a crank shaft the stresses on two mutually perpendicular
blo
planes are 30 MPa (tensile) and 15 MPa (tensile). The shear stress across these planes is 10 MPa.
Find the normal and shear stress on a plane making an angle 300 with the plane of first stress. Find
also magnitude and direction of resultant stress on the plane.
Answer: Given V x 25MPa tensile , V y 15MPa tensile , W xy 10MPa and 400

.
tas
V x V y V x V y
Therefore, Normal stress V n cos 2T W xy sin2T
2 2
30 15 30 15
cos 2 u 30o 10 sin 2 u 30o 34.91 MPa
2 2
lda
V x V y
Shear stress W sin2T W xy cos 2T
2
30 15
sin 2 u 30o 10cos 2 u 30o 1.5MPa
2
vi
2
Resultant stress V r 34.91 1.52 34.94MPa
W 1.5
and Obliquity I , tanI I 2.460
Vn 34.91
Ci
Page 60 of 429
t.in
2.4 Bi-axial stress
po
Let us now consider a stressed element ABCD where W xy =0, i.e. only V x and V y is there. This type
of stress is known as bi-axial stress. In the previous equation if you put W xy =0 we get Normal stress,
V n and shear stress, W on a plane at angle T .

gs
Vx V y V x V y
x Normal stress , Vn cos 2T
2 2
blo
V x V y
x Shear/Tangential stress, W sin 2T
2
x For complementary stress, aspect angle = T 900
x Aspect angle ‘ ș ’ varies from 0 to S /2
.
tas
x Normal stress V n varies between the values

V x (T 0) & V y (T S / 2)
Let us take an example: The principal tensile stresses at a point across two perpendicular planes
lda
are 100 MPa and 50 MPa. Find the normal and tangential stresses and the resultant stress and its
obliquity on a plane at 200 with the major principal plane
Answer: Given V x 100MPa tensile , V y 50MPa tensile and T 200
Vx Vy V x V y 100 50 100 50

vi
Normal stress, V n cos 2T cos 2 u 20o 94MPa

2 2 2 2
V x V y 100 50
Shear stress, W
2
sin2T
2

sin 2 u 200 16MPa
Ci
Resultant stress V r 942 162 95.4MPa
§W · § 16 ·
Therefore angle of obliquity, I tan1 ¨ ¸ tan1 ¨ ¸ 9.70
© Vn ¹ © 94 ¹
Page 61 of 429
t.in
x We may derive uni-axial stress on oblique plane from
Vx V y V x V y
po
Vn cos 2T W xy sin 2T
2 2
and ıx ı y
W sin 2ș - W xy cos 2ș gs
2
Just put V y 0 and W xy =0
Therefore,
blo
Vx 0 Vx 0 1
Vn cos 2T V x 1 cos 2T V x cos2 T
2 2 2
Vx 0 Vx
and W sin 2T sin 2T
2 2
.
tas
2.5 Pure Shear
x Pure shear is a particular case of bi-axial stress where Vx V y

lda
Note: V x or V y which one is compressive that is immaterial but one should be tensile and
other should be compressive and equal magnitude. If V x 100MPa then

vi
V y must be 100MPa otherwise if V y 100MPa then V x must be 100MPa .
x In case of pure shear on 45o planes

Ci
W max rV x ; Vn 0 and V nc 0
x We may depict the pure shear in an element by following two ways
Page 62 of 429
(a) In a torsion member, as shown below, an element ABCD is in pure shear (only shear
stress is present in this element) in this member at 45o plane an element AcBcC cDc is also
in pure shear where V x V y but in this element no shear stress is there.
t.in
po
(b) In a bi-axial state of stress a member, as shown below, an element ABCD in pure shear
where V x V y but in this element no shear stress is there and an element AcBcC cDc at
45o plane is also in pure shear (only shear stress is present in this element).
gs
. blo
tas
Let us take an example: See the in the Conventional question answer section in this chapter and
the question is “Conventional Question IES-2007”
lda
2.6 Stress Tensor
x State of stress at a point ( 3-D)

Stress acts on every surface that passes through the point. We can use three mutually
vi
perpendicular planes to describe the stress state at the point, which we approximate as a cube
each of the three planes has one normal component & two shear components therefore, 9
components necessary to define stress at a point 3 normal and 6 shear stress.
Ci
Therefore, we need nine components, to define the state of stress at a point

V x W xy W xz
V y W yx W yz
V z W zx W zy
For cube to be in equilibrium (at rest: not moving, not spinning)
Page 63 of 429
W xy W yx If they don’t offset, block spins therefore,

W xz W zx only six are independent.
W yz W zy
The nine components (six of which are independent) can be written in matrix form
§ V xx V xy V xz · §W xx W xy W xz · § V x W xy W xz · § V 11 V 12 V 13 ·
¨ ¸ ¨ ¸ ¨ ¸ ¨ ¸
t.in
V ij ¨ V yx V yy V yz ¸ or W ij ¨W yx W yy W yz ¸ ¨W yx V y W yz ¸ ¨ V 21 V 22 V 23 ¸
¨V V zy V zz ¸¹ ¨W W zz ¸¹ ¨W V z ¸¹ ¨V ¸
© zx © zx W zy © zx W zy © 31 V 32 V 33 ¹
This is the stress tensor
Components on diagonal are normal stresses; off are shear stresses
po
gs
. blo
x State of stress at an element (2-D)

tas
vi lda
Ci
2.7 Principal stress and Principal plane

x When examining stress at a point, it is possible to choose three mutually perpendicular
planes on which no shear stresses exist in three dimensions, one combination of
orientations for the three mutually perpendicular planes will cause the shear stresses on all
three planes to go to zero this is the state defined by the principal stresses.
Page 64 of 429
x Principal stresses are normal stresses that are orthogonal to
each other
x Principal planes are the planes across which principal
stresses act (faces of the cube) for principal stresses (shear
stresses are zero)
x Major Principal Stress
2
Vx V y § V x V y ·
t.in
2
V1 ¨
¨ ¸¸ W xy
2 © 2 ¹
po
x Minor principal stress
2
Vx V y § V x V y · 2
V2 W
¨
¨
gs ¸¸ xy
2 © 2 ¹
blo
x Position of principal planes
2W xy
tan2T p =
(V x V y )
.
tas
x Maximum shear stress
2
V1 V 2 § V x V y ·
lda
2
W max ¨¨ ¸¸ W xy
2 © 2 ¹
vi
Let us take an example: In the wall of a cylinder the state of stress is given by,
Vx 85MPa compressive , V y 25MPa tensile and shear stress W xy 60MPa

Ci
Calculate the principal planes on which they act. Show it in a figure.

Answer: Given V x 85MPa,V y 25MPa,W xy 60MPa
Page 65 of 429
2
Vx Vy § V x V y ·
Major principal stress V 1 ¨ ¸ W xy
2
2 © 2 ¹
2
85 25 § 85 25 · 2
¨ ¸ 60 51.4MPa
2 © 2 ¹
2
Vx Vy § V x V y ·
Minor principal stress V 2 ¨ ¸ W xy
2
2 © 2 ¹
2
85 25 § 85 25 · 2
¨ ¸ 60
t.in
2 © 2 ¹
111.4 MPa i.e. 111.4 MPa Compressive
For principalplanes
2W xy 2 u 60
tan2TP
po
V x V y 85 25
or TP 240 it is for V 1
Complementary plane TP c T P 90 660 it is for V 2
gs
The Figure showing state of stress and principal stresses is given below
. blo
tas
The direction of one principle plane and the principle stresses acting on this would be V 1 when is
acting normal to this plane, now the direction of other principal plane would be 900 + T p because the
lda
principal planes are the two mutually perpendicular plane, hence rotate the another plane 900 + T p
in the same direction to get the another plane, now complete the material element as T p is negative
that means we are measuring the angles in the opposite direction to the reference plane BC. The
vi
following figure gives clear idea about negative and positive T p .

Ci
Page 66 of 429
t.in
2.8 Mohr's circle for plane stress
x The transformation equations of plane stress can be represented in a graphical form which is
popularly known as Mohr's circle.
x Though the transformation equations are sufficient to get the normal and shear stresses on
po
any plane at a point, with Mohr's circle one can easily visualize their variation with respect
to plane orientation ǉ.
x Equation of Mohr's circle

Vx V y
gs V x V y
We know that normal stress, Vn cos 2T W xy sin 2T
2 2
blo
ıx ı y
And Tangential stress, Ĳ sin2ș - Ĳ xy cos 2ș
2
§ V x V y · V x V y
Rearranging we get, ¨ V n ¸¸ cos 2T W xy sin 2T ……………(i)
¨ 2 2
© ¹
.
tas
ıx ı y
and Ĳ sin2ș - Ĳ xy cos 2ș ……………(ii)
2
A little consideration will show that the above two equations are the equations of a circle with Vn
lda
and U as its coordinates and 2ǉ as its parameter.

If the parameter 2ǉ is eliminated from the equations, (i) & (ii) then the significance of them will
become clear.
2
Vx V y § V x V y ·
vi
2
V avg and R = ¨¨ ¸¸ W xy
2 © 2 ¹
2
Or V V avg W xy2 R2
Ci
§Vx V y ·
It is the equation of a circle with centre, V avg ,0 i.e. ¨¨ 2
,0 ¸
¸
© ¹
Page 67 of 429
2
§ V x V y · 2
and radius, R ¨¨ ¸¸ W xy
© 2 ¹
x Construction of Mohr’s circle

Convention for drawing
x A W xy that is clockwise (positive) on a face resides above the V axis; a W xy
anticlockwise (negative) on a face resides below V axis.
t.in
x Tensile stress will be positive and plotted right of the origin O. Compressive stress
will be negative and will be plotted left to the origin O.
x An angle T on real plane transfers as an angle 2T on Mohr’s circle plane.
po
We now construct Mohr’s circle in the following stress conditions
I. Bi-axial stress when V x and V y known and W xy = 0

II.
gs
Complex state of stress ( V x ,V y and W xy known)
I. Constant of Mohr’s circle for Bi-axial stress (when only V x and Vy known)
blo
If V x and V y both are tensile or both compressive sign of V x and V y will be same and this state of
stress is known as “ like stresses” if one is tensile and other is compressive sign of V x and V y will
be opposite and this state of stress is known as ‘unlike stress’.
.
tas
x Construction of Mohr’s circle for like stresses (when V x and V y are same type of stress)
Step-I: Label the element ABCD and draw all stresses.
vi lda
Step-II: Set up axes for the direct stress (as abscissa) i.e., in x-axis and shear stress (as
ordinate) i.e. in Y-axis
Ci
Page 68 of 429
Step-III: Using sign convention and some suitable scale, plot the stresses on two adjacent faces
t.in
e.g. AB and BC on the graph. Let OL and OM equal to V x and V y respectively on the
axis O V.
po
gs
Step-IV: Bisect ML at C. With C as centre and CL or CM as radius, draw a circle. It is the
Mohr’s circle.
. blo
tas
lda
T
Step-V: At the centre C draw a line CP at an angle 2 , in the same direction as the normal to
the plane makes with the direction of V x . The point P represents the state of
stress at plane ZB.
vi
Ci
Page 69 of 429
Step-VI: Calculation, Draw a perpendicular PQ and PR where PQ = W and PR = V n
t.in
Vx Vy Vx Vy
OC and MC = CL = CP =
2 2
po
Vx Vy Vx Vy
PR = V cos 2T
n 2 2
Vx Vy gs
PQ = W = CPsin 2T = sin 2T
2
[Note: In the examination you only draw final figure (which is in Step-V) and follow the
procedure step by step so that no mistakes occur.]
blo
x Construction of Mohr’s circle for unlike stresses (when V x and V y are opposite in sign)
Follow the same steps which we followed for construction for ‘like stresses’ and finally will get
the figure shown below.
.
tas
vi lda
Note: For construction of Mohr’s circle for principal stresses when ( V 1 andV 2 is known) then follow
the same steps of Constant of Mohr’s circle for Bi-axial stress (when only V x and V y known) just
Ci
change the V x V 1 and V y V 2
Page 70 of 429
t.in
II. Construction of Mohr’s circle for complex state of stress ( V x , V y and W xy known)
po
Step-I: Label the element ABCD and draw all stresses.
gs
blo
Step-II: Set up axes for the direct stress (as abscissa) i.e., in x-axis and shear stress (as
.
ordinate) i.e. in Y-axis

tas
vi lda
Step-III: Using sign convention and some suitable scale, plot the stresses on two adjacent faces
e.g. AB and BC on the graph. Let OL and OM equal to V x and V y respectively on the
axis O V . Draw LS perpendicular to oV axis and equal to W xy .i.e. LS=W xy . Here LS
Ci
is downward as W xy on AB face is (– ive) and draw MT perpendicular to oV axis and
equal to W xy i.e. MT=W xy . Here MT is upward as W xy BC face is (+ ive).
Page 71 of 429
t.in
Step-IV: Join ST and it will cut oσ axis at C. With C as centre and CS or CT as radius, draw
circle. It is the Mohr’s circle.
po
gs
Step-V: At the centre draw a line CP at an angle 2θ in the same direction as the normal to the
plane makes with the direction of σ x .
. blo
tas
lda
Step-VI: Calculation, Draw a perpendicular PQ and PR where PQ = τ and PR = σ n

σx +σy
vi
Centre, OC =
2
2
2 2 ⎛ σ x −σ y ⎞
Radius CS = ( CL ) + (LS )
Ci
= ⎜
⎜ ⎟⎟ +τ xy 2 = CT = CP
⎝ 2 ⎠
σ x +σ y σ x −σ y
PR = σ = + cos 2θ + τ sin 2θ
n 2 2 xy
σ x −σ y
PQ = τ = sin 2θ −τ xy cos 2θ .
2
[Note: In the examination you only draw final figure (which is in Step-V) and follow the
Page 72 of 429
procedure step by step so that no mistakes occur.]
PDF created with pdfFactory Pro trial version www.pdffactory.com
Note: The intersections of oV axis are two principal stresses, as shown below.
t.in
Let us take an example: See the in the Conventional question answer section in this chapter and
po
the question is “Conventional Question IES-2000”
2.9 Mohr's circle for some special cases:

i) Mohr’s circle for axial loading:
gs
blo
P
.
Vx ; Vy W xy 0
A
tas
ii) Mohr’s circle for torsional loading:

lda
Tr
W xy ; Vx Vy 0
J
vi
It is a case of pure shear

iii) In the case of pure shear
Ci
(ǔ1 = - ǔ2 and ǔ3 =Page

0) 73 of 429
Vx V y
W max rV x
iv) A shaft compressed all round by a hub
t.in
ǔ1 = ǔ2 = ǔ3 = Compressive (Pressure)
v) Thin spherical shell under internal pressure
po
gs
blo
pr pD
V1 V2 (tensile)
2t 4t
vi) Thin cylinder under pressure
.
tas
lda
pD pr pd pr
V1 (tensile) and V 2 (tensile)
2t t 4t 2t
vi
vii) Bending moment applied at the free end of a cantilever

Ci
My
Only bending stress, V 1 and V 2 W xy 0
I
Page 74 of 429
2.10 Strain
Normal strain
Let us consider an element AB of infinitesimal length ǅx. After deformation of the actual body if
wu
displacement of end A is u, that of end B is u+ .G x. This gives an increase in length of element AB
wx
§ wu · wu wu
is ¨ u+ .G x - u ¸ G x and therefore the strain in x-direction is H x
© wx ¹ wx wx
wQ ww
Similarly, strains in y and z directions are H y and H z
t.in
.
wx wz
Therefore, we may write the three normal strain components
wu wQ ww
Hx ; Hy ; and Hz .
wx wy wz
po
gs
Change in length of an infinitesimal element.
Shear strain
blo
Let us consider an element ABCD in x-y plane and let the displaced position of the element be
AcBcCcDc .This gives shear strain in x-y plane as J xy v E where v is the angle made by the
displaced live BcCc with the vertical and E is the angle made by the displaced line A cDc with the
wu wQ
.
.G y .G x
wx wu wQ
and E = wx
tas
horizontal. This gives v

Gy wy Gx wx
We may therefore write the three shear strain components as
wu wQ wQ ww ww wu
J xy ; J yz and J zx
wy wx wz wy wx wz
lda
Therefore the state of strain at a point can be completely described by the six strain components
and the strain components in their turns can be completely defined by the displacement components
u,Q , and w.
vi
Therefore, the complete strain matrix can be written as

Ci
Page 75 of 429
ªw º
« wx 0 0»
« »
«0 w
H x ½ « 0»
w y »
° ° « »
H
° y ° « w »
°H ° «0 0 u ½
° z ° wz » ° °
® ¾ « » ®X ¾
°J xy ° « w w
0 » °¯ w °¿
°J ° « wx wy »
° yz ° « »
°¯J zx °¿ «0 w w»
« wy wz »
t.in
« »
«w 0
w »
«¬ wz wx »¼
po
gs
blo
Shear strain associated with the distortion of an infinitesimal element.

.
Strain Tensor
tas
The three normal strain components are

wu wQ ww
H x H xx ; Hy H yy and Hz H zz .
wx wy wz
The three shear strain components are
lda
J xy 1 § wu wQ · J yz 1 § wQ ww · J zx 1 § wu ww ·
xy ¨ ¸; yz ¨ ¸ and zx
2 2 © wy wx ¹ 2 2 © wz wy ¹ 2 2 ¨© wz wx ¸¹
Therefore the strain tensor is
ª J xy J xz º
vi
«xx »
ªxx xy xz º « 2 2 »
« » « J yx J yz »
ij «yx yy yz » « yy »
« » « 2 2 »
Ci
¬zx zy zz ¼ « J zx J zy »

« zz »
¬ 2 2 ¼
Constitutive Equation
The constitutive equations relate stresses and strains and in linear elasticity. We know from the
Hook’s law V E.H
Page 76 of 429
Where E is modulus of elasticity
Vx
It is known that V x produces a strain of in x-direction
E
Vx Vx
and Poisson’s effect gives P in y-direction and P in z-direction.
E E
Therefore we my write the generalized Hook’s law as
1 1 1
x ªV x P V y V z º , ªV y P V z V x º and z
y ªV z P V x V y º
E¬ ¼ E ¬ ¼ E¬ ¼
It is also known that the shear stress, W GJ , where G is the shear modulus and J is shear strain.
We may thus write the three strain components as
t.in
W xy W yz W zx
J xy , J yz and J zx
G G G
In general each strain is dependent on each stress and we may write
H x ½ ªK11 K12 K13 K14 K15 K16 º V x ½
° ° « » °V °
po
°H y ° «K 21 K 22 K 23 K 24 K 25 K 26 » ° y °
°H ° «K 31 K 32 K 33 K 34 K 35 K 36 » °°V z °°
° z °
® ¾ « »® ¾
°J xy ° «K 41 K 42 K 43 K 44 K 45 K 46 » °W xy °
°J ° «K K K K K K » ° °
« 51 52 53 54 55 56 » °W yz °
° yz °
°¯J zx °¿
gs
«¬K 61 K 62 K 63 K 64 K 65 K 66 »¼ °W °
¯ zx ¿
? The number of elastic constant is 36 (For anisotropic materials)
blo
For isotropic material
1
K11 K 22 K 33
E
1
K 44 K 55 K 66
G
.
P
tas
K12 K13 K 21 K 23 K 31 K 32
E
Rest of all elements in K matrix are zero.
For isotropic material only two independent elastic constant is there say E and G.
lda
x 1-D Strain
Let us take an example: A rod of cross sectional area Ao is
loaded by a tensile force P.
vi
P
It’s stresses Vx , Vy 0, and V z 0
Ao
1-D state of stress or Uni-axial state of stress

Ci
§ V xx 0 0· § W xx 0 0· §V x 0 0·
¨ ¸ ¨ ¸ ¨ ¸
V ij ¨ 0 0 0 ¸ or W ij ¨ 0 0 0¸ ¨0 0 0¸
¨ 0 0 0 ¸¹ ¨ 0 0 0 ¸¹ ¨0 0 0 ¸¹
© © ©
Therefore strain components are

Page 77 of 429
Vx Vx Vx
x ; y P P x ; and z P P x
E E E
1-D state of strain or Uni-axial state of strain

§Vx ·
¨E 0 0 ¸
§Hx 0 0 · ¨ ¸ § py 0 0·
¨ ¸ ¨ Vx ¸ ¨ ¸
H ij ¨0 PH x 0 ¸ ¨ 0 P 0 ¸ ¨0 qy 0¸
¨ E
©0 0 PH x ¹¸ ¨ ¸ ¨
©0 0 qy ¹¸
¨ 0 V
P x ¸¸
t.in
¨ 0
© E ¹
x 2-D Strain (V z 0)
1
x ª¬V x PV y º¼
po
(i)
E
1
y ª¬V y PV x º¼ gs
E
P
z ªV x V y º¼
E¬
blo
[Where, x ,y ,z are strain component in X, Y, and Z axis respectively]
E
(ii) Vx ª P y º¼
2 ¬ x
1 P
.
tas
E
Vy ª P x º¼
2 ¬ y
1 P
lda
x 3-D Strain
1ª
(i) x V x P V y V z º¼
E¬
1ª
V y P V z V x º¼
vi
y ¬
E
1ª
V z P V x V y º¼
Ci
z
E¬
E
(ii) Vx ª1 P x P y z º
1 P 1 2 P ¬ ¼
Page 78 of 429
E
Vy ª1 P y P z x º¼
1 P 1 2P ¬
E
Vz ª1 P z P x y º
1 P 1 2P ¬ ¼
Let us take an example: At a point in a loaded member, a state of plane stress exists and the
strains are H x 270 u 10 6 ; Hy 90 u 106 and H xy 360 u 10 6 . If the elastic constants
E, P and G are 200 GPa, 0.25 and 80 GPa respectively.
t.in
Determine the normal stress V x and V y and the shear stress W xy at the point.
Answer: We know that

1
Hx ^V x PV y `
po
E
1
. Hy
E
^V y PV x `
W xy gs
H xy
G
E 200 u 109
This gives V x
1 P 2
^H x PH y ` ª 270 u 106 0.25 u 90 u 106 º¼ Pa
1 0.252 ¬
blo
52.8 MPa (i.e. tensile)
E
and V y ªH y PH x º¼
1 P 2 ¬
200 u 109
ª 90 u 106 0.25 u 270 u 106 º¼ Pa 4.8 MPa (i.e.compressive)
.
1 0.252 ¬
tas
and W xy H xy .G 360 u 106 u 80 u 109 Pa 28.8MPa
J xy
2.12 An element subjected to strain components x ,y &
lda
2
Consider an element as shown in the figure given. The strain component In X-direction is x , the
strain component in Y-direction is y and the shear strain component is J xy .

vi
Now consider a plane at an angle T with X- axis in this plane a normal strain T and a shear
strain J T . Then
Ci
x y x y J xy
x T cos 2T sin 2T
2 2 2
JT x y J xy
x sin 2T cos 2T
2 2 2
Page 79 of 429
We may find principal strain and principal plane for strains in the same process which we
followed for stress analysis.
In the principal plane shear strain is zero.
Therefore principal strains are
2 2
x y § x y · § J xy ·
1,2 r ¨ ¸ ¨ ¸
2 © 2 ¹ © 2 ¹
t.in
The angle of principal plane
J xy
tan 2T p
(x y )
po
x Maximum shearing strain is equal to the difference between the 2 principal strains i.e
(J xy ) max 1 2 gs
Mohr's Circle for circle for Plain Strain
blo
We may draw Mohr’s circle for strain following same procedure which we followed for drawing
Mohr’s circle in stress. Everything will be same and in the place of V x write x , the place of
J xy
V y write y and in place of W xy
.
write .
2
tas
vi lda
Ci
Page 80 of 429
t.in
po
2.15 Volumetric Strain (Dilation)
gs
x Rectangular block,
blo
'V
x y z
V0
Proof: Volumetric strain
.
'V V Vo
tas
V0 V0
L 1 H x u L 1 H y u L 1 H z L3
L3 After deformation,
Before deformation,
x y z
Volume (V)
lda
Volume (Vo) = L3
= L 1 H x u L 1 H y u L 1 H z
(neglecting second and third order
term, as very small )
x In case of prismatic bar,
vi
dv
Volumetric strain, H 1 2P
v
Ci
Proof: Before deformation, the volume of the

bar, V = A.L
After deformation, the length Lc L 1 H

2
and the new cross-sectional area A c A 1 PH
2
Therefore now volume V c A cLc=AL 1 H 1 PH
Page 81 of 429
2
'V V c-V AL 1 H 1 PH AL
? H 1 2P
V V AL
'V
H 1 2P
V
x Thin Cylindrical vessel
V1 V2 pr
1=Longitudinal strain = P >1 2P @
E E 2 Et
V2 V1 pr
2 =Circumferential strain = P >2 P @
t.in
E E 2Et
'V pr
1 2 2 [5 4ȝ]
Vo 2 Et
x Thin Spherical vessels
po
pr
1 2 [1 P ]
2 Et
'V 3 pr
3 [1 P ] gs
V0 2 Et
x In case of pure shear

Vx V y W
blo
Therefore
W
Hx 1 P
E
W
Hy 1 P
.
E
tas
Hz 0
dv
Therefore H v Hx Hy Hz 0
v
lda
2.16 Measurement of Strain

Unlike stress, strain can be measured directly. The most common way of measuring strain is by use
of the Strain Gauge.
vi
Strain Gauge
Ci
Page 82 of 429
A strain gage is a simple device, comprising of a thin
electric wire attached to an insulating thin backing
material such as a bakelite foil. The foil is exposed to the
surface of the specimen on which the strain is to be
measured. The thin epoxy layer bonds the gauge to the
surface and forces the gauge to shorten or elongate as if it
were part of the specimen being strained.
A change in length of the gauge due to longitudinal strain
t.in
creates a proportional change in the electric resistance,
and since a constant current is maintained in the gauge, a
proportional change in voltage. (V = IR).
The voltage can be easily measured, and through
po
calibration, transformed into the change in length of the
original gauge length, i.e. the longitudinal strain along the
gauge length.
Strain Gauge factor (G.F)

gs
. blo
The strain gauge factor relates a change in resistance with strain.

tas
Strain Rosette
The strain rosette is a device used to measure the state of strain at a point in a plane.
It comprises three or more independent strain gauges, each of which is used to read normal strain
lda
at the same point but in a different direction.

The relative orientation between the three gauges is known as D , E and G
The three measurements of normal strain provide sufficient information for the determination of the
complete state of strain at the measured point in 2-D.
vi
We have to find out x , y , and J xy form measured value a , b , and c

Ci
Page 83 of 429
General arrangement:
The orientation of strain gauges is given in the
figure. To relate strain we have to use the
following formula.
x y x y J xy
T cos 2T sin 2T
2 2 2
We get
x y x y J xy
a cos 2D sin 2D
2 2 2
t.in
x y x y J xy
b cos 2 D E sin 2 D E
2 2 2
x y x y J xy
c cos 2 D E G sin 2 D E G
2 2 2
po
From this three equations and three unknown we may solve x , y , and J xy
x Two standard arrangement of the of the strain rosette are as follows:

(i)
gs
45° strain rosette or Rectangular strain rosette.
In the general arrangement above, put
D 0o ; E 45o and G 45o

blo
Putting the value we get
x a x
x x J xy
x b 45
o
2 2
.
x c y
tas
(ii) 60° strain rosette or Delta strain rosette

In the general arrangement above, put
D 0o ; E 60o and G 60o

lda
Putting the value we get

x a y
60o 1200
x 3 y 3
x b J xy
4 4
vi
x 3 y 3 or
x c J xy
4 4
Solving above three equation we get
Ci
Page 84 of 429
Stresses due to Pure Shear

GATE-1. A block of steel is loaded by a tangential force on its top surface while the
bottom surface is held rigidly. The deformation of the block is due to
t.in
[GATE-1992]
(a) Shear only (b) Bending only (c) Shear and bending (d) Torsion
GATE-1. Ans. (a) It is the definition of shear stress. The force is applied tangentially it is not a
point load so you cannot compare it with a cantilever with a point load at its free end.
GATE-2. A shaft subjected to torsion experiences a pure shear stress W on the surface.
po
The maximum principal stress on the surface which is at 45° to the axis will
have a value [GATE-2003]
(a) W cos 45° (b) 2 W cos 45° (c) W cos2 45° (d) 2 W sin 45° cos 45°
Vx Vy Vx Vy
GATE-2. Ans. (d) V n cos 2T W xy sin 2T
2 2 gs
Here V x V 2 0, W xy W , T 45o
GATE-3. The number of components in a stress tensor defining stress at a point in three
dimensions is: [GATE-2002]
blo
(a) 3 (b) 4 (c) 6 (d) 9
GATE-3. Ans. (d) It is well known that,
W xy W yx, W xz W zx and W yz W zy
so that the state of stress at a point is given by six components V x ,V y ,V z and W xy , W yz ,W zx
.
Principal Stress and Principal Plane

tas
GATE-4. A body is subjected to a pure tensile stress of 100 units. What is the maximum
shear produced in the body at some oblique plane due to the above? [IES-2006]
(a) 100 units (b) 75 units (c) 50 units (d) 0 unit
V 1 V 2 100 0
GATE-4. Ans. (c) W max 50 units.
lda
2 2
GATE-5. In a strained material one of the principal stresses is twice the other. The
maximum shear stress in the same case is W max .Then, what is the value of the
maximum principle stress? [IES 2007]
(a) W max (b) 2 W max (c) 4 W max (d) 8 W max
vi
V1 V 2 V2
GATE-5. Ans. (c) W max , V1 2V 2 or W max or V2 2W max or V 1 2V 2 = 4W max
2 2
Ci
GATE-6. A material element subjected to a plane state of stress such that the maximum
shear stress is equal to the maximum tensile stress, would correspond to
[IAS-1998]
Page 85 of 429
V1 V 2 V 1 ( V 1 )
GATE-6. Ans. (d) W max V1
2 2
t.in
GATE-7. A solid circular shaft is subjected to a maximum shearing stress of 140 MPs.
The magnitude of the maximum normal stress developed in the shaft is:
[IAS-1995]
V1 V 2
GATE-7. Ans. (a) W max Maximum normal stress will developed if V 1 V 2 V
2
po
GATE-8. The state of stress at a point in a loaded member is shown in the figure. The
magnitude of maximum shear stress is [1MPa = 10 kg/cm2] [IAS 1994]
(a) 10 MPa (b) 30 MPa (c) 50 MPa (d) 100MPa
gs
. blo
tas
2 2
§Vx V y · § 40 40 ·
GATE-8. Ans. (c) W max ¨¨ ¸¸ W xy 2 = ¨
2
¸ 30 = 50 MPa
© 2 ¹ © 2 ¹
lda
GATE-9. A solid circular shaft of diameter 100 mm is subjected to an axial stress of 50

MPa. It is further subjected to a torque of 10 kNm. The maximum principal
stress experienced on the shaft is closest to [GATE-2008]
16T 16 u 10000
GATE-9. Ans. (b) Shear Stress ( W )= Pa 50.93 MPa
Sd 3 S u (0.1)3
vi
2
Vb §V ·
Maximum principal Stress = ¨ b ¸ W 2 =82 MPa
2 © 2 ¹
Ci
GATE-10. In a bi-axial stress problem, the stresses in x and y directions are (ǔx = 200 MPa
and ǔy =100 MPa. The maximum principal stress in MPa, is: [GATE-2000]
(a) 50 (b) 100 (c) 150 (d) 200
2
Vx Vy §Vx Vy · 2
GATE-10. Ans. (d) V 1 ¨ ¸ W xy if W xy 0
2 © 2 ¹
Page 86 of 429
2
Vx Vy §Vx Vy ·
¨ ¸ Vx
2 © 2 ¹
GATE-11. The maximum principle stress for the stress

state shown in the figure is
(a) ǔ (b) 2 ǔ
(c) 3 ǔ (d) 1.5 ǔ
[GATE-2001]
t.in
GATE-11. Ans. (b) V x V, Vy V , W xy V
2
Vx Vy §Vx Vy · V V 2
?V 1 max ¨ 2
¸ W xy 0 V2 2V
2 © 2 ¹ 2
GATE-12. The normal stresses at a point are ǔx = 10 MPa and, ǔy = 2 MPa; the shear stress
po
at this point is 4MPa. The maximum principal stress at this point is:
[GATE-1998]
2 2
Vx Vy §Vx Vy · 2gs 10 2 § 10 2 · 2
GATE-12. Ans. (c) V 1 ¨ ¸ W xy ¨ ¸ 4 11.66 MPa
2 © 2 ¹ 2 © 2 ¹
GATE-13. In a Mohr's circle, the radius of the circle is taken as: [IES-2006; GATE-1993]
blo
2
§ V x V y ·
2
2 V V y 2
¸ W xy W xy
x
(a) ¨ (b)
© 2 ¹ 2
2
§ V x V y · 2 2 2
(c) ¨ ¸ W xy (d) V x V y W xy
© 2 ¹
.
Where, ǔx and ǔy are normal stresses along x and y directions respectively and Ǖxy is the
tas
shear stress.
GATE-13. Ans. (a)
vi lda
Ci
GATE-14. A two dimensional fluid element rotates like a rigid body. At a point within the
element, the pressure is 1 unit. Radius of the Mohr's circle, characterizing the
state of stress at that point, is: [GATE-2008]
(a) 0.5 unit (b) 0 unit (c) 1 unit (d) 2 units
GATE-14. Ans. (b)
Page 87 of 429
GATE-15. The Mohr's circle of plane stress
for a point in a body is shown.
The design is to be done on the
basis of the maximum shear
stress theory for yielding. Then,
yielding will just begin if the
designer chooses a ductile
material whose yield strength is:
(a) 45 MPa (b) 50 MPa
(c) 90 MPa (d) 100 MPa [GATE-2005]
t.in
GATE-15. Ans. (c)
Given V 1 10 MPa, V2 100 MPa
V1 V 2 Vy
Maximum shear stress theory give W max
2 2
or V 1 V 2 Vy Vy 10 ( 100) 90MPa
po
GATE-16. The figure shows the state of
stress at a certain point in a
stressed body. The magnitudes of
normal stresses in the x and y gs
direction are 100MPa and 20 MPa
respectively. The radius of
Mohr's stress circle representing
this state of stress is:
blo
(a) 120 (b) 80
(c) 60 (d) 40
[GATE-2004]
GATE-16. Ans. (c)
V x 100MPa, V y
.
20MPa
tas
Vx Vy 100 20

Radius of Mohr 's circle 60
2 2
Data for Q17–Q18 are given below. Solve the problems and choose correct answers.
[GATE-2003]
The state of stress at a point "P" in a two dimensional loading is such that the Mohr's
lda
circle is a point located at 175 MPa on the positive normal stress axis.
GATE-17. Determine the maximum and minimum principal stresses respectively from the
Mohr's circle
(a) + 175 MPa, –175MPa (b) +175 MPa, +175 MPa
(c) 0, –175 MPa (d) 0, 0
vi
GATE-17. Ans. (b)

Ci
V1 V 2 Vx Vy 175 MPa
GATE-18. Determine the directions of maximum and minimum principal stresses at the
point “P” from the Mohr's circle Page 88 of 429 [GATE-2003]
(a) 0, 90° (b) 90°, 0 (c) 45°, 135° (d) All directions
GATE-18. Ans. (d) From the Mohr’s circle it will give all directions.
Principal strains
GATE-19. If the two principal strains at a point are 1000 × 10-6 and -600 × 10-6, then the
maximum shear strain is: [GATE-1996]
(a) 800 × 10-6 (b) 500 × 10-6 (c) 1600 × 10-6 (d) 200 × 10-6
GATE-19. Ans. (c) Shear strain emax emin ^1000 600 ` u 10 6 1600 u 10 6
t.in
IES-1. If a prismatic bar be subjected to an axial tensile stress ǔ, then shear stress
induced on a plane inclined at ǉ with the axis will be: [IES-1992]
po
V V V V
a sin 2T b cos 2T c cos 2 T d sin 2 T
2 2 2 2
IES-1. Ans. (a)
IES-2. In the case of bi-axial state of normal stresses, the normal stress on 45° plane is
equal to
(a) The sum of the normal stresses
gs [IES-1992]
(b) Difference of the normal stresses
(c) Half the sum of the normal stresses (d) Half the difference of the normal stresses
Vx Vy Vx Vy
blo
IES-2. Ans. (c) V n cos 2T W xy sin 2T
2 2
Vx Vy
At T 45o andW xy 0; V n
2
IES-3. In a two-dimensional problem, the state of pure shear at a point is

.
characterized by [IES-2001]
(a) H x H y and J xy 0 (b) H x H y and J xy z 0
tas
(c) Hx 2H y and J xy z 0 (d) Hx 0.5H y and J xy 0

IES-3. Ans. (b)
IES-4. Which one of the following Mohr’s circles represents the state of pure shear?
lda
[IES-2000]
vi
Ci
IES-4. Ans. (c)
Page 89 of 429
IES-5. For the state of stress of pure shear W the strain energy stored per unit volume
in the elastic, homogeneous isotropic material having elastic constants E and
Q will be: [IES-1998]
W2 W2 2W 2 W2
(a) 1 Q (b) 1 Q (c) 1 Q (d) 2 Q
E 2E E 2E
IES-5. Ans. (a) V 1 W , V2 W , V 3 0
1 ª 2 2 1 P 2
U W W 2PW W º V W V
2E ¬ ¼ E
IES-6. Assertion (A): If the state at a point is pure shear, then the principal planes
through that point making an angle of 45° with plane of shearing stress carries
t.in
principal stresses whose magnitude is equal to that of shearing stress.
Reason (R): Complementary shear stresses are equal in magnitude, but
opposite in direction. [IES-1996]
po
IES-6. Ans. (b)
IES-7. Assertion (A): Circular shafts made of brittle material fail along a helicoidally
surface inclined at 45° to the axis (artery point) when subjected to twisting
gs
moment. [IES-1995]
Reason (R): The state of pure shear caused by torsion of the shaft is equivalent
to one of tension at 45° to the shaft axis and equal compression in the
perpendicular direction.
blo
IES-7. Ans. (a) Both A and R are true and R is correct explanation for A.
IES-8. A state of pure shear in a biaxial state of stress is given by [IES-1994]

.
§V1 0 · §V1 0 · § V x W xy ·
tas
(a) ¨ ¸ (b) ¨ ¸ (c) ¨ ¸ (d) None of the above

© 0 V2 ¹ © 0 V 1 ¹ ©W yx V y ¹
IES-8. Ans. (b) V 1 W , V2 W , V 3 0
IES-9. The state of plane stress in a plate of 100 mm thickness is given as [IES-2000]
lda
ǔxx = 100 N/mm2, ǔyy = 200 N/mm2, Young's modulus = 300 N/mm2, Poisson's ratio
= 0.3. The stress developed in the direction of thickness is:
(a) Zero (b) 90 N/mm2 (c) 100 N/mm2 (d) 200 N/mm2
IES-9. Ans. (a)
V x V y V and W xy
vi
IES-10. The state of plane stress at a point is described by 0 . The

normal stress on the plane inclined at 45° to the x-plane will be: [IES-1998]
a V b 2V c 3V d 2V
Ci
Vx Vy Vx Vy
IES-10. Ans. (a) V n cos 2T W xy sin 2T
2 2
IES-11. Consider the following statements: [IES-1996, 1998]

State of stress in two dimensions at a point in a loaded component can be
completely specified by indicating the normal and shear stresses on
1. A plane containing the point
2. Any two planes passing through the point
3. Two mutually perpendicular Page 90 of 429
planes passing through the point
Of these statements
(a) 1, and 3 are correct (b) 2 alone is correct
(c) 1 alone is correct (d) 3 alone is correct
IES-11. Ans. (d)

IES-12. A body is subjected to a pure tensile stress of 100 units. What is the maximum
shear produced in the body at some oblique plane due to the above? [IES-2006]
(a) 100 units (b) 75 units (c) 50 units (d) 0 unit
V 1 V 2 100 0
IES-12. Ans. (c) W max 50 units.
2 2
t.in
IES-13. In a strained material one of the principal stresses is twice the other. The
maximum shear stress in the same case is U max . Then, what is the value of the
maximum principle stress? [IES 2007]
W
(a) max W
(b) 2 max W
(c) 4 max (d) 8 W max
V1 V 2 V2
po
IES-13. Ans. (c) W max , V1 2V 2 or W max or V2 2W max or V 1 2V 2 = 4W max
2 2
IES-14. In a strained material, normal stresses on two mutually perpendicular planes

are ǔx and ǔy (both alike) accompanied by a shear stress Ǖxy One of the principal
gs
stresses will be zero, only if [IES-2006]
V x uV y
(a) W xy (b) W xy V x uV y (c) W xy V x uV y (d) W xy V x2 V y2
2
blo
2
Vx Vy §Vx Vy · 2
IES-14. Ans. (c) V 1,2 ¨ ¸ W xy
2 © 2 ¹
2
Vx Vy §Vx Vy · 2
if V 2 0 ¨ ¸ W xy
2 © 2 ¹
.
2 2
§Vx Vy · §Vx Vy ·
tas
2
or ¨ ¸ ¨ ¸ W xy or W xy Vx uVy
© 2 ¹ © 2 ¹
IES-15. The principal stresses ǔ1, ǔ2 and ǔ3 at a point respectively are 80 MPa, 30 MPa
and –40 MPa. The maximum shear stress is: [IES-2001]
lda

V1 V 2 80 ( 40)
IES-15. Ans. (d) W max 60 MPa
2 2
vi
IES-16. Plane stress at a point in a body is defined by principal stresses 3ǔ and ǔ. The
ratio of the normal stress to the maximum shear stresses on the plane of
maximum shear stress is: [IES-2000]
(a) 1 (b) 2 (c) 3 (d) 4
Ci
2W xy
IES-16. Ans. (b) tan 2T T 0
Vx Vy
V1 V 2 3V V
W max V
2 2
3V V
Major principal stress on the plane of maximum shear = V 1 2V
2
Page 91 of 429
IES-17. Principal stresses at a point in plane stressed element are Vx Vy 500 kg/cm 2 .
Normal stress on the plane inclined at 45o to x-axis will be: [IES-1993]
(a) 0 (b) 500 kg/cm 2 (c) 707 kg/cm2 (d) 1000 kg/cm2
IES-17. Ans. (b) When stresses are alike, then normal stress ǔn on plane inclined at angle 45° is
2 2
2 2 § 1 · § 1 · ª1 1º
V n V y cos T V x sin T Vy ¨ ¸ Vx ¨ ¸ 500 « » 500 kg/cm 2
© 2¹ © 2¹ ¬2 2¼
IES-18. If the principal stresses corresponding to a two-dimensional state of stress are

V1 and V2 is greater than V2 and both are tensile, then which one of the
t.in
following would be the correct criterion for failure by yielding, according to
the maximum shear stress criterion? [IES-1993]
(a)
V 1 V 2 r
V yp
(b)
V1
r
V yp
(c )
V2
r
V yp
(d ) V 1 r2V yp
2 2 2 2 2 2
IES-18. Ans. (a)
po
IES-19. For the state of plane stress.
Shown the maximum and
minimum principal stresses are: gs
(a) 60 MPa and 30 MPa
(b) 50 MPa and 10 MPa
(c) 40 MPa and 20 MPa
(d) 70 MPa and 30 MPa
blo
[IES-1992]
2
Vx Vy §Vx Vy · 2
IES-19. Ans. (d) V 1,2 ¨ ¸ W xy
2 © 2 ¹
.
2
50 ( 10) § 50 10 · 2
V 1,2 ¨ ¸ 40
tas
2 © 2 ¹
V max 70 and V min 30
IES-20. Normal stresses of equal magnitude p, but of opposite signs, act at a point of a
lda
strained material in perpendicular direction. What is the magnitude of the

resultant normal stress on a plane inclined at 45° to the applied stresses?
[IES-2005]
(a) 2 p (b) p/2 (c) p/4 (d) Zero
Vx Vy Vx Vy
IES-20. Ans. (d) V x cos 2T
vi
2 2
P P P P
Vn cos 2 u 45 0
2 2
Ci
IES-21. A plane stressed element is subjected to the state of stress given by

V x W xy 100 kgf/cm 2 and ǔy = 0. Maximum shear stress in the element is equal
to [IES-1997]
a 50 3 kgf/cm 2 b 100 kgf/cm 2 c 50 5 kgf/cm2 d 150 kgf/cm 2

Page 92 of 429
2
Vx 0 §V 0·
IES-21. Ans. (c) V 1,2 r ¨ x ¸ W xy2 50 # 50 5
2 © 2 ¹
V 1 V 2
Maximum shear stress = 50 5
2
IES-22. Match List I with List II and select the correct answer, using the codes given
below the lists: [IES-1995]
List I(State of stress) List II(Kind of loading)
t.in
po
Codes:
(a)
A
1
B
2
C
3
gs D
4 (b)
A
2
B
3
C
4
D
1
(c) 2 4 3 1 (d) 3 4 1 2
IES-22. Ans. (c)
blo
Mohr's circle
IES-23. Consider the Mohr's circle shown
above:
What is the state of stress
.
represented by this circle?

(a)V x V y z 0, W xy 0
tas
(b)V x V y 0, W xy z 0
(c)V x 0, V y W xy z 0
(d)V x z 0, V y W xy 0
lda
[IES-2008]
IES-23. Ans. (b) It is a case of pure shear. Just put V 1 V 2
IES-24. For a general two dimensional stress system, what are the coordinates of the
centre of Mohr’s circle? [IE
vi
Vx V y Vx Vy Vx Vy Vx V y
(a) ,0 (b) 0, (c) ,0 (d) 0,
2 2 2 2
IES-24. Ans. (c)
Ci
IES-25. In a Mohr's circle, the radius of the circle is taken as: [IES-2006; GATE-1993]
2
§ V x V y ·
2
2 V V y 2
¸ W xy W xy
x
(a) ¨ (b)
© 2 ¹ 2
2
§ V x V y · 2 2 2
(c) ¨ ¸ W xy Page 93 of 429
(d) V x V y W xy
© 2 ¹
Where, ǔx and ǔy are normal stresses along x and y directions respectively and Ǖxy is the
shear stress.
IES-25. Ans. (a)
t.in
po
IES-26. Maximum shear stress in a Mohr's Circle [IES- 2008]
(a) Is equal to radius of Mohr's circle (b) Is greater than radius of Mohr's circle
(c) Is less than radius of Mohr's circle (d) Could be any of the above
IES-26. Ans. (a)
gs
. blo
tas
2
2 § 2 ·
§ Vx Vy · ¨ § Vx Vy
2 · 2 ¸
¨¨ V xc ¸¸ Wxcyc
¨ ¨¨ ¸¸ W xy ¸
© 2 ¹ ¨ © 2 ¹ ¸
© ¹
lda
? Radius of the Mohr Circle

2
§ Vx Vy · 2
¨¨ 2 ¸¸ W xy
© ¹
2
Vx Vy § Vx Vy ·
vi
2
? Vt ¨¨ ¸¸ W xy
2 © 2 ¹
2
Vx Vy § Vx Vy · 2
V2 ¨¨ ¸¸ W xy
Ci
2 © 2 ¹
2
V1 V2 § Vx Vy · 2
Wmax r Wmax ¨¨ ¸¸ W xy
2 © 2 ¹
IES-27. At a point in two-dimensional stress system ǔx = 100 N/mm2, ǔy = Ǖxy = 40 N/mm2.

What is the radius of the Mohr circle for stress drawn with a scale of: 1 cm = 10
N/mm2? Page 94 of 429 [IES-2005]
(a) 3 cm (b) 4 cm (c) 5 cm (d) 6 cm
IES-27. Ans. (c) Radius of the Mohr circle
ª V V 2 º ª § 100 40 ·2 º
« ¨§ x y ·
¸ W xy 2 » / 10 « ¨ 40 2
» / 10 50 / 10 5 cm
« © 2 ¹ » ¸
« © 2 ¹ »
¬ ¼ ¬ ¼
IES-28. Consider a two dimensional state of stress given for an element as shown in the
diagram given below: [IES-2004]
t.in
po
What are the coordinates of the centre of Mohr's circle?
(a) (0, 0) (b) (100, 200) (c) (200, 100) (d) (50, 0)
§ V x V y · § 200 100 ·
IES-28. Ans. (d) Centre of Mohr’s circle is ¨ ,0 ¸ ¨ ,0 ¸ 50,0
© 2 gs ¹ © 2 ¹
IES-29. Two-dimensional state of stress at a point in a plane stressed element is

represented by a Mohr circle of zero radius. Then both principal stresses
(a) Are equal to zero [IES-2003]
(b) Are equal to zero and shear stress is also equal to zero
blo
(c) Are of equal magnitude but of opposite sign
(d) Are of equal magnitude and of same sign
IES-29. Ans. (d)
IES-30. Assertion (A): Mohr's circle of stress can be related to Mohr's circle of strain by
some constant of proportionality. [IES-2002]
.
Reason (R): The relationship is a function of yield stress of the material.

tas
IES-30. Ans. (c)
lda
IES-31. When two mutually perpendicular principal stresses are unequal but like, the
maximum shear stress is represented by [IES-1994]
(a) The diameter of the Mohr's circle
(b) Half the diameter of the Mohr's circle
(c) One-third the diameter of the Mohr's circle
vi
(d) One-fourth the diameter of the Mohr's circle

IES-31. Ans. (b)
IES-32. State of stress in a plane element is shown in figure I. Which one of the
Ci
following figures-II is the correct sketch of Mohr's circle of the state of stress?
[IES-1993, 1996]
Page 95 of 429
Figure-I Figure-II
IES-32. Ans. (c)
Strain
IES-33. A point in a two dimensional state of strain is subjected to pure shearing strain
of magnitude J xy radians. Which one of the following is the maximum principal
strain? [IES-2008]
(a) J xy (b) J xy / 2 (c) J xy /2 (d) 2 J xy
IES-33. Ans. (c)
IES-34. Assertion (A): A plane state of stress does not necessarily result into a plane
t.in
state of strain as well. [IES-1996]
Reason (R): Normal stresses acting along X and Y directions will also result
into normal strain along the Z-direction.
po
IES-34. Ans. (a)
Principal strains gs
IES-35. Principal strains at a point are 100 u 106 and 200 u 106 . What is the maximum
shear strain at the point? [IES-2006]
(a) 300 × 10 –6 (b) 200 × 10 –6 (c) 150 × 10 –6 (d) 100 × 10–6
IES-35. Ans. (a) J max H 1 H 2 100 200 u 10 6
300 u 10 6
blo
V1 V 2
don' t confuse withMaximumShear stress W max
2
J xy H1 H 2 V1 V 2
in strain and W max that is the difference.
2 2 2
.
IES-36. The principal strains at a point in a body, under biaxial state of stress, are
tas
1000×10–6 and –600 × 10–6. What is the maximum shear strain at that point?
[IES-2009]
(a) 200 × 10–6 (b) 800 × 10–6 (c) 1000 × 10–6 (d) 1600 × 10–6
IES-36. Ans. (d)
x y Ixy
Ixy x y
1000 u 106 600 u 106 1600 u 106
lda
2 2
IES-37. The number of strain readings (using strain gauges) needed on a plane surface
to determine the principal strains and their directions is: [IES-1994]
(a) 1 (b) 2 (c) 3 (d) 4
vi
IES-37. Ans. (c) Three strain gauges are needed on a plane surface to determine the principal
strains and their directions.
Principal strain induced by principal stress

Ci
IES-38. The principal stresses at a point in two dimensional stress system are V 1 and
V 2 and corresponding principal strains are H1 and H 2 . If E and Q denote
Young's modulus and Poisson's ratio, respectively, then which one of the
following is correct? [IES-2008]
E
(a) V 1 EH1 (b)V 1 >H1 QH 2 @
1Q 2
E
(c)V 1 >H1 QH 2 @ (d)96Vof
Page E >H 1 QH 2 @
1 429
1Q 2
T1 T T T
IES-38. Ans. (b) F1 N 2 and F2 2 N 1 From these two equation eliminate T2 .
E E E E
IES-39. Assertion (A): Mohr's construction is possible for stresses, strains and area
moment of inertia. [IES-2009]
Reason (R): Mohr's circle represents the transformation of second-order tensor.
(a) Both A and R are individually true and R is the correct explanation of A.
(b) Both A and R are individually true but R is NOT the correct explanation of A.
(c) A is true but R is false.
(d) A is false but R is true.
IES-39. Ans. (a)
t.in
po
IAS-1. On a plane, resultant stress is inclined at an angle of 45o to the plane. If the
normal stress is 100 N /mm2, the shear stress on the plane is: [IAS-2003]
(a) 71.5 N/mm2 (b) 100 N/mm2 (c) 86.6 N/mm2 (d) 120.8 N/mm2
IAS-1. Ans. (b) We know V n V cos2 T and W V sin T cos T
100 V cos2 45 or V 200 gs
W 200 sin 45 cos 45 100
IAS-2. Biaxial stress system is correctly shown in [IAS-1999]

. blo
tas
IAS-2. Ans. (c)

vi lda
Ci
IAS-3. The complementary shear stresses of

intensity W are induced at a point in
the material, as shown in the figure.
Which one of the following is the
correct set of orientations of principal
planes with respect to AB?
(a) 30° and 120° (b) 45° and 135°
(c) 60° and 150° (d) 75°Page
and97165°
of 429
[IAS-1998]
IAS-3. Ans. (b) It is a case of pure shear so principal planes will be along the diagonal.
IAS-4. A uniform bar lying in the x-direction is subjected to pure bending. Which one
of the following tensors represents the strain variations when bending moment
is about the z-axis (p, q and r constants)? [IAS-2001]
§ py 0 0 · § py 0 0 ·
¨ ¸ ¨ ¸
(a) 0
¨ qy 0 ¸ (b) 0
¨ qy 0 ¸
¨ 0 0 ry ¸ ¨ 0 0 0 ¸¹
© ¹ ©
§ py 0 0 · § py 0 0 ·
¨ ¸ ¨ ¸
(c) 0
¨ py 0 ¸ (d) 0 qy 0
¨ ¸
t.in
¨ 0 0 py ¸¹ ¨ 0 0 qy ¸
© © ¹
IAS-4. Ans. (d) Stress in x direction = ǔx
Vx Vx Vx
Therefore Hx , Hy P , Hz P
E E E
po
IAS-5. Assuming E = 160 GPa and G = 100 GPa for a material, a strain tensor is given
as: [IAS-2001]
§ 0.002 0.004 0.006 ·
¨ ¸
¨ 0.004 0.003
gs 0 ¸
¨ 0.006 0 0 ¸¹
©
The shear stress, W xy is:
blo
IAS-5. Ans. (c)

ªH xx H xy H xz º
« » J xy
.
«H yx H yy H yz » and H xy
2
tas
«H H H »
¬ zx zy zz ¼
W xy G J xy 100 u 10 u 0.004 u 2 MPa 800MPa
3

lda
IAS-6. A material element subjected to a plane state of stress such that the maximum
shear stress is equal to the maximum tensile stress, would correspond to
[IAS-1998]
vi
Ci
V1 V 2 V 1 ( V 1 )
IAS-6. Ans. (d) W max V1
2 2
IAS-7. A solid circular shaft is subjected to a maximum shearing stress of 140 MPs.
The magnitude of the maximum normal stress developed in the shaft is:
Page 98 of 429
[IAS-1995]
V1 V 2
IAS-7. Ans. (a) W max Maximum normal stress will developed if V 1 V 2 V
2
IAS-8. The state of stress at a point in a loaded member is shown in the figure. The
magnitude of maximum shear stress is [1MPa = 10 kg/cm2] [IAS 1994]
(a) 10 MPa (b) 30 MPa (c) 50 MPa (d) 100MPa
t.in
po
2 2
§V x V y · § 40 40 ·
IAS-8. Ans. (c) W max ¨¨ ¸¸ W xy 2 = ¨
2
¸ 30 = 50 MPa
© 2 ¹
gs © 2 ¹
IAS-9. A horizontal beam under bending has a maximum bending stress of 100 MPa
and a maximum shear stress of 20 MPa. What is the maximum principal stress
in the beam? [IAS-2004]
blo
(a) 20 (b) 50 (c) 50 + 2900 (d) 100
IAS-9. Ans. (c) ǔb=100MPa W =20 mPa
2
Vb §V ·
ǔ1,2= ¨ b ¸ W 2
2 © 2 ¹
.
2 2
Vb §V · 100 § 100 ·
tas
V 1,2
2
¨ b ¸ W 2
© 2 ¹ 2
¨
© 2 ¹
¸ 20
2
50
2900 MPa
IAS-10. When the two principal stresses are equal and like: the resultant stress on any
plane is: [IAS-2002]
lda
(a) Equal to the principal stress (b) Zero

(c) One half the principal stress (d) One third of the principal stress
Vx V y V x V y
IAS-10. Ans. (a) Vn cos 2T
2 2
[We may consider this as W xy 0 ] Vx V y V ( say ) So V n V for any plane
vi
IAS-11. Assertion (A): When an isotropic, linearly elastic material is loaded biaxially,
the directions of principal stressed are different from those of principal
strains. [IAS-2001]
Ci
Reason (R): For an isotropic, linearly elastic material the Hooke's law gives
only two independent material properties.
IAS-11. Ans. (d) They are same.
Page 99 of 429
IAS-12. Principal stress at a point in a stressed solid are 400 MPa and 300 MPa
respectively. The normal stresses on planes inclined at 45° to the principal
planes will be: [IAS-2000]
(a) 200 MPa and 500 MPa (b) 350 MPa on both planes
(c) 100MPaand6ooMPa (d) 150 MPa and 550 MPa
IAS-12. Ans. (b)
§ Vx V y · § V x V y · 400 300 400 300
Vn ¨ ¸¨ ¸ cos 2T cos 2 u 45o 350MPa
© 2 ¹ © 2 ¹ 2 2
IAS-13. The principal stresses at a point in an elastic material are 60N/mm2 tensile, 20
N/mm2 tensile and 50 N/mm2 compressive. If the material properties are: μ =
t.in
0.35 and E = 105 Nmm2, then the volumetric strain of the material is: [IAS-1997]
(a) 9 × 10–5 (b) 3 × 10-4 (c) 10.5 × 10–5 (d) 21 × 10–5
IAS-13. Ans. (a)
Vx §Vy Vz · Vy §V V · Vz §V Vy ·
x P¨ ¸ , y P ¨ z x ¸ and z P¨ x ¸
E ©E E¹ E ©E E ¹ E ©E E ¹
po
Vx Vy Vz 2P
v x y z
E

E
V x V y V z
§Vx Vy Vz · § 60 20 50 ·
1 2P ¨ ¸ ¨ ¸ 1 2 u 0.35 9 u 10 5
© E ¹ © 105 gs ¹
Mohr's circle
IAS-14. Match List-I (Mohr's Circles of stress) with List-II (Types of Loading) and select
blo
the correct answer using the codes given below the lists: [IAS-2004]
List-I List-II
(Mohr's Circles of Stress) (Types of Loading)
1. A shaft compressed all round by a hub

.
tas
2. Bending moment applied at the free

end of a cantilever
lda
3. Shaft under torsion

vi
4. Thin cylinder under pressure

Ci
5. Thin spherical shell under internal

pressure
(a) 5 4 3 2 (b) 2 4 1 3
(c) 4 3 2 5 (d) 2 3 1 5
IAS-14. Ans. (d)
Page 100 of 429
IAS-15. The resultant stress on a certain plane makes an angle of 20° with the normal
to the plane. On the plane perpendicular to the above plane, the resultant
stress makes an angle of ǉ with the normal. The value of ǉ can be: [IAS-2001]
(a) 0° or 20° (b) Any value other than 0° or 90°
(c) Any value between 0° and 20° (d) 20° only
IAS-15. Ans. (b)
IAS-16. The correct Mohr's stress-circle drawn for a point in a solid shaft compressed
by a shrunk fit hub is as (O-Origin and C-Centre of circle; OA = ǔ1 and OB = ǔ2)
[IAS-2001]
t.in
IAS-16. Ans. (d)
po
IAS-17. A Mohr's stress circle is drawn for a body subjected to tensile stress f x and f y
in two mutually perpendicular directions such that f x > f y . Which one of the
following statements in this regard is NOT correct? [IAS-2000]
gs fx f y
(a) Normal stress on a plane at 45° to f x is equal to
2
fx f y
(b) Shear stress on a plane at 450 to f x is equal to
2
blo
(c) Maximum normal stress is equal to fx .
fx f y
(d) Maximum shear stress is equal to
2
fx f y
IAS-17. Ans. (d) Maximum shear stress is
.
2
tas
IAS-18. For the given stress condition V x =2 N/mm2, V x =0 and W xy 0 , the correct
Mohr’s circle is: [IAS-1999]
vi lda
§Vx Vy · §20 ·

IAS-18. Ans. (d) Centre ¨ ,0 ¸ ¨ 2 ,0 ¸ 1, 0
© 2 ¹ © ¹
Ci
2 2
§Vx Vy · 2 §20·
radius ¨ ¸ Wx ¨ 2 ¸ 0 1
© 2 ¹ © ¹
IAS-19. For which one of the following two-dimensional states of stress will the Mohr's
stress circle degenerate into a point? [IAS-1996]
Page 101 of 429
IAS-19. Ans. (c) Mohr’s circle will be a point.

2
§Vx Vy · 2
Radius of the Mohr’s circle = ¨ ¸ W xy ? W xy 0 andV x Vy V
© 2 ¹
t.in
Principal strains
IAS-20. In an axi-symmetric plane strain problem, let u be the radial displacement at r.
Then the strain components H r , HT , beT are given by [IAS-1995]
u wu w 2u wu u
(a) Hr , HT , b rT (b) Hr , HT , b rT o
po
r wr wrwT wr r
u wu wu wu w 2u
(c) Hr , HT , b rT 0 (d) Hr , HT , b rT
r wr wr wT wrwT
IAS-20. Ans. (b) gs
IAS-21. Assertion (A): Uniaxial stress normally gives rise to triaxial strain.
Reason (R): Magnitude of strains in the perpendicular directions of applied
stress is smaller than that in the direction of applied stress. [IAS-2004]
blo
IAS-21. Ans. (b)
.
IAS-22. Assertion (A): A plane state of stress will, in general, not result in a plane state
of strain. [IAS-2002]
tas
Reason (R): A thin plane lamina stretched in its own plane will result in a state
of plane strain.
lda

IAS-22. Ans. (c) R is false. Stress in one plane always induce a lateral strain with its orthogonal
plane.
vi
Ci
Page 102 of 429

Question: What are principal in planes?
Answer: The planes which pass through the point in such a manner that the resultant stress
across them is totally a normal stress are known as principal planes. No shear stress
exists at the principal planes.

Q. The Mohr’s circle for a plane stress is a circle of radius R with its origin at + 2R
t.in
on V axis. Sketch the Mohr’s circle and determine V max , V min , V av , Wxy max for
this situation. [2 Marks]
Ans. Here V max 3R

V min R
po
3R R
V Vv 2R
2
V max V min 3R R
and W xy R
2 2
gs
blo
R R
(2R,0)
.
tas
3R

lda
Question: Direct tensile stresses of 120 MPa and 70 MPa act on a body on mutually
perpendicular planes. What is the magnitude of shearing stress that can be
applied so that the major principal stress at the point does not exceed 135
MPa? Determine the value of minor principal stress and the maximum shear
stress.
Answer: Let shearing stress is 'U ' MPa.
vi
The principal stresses are

2
120 70 120 70 ¬
ı1,2 o U
2
Ci
2 2 ®
Major principal stress is
2
120 70 120 70 ¬

2
ı1 U
2 2 ®
135(Given) or , U 31.2MPa.
Page 103 of 429
Minor principal stress is
2
120 70 § 120 70 · 2
ı2 ¨ ¸ 31.2 55 MPa
2 © 2 ¹
V1 V 2 135 55
W max 40 MPa
2 2

Q. The state of stress at a point in a loaded machine member is given by the
principle stresses. [ 2 Marks]
t.in
V1 600 MPa, V 2 0 and V3 600 MPa .
(i) What is the magnitude of the maximum shear stress?
(ii) What is the inclination of the plane on which the maximum shear stress
acts with respect to the plane on which the maximum principle stress
V1 acts?
Ans. (i) Maximum shear stress,
po
V1 V3 600 600
W
2 2
600 MPa
(ii) At ǉ = 45º max. shear stress occurs with ǔ1 plane. Since ǔ1 and ǔ3 are principle
gs
stress does not contains shear stress. Hence max. shear stress is at 45º with principle
plane.
blo
Question: A prismatic bar in compression has a cross- sectional area A = 900 mm2 and
carries an axial load P = 90 kN. What are the stresses acts on
(i) A plane transverse to the loading axis;
(ii) A plane at ș = 60o to the loading axis?
Answer: (i) From figure it is clear A plane
.
transverse to loading axis, ș =0o

tas
P 90000
= Tn cos2 ș= N / mm 2
A 900
100 N / mm 2
P 90000
and U = Sin 2ș= q sinș=0
2A 2×900
lda
(iii) A plane at 60o to loading axis,

ș = 60°- 30° = 30°
P 90000
Tn cos2 ș= q cos2 30
A 900
75N / mm 2
vi
P 90000
U sin2R sin2 q 60o
2A 2 q 900
43.3N / mm 2
Ci

Question: A tension member with a cross-sectional area of 30 mm2 resists a load of 80
kN, Calculate the normal and shear stresses on the plane of maximum shear
stress.
P P
Answer: ın cos2 ș U sin 2ș
A 2A
Page 104 of 429
For maximum shear stress sin2ș = 1, or, ș = 45o

80 q103 P 80 q103
ı n
q cos2 45 1333MPa and Umax 1333MPa
t.in
30 2A 30 q 2

Question: At a point in a loaded structure, a pure shear stress state U = o 400 MPa
prevails on two given planes at right angles.
(i) What would be the state of stress across the planes of an element taken at
po
+45° to the given planes?
(ii) What are the magnitudes of these stresses?
Answer: (i) For pure shear
ı x ı y ; U max oı x o400MPa
gs
. blo
tas
(ii) Magnitude of these stresses
ı n U xy Sin 2ș U xy Sin90o U xy 400 MPa and U (U xy cos 2ș ) 0
Conventional Question IAS-1997

Question: Draw Mohr's circle for a 2-dimensional stress field subjected to
lda
(a) Pure shear (b) Pure biaxial tension (c) Pure uniaxial tension and (d) Pure
uniaxial compression
Answer: Mohr's circles for 2-dimensional stress field subjected to pure shear, pure biaxial
tension, pure uniaxial compression and pure uniaxial tension are shown in figure
below:
vi
Ci

Question: A Solid phosphor bronze shaft
Page60
105mm
of 429in diameter is rotating at 800 rpm and
transmitting power. It is subjected torsion only. An electrical resistance
strain gauge mounted on the surface of the shaft with its axis at 45° to the
shaft axis, gives the strain reading as 3.98 × 10–4. If the modulus of elasticity
for bronze is 105 GN/m2 and Poisson's ratio is 0.3, find the power being
transmitted by the shaft. Bending effect may be neglected.
Answer:
t.in
po
Let us assume maximum shear stress on the cross-sectional plane MU is U . Then
1
Principal stress along, VM = - 4U 2 = -U (compressive)
gs
2
1
Principal stress along, LU = 4U 2 U (tensile)
2
Thus magntude of the compressive strain along VM is
blo
U
= (1 μ) 3.98 q104
E
3.98 q104 q 105 q109
or U = 32.15 MPa
1 0.3
ʌ
= Torque being transmitted (T) = U q qd 3
tas
16
ʌ
32.15 q106
q q 0.063 =1363.5 Nm
16
2ʌN ¬ 2ʌ×800 ¬
lda
= Power being transmitted, P =T.X =T. =1363.5× W 114.23 kW

60 ® 60 ®

Question: The magnitude of normal stress on two mutually perpendicular planes, at a
point in an elastic body are 60 MPa (compressive) and 80 MPa (tensile)
vi
respectively. Find the magnitudes of shearing stresses on these planes if the

magnitude of one of the principal stresses is 100 MPa (tensile). Find also the
magnitude of the other principal stress at this point.
Ci
Page 106 of 429
Answer: Above figure shows stress condition assuming
shear stress is ' U xy' 80Mpa
Jxy
Principal stresses
2
ıx ı y ı ı y ¬
ı1,2 o x U xy2 60Mpa 60Mpa
2 2 ® Jxy
Jxy
2
60 80 60 80 ¬
or , ı1,2 o 2
U xy
2 2 ® Jxy
80Mpa
2
60 80 60 80 ¬
t.in
or , ı1,2 o 2
U xy
2
2 ®
To make principal stress 100 MPa we have to consider '+' .
= ı1 100 MPa 10 702 U xy2 ; or, U xy 56.57 MPa
Therefore other principal stress will be
po
2
60 80 60 80 ¬

2
ı2 (56.57)
2 2 ®
i.e. 80 MPa(compressive) gs
Question: A steel tube of inner diameter 100 mm and wall thickness 5 mm is subjected to a
torsional moment of 1000 Nm. Calculate the principal stresses and
blo
orientations of the principal planes on the outer surface of the tube.
ʌ
¢ 0.110
0.100
¯°± = 4.56 q106 m 4
4 4
Answer: Polar moment of Inertia (J)= ¡
32
5mm
.
T U T .R 1000 q(0.055)
tas
Now or J
J R J 4.56 q106
12.07MPa
2U xy
Now, tan 2ș p r,
ıx ıy 50mm
lda
0 0
gives șp 45 or 135
= ı1 U xy Sin 2ș 12.07 q sin 900
12.07 MPa
vi
and ı 2 12.07 sin 2700

12.07MPa
Ci

Question: At a point in a two dimensional stress system the normal stresses on two
mutually perpendicular planes are T x and T y and the shear stress is U xy. At
what value of shear stress, one of the principal stresses will become zero?
Answer: Two principal stressdes are
2
ıx ı y ı x - ı y ¬
ı1,2 o U xy2
2 2 ®
Page 107 of 429
Considering (-)ive sign it may be zero
2 2 2
ı ı y ¬ ı x ı y ¬ ı ı y ¬ ı x ı y ¬
= x U xy2 or, x U xy2
2 ® 2 ® 2 ® 2 ®
2 2
ı ı y ¬ ı x ı y ¬
or, U x
2
2
or, U xy ı xı y or,U xy o ı x ı y
2 ® 2 ®
xy

Question: A solid shaft of diameter 30 mm is fixed at one end. It is subject to a tensile
force of 10 kN and a torque of 60 Nm. At a point on the surface of the shaft,
t.in
determine the principle stresses and the maximum shear stress.
Answer: Given: D = 30 mm = 0.03 m; P = 10 kN; T= 60 Nm
Pr incipal stresses V 1,V 2 and max imum shear stress W max :
10 u 103
Tensile stress V t Vx 14.15 u 106 N / m2 or 14.15 MN / m2
S
u 0.032
po
4
gs
T W
As per torsion equation,
blo
J R
TR TR 60 u 0.015
? Shear stress, W 11.32 u 106 N / m2
J S S 4
D 4
u 0.03
32 32
or 11.32 MN / m2
.
The principal stresses are calculated by u sin g the relations :

tas
§Vx Vy · ª§ V x V y · 2 º
2
V 1,2 ¨ ¸r «¨ ¸ » W xy
© 2 ¹ «¬© 2 ¹ »
¼
Here Vx 14.15MN / m2 ,V y 0;W xy W 11.32 MN / m2
lda
2
14.15 § 14.15 · 2
? V 1,2 r ¨ ¸ 11.32
2 © 2 ¹
7.07 r 13.35 20.425 MN / m2 , 6.275MN / m2 .
Hence,major principal stress, V 1 20.425 MN / m2 tensile
vi
Minor principal stress, V 2 6.275MN / m2 compressive

V1 V 2 24.425 6.275
Maximum shear stress,W max 13.35mm / m2
Ci
2 2

Question: Two planes AB and BC which are at right angles are acted upon by tensile
stress of 140 N/mm2 and a compressive stress of 70 N/mm2 respectively and
also by stress 35 N/mm2. Determine the principal stresses and principal
planes. Find also the maximum shear stress and planes on which they act.
Sketch the Mohr circle and mark the relevant data.
Page 108 of 429
Answer: Given 70N/mm
2
B
ı x =140MPa(tensile) C
ı y = -70MPa(compressive) 2
35Nmm 2
U xy 35MPa 140N/mm
Principal stresses; ı1, ı2 ;

A
2
ıx ıy ı x ı y ¬
We know that, ı1,2 o 2
U xy
2 2 ®
2
140 70 140 70 ¬
o 2
35 35 o 110.7
t.in
2 2 ®
Therefore ı1 =145.7 MPa and ı 2 75.7MPa
Position of Principal planes ș1, ș 2

2U xy 2 q 35
tan 2ș p 0.3333
po
ıx ıy 140 70
ı1 - ı 2 145 75.7
Maximum shear stress, Umax 110.7MPa
2 2
gs Y
Mohr cirle:
OL=ı x 140MPa
S 2Rp =198.4
OM ı y 70MPa
blo
SM LT U xy 35MPa U L
M O 2R V
N
Joining ST that cuts at 'N'
ı = 140 T
SN=NT=radius of Mohr circle =110.7 MPa
OV=ı1 145.7MPa
.
OV ı 2 75.7MPa
tas

Q6. The data obtained from a rectangular strain gauge rosette attached to a
stressed steel member are 0 = 220 u 106 , 45
0
120 u 1006 , and
90 =220 u 106 . Given that the value of E = 2 u 105 N / mm2 and Poisson’s
lda
Ratio P 0.3 , calculate the values of principal stresses acting at the point and
their directions. [10 Marks]
Ans. A rectangular strain gauge rosette strain
0 220 u 106 120 u 106 90 220 u 106
450
vi
E = 2 u 1011 N / m2 poisson ratio P 0.3

Find out principal stress and their direction.
Let ea o ec 90 and eb 45
Ci
We know that principal strain are

ea eb 2 2
12
2
ea eb eb ec

220 u 106 120 u 106 1 2 2

2
r
2

220 120 106 120 220 10 6
1
50 u 106 r 354.40 u 106
2 Page 109 of 429
6
12 50 u 10 r 250.6 u 106
1 2.01 u 104
2 3.01 u 104
Direction can be find out : -
2eb ea ec 2 u 120 u 106
tan 2ǉp
ec ea 220 u 106 220 u 106
240
0.55
440
2ǉp 28.81
t.in
ǉp 14.450 clockwiseform principal strain t1
Principal stress:-
ǔ1
E 1 Ǎ 2
2 u 1011 2 0.3 3 u 104
2 2
1 Ǎ 1 0.3
241.78 u 105 N / m 2
po
527.47 u 105 N / m 2
Conventional Question IES-1998 gs

Question: When using strain-gauge system for stress/force/displacement measurements
how are in-built magnification and temperature compensation achieved?
Answer: In-built magnification and temperature compensation are achieved by
(a) Through use of adjacent arm balancing of Wheat-stone bridge.
(b) By means of self temperature compensation by selected melt-gauge and dual
blo
element-gauge.

Question: A cylinder (500 mm internal diameter and 20 mm wall thickness) with closed
ends is subjected simultaneously to an internal pressure of 0-60 MPa, bending
moment 64000 Nm and torque 16000 Nm. Determine the maximum tensile
.
stress and shearing stress in the wall.

tas
Answer: Given: d = 500 mm = 0·5 m; t = 20 mm = 0·02 m; p = 0·60 MPa = 0.6 MN/m2;

M = 64000 Nm = 0·064 MNm; T= 16000 Nm = 0·016 MNm.
Maximum tensile stress:
First let us determine the principle stresses V 1 and V 2 assuming this as a thin
cylinder.
lda
pd 0.6 u 0.5
We know, V1 7.5MN / m2
2t 2 u 0.02
pd 0.6 u 0.5
and V2 3.75MN / m2
4t 4 u 0.02
Next consider effect of combined bending moment and torque on the walls of the
vi
cylinder. Then the principal stresses V '1 and V '2 are given by
Ci
Page 110 of 429
16 ª
V '1 3 ¬
M M2 T 2 º
Sd ¼
16 ª
and V '2 M M2 T 2 º
S d3 ¬ ¼
16 ª0.064 0.0642 0.0162 º
? V '1 3 ¬
5.29MN / m2
S u 0.5 ¼
16 ª0.064 0.0642 0.0162 º
and V '2 0.08MN / m2
S u 0.5
3 ¬ ¼
Maximum shearing stress,W max :
t.in
V I V II
We Know, W max
2
V II V 2 V '2 3.75 0.08 3.67MN / m2 tensile
12.79 3.67
? W max 4.56MN / m2
2
po
gs
. blo
tas
vi lda
Ci
Page 111 of 429
3. Moment of Inertia and Centroid

3.1 Centre of gravity
The centre of gravity of a body defined as the point through which the whole weight of a body may be
t.in
assumed to act.
3.2 Centroid or Centre of area

The centroid or centre of area is defined as the point where the whole area of the figure is assumed
po
to be concentrated.
3.3 Moment of Inertia (MOI) gs

x About any point the product of the force and the perpendicular distance between them is
known as moment of a force or first moment of force.

blo
x This first moment is again multiplied by the perpendicular distance between them to obtain
second moment of force.
x In the same way if we consider the area of the figure it is called second moment of area or
area moment of inertia and if we consider the mass of a body it is called second moment of
.
tas
mass or mass moment of Inertia.
x Mass moment of inertia is the measure of resistance of the body to rotation and forms the
basis of dynamics of rigid bodies.

lda
x Area moment of Inertia is the measure of resistance to bending and forms the basis of
strength of materials.
3.4 Mass moment of Inertia (MOI)

vi
I ¦m r i i
2
Ci
x Notice that the moment of inertia ‘I’ depends on the distribution of mass in the system.
x The furthest the mass is from the rotation axis, the bigger the moment of inertia.
x For a given object, the moment of inertia depends on where we choose the rotation axis.
x In rotational dynamics, the moment of inertia ‘I’ appears in the same way that mass m does
Page 112 of 429
in linear dynamics.
Chapter-3 Moment of Inertia and Centroid
x Solid disc or cylinder of mass M and radius R, about perpendicular axis through its
1
centre, I MR2
2
x Solid sphere of mass M and radius R, about an axis through its centre, I = 2/5 M R2
x Thin rod of mass M and length L, about a perpendicular axis through
its centre.
1
I ML2
12
t.in
x Thin rod of mass M and length L, about a perpendicular axis through its
end.
1
I ML2
3
3.5 Area Moment of Inertia (MOI) or Second moment of area
po
x
gs
To find the centroid of an area by the first moment of the area
about an axis was determined ( x dA )
blo
x Integral of the second moment of area is called moment of
inertia ( x2dA)
x Consider the area ( A )
x By definition, the moment of inertia of the differential area
.
tas
about the x and y axes are dIxx and dIyy

x dIxx = y2dA Ixx = y2 dA
x dIyy = x2dA Iyy = x2 dA

lda
3.6 Parallel axis theorem for an area

The rotational inertia about any axis is the sum of
second moment of inertia about a parallel axis
vi
through the C.G and total area of the body times

square of the distance between the axes.
INN = ICG + Ah2
Ci
Page 113 of 429
3.7 Perpendicular axis theorem for an area
If x, y & z are mutually perpendicular axes as shown, then
I zz J I xx I yy
Z-axis is perpendicular to the plane of x – y and vertical to this page as

shown in figure.
x To find the moment of inertia of the differential area about the pole (point of origin) or z-axis,
(r) is used. (r) is the perpendicular distance from the pole to dA for the entire area
t.in
J = r2 dA = (x2 + y2 )dA = Ixx + Iyy (since r2 = x2 + y2 )
Where, J = polar moment of inertia
3.8 Moments of Inertia (area) of some common area
po
(i) MOI of Rectangular area
Moment of inertia about axis XX which passes
through centroid. gs
Take an element of width ‘dy’ at a distance y
from XX axis.
? Area of the element (dA) = b u dy.
blo
and Moment of Inertia of the element about XX
axis dA u y 2 b.y 2 .dy

?Total MOI about XX axis (Note it is area
moment of Inertia)
.
h h
tas
2
2
2
bh3
I xx ³ by dy 2 ³ by 2 dy
h 0
12
2
lda
3
bh
I xx
12
vi
hb3
Similarly, we may find, I yy
Ci
12
bh3 hb3
?Polar moment of inertia (J) = Ixx + Iyy =
12 12
Page 114 of 429
If we want to know the MOI about an axis NN passing
through the bottom edge or top edge.
Axis XX and NN are parallel and at a distance h/2.
Therefore INN = Ixx + Area u (distance) 2
2
bh3 §h· bh3
buhu¨ ¸
12 ©2¹ 3
t.in
Case-I: Square area
a4
I xx
12
po
Case-II: Square area with diagonal as axis
gs
blo
a4
I xx
12
.
tas
Case-III: Rectangular area with a centrally
rectangular hole
Moment of inertia of the area = moment of inertia of BIG
lda
rectangle – moment of inertia of SMALL rectangle
BH 3 bh3
I xx
12 12
vi
Ci
Page 115 of 429
(ii) MOI of a Circular area
The moment of inertia about axis XX this passes through
the centroid. It is very easy to find polar moment of inertia
about point ‘O’. Take an element of width ‘dr’ at a distance
‘r’ from centre. Therefore, the moment of inertia of this
element about polar axis
d(J) = d(Ixx + Iyy ) = area of ring u (radius)2

or d(J) 2S rdr u r 2
t.in
Integrating both side we get
R
3 S R4 S D4
J
0
³ 2S r dr
2 32
Due to summetry I xx I yy
J S D4
Therefore, I xx I yy
po
2 64
S D4 S D4
I xx I yy and Jgs
64 32
Case-I: Moment of inertia of a circular
blo
area with a concentric hole.
Moment of inertia of the area = moment of inertia of
BIG circle – moment of inertia of SMALL circle.
S D4 S d4
Ixx = Iyy = –
.
64 64
tas
S
( D4 d4 )
64
S
and J ( D4 d4 )
32
lda
Case-II: Moment of inertia of a semi-

circular area.
1
I NN of the momemt of total circular lamina
2
1 § S D4 · S D4
vi
u¨ ¸
2 © 64 ¹ 128
We know that distance of CG from base is

Ci
4r 2D
h say
3S 3S
i.e. distance of parallel axis XX and NN is (h)
? According to parallel axis theory
Page 116 of 429
2
I NN I G Area × distance
S D4 1 § S D2 · 2
or I xx ¨ ¸ u h
128 2© 4 ¹
S D4 1 § S D 2 · § 2D ·
or I xx u ¨ ¸u
128 2 © 4 ¹ ¨© 3S ¸¹
or I xx 0.11R 4
Case – III: Quarter circle area
IXX = one half of the moment of Inertia of the Semi-
t.in
circular area about XX.
1
I XX
2

u 0.11R4 0.055 R4
I XX 0.055 R 4
po
INN = one half of the moment of Inertia of the Semi-
circular area about NN.
1 S D4 S D4
? I NN u gs
2 64 128
(iii) Moment of Inertia of a Triangular area

blo
(a) Moment of Inertia of a Triangular area of
a axis XX parallel to base and passes through
C.G.
bh3
.
I XX
tas
36
(b) Moment of inertia of a triangle about an
axis passes through base
lda
bh3
I NN
12
vi
Ci
Page 117 of 429
(iv) Moment of inertia of a thin circular ring:
Polar moment of Inertia
J R2 u area of whole ring
R 2 u 2S Rt 2S R 3 t
J
I XX IYY S R 3t
2
t.in
(v) Moment of inertia of a elliptical area
S ab3
I XX
4
po
gs
blo
Let us take an example: An I-section beam of 100 mm wide, 150 mm depth flange and web of
thickness 20 mm is used in a structure of length 5 m. Determine the Moment of Inertia (of area) of
cross-section of the beam.
Answer: Carefully observe the figure below. It has sections with symmetry about the neutral axis.
.
tas
lda
bh3
We may use standard value for a rectangle about an axis passes through centroid. i.e. I .
12
The section can thus be divided into convenient rectangles for each of which the neutral axis passes
vi
I Beam I Re c tan gle - I Shaded area

ª 0.100 u 0.150 3 0.40 u 0.1303 º 4
the centroid. « -2 u »m
«¬ 12 12 »¼
Ci
1.183 u 10-4 m4
3.9 Radius of gyration

Consider area A with moment of inertia Ixx. Imagine
that the area is concentrated in a thin strip parallel to
Page 118 of 429
the x axis with equivalent Ixx.
I xx
I xx 2
kxx A or kxx
A
kxx =radius of gyration with respect to the x axis.
Similarly
t.in
I yy
I yy 2
kyy A or kyy
A
po
J
gs
J ko2 A or ko
A
blo
ko2 2
kxx 2
kyy
.
tas
lda
Let us take an example: Find radius of gyration for a circular area of diameter ‘d’ about central
axis.
Answer:
vi
Ci
2
We know that, I xx K xx A
Page 119 of 429
S d4
I XX 64 d
or K XX
A S d2 4
4
t.in
po
gs
. blo
tas
vi lda
Ci
Page 120 of 429
Moment of Inertia (Second moment of an area)

GATE-1. The second moment of a circular area about the diameter is given by (D is the
t.in
diameter) [GATE-2003]
S D4 S D4 S D4 S D4
(a) (b) (c) (d)
4 16 32 64
GATE-1. Ans. (d)
po
GATE-2. The area moment of inertia of a square of size 1 unit about its diagonal is:
[GATE-2001]
1 1 1 1
(a) (b) (c) (d)
3
4
4
gs 12 6
a4 1
GATE-2. Ans. (c) I xx
12 12
. blo
tas
lda
Radius of Gyration
Data for Q3–Q4 are given below. Solve the problems and choose correct
answers.
vi
A reel of mass “m” and radius of gyration “k” is rolling down smoothly from rest with one
end of the thread wound on it held in the ceiling as depicted in the figure. Consider the
Ci
thickness of the thread and its mass negligible in comparison with the radius “r” of the
hub and the reel mass “m”. Symbol “g” represents the acceleration due to gravity.
[GATE-2003]
Page 121 of 429
GATE-3. The linear acceleration of the reel is:
t.in
gr 2 gk2 grk mgr 2
(a) 2 (b) (c) (d)
r k2
r 2 k2 r 2
k2 r 2
k2
GATE-3. Ans. (a) For downward linear motion mg – T = mf, where f = linear tangential
acceleration = rǂ, ǂ = rotational acceleration. Considering rotational motion
Tr I D .
po
f gr 2
or, T = mk2 u therefore mg – T = mf gives f =
r2 r 2 k2
gs
. blo
GATE-4. The tension in the thread is:

mgr 2 mgrk mgk2 mg
tas
(a) 2 (b) 2 (c) (d)

r k
2

r k2 r 2
k 2
r 2
k2
2 2
f gr mgk
GATE-4. Ans. (c) T mk2 u mk2 u
r2 2

r r k 2 2
r 2
k2
lda
Centroid
vi
IES-1. Assertion (A): Inertia force always acts through the centroid of the body and is
directed opposite to the acceleration of the centroid. [IES-2001]
Reason (R): It has always a tendency to retard the motion.
Ci
IES-1. Ans. (c) It has always a tendency to oppose the motion not retard. If we want to retard a
motion then it will wand to accelerate.
Page 122 of 429
Radius of Gyration
IES-2. Figure shows a rigid body of mass
m having radius of gyration k
about its centre of gravity. It is to
be replaced by an equivalent
dynamical system of two masses
placed at A and B. The mass at A
should be:
a um bum
(a) (b)
a b a b
m a m b
(c) u (d) u
t.in
3 b 2 a
[IES-2003]
IES-2. Ans. (b)
IES-3. Force required to accelerate a cylindrical body which rolls without slipping on a
horizontal plane (mass of cylindrical body is m, radius of the cylindrical
po
surface in contact with plane is r, radius of gyration of body is k and
acceleration of the body is a) is: [IES-2001]
2
2
(a) m k / r 1 .a 2
2
(b) mk / r .a 2
(c) mk .a 2
(d) mk / r 1 .a
IES-3. Ans. (a) gs
IES-4. A body of mass m and radius of gyration k is to be replaced by two masses m1 and
m2 located at distances h1 and h2 from the CG of the original body. An
equivalent dynamic system will result, if [IES-2001]
2
h22 k2 k2 k2
blo
(a) h1 h2 k (b) h1 (c) h1h2 (d) h1h2
IES-4. Ans. (c)

.
tas
Radius of Gyration
IAS-1. A wheel of centroidal radius of gyration 'k' is rolling on a horizontal surface
with constant velocity. It comes across an obstruction of height 'h' Because of
its rolling speed, it just overcomes the obstruction. To determine v, one should
use the principle (s) of conservation of [IAS 1994]
lda
(a) Energy (b) Linear momentum

(c) Energy and linear momentum (d) Energy and angular momentum
IAS-1. Ans. (a)
vi
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Page 123 of 429

Question: When are I-sections preferred in engineering applications? Elaborate your
answer.
Answer: I-section has large section modulus. It will reduce the stresses induced in the material.
Since I-section has the considerable area are far away from the natural so its section
modulus increased.
t.in
po
gs
. blo
tas
vi lda
Ci
Page 124 of 429
4. Bending Moment and Shear

Force Diagram
4.1 Shear Force and Bending Moment
t.in
At first we try to understand what shear force is and what is bending moment?
We will not introduce any other co-ordinate system.
We use general co-ordinate axis as shown in the
po
figure. This system will be followed in shear force and
bending moment diagram and in deflection of beam.
Here downward direction will be negative i.e.
negative Y-axis. Therefore downward deflection of the gs We use above Co-ordinate system
beam will be treated as negative.
Some books fix a co-ordinate axis as shown in the

blo
following figure. Here downward direction will be
positive i.e. positive Y-axis. Therefore downward
deflection of the beam will be treated as positive. As
beam is generally deflected in downward directions
.
and this co-ordinate system treats downward

tas
Some books use above co-ordinate system

deflection is positive deflection.
Consider a cantilever beam as shown subjected to
external load ‘P’. If we imagine this beam to be cut by
lda
a section X-X, we see that the applied force tend to

displace the left-hand portion of the beam relative to
the right hand portion, which is fixed in the wall.
This tendency is resisted by internal forces between
the two parts of the beam. At the cut section a
vi
resistance shear force (Vx) and a bending moment

(Mx) is induced. This resistance shear force and the
Ci
bending moment at the cut section is shown in the

left hand and right hand portion of the cut beam.
Using the three equations of equilibrium
¦F x 0 , ¦Fy 0 and ¦M i 0
We find that Vx P and M x P . x

In this chapter we want to show pictorially
Page 125the
of 429
Chapter-4 Bending Moment and Shear Force Diagram S K Mondal’s
variation of shear force and bending moment in a
beam as a function of ‘x' measured from one end of
the beam.
Shear Force (V) ŋ equal in magnitude but opposite in direction

to the algebraic sum (resultant) of the components in the
t.in
direction perpendicular to the axis of the beam of all external
loads and support reactions acting on either side of the section
being considered.
Bending Moment (M) equal in magnitude but opposite in
po
direction to the algebraic sum of the moments about (the
centroid of the cross section of the beam) the section of all
external loads and support reactions acting on either side of
the section being considered. gs
What are the benefits of drawing shear force and bending moment diagram?
The benefits of drawing a variation of shear force and bending moment in a beam as a function of ‘x'
blo
measured from one end of the beam is that it becomes easier to determine the maximum absolute
value of shear force and bending moment. The shear force and bending moment diagram gives a
clear picture in our mind about the variation of SF and BM throughout the entire section of the
beam.
.
Further, the determination of value of bending moment as a function of ‘x' becomes very important
tas
so as to determine the value of deflection of beam subjected to a given loading where we will use the
d 2y
formula, EI Mx .
dx 2
lda
4.2 Notation and sign convention

x Shear force (V)
Positive Shear Force
vi
A shearing force having a downward direction to the right hand side of a section or upwards
to the left hand of the section will be taken as ‘positive’. It is the usual sign conventions to be
Ci
followed for the shear force. In some book followed totally opposite sign convention.
Page 126 of 429
t.in
The upward direction shearing The downward direction
force which is on the left hand shearing force which is on the
of the section XX is positive right hand of the section XX is
shear force. positive shear force.
po
Negative Shear Force
A shearing force having an upward direction to the right hand side of a section or downwards
gs
to the left hand of the section will be taken as ‘negative’.
. blo
tas
lda
The downward direction The upward direction shearing

shearing force which is on the force which is on the right
left hand of the section XX is hand of the section XX is
negative shear force. negative shear force.
vi
x Bending Moment (M)

Positive Bending Moment
Ci
A bending moment causing concavity upwards will be taken as ‘positive’ and called as
sagging bending moment.
Page 127 of 429
Sagging
If the bending moment of If the bending moment of A bending moment causing

the left hand of the section the right hand of the concavity upwards will be
t.in
XX is clockwise then it is a section XX is anti- taken as ‘positive’ and
positive bending moment. clockwise then it is a called as sagging bending
positive bending moment. moment.
po
Negative Bending Moment
gs
blo
Hogging
If the bending moment of If the bending moment of A bending moment causing
the left hand of the the right hand of the convexity upwards will be
.
section XX is anti- section XX is clockwise taken as ‘negative’ and called

tas
clockwise then it is a then it is a positive as hogging bending moment.

positive bending moment. bending moment.
lda
Way to remember sign convention

x Remember in the Cantilever beam both Shear force and BM are negative (–ive).
4.3 Relation between S.F (Vx), B.M. (Mx) & Load (w)
vi
dVx
x = -w (load) The value of the distributed load at any point in the beam is
dx
Ci
equal to the slope of the shear force curve. (Note that the sign of this rule may change
depending on the sign convention used for the external distributed load).
dM x
x = Vx The value of the shear force at any point in the beam is equal to the slope
dx
Page 128 of 429
of the bending moment curve.
4.4 Procedure for drawing shear force and bending moment diagram
Construction of shear force diagram
x From the loading diagram of the beam constructed shear force diagram.
x First determine the reactions.
x Then the vertical components of forces and reactions are successively summed from the left
end of the beam to preserve the mathematical sign conventions adopted. The shear at a
section is simply equal to the sum of all the vertical forces to the left of the section.
t.in
x The shear force curve is continuous unless there is a point force on the beam. The curve then
“jumps” by the magnitude of the point force (+ for upward force).
x When the successive summation process is used, the shear force diagram should end up with
the previously calculated shear (reaction at right end of the beam). No shear force acts
po
through the beam just beyond the last vertical force or reaction. If the shear force diagram
closes in this fashion, then it gives an important check on mathematical calculations. i.e. The
shear force will be zero at each end of the beam unless a point force is applied at the end.
Construction of bending moment diagram

gs
x The bending moment diagram is obtained by proceeding continuously along the length of
blo
beam from the left hand end and summing up the areas of shear force diagrams using proper
sign convention.
x The process of obtaining the moment diagram from the shear force diagram by summation is
exactly the same as that for drawing shear force diagram from load diagram.
.
x The bending moment curve is continuous unless there is a point moment on the beam. The
tas
curve then “jumps” by the magnitude of the point moment (+ for CW moment).
x We know that a constant shear force produces a uniform change in the bending moment,
resulting in straight line in the moment diagram. If no shear force exists along a certain
lda
portion of a beam, then it indicates that there is no change in moment takes place. We also
know that dM/dx= Vx therefore, from the fundamental theorem of calculus the maximum or
minimum moment occurs where the shear is zero.
x The bending moment will be zero at each free or pinned end of the beam. If the end is built
vi
in, the moment computed by the summation must be equal to the one calculated initially for
the reaction.
Ci
4.5 Different types of Loading and their S.F & B.M Diagram
(i) A Cantilever beam with a concentrated load ‘P’ at its free end.
Page 129 of 429
Shear force:
At a section a distance x from free end consider the forces to
the left, then (Vx) = - P (for all values of x) negative in sign
i.e. the shear force to the left of the x-section are in downward
direction and therefore negative.
Bending Moment:
Taking moments about the section gives (obviously to the left
S.F and B.M diagram
t.in
of the section) Mx = -P.x (negative sign means that the
moment on the left hand side of the portion is in the
anticlockwise direction and is therefore taken as negative
according to the sign convention) so that the maximum
bending moment occurs at the fixed end i.e. Mmax = - PL
po
(at x = L)
(ii) A Cantilever beam with uniformly distributed load over the whole length
gs
When a cantilever beam is subjected to a uniformly
distributed load whose intensity is given w /unit length.
Shear force:
blo
Consider any cross-section XX which is at a distance of x from
the free end. If we just take the resultant of all the forces on
the left of the X-section, then
Vx = -w.x for all values of ‘x'.
.
At x = 0, Vx = 0
tas
At x = L, Vx = -wL (i.e. Maximum at fixed end)

Plotting the equation Vx = -w.x, we get a straight line
because it is a equation of a straight line y (Vx) = m(- w) .x
Bending Moment:
lda
Bending Moment at XX is obtained by treating the load to the

S.F and B.M diagram
left of XX as a concentrated load of the same value (w.x)
acting through the centre of gravity at x/2.
Therefore, the bending moment at any cross-section XX is
vi
x w .x 2
Mx w .x .
2 2
Therefore the variation of bending moment is according to parabolic law.
Ci
The extreme values of B.M would be

at x = 0, Mx = 0
wL2
and x = L, Mx =
2
Page 130 of 429
wL2
Maximum bending moment, Mmax at fixed end
2
Another way to describe a cantilever beam with uniformly distributed load (UDL) over it’s whole
length.
t.in
(iii) A Cantilever beam loaded as shown below draw its S.F and B.M diagram
In the region 0 < x < a
po
Following the same rule as followed previously, we get
Vx =- P; and Mx = - P.x
In the region a < x < L gs
Vx =- P +P=0; and Mx = - P.x +P x a P.a
. blo
S.F and B.M diagram

tas
(iv) Let us take an example: Consider a cantilever bean of 5 m length. It carries a uniformly
distributed load 3 KN/m and a concentrated load of 7 kN at the free end and 10 kN at 3 meters from
the fixed end.
vi lda
Draw SF and BM diagram.

Ci
Page 131 of 429
Answer: In the region 0 < x < 2 m
Consider any cross section XX at a distance x from free end.
Shear force (Vx) = -7- 3x
So, the variation of shear force is linear.
at x = 0, Vx = -7 kN
at x = 2 m , Vx = -7 - 3 u 2 = -13 kN
at point Z Vx = -7 -3 u 2-10 = -23 kN
t.in
x 3x 2
Bending moment (Mx) = -7x - (3x). 7x
2 2
So, the variation of bending force is parabolic.
at x = 0, Mx = 0
2
po
at x = 2 m, Mx = -7 u 2 – (3 u 2) u = - 20 kNm
2
In the region 2 m < x < 5 m
Consider any cross section YY at a distance x from free gs
end
Shear force (Vx) = -7 - 3x – 10 = -17- 3x
So, the variation of shear force is linear.
blo
at x = 2 m, Vx = - 23 kN
at x = 5 m, Vx = - 32 kN
§x·
Bending moment (Mx) = - 7x – (3x) u ¨ ¸ - 10 (x - 2)
©2¹
.
3
tas
x 2 17 x 20
2
So, the variation of bending force is parabolic.
3
at x = 2 m, Mx u 22 17 u 2 20 = - 20 kNm
2
lda
at x = 5 m, Mx = - 102.5 kNm
vi
Ci
Page 132 of 429
t.in
po
gs
(v) A Cantilever beam carrying uniformly varying load from zero at free end and w/unit
blo
length at the fixed end
.
tas
Consider any cross-section XX which is at a distance of x from the free end.

w
At this point load (wx) = .x
L
lda
L L
w wL
Therefore total load (W) ³ w x dx
0
³ L .xdx =
0
2
Shear force Vx area of ABC (load triangle)

1 §w · wx 2
vi
. ¨ x ¸ .x
2 ©L ¹ 2L
? The shear force variation is parabolic.
Ci
at x = 0, Vx 0
WL WL
at x = L, Vx i.e. Maximum Shear force (Vmax ) at fixed end
2 2
Page 133 of 429
Bending moment Mx load u distance from centroid of triangle ABC
wx 2 § 2x · wx 3
.¨ ¸
2L © 3 ¹ 6L
? The bending moment variation is cubic.
at x= 0, Mx 0
wL2 wL2
at x = L, Mx i.e. Maximum Bending moment (Mmax ) at fixed end.
6 6
t.in
po
gs
. blo
Integration method
tas
Alternative way :
d Vx w
We know that load .x
dx L
w
or d(Vx ) .x .dx
lda
L
Integrating both side
Vx x
w
³ d Vx
0
³
0
L
. x .dx
vi
w x2
or Vx .
L 2
Again we know that
Ci
d Mx wx 2
Vx -
dx 2L
wx 2
or d Mx - dx
2L
Page 134 of 429
Integrating both side we get at x=0,Mx =0
Mx x
wx 2
³
0
d(Mx ) ³
0 2L
.dx
w x3 wx 3
or Mx - × -
2L 3 6L
(vi) A Cantilever beam carrying gradually varying load from zero at fixed end and
w/unit length at the free end
t.in
wL2 wL
po
Considering equilibrium we get, MA and Reaction R A
3 2
Considering any cross-section XX which is at a distance of x from the fixed end.
W
At this point load (Wx ) .x
Shear force Vx
L
RA area of triangle ANM
gs
wL wx 2
blo
wL 1 § w ·
- . ¨ .x ¸ .x = + -
2 2 ©L ¹ 2 2L
wL wL
at x 0, Vx i.e. Maximum shear force, Vmax
2 2
.
at x L, Vx 0
tas
wx 2 2x
Bending moment Mx =R A .x - . - MA
2L 3
wL wx 3 wL2
=.x - -
2 6L 3
lda
? The bending moment variation is cubic

wL2 wL2
at x = 0, Mx i.e.Maximum B.M. Mmax .
3 3
at x L, Mx 0
vi
Ci
Page 135 of 429
t.in
po
(vii) A Cantilever beam carrying a moment M at free end
gs
blo
Consider any cross-section XX which is at a distance of x from the free end.
Shear force: Vx = 0 at any point.
Bending moment (Mx) = -M at any point, i.e. Bending moment is constant throughout the
length.
.
tas
vi lda
(viii) A Simply supported beam with a concentrated load ‘P’ at its mid span.
Ci
P
Considering equilibrium we get, R A = RB =
2
Now consider any cross-section XX which is at a distance of x from left end A and section YY at
a distance from left end A, as shown in figure below.
Page 136 of 429
Shear force: In the region 0 < x < L/2
Vx = RA = + P/2 (it is constant)
In the region L/2 < x < L
P
Vx = RA – P = - P = - P/2 (it is constant)
2
Bending moment: In the region 0 < x < L/2
P
Mx = .x (its variation is linear)
2
PL
at x = 0, Mx = 0 and at x = L/2 Mx = i.e. maximum
4
t.in
PL
Maximum bending moment, Mmax at x = L/2 (at mid-point)
4
P PL P
po
Mx = .x – P(x - L/2) = .x (its variation is linear)
2 2 2
PL
at x = L/2 , Mx = and at x = L, Mx = 0
4
gs
. blo
tas
vi lda
(ix) A Simply supported beam with a concentrated load ‘P’ is not at its mid span.
Ci
Pb Pa
Considering equilibrium we get, RA = and RB =
L L
Now consider any cross-section XX which is at a distance x from left end A and another section
YY at a distance x from end A as shownPage 137 of 429
in figure below.
Shear force: In the range 0 < x < a
Pb
Vx = RA = + (it is constant)
L
In the range a < x < L
Pa
Vx = RA - P = - (it is constant)
L
Bending moment: In the range 0 < x < a
Pb
Mx = +RA.x = .x (it is variation is linear)
L
t.in
Pab
at x = 0, Mx = 0 and at x = a, Mx = (i.e. maximum)
L
In the range a < x < L
Pb
Mx = RA.x – P(x- a) = .x – P.x + Pa (Put b = L - a)
L
po
§ x·
= Pa (1 - Pa ¨ 1 )
© L ¸¹
Pab
at x = a, Mx = and at x = L, Mx = 0
L
gs
. blo
tas
lda
(x) A Simply supported beam with two concentrated load ‘P’ from a distance ‘a’ both end.
The loading is shown below diagram
vi
Ci
Page 138 of 429
Take a section at a distance x from the left support. This section is applicable for any value of x just
to the left of the applied force P. The shear, remains constant and is +P. The bending moment varies
linearly from the support, reaching a maximum of +Pa.
A section applicable anywhere between the two applied forces. Shear force is not necessary to
maintain equilibrium of a segment in this part of the beam. Only a constant bending moment of +Pa
must be resisted by the beam in this zone.
Such a state of bending or flexure is called pure bending.

Shear and bending-moment diagrams for this loading condition are shown below.
t.in
po
gs
. blo
tas
(xi) A Simply supported beam with a uniformly distributed load (UDL) through out its
lda
length
vi
We will solve this problem by following two alternative ways.

(a) By Method of Section
Ci
wL
Considering equilibrium we get RA = RB =
2
Now Consider any cross-section XX which is at a distance x from left end A.
Page 139 of 429
Then the section view
wL
Shear force: Vx = wx
2
(i.e. S.F. variation is linear)
t.in
wL
at x = 0, Vx =
2
at x = L/2, Vx = 0
wL
po
at x = L, Vx = -
2
wL wx 2
Bending moment: M x .x
2 2
(i.e. B.M. variation is parabolic)
at x = 0, Mx = 0
gs
at x = L, Mx = 0
blo
Now we have to determine maximum bending
moment and its position.
d Mx ª d M x º
For maximum B.M: 0 i .e. Vx 0 « Vx »
.
dx ¬ dx ¼
tas
wL L
or wx 0 or x
2 2
wL2
lda
Therefore, maximum bending moment, Mmax at x = L/2

8
(a) By Method of Integration
Shear force:
vi
d Vx
We know that, w
dx
Ci
or d Vx wdx
wL
Integrating both side we get (at x =0, Vx = )
2
Page 140 of 429
Vx x
³ d V
wL
x ³ wdx
0

2
wL
or Vx wx
2
wL
or Vx wx
2
Bending moment:
d Mx
We know that, Vx
t.in
dx
§ wL ·
or d M x Vx dx ¨ 2 wx ¸ dx
© ¹
Integrating both side we get (at x =0, Vx =0)
po
Mx x
§ wL ·
³ d Mx ³ ¨© wx ¸ dx
o 0 2 ¹
wL wx 2
or M x .x gs
2 2
Let us take an example: A loaded beam as shown below. Draw its S.F and B.M diagram.
. blo
tas
Considering equilibrium we get
¦M 0 gives
lda
- 200 u 4 u 2 3000 u 4 RB u 8 0
or RB 1700N
And R A RB 200 u 4 3000

vi
or RA 2100N
Now consider any cross-section XX which is at a distance 'x' from left end A and
Ci
as shown in figure
Page 141 of 429
t.in
In the region 0 < x < 4m
Shear force (Vx) = RA – 200x = 2100 – 200 x
§x·
po
Bending moment (Mx) = RA .x – 200 x . ¨ ¸ = 2100 x -100 x
2
©2¹
at x = 0, Vx = 2100 N, Mx = 0
at x = 4m, Vx = 1300 N,
In the region 4 m < x < 8 m

Mx = 6800 N.m
gs
Shear force (Vx) = RA - 200 u 4 – 3000 = -1700
blo
Bending moment (Mx) = RA. x - 200 u 4 (x-2) – 3000 (x- 4)
= 2100 x – 800 x + 1600 – 3000x +12000 = 13600 -1700 x
at x = 4 m, Vx = -1700 N, Mx = 6800 Nm
.
tas
at x = 8 m, Vx = -1700 N, Mx = 0
vi lda
Ci
Page 142 of 429
t.in
po
gs
blo
(xii) A Simply supported beam with a gradually varying load (GVL) zero at one end and
w/unit length at other span.
.
tas
1
lda
Consider equilibrium of the beam = wL acting at a point C at a distance 2L/3 to the left end A.
2
¦M B
0 gives
wL L
R A .L - . 0
2 3
vi
wL
or R A
6
wL
Similarly ¦M 0 gives RB
Ci
A
3
w
The free body diagram of section A - XX as shown below, Load at section XX, (wx) = x
L
Page 143 of 429
t.in
1 w wx 2
The resulted of that part of the distributed load which acts on this free body is x . x
2 L 2L
po
applied at a point Z, distance x/3 from XX section.
wx 2 wL wx 2
Shear force (Vx) = R A - -
2L 6 2L gs
Therefore the variation of shear force is parabolic
wL
at x = 0, Vx =
6
blo
wL
at x = L, Vx = -
3
wL wx 2 x wL wx 3
and Bending Moment (Mx ) .x . .x
6 2L 3 6 6L
.
The variation of BM is cubic

tas
at x = 0, Mx = 0
at x = L, Mx = 0
d Mx ª d Mx º
For maximum BM; 0 i.e. Vx 0 « Vx »
dx dx
lda
¬ ¼
wL wx 2 L
or - 0 or x
6 2L 3
3
wL § L · w § L · wL2
and Mmax u¨ ¸ u¨ ¸
vi
6 © 3 ¹ 6L © 3 ¹ 9 3
wL2
Ci
i.e. Mmax at x
L
3
9 3
Page 144 of 429
t.in
po
gs
(xiii) A Simply supported beam with a gradually varying load (GVL) zero at each end and
w/unit length at mid span.
. blo
tas
§1 L · wL
Consider equilibrium of the beam AB total load on the beam 2u¨ u u w¸
©2 2 ¹ 2
wL
Therefore R A RB
4
lda
2w
The free body diagram of section A –XX as shown below, load at section XX (wx) .x
L
vi
Ci
1 2w wx 2
The resultant of that part of the distributed load which acts on this free body is .x. .x
2 L L
applied at a point, distance x/3 from section XX.
Page 145 of 429
Shear force (Vx):
In the region 0 < x < L/2
wx 2 wL wx 2
Vx RA
L 4 L
Therefore the variation of shear force is parabolic.
wL
at x = 0, Vx =
4
at x = L/4, Vx = 0
In the region of L/2 < x < L
t.in
The Diagram will be Mirror image of AC.
Bending moment (Mx):

wL § 1 2wx · wL wx 3
po
Mx .x ¨ .x. . x / 3 -
4 ©2 L ¸¹ 4 3L
at x = 0, Mx = 0 gs
wL2
at x = L/2, Mx =
12
blo
BM diagram will be mirror image of AC.
For maximum bending moment
d Mx ª d Mx º
0 i.e. Vx 0 « Vx »
dx ¬ dx ¼
.
tas
wL wx 2 L
or - 0 or x
4 L 2
wL2
and Mmax
12
lda
wL2
i.e. Mmax at x
L
2
12
vi
Ci
Page 146 of 429
t.in
po
gs
(xiv) A Simply supported beam with a gradually varying load (GVL) zero at mid span and
w/unit length at each end.
blo
We now superimpose two beams as

(1) Simply supported beam with a UDL
.
tas
through at its length

wL
Vx 1 wx
2
wL wx 2
Mx 1 .x
lda
2 2
And (2) a simply supported beam with a gradually varying load (GVL) zero at each end and w/unit
length at mind span.
vi
In the range 0 < x < L/2
wL wx 2
Vx 2
4 L
Ci
wL wx 3
Mx 2 .x
4 3L
Now superimposing we get
Shear force (Vx):
In the region of 0< x < L/2
Page 147 of 429
wL § wL wx 2 ·
Vx Vx 1 Vx 2 §¨ -wx ·¸ ¨ - ¸
© 2 ¹ © 4 L ¹
w 2
x - L/2
L
Therefore the variation of shear force is parabolic
wL
at x = 0, Vx = +
4
at x = L/2, Vx = 0
t.in
The diagram will be mirror image of AC
Bending moment (Mx) = Mx 1 - Mx 2 =
§ wL wx 2 · § wL wx 3 · wx 3 wx 2 wL
¨ .x
¸ ¨ .x ¸ .x
© 2 2 ¹ © 4 3L ¹ 3L 2 4
po
at x 0, Mx 0 gs
wx 2
at x L / 2, Mx
24
. blo
tas
vi lda
(xv) A simply supported beam with a gradually varying load (GVL) w1/unit length at one
Ci
end and w2/unit length at other end.
Page 148 of 429
At first we will treat this problem by considering a UDL of identifying (w1)/unit length over the
whole length and a varying load of zero at one end to (w2- w1)/unit length at the other end. Then
superimpose the two loadings.
t.in
Consider a section XX at a distance x from left end A
(i) Simply supported beam with UDL (w1) over whole length
w1L
Vx 1 w1x
2
w1L 1
po
Mx 1 .x w1x 2
2 2
And (ii) simply supported beam with (GVL) zero at one end (w2- w1) at other end gives
w 2 w1 w 2 w1 x 2 gs
Vx 2
6 2L
L w 2 w1 x 3
M x 2 w 2 w 1 . .x
6 6L
blo
Now superimposing we get
w1L w 2L x2
Shear force Vx Vx 1 + Vx 2 + w 1x w 2 w1
3 6 2L
? The SF variation is parabolic
.
w1L w 2L L
tas
at x 0, Vx 2w1 w 2
3 6 6
L
at x L, Vx w1 2w 2
6
w1L wL 1 § w -w ·
lda
Bending moment Mx Mx 1 Mx 2 .x 1 .x w1x 2 ¨ 2 1 ¸ .x 3

3 6 2 © 6L ¹
?The BM variation is cubic.
at x 0, Mx 0
vi
at x L, Mx 0
Ci
Page 149 of 429
t.in
po
gs
(xvi) A Simply supported beam carrying a continuously distributed load. The intensity of
§Sx ·
the load at any point is, w x w sin ¨ ¸ . Where ‘x’ is the distance from each end of
blo
© L ¹
the beam.
.
tas
We will use Integration method as it is easier in this case.
d Vx d Mx
We know that load and Vx
lda
dx dx
d Vx §Sx ·
Therefore w sin ¨ ¸
dx © L ¹
§Sx ·
d Vx w sin ¨ ¸ dx
vi
© L ¹
§Sx·
Ci
w cos ¨ ¸
§Sx · © L ¹ A wL §Sx·
³ dV x w ³ sin ¨ ¸ dx
© L ¹
or Vx
S

S
cos ¨ ¸A
© L ¹
L
> where, A constant of Integration@
Page 150 of 429
Again we know that
d Mx wL §Sx · ½
Vx or d Mx Vx dx ® cos ¨ ¸ A ¾ dx
dx ¯S © L ¹ ¿
wL §Sx ·
sin ¨ ¸
S © L ¹ Ax + B wL2 §Sx ·
Mx
S S2
sin ¨ ¸ Ax + B
© L ¹
L
[Where B = constant of Integration]
t.in
Now apply boundary conditions
At x = 0, Mx = 0 and at x = L, Mx = 0
This gives A = 0 and B = 0
wL §Sx · wL
? Shear force Vx cos ¨ ¸ and Vmax at x 0
po
S © L ¹ S
wL2 §Sx ·
And Mx 2
sin ¨ ¸
S © L ¹
wL2 gs
? Mmax at x = L/2
S2
. blo
tas
lda
(xvii) A Simply supported beam with a couple or moment at a distance ‘a’ from left end.
vi
Ci
Considering equilibrium we get
Page 151 of 429
¦M A 0 gives
M
RB ×L +M 0 or RB
L
and ¦M B 0 gives
M
R A ×L +M 0 or R A
L
Now consider any cross-section XX which is at a distance ‘x’ from left end A and another section YY
at a distance ‘x’ from left end A as shown in figure.
t.in
po
In the region 0 < x < a
gs
M
Shear force (Vx) = RA =
L
blo
M
Bending moment (Mx) = RA.x = .x
L
In the region a< x < L

.
M
tas
Shear force (Vx) = RA =

L
M
Bending moment (Mx) = RA.x – M = .x - M
L
vi lda
Ci
Page 152 of 429
t.in
po
(xviii) A Simply supported beam with an eccentric load
gs
blo
When the beam is subjected to an eccentric load, the eccentric load is to be changed into a couple =
Force u (distance travel by force)
= P.a (in this case) and a force = P
.
Therefore equivalent load diagram will be

tas
lda
Considering equilibrium
¦M 0 gives
vi
-P.(L/2) + P.a + RB u L = 0
P P.a P P.a
or RB = and RA + RB = P gives RA =
2 L 2 L
Ci
Now consider any cross-section XX which is at a distance ‘x’ from left end A and another section YY
at a distance ‘x’ from left end A as shown in figure.
Page 153 of 429

P P.a
Shear force (Vx) =
2 L
t.in
§ P Pa ·
Bending moment (Mx) = RA . x = ¨ ¸.x
©2 L ¹
P Pa P Pa
Shear force (Vx) = P =-
2 L 2 L
po
Bending moment (Vx) = RA . x – P.( x - L/2 ) – M
PL § P Pa ·
= .x - Pa
2 ¨© 2 L ¸¹
gs
. blo
tas
vi lda
4.6 Bending Moment diagram of Statically Indeterminate beam

Ci
Beams for which reaction forces and internal forces cannot be found out from static equilibrium
equations alone are called statically indeterminate beam. This type of beam requires deformation
equation in addition to static equilibrium equations to solve for unknown forces.
Statically determinate - Equilibrium conditions sufficient to compute reactions.

Statically indeterminate - Deflections (Compatibility conditions) along with equilibrium equations
should be used to find out reactions.
Page 154 of 429
Type of Loading & B.M Diagram Reaction Bending Moment
R A= R B =
P PL
2 M =M = -
A B
wL wL2
M =M = -
t.in
RA = RB =
2 A B
12
Pb 2 Pab 2
MA = -
po
RA (3a b)
L3 L2
Pa 2 Pa 2b
RB (3b a) MB = -
L3 L2
gs
. blo
tas
3wL
R A= R B =
16
lda
5wL
Rc =
8
vi
Ci
RA RB
+
- -
Page 155 of 429
4.7 Load and Bending Moment diagram from Shear Force diagram
OR
Load and Shear Force diagram from Bending Moment diagram
If S.F. Diagram for a beam is given, then
(i) If S.F. diagram consists of rectangle then the load will be point load
(ii) If S.F diagram consists of inclined line then the load will be UDL on that portion
t.in
(iii) If S.F diagram consists of parabolic curve then the load will be GVL
(iv) If S.F diagram consists of cubic curve then the load distribute is parabolic.
After finding load diagram we can draw B.M diagram easily.
po
If B.M Diagram for a beam is given, then
(i) If B.M diagram consists of inclined line then the load will be free point load
(ii)
(iii)
gs
If B.M diagram consists of parabolic curve then the load will be U.D.L.
If B.M diagram consists of cubic curve then the load will be G.V.L.
blo
(iv) If B.M diagram consists of fourth degree polynomial then the load distribution is
parabolic.
Let us take an example: Following is the S.F diagram of a beam is given. Find its loading
diagram.
.
tas
lda
Answer: From A-E inclined straight line so load will be UDL and in AB = 2 m length load = 6 kN if
UDL is w N/m then w.x = 6 or w u 2 = 6 or w = 3 kN/m after that S.F is constant so no force is
vi
there. At last a 6 kN for vertical force complete the diagram then the load diagram will be
Ci
As there is no support at left end it must be a cantilever beam.
Page 156 of 429
4.8 Point of Contraflexure

In a beam if the bending moment changes sign at a point, the point itself having zero bending
t.in
moment, the beam changes curvature at this point of zero bending moment and this point is called
the point of contra flexure.
Consider a loaded beam as shown below along with the B.M diagrams and deflection diagram.
po
gs
blo
In this diagram we noticed that for the beam loaded as in this case, the bending moment diagram is
.
tas
partly positive and partly negative. In the deflected shape of the beam just below the bending
moment diagram shows that left hand side of the beam is ‘sagging' while the right hand side of the
beam is ‘hogging’.
lda
The point C on the beam where the curvature changes from sagging to hogging is a point of
contraflexure.
x There can be more than one point of contraflexure in a beam.

vi
4.9 General expression

d4y
Z
Ci
x EI
dx 2
d3y
x EI Vx
dx3
d2y
x EI 2 Mx
dx
Page 157 of 429
dy
x = ș = slope
dx
x y= G = Deflection
x Flexural rigidity = EI
t.in
po
gs
. blo
tas
vi lda
Ci
Page 158 of 429
Shear Force (S.F.) and Bending Moment (B.M.)

GATE-1. A concentrated force, F is applied
(perpendicular to the plane of the figure) on
t.in
the tip of the bent bar shown in Figure. The
equivalent load at a section close to the fixed
end is:
(a) Force F
(b) Force F and bending moment FL
(c) Force F and twisting moment FL
po
(d) Force F bending moment F L, and twisting
moment FL
[GATE-1999]
GATE-1. Ans. (c)
GATE-2.
gs
The shear force in a beam subjected to pure positive bending is……
(positive/zero/negative) [GATE-1995]
GATE-2. Ans. Zero
blo
Cantilever
GATE-3. Two identical cantilever beams are supported as shown, with their free ends in
contact through a rigid roller. After the load P is applied, the free ends will
have [GATE-2005]
.
tas
lda
(a) Equal deflections but not equal slopes

(b) Equal slopes but not equal deflections
(c) Equal slopes as well as equal deflections
(d) Neither equal slopes nor equal deflections
GATE-3. Ans. (a) As it is rigid roller, deflection must be same, because after deflection they also
vi
will be in contact. But slope unequal.
GATE-4. A beam is made up of two

identical bars AB and BC, by
Ci
hinging them together at B. The

end A is built-in (cantilevered)
and the end C is simply-
supported. With the load P acting
as shown, the bending moment at
A is:
[GATE-2005]
Page 159 of 429
PL 3PL
(a) Zero (b) (c) (d) Indeterminate
2 2
GATE-4. Ans. (b)
Cantilever with Uniformly Distributed Load

GATE-5. The shapes of the bending moment diagram for a uniform cantilever beam
carrying a uniformly distributed load over its length is: [GATE-2001]
(a) A straight line (b) A hyperbola (c) An ellipse (d) A parabola
GATE-5. Ans. (d)
t.in
po
gs
Cantilever Carrying load Whose Intensity varies
blo
GATE-6. A cantilever beam carries the anti-
symmetric load shown, where ǚo is
the peak intensity of the
distributed load. Qualitatively, the
correct bending moment diagram
for this beam is:
.
tas
[GATE-2005]
vi lda
Ci
GATE-6. Ans. (d)
Page 160 of 429
t.in
wx 2 wx 3
Mx
2 6L
Simply Supported Beam Carrying Concentrated Load
po
GATE-7. A concentrated load of P acts on a simply supported beam of span L at a
L
distance from the left support. The bending moment at the point of
3 gs
application of the load is given by [GATE-2003]
PL 2 PL PL 2 PL
(a) (b) (c ) (d )
3 3 9 9
GATE-7. Ans. (d)
blo
§ L · § 2L ·
Pu¨ ¸u¨ ¸
Pab ©3¹ © 3 ¹ 2PL
Mc
l L 9
.
tas
GATE-8. A simply supported beam carries a load 'P'

through a bracket, as shown in Figure. The
maximum bending moment in the beam is
(a) PI/2 (b) PI/2 + aP/2
(c) PI/2 + aP (d) PI/2 – aP
lda
[GATE-2000]
GATE-8. Ans. (c)
Taking moment about Ra
P u l Pa Rbl 0
2
P a P a
vi
or Rb P ?Ra P
2 l 2 l
Maximum bending moment will be at centre ‘C’
l l Pl
?Mc Ra u P u a Rb u or Mmax Pa
Ci
2 2 2
Simply Supported Beam Carrying a Uniformly

Distributed Load
Statement for Linked Answer and Questions Q9-Q10:
A mass less beam has a loading pattern as shown
Page in the figure. The beam is of rectangular
161 of 429
cross-section with a width of 30 mm and height of 100 mm. [GATE-2010]
GATE-9. The maximum bending moment occurs at

(a) Location B (b) 2675 mm to the right of A
(c) 2500 mm to the right of A (d) 3225 mm to the right of A
GATE-9. Ans. (C)
3000 N/m
t.in
po
R1 R2
R1 R 2 3000 u 2 6000N
R1 u 4 3000 u 2 u 1 0 gs
R1 1500,
S.F. eqn . at any section x from end A.
R1 3000 u x 2 0 ^for x ! 2m}
blo
x 2.5 m.
GATE-10. The maximum magnitude of bending stress (in MPa) is given by

(a) 60.0 (b) 67.5 (c) 200.0 (d) 225.0
GATE-10. Ans. (b)
Binding stress will be maximum at the outer surface
.
So taking 9 = 50 mm
tas
ld 3 m u 50
and I & V 3
12 ld
12
x2
m x 1.5 u 103 [2000 x]
lda
2
6
? m2500 3.375 u10 N mm
3.375 u 106 u 50 u 12
?V 67.5 MPa
30 u 1003
vi
Data for Q11-Q12 are given below. Solve the problems and choose correct
answers
A steel beam of breadth 120 mm and
Ci
height 750 mm is loaded as shown in the

figure. Assume Esteel= 200 GPa.
[GATE-2004]
GATE-11. The beam is subjected to a maximum bending moment of
(a) 3375 kNm (b) 4750 kNm
Page 162 of 429
(c) 6750 kNm (d) 8750 kNm
2 2
wl 120 u 15
GATE-11. Ans. (a) Mmax kNm 3375kNm
8 8
GATE-12. The value of maximum deflection of the beam is:

(a) 93.75 mm (b) 83.75 mm (c) 73.75 mm (d) 63.75 mm
3
bh 3
0.12 u 0.75
GATE-12. Ans. (a) Moment of inertia (I) = 4.22 u 103 m4
12 12
5 wl4 5 120 u 103 u 154
G max u m 93.75mm
384 EI 384 200 u 109 u 4.22 u 103
Statement for Linked Answer and Questions Q13-Q14:
t.in
A simply supported beam of span length 6m and 75mm diameter carries a uniformly
distributed load of 1.5 kN/m [GATE-2006]
GATE-13. What is the maximum value of bending moment?

(a) 9 kNm (b) 13.5 kNm (c) 81 kNm (d) 125 kNm
2 2
wl 1.5 u 6
GATE-13. Ans. (a) Mmax 6.75kNm But not in choice. Nearest choice (a)
po
8 8
GATE-14. What is the maximum value of bending stress?

(a) 162.98 MPa (b) 325.95 MPa (c) 625.95 Mpa (d) 651.90 Mpa
3
32M 32 u 6.75 u 10
GATE-14. Ans. (a) V
S d3 S u 0.075
2
gs
Pa 162.98MPa
Simply Supported Beam Carrying a Load whose

blo
Intensity varies Uniformly from Zero at each End to w
per Unit Run at the MiD Span
GATE-15. A simply supported beam is
subjected to a distributed
.
loading as shown in the

tas
diagram given below:

What is the maximum shear
force in the beam?
(a) WL/3 (b) WL/2
(c) WL/3 (d) WL/6
lda
[IES-2004]
GATE-15. Ans. (d) 1 WL
Total load uL u W
2 2
§ ·
WL 1 ¨ W ¸ WL Wx 2
Sx x. ¨ u X ¸
vi
4 2 ¨ L ¸ 4 L
¨ ¸
© 2 ¹
WL
Smax at x 0
4
Ci
GATE-16. A simply supported beam of length 'l' is subjected to a symmetrical uniformly

varying load with zero intensity at the ends and intensity w (load per unit
length) at the mid span. What is the maximum bending moment? [IAS-2004]
Page 163 of 429
2 2 2
3wl wl wl 5wl 2
(a) (b) (c) (d)
8 12 24 12
GATE-16. Ans. (b)

IES-1. A lever is supported on two
hinges at A and C. It carries a
t.in
force of 3 kN as shown in the
above figure. The bending
moment at B will be
(a) 3 kN-m (b) 2 kN-m
(c) 1 kN-m (d) Zero
po
[IES-1998]
IES-1. Ans. (a)
IES-2. A beam subjected to a load P is shown in gs

the given figure. The bending moment at
the support AA of the beam will be
(a) PL (b) PL/2
(c) 2PL (d) zero
blo
[IES-1997]
PL
IES-2. Ans. (b) Load P at end produces moment in
2
anticlockwise direction. Load P at end
.
produces moment of PL in clockwise

tas
direction. Net moment at AA is PL/2.
IES-3. The bending moment (M) is constant over a length segment (I) of a beam. The
shearing force will also be constant over this length and is given by [IES-1996]
(a) M/l (b) M/2l (c) M/4l (d) None of the above
lda
IES-3. Ans. (d) Dimensional analysis gives choice (d)
IES-4. A rectangular section beam subjected to a bending moment M varying along its
length is required to develop same maximum bending stress at any cross-
section. If the depth of the section is constant, then its width will vary as
[IES-1995]
vi
(a) M (b) M (c) M2 (d) 1/M

3
M bh
IES-4. Ans. (a) const. and I
I 12
Ci

If at a section distant from one of the ends of the beam, M represents the
bending moment. V the shear force and w the intensity of loading, then
1. dM/dx = V 2. dV/dx = w
3. dw/dx = y (the deflection of the beam at the section)
Select the correct answer using the codes given below:
(a) 1 and 3 (b) 1 and 2 (c) 2 and 3 (d) 1, 2 and 3
IES-5. Ans. (b) Page 164 of 429
Cantilever
IES-6. The given figure shows a beam BC simply supported at C and hinged at B (free
end) of a cantilever AB. The beam and the cantilever carry forces of
100 kg and 200 kg respectively. The bending moment at B is: [IES-1995]

(a) Zero (b) 100 kg-m (c) 150 kg-m (d) 200 kg-m
IES-6. Ans. (a)
t.in
IES-7. Match List-I with List-II and select the correct answer using the codes given
List-I List-II
(Condition of beam) (Bending moment diagram)
A. Subjected to bending moment at the 1. Triangle
po
end of a cantilever
B. Cantilever carrying uniformly distributed 2. Cubic parabola
load over the whole length
C. Cantilever carrying linearly varying load 3. Parabola
from zero at the fixed end to maximum at
gs
the support
D. A beam having load at the centre and 4. Rectangle
supported at the ends
(a) 4 1 2 3 (b) 4 3 2 1
blo
(c) 3 4 2 1 (d) 3 4 1 2
IES-7. Ans. (b)
IES-8. If the shear force acting at every section of a beam is of the same magnitude
and of the same direction then it represents a [IES-1996]
(a) Simply supported beam with a concentrated load at the centre.
.
(b) Overhung beam having equal overhang at both supports and carrying equal
tas
concentrated loads acting in the same direction at the free ends.

(c) Cantilever subjected to concentrated load at the free end.
(d) Simply supported beam having concentrated loads of equal magnitude and in the
same direction acting at equal distances from the supports.
IES-8. Ans. (c)
lda

IES-9. A uniformly distributed load Z (in kN/m) is acting over the entire length of a 3
m long cantilever beam. If the shear force at the midpoint of cantilever is 6 kN,
what is the value of Z ? [IES-2009]
(a) 2 (b) 3 (c) 4 (d) 5
vi
IES-9. Ans. (c)

Ci
Shear force at mid point of cantilever

Zl
6
2
Zu 3
6
2
6u2
Z 4 kN / m
3
Page 165 of 429
IES-10. Match List-I with List-II and select the correct answer using the code given
below the Lists: [IES-2009]
t.in
po
Code: A B C D
gs A B C D
(a) 1 5 2 4 (b) 4 5 2 3
(c) 1 3 4 5 (d) 4 2 5 3
blo
IES-10. Ans. (b)
IES-11. The shearing force diagram for a

beam is shown in the above figure.
The bending moment diagram is
represented by which one of the
.
following?
tas
[IES-2008]
vi lda
Ci
IES-11. Ans. (b) Uniformly distributed load on cantilever beam.
Page 166 of 429
t.in
po
IES-12. A cantilever beam having 5 m length is so loaded that it develops a shearing
gs
force of 20T and a bending moment of 20 T-m at a section 2m from the free end.
Maximum shearing force and maximum bending moment developed in the
beam under this load are respectively 50 T and 125 T-m. The load on the beam
is: [IES-1995]
blo
(a) 25 T concentrated load at free end
(b) 20T concentrated load at free end
(c) 5T concentrated load at free end and 2 T/m load over entire length
(d) 10 T/m udl over entire length
IES-12. Ans. (d)
Cantilever Carrying Uniformly Distributed Load for a

.
tas
Part of its Length

IES-13. A vertical hanging bar of length L and weighing w N/ unit length carries a load
W at the bottom. The tensile force in the bar at a distance Y from the support
will be given by [IES-1992]
W
lda
a W wL b W w( L y ) c W w y / L d W (L y)
w
IES-13. Ans. (b)

vi
IES-14. A cantilever beam of 2m length supports a triangularly distributed load over

its entire length, the maximum of which is at the free end. The total load is 37.5
kN.What is the bending moment at the fixed end? [IES 2007]
(a) 50 u 106 N mm (b) 12.5 u 106 N mm (c) 100 u 106 N mm (d) 25 u 106 N mm
Ci
IES-14. Ans. (a)
Page 167 of 429
4
M = 37.5 u KNm = 50 u 106 Nmm
3
t.in
IES-15. Assertion (A): If the bending moment along the length of a beam is constant,
then the beam cross section will not experience any shear stress. [IES-1998]
Reason (R): The shear force acting on the beam will be zero everywhere along
po
the length.
(d) A is false but R is true gs
IES-15. Ans. (a)
IES-16. Assertion (A): If the bending moment diagram is a rectangle, it indicates that
the beam is loaded by a uniformly distributed moment all along the length.
Reason (R): The BMD is a representation of internal forces in the beam and not
blo
the moment applied on the beam. [IES-2002]
IES-16. Ans. (d)
.
IES-17. The maximum bending moment in a simply supported beam of length L loaded
tas
by a concentrated load W at the midpoint is given by [IES-1996]

WL WL WL
(a) WL (b) (c) (d)
2 4 8
IES-17. Ans. (c)
lda
IES-18. A simply supported beam is

loaded as shown in the above
figure. The maximum shear force
in the beam will be
(a) Zero (b) W
vi
(c) 2W (d) 4W
[IES-1998]
IES-18. Ans. (c)
Ci
IES-19. If a beam is subjected to a constant bending moment along its length, then the
shear force will [IES-1997]
(a) Also have a constant value everywhere along its length
(b) Be zero at all sections along the beam
(c) Be maximum at the centre and zero at the ends (d) zero at the centre and
maximum at the ends
IES-19. Ans. (b)
Page 168 of 429
IES-20. A loaded beam is shown in
the figure. The bending
moment diagram of the
beam is best represented as:
[IES-2000]
t.in
IES-20. Ans. (a)
po
IES-21. A simply supported beam has equal over-hanging lengths and carries equal
concentrated loads P at ends. Bending moment over the length between the
supports [IES-2003]
(a) Is zero gs (b) Is a non-zero constant
(c) Varies uniformly from one support to the other (d) Is maximum at mid-span
IES-21. Ans. (b)
. blo
tas
lda
IES-22. The bending moment diagram for the case shown below will be q as shown in
vi
(a) (b)
Ci
(c) (d)
[IES-1992]
IES-22. Ans. (a)
Page 169 of 429
IES-23. Which one of the following
portions of the loaded beam
shown in the given figure is
subjected to pure bending?
(a) AB (b)DE
(c) AE (d) BD
[IES-1999]
IES-23. Ans. (d) Pure bending takes place in the section between two weights W
IES-24. Constant bending moment over span "l" will occur in [IES-1995]
t.in
po
IES-24. Ans. (d)
IES-25. For the beam shown in the above
figure, the elastic curve between the
supports B and C will be:
(a) Circular
(c) Elliptic
(b) Parabolic
(d) A straight line
gs
[IES-1998]
blo
IES-25. Ans. (b)
IES-26. A beam is simply supported at its ends and is loaded by a couple at its mid-span
as shown in figure A. Shear force diagram for the beam is given by the figure.
[IES-1994]
.
tas
lda
(a) B (b) C (c) D (d) E

IES-26. Ans. (d)
IES-27. A beam AB is hinged-supported at its ends and is loaded by couple P.c. as

vi
shown in the given figure. The magnitude or shearing force at a section x of the
beam is: [IES-1993]
Ci
(a) 0 (b) P (c) P/2L (d) P.c./2L

Page 170 of 429
IES-27. Ans. (d) If F be the shearing force at section x (at point A), then taking moments about B, F
x 2L = Pc
Pc Pc
or F Thus shearing force in zone x
2L 2L

Distributed Load
IES-28. A freely supported beam at its ends carries a central concentrated load, and maximum
bending moment is M. If the same load be uniformly distributed over the beam length,
then what is the maximum bending moment? [IES-2009]
t.in
M M
(a) M (b) (c) (d) 2M
2 3
IES-28. Ans. (b)
po
gs
. blo
tas
lda
WL
B.MMax M
4
Where the Load is U.D.L.
Maximum Bending Moment
vi
2
§ W ·§ L ·
¨ L ¸ 8¸
¨
© ¹© ¹
WL 1 § WL · M
Ci
8 2 ¨© 4 ¸¹ 2
Page 171 of 429
IES-29. A simply supported beam is
subjected to a distributed
loading as shown in the
diagram given below:
What is the maximum shear
force in the beam?
(a) WL/3 (b) WL/2
t.in
(c) WL/3 (d) WL/6
[IES-2004]
IES-29. Ans. (d) 1 WL
Total load uL u W
2 2
§ ·
po
WL 1 ¨ W ¸ WL Wx 2
Sx x. ¨ u X ¸
4 2 ¨ L ¸¸ 4 L
¨
© 2 ¹
WL
Smax at x 0
gs 4
blo
Simply Supported Beam carrying a Load whose
Intensity varies
IES-30. A beam having uniform cross-section carries a uniformly distributed load of
intensity q per unit length over its entire span, and its mid-span deflection is ǅ.
.
tas
The value of mid-span deflection of the same beam when the same load is
distributed with intensity varying from 2q unit length at one end to zero at the
other end is: [IES-1995]
(a) 1/3 ǅ (b) 1/2 ǅ (c) 2/3 ǅ (d) ǅ
IES-30. Ans. (d)
lda
Simply Supported Beam with Equal Overhangs and

carrying a Uniformly Distributed Load
IES-31. A beam, built-in at both ends, carries a uniformly distributed load over its
entire span as shown in figure-I. Which one of the diagrams given below,
vi
represents bending moment distribution along the length of the beam?

[IES-1996]
Ci
Page 172 of 429
t.in
IES-31. Ans. (d)
po
The Points of Contraflexure
IES-32. The point· of contraflexure is a point where: [IES-2005]
(a) Shear force changes sign gs (b) Bending moment changes sign
(c) Shear force is maximum (d) Bending moment is maximum
IES-32. Ans. (b)
IES-33. Match List I with List II and select the correct answer using the codes given
blo
List-I List-II
A. Bending moment is constant 1. Point of contraflexure
B. Bending moment is maximum or minimum 2. Shear force changes sign
C. Bending moment is zero 3. Slope of shear force diagram is
zero over the portion of the beam
.
D. Loading is constant 4. Shear force is zero over the

portion of the beam
tas
Code: A B C D A B C D
(a) 4 1 2 3 (b) 3 2 1 4
(c) 4 2 1 3 (d) 3 1 2 4
IES-33. Ans. (b)
lda
Loading and B.M. diagram from S.F. Diagram

IES-34. The bending moment diagram shown in Fig. I correspond to the shear force
diagram in [IES-1999]
vi
Ci
IES-34. Ans. (b) If shear force is zero, B.M. will also be zero. If shear force varies linearly with
length, B.M. diagram will be curved line.
IES-35. Bending moment distribution in a built be am is shown in the given
Page 173 of 429
The shear force distribution in the beam is represented by [IES-2001]
t.in
IES-35. Ans. (a)
IES-36. The given figure shows the
po
shear force diagram for the
beam ABCD.
Bending moment in the portion
BC of the beam
[IES-1996]
(a) Is a non-zero constant
(c) Varies linearly from B to C
gs (b) Is zero
(d) Varies parabolically from B to C
IES-36. Ans. (a)
blo
IES-37. Figure shown above represents the
BM diagram for a simply supported
beam. The beam is subjected to
which one of the following?
(a) A concentrated load at its mid-
length
.
(b) A uniformly distributed load over

tas
its length
(c) A couple at its mid-length
(d) Couple at 1/4 of the span from each
end
[IES-2006]
lda
IES-37. Ans. (c)
IES-38. If the bending moment diagram for

a simply supported beam is of the
form given below.
Then the load acting on the beam
vi
is:
(a) A concentrated force at C
(b) A uniformly distributed load over
the whole length of the beam
Ci
(c) Equal and opposite moments

applied at A and B
(d) A moment applied at C [IES-1994]
IES-38. Ans. (d) A vertical line in centre of B.M. diagram is possible when a moment is applied
there.
IES-39. The figure given below shows a bending moment diagram for the beam CABD:
Page 174 of 429
Load diagram for the above beam will be: [IES-1993]
t.in
po
gs
IES-39. Ans. (a) Load diagram at (a) is correct because B.M. diagram between A and B is parabola
blo
which is possible with uniformly distributed load in this region.
IES-40. The shear force diagram shown in the following figure is that of a [IES-1994]
(a) Freely supported beam with symmetrical point load about mid-span.
(b) Freely supported beam with symmetrical uniformly distributed load about mid-
span
.
(c) Simply supported beam with positive and negative point loads symmetrical about
tas
the mid-span
(d) Simply supported beam with symmetrical varying load about mid-span
vi lda
IES-40. Ans. (b) The shear force diagram is possible on simply supported beam with symmetrical
varying load about mid span.
Ci

IAS-1. Assertion (A): A beam subjected only to end moments will be free from shearing
force. [IAS-2004]
Reason (R): The bending moment variation
Page 175 of 429 along the beam length is zero.
IAS-1. Ans. (a)
IAS-2. Assertion (A): The change in bending moment between two cross-sections of a
beam is equal to the area of the shearing force diagram between the two
sections. [IAS-1998]
Reason (R): The change in the shearing force between two cross-sections of
beam due to distributed loading is equal to the area of the load intensity
diagram between the two sections.
t.in
IAS-2. Ans. (b)
IAS-3. The ratio of the area under the bending moment diagram to the flexural
rigidity between any two points along a beam gives the change in [IAS-1998]
(a) Deflection (b) Slope (c) Shear force (d) Bending moment
po
IAS-3. Ans. (b)
Cantilever gs
IAS-4. A beam AB of length 2 L having a
concentrated load P at its mid-span
is hinge supported at its two ends A
and B on two identical cantilevers as
blo
shown in the given figure. The
correct value of bending moment at
A is
(a) Zero (b) PLl2
(c) PL (d) 2 PL [IAS-1995]
IAS-4. Ans. (a) Because of hinge support between beam AB and cantilevers, the bending moment
.
can't be transmitted to cantilever. Thus bending moment at points A and B is zero.

tas
IAS-5. A load perpendicular to the plane of the handle is applied at the free end as
shown in the given figure. The values of Shear Forces (S.F.), Bending Moment
(B.M.) and torque at the fixed end of the handle have been determined
respectively as 400 N, 340 Nm and 100 by a student. Among these values, those
of [IAS-1999]
lda
(a) S.F., B.M. and torque are correct

(b) S.F. and B.M. are correct
(c) B.M. and torque are correct
(d) S.F. and torque are correct
vi
IAS-5. Ans. (d)

S.F 400N and BM 400 u 0.4 0.2 240Nm
Torque 400 u 0.25 100Nm
Ci

IAS-6. If the SF diagram for a beam is a triangle with length of the beam as its base,
the beam is: [IAS-2007]
(a) A cantilever with a concentrated load at its free end
(b) A cantilever with udl over its whole span
(c) Simply supported with a concentrated load
Page 176 of 429 at its mid-point
(d) Simply supported with a udl over its whole span
IAS-6. Ans. (b)
t.in
IAS-7. A cantilever carrying a uniformly distributed load is shown in Fig. I.
Select the correct R.M. diagram of the cantilever. [IAS-1999]
po
gs
blo
x wx 2
IAS-7. Ans. (c) Mx wx u
2 2
.
tas
lda
IAS-8. A structural member ABCD is loaded

as shown in the given figure. The
shearing force at any section on the
length BC of the member is:
(a) Zero (b) P
vi
(c) Pa/k (d) Pk/a
[IAS-1996]
IAS-8. Ans. (a)
Ci

IAS-9. The beam is loaded as shown in Fig. I. Select the correct B.M. diagram
[IAS-1999]
Page 177 of 429
t.in
IAS-9. Ans. (d)

IAS-10. Assertion (A): In a simply supported beam carrying a concentrated load at mid-
span, both the shear force and bending moment diagrams are triangular in
po
nature without any change in sign. [IAS-1999]
Reason (R): When the shear force at any section of a beam is either zero or
changes sign, the bending moment at that section is maximum.
gs
IAS-10. Ans. (d) A is false.
. blo
tas
vi lda
IAS-11. For the shear force to be uniform throughout the span of a simply supported
beam, it should carry which one of the following loadings? [IAS-2007]
Ci
(a) A concentrated load at mid-span

(b) Udl over the entire span
(c) A couple anywhere within its span
(d) Two concentrated loads equal in magnitude and placed at equal distance from each
support
Page 178 of 429
IAS-11. Ans. (d) It is a case of pure bending.
t.in
IAS-12. Which one of the following figures represents the correct shear force diagram
for the loaded beam shown in the given figure I? [IAS-1998; IAS-1995]
po
gs
. blo
tas
IAS-12. Ans. (a)

lda
Distributed Load
IAS-13. For a simply supported beam of length fl' subjected to downward load of
uniform intensity w, match List-I with List-II and select the correct answer
using the codes given below the Lists: [IAS-1997]
vi
List-I List-II
5wL 4
A. Slope of shear force diagram 1.
384 E I
Ci
B. Maximum shear force 2. w

wL 4
C. Maximum deflection 3.
8
wL
D. Magnitude of maximum bending moment 4.
2
(a) 1 2 3 4 (b) 3 1 2 4
(c) 3 2 1 Page
4 179 of (d)
429 2 4 1 3
IAS-13. Ans. (d)
t.in
po
IAS-14. A simply supported beam of length 'l' is subjected to a symmetrical uniformly
gs
varying load with zero intensity at the ends and intensity w (load per unit
length) at the mid span. What is the maximum bending moment? [IAS-2004]
3wl 2 wl 2 wl 2 5wl 2
(a) (b) (c) (d)
8 12 24 12
blo
IAS-14. Ans. (b)
Simply Supported Beam carrying a Load whose

Intensity varies
.
IAS-15. A simply supported beam of span l is subjected to a uniformly varying load

tas
having zero intensity at the left support and w N/m at the right support. The
reaction at the right support is: [IAS-2003]
wl wl wl wl
(a) (b) (c) (d)
2 5 4 3
IAS-15. Ans. (d)
lda
Simply Supported Beam with Equal Overhangs and

carrying a Uniformly Distributed Load
IAS-16. Consider the following statements for a simply supported beam subjected to a
vi
couple at its mid-span: [IAS-2004]

1. Bending moment is zero at the ends and maximum at the centre
2. Bending moment is constant over the entire length of the beam
3. Shear force is constant over the entire length of the beam
Ci
4. Shear force is zero over the entire length of the beam

Which of the statements given above are correct?
(a) 1, 3 and 4 (b) 2, 3 and 4 (c) 1 and 3 (d) 2 and 4
IAS-16. Ans. (c)
Page 180 of 429
t.in
po
IAS-17. Match List-I (Beams) with List-II (Shear force diagrams) and select the correct
answer using the codes given below the Lists: [IAS-2001]
gs
. blo
tas
lda
(a) 4 2 5 3 (b) 1 4 5 3
(c) 1 4 3 5 (d) 4 2 3 5
IAS-17. Ans. (d)
vi
The Points of Contraflexure

IAS-18. A point, along the length of a beam subjected to loads, where bending moment
changes its sign, is known as the point of [IAS-1996]
Ci
(a) Inflexion (b) Maximum stress (c) Zero shear force (d) Contra flexure
IAS-18. Ans. (d)
IAS-19. Assertion (A): In a loaded beam, if the shear force diagram is a straight line
parallel to the beam axis, then the bending moment is a straight line inclined
to the beam axis. [IAS 1994]
Reason (R): When shear force at any section of a beam is zero or changes sign,
the bending moment at that section is maximum.
Page 181 of 429
IAS-19. Ans. (b)
Loading and B.M. diagram from S.F. Diagram

IAS-20. The shear force diagram of a
loaded beam is shown in the
following figure:
The maximum Bending Moment of
the beam is:
(a) 16 kN-m (b) 11 kN-m
t.in
(c) 28 kN-m (d) 8 kN-m
[IAS-1997]
IAS-20. Ans. (a)
po
gs
. blo
tas
IAS-21. The bending moment for a loaded beam is shown below: [IAS-2003]
lda
The loading on the beam is represented by which one of the followings

diagrams?
vi
(a) (b)
Ci
(c) (d)
IAS-21. Ans. (d)

Page 182 of 429
IAS-22. Which one of the given bending moment diagrams correctly represents that of
the loaded beam shown in figure? [IAS-1997]
t.in
IAS-22. Ans. (c) Bending moment does not depends on moment of inertia.
po
IAS-23. The shear force diagram is shown
above for a loaded beam. The
corresponding bending moment
gs diagram is represented by
[IAS-2003]
. blo
tas
vi lda
IAS-23. Ans. (a)

Ci
IAS-24. The bending moment diagram for a simply supported beam is a rectangle over
a larger portion of the span except near the supports. What type of load does
the beam carry? [IAS-2007]
(a) A uniformly distributed symmetrical load over a larger portion of the span except
near the supports
(b) A concentrated load at mid-span
(c) Two identical concentrated loads equidistant from the supports and close to mid-
point of the beam
Page 183 of 429
(d) Two identical concentrated loads equidistant from the mid-span and close to
supports
IAS-24. Ans. (d)
t.in
po
gs
. blo
tas
vi lda
Ci
Page 184 of 429

Question: A simply supported beam of length 10 m carries a uniformly varying load
whose intensity varies from a maximum value of 5 kN/m at both ends to zero
at the centre of the beam. It is desired to replace the beam with another
simply supported beam which will be subjected to the same maximum
'bending moment’ and ‘shear force' as in the case of the previous one.
Determine the length and rate of loading for the second beam if it is
subjected to a uniformly distributed load over its whole length. Draw the
t.in
variation of 'SF' and 'BM' in both the cases.
Answer:
X
5KN/m 5KN/m
po
B
gs X
RA 10m RB
10
Total load on beam =5× 25 kN
2
blo
25
= RA RB 12.5 kN
2
Take a section X-X from B at a distance x.
For 0 b x b 5 m we get rate of loading
.
X a bx [as lineary varying]

tas
at x=0, X =5 kN / m
and at x = 5, X 0
These two bounday condition gives a = 5 and b = -1
= X 5 x
lda
dV
We know that shear force(V), X
dx
x2
or V =¨ Xdx = ¨ (5 x )dx 5 x c1
vi
2
at x = 0, F =12.5 kN (RB ) so c1 12.5
x2
= V = -5x + 12.5
Ci
2
It is clear that maximum S.F = 12.5 kN
Page 185 of 429
dM
For a beam V
dx
x2 5x 2 x 3
or , M =¨ Vdx ¨ (5 x 12.5)dx = - 12.5 x C2
2 2 6
at x = 0, M = 0 gives C2 0
M = 12.5x - 2.5x 2 x 3 / 6
dM
for Maximum bending moment at 0
dx
x2
t.in
or-5x+ 12.5 0
2
or , x 2 10 x 25 0
or , x 5 means at centre.
So, Mmax 12.5 q 2.5 2.5 q 52 53 / 6 20.83 kNm
po
X
XKNm
A B
RA
gs
L RB
blo
X
Now we consider a simply supported beam carrying uniform distributed load

over whole length (X KN/m).
WL
.
Here R A RB
tas
S.F .at section X-X

WA
Vx Xx
lda
2
Vmax 12.5 kN
B.M at section X-X

vi
WA Wx 2
Mx x
2 2
2 2
dM x WL X L ¬ WL
Ci
q 20.83 (ii )
dx 2 2 2 ® 8
Solving (i ) & (ii ) we get L=6.666m and X =3.75kN/m
Page 186 of 429
X
5KN/m 5KN/m
3.75kN/m
B
-12.5KN/m 12.5KN/m
X
10m 6.666m
RA RB 12.5kN 12.5kN
t.in
S.F.D S.F.D
Parabola
po
20.83KNm
Cubic parabola
B.M.D 20.83kNm

Question:
gs
A Uniform beam of length L is carrying a uniformly distributed load w per
unit length and is simply supported at its ends. What would be the maximum
bending moment and where does it occur?
blo
Answer: By symmetry each support
WA
reaction is equal i.e. RA=RB=
2
B.M at the section x-x is
WA Wx 2
Mx=+ x
.
2 2
tas
For the B.M to be maximum we

dM x
have to 0 that gives.
dx
WA Bending Moment Diagram
lda
Xx 0
+ 2
or x= A i.e. at mid point.
2
2
XA A X A¯ wA 2
And Mmax= q q¡ °
vi
2 2 2 ¡¢ 2 °± 8

Ci
Question: Calculate the reactions at A and D for the beam shown in figure. Draw the
bending moment and shear force diagrams showing all important values.
Page 187 of 429
t.in
Answer: Equivalent figure below shows an overhanging beam ABCDF supported by a roller
support at A and a hinged support at D. In the figure, a load of 4 kN is applied through
a bracket 0.5 m away from the point C. Now apply equal and opposite load of 4 kN at
C. This will be equivalent to a anticlockwise couple of the value of (4 x 0.5) = 2 kNm
acting at C together with a vertical downward load of 4 kN at C. Show U.D.L. (1 kN/m)
over the port AB, a point load of 2 kN vertically downward at F, and a horizontal load
po
of 2 3 kN as shown.
gs
. blo
tas
vi lda
Ci
For reaction and A and D.

Let ue assume RA= reaction at roller A.
RDV vertically component of the reaction at the hinged support D, and
Page 188 of 429
RDH horizontal component of the reaction at the hinged support D.
Obviously RDH= 2 3 kN ( o )
In order to determine RA, takings moments about D, we get
§2 ·
R A u 6 2 u 1 1u 2 u ¨ 2 2 ¸ 2 4 u 2
©2 ¹
or R A 3kN
Also R A RDV 1u 2 4 2 8
or RDV 5kN vetrically upward

2
? Re action at D, RD R R
2 2

52 2 3 6.08kN
t.in
DV DH
5
Inclination with horizontal T tan1 55.30
2 3
S.F.Calculation :
VF 2kN
po
VD 2 5 3kN
VC 34 1kN
VB 1kN gs
VA 1 1u 2 3kN
B.M.Calculation :
MF 0
blo
MD 2 u 1 2kNm
MC ª¬ 2 1 2 5 u 2º¼ 2 6kNm
The bending moment increases from 4kNm in i,e., 2 1 2 5 u 2

to 6kNm as shown
.
2 1 2 2 5 2 4 u 2 2
tas
MB 4kNm
§ 2· 1
MP 2 ¨ 1 2 2 ¸ 5 2 2 1 4 2 1 2 1u 1u
© 2¹ 2
2.5kNm
lda
MA 0
Conventional Question GATE-1997

Question: Construct the bending moment and shearing force diagrams for the beam
shown in the figure.
vi
Ci
Answer:
Page 189 of 429
t.in
po
gs
blo
Calculation: First find out reaction at B and E.
Taking moments, about B, we get
0.5
RE u 4.5 20 u 0.5 u 100 50 u 3 40 u 5
2
or RE 55kN
.
Also, RB RE 20 u 0.5 50 40
tas
or RB 45kN > RE 55kN@

S.F. Calculation : VF 40kN
VE 40 55 15kN
lda
VD 15 50 35kN
VB 35 45 10kN
B.M.Calculation : MG 0
MF 0
ME 40 u 0.5 20kNm
vi
MD 40 u 2 55 u 1.5 2.5kNm

MC 40 u 4 55 u 3.5 50 u 2 67.5kNm
Ci
The bending moment increases from 62.5kNm to 100.

0.5
MB 20 u 0.5 u 2.5kNm
2

Question: Two bars AB and BC are connected by a frictionless hinge at B. The assembly
is supported and loaded as shown in figure below. Draw the shear force and
bending moment diagrams for the combined beam AC. clearly labelling the
Page 190 of 429
important values. Also indicate your sign convention.
t.in
Answer: There shall be a vertical reaction at hinge B and we can split the problem in two parts.
Then the FBD of each part is shown below
po
gs
. blo
tas
vi lda
Calculation: Referring the FBD, we get,

Fy 0, and R1 R2 200kN
Ci
From ¦M B 0,100 u 2 100 u 3 R2 u 4 0

500
or R2 125kN
4
? R1 200 125 75kN
Again, R3 R1 75kN
and M 75 u 1.5 112.5kNm.
Page 191 of 429
Question: A tube 40 mm outside diameter; 5 mm thick and 1.5 m long simply supported
at 125 mm from each end carries a concentrated load of 1 kN at each extreme
end.
(i) Neglecting the weight of the tube, sketch the shearing force and bending
moment diagrams;
(ii) Calculate the radius of curvature and deflection at mid-span. Take the
modulus of elasticity of the material as 208 GN/m2
Answer: (i) Given, d0 40 mm 0.04 m; di d0 2t 40 2 u 5 30 mm 0.03 m;

2 2 2
W 1kN; E 208GN / m 208 u 10 N / m ; l 1.5; a 125mm 0.125 m
t.in
po
gs
. blo
tas
Calculation:
(ii) Radius of coordinate R
As per bending equation:
lda
M V
E
I y R
EI
or R i
M
Here,M W u a 1u 103 u 0.125 125Nm
vi
S
I
64
d 4
0 d14
S ª 4 4
0.04 0.03 º 8.59 u 108 m4
Ci
64 ¬ ¼
Substituting the values in equation i , we get
208 u 108 u 8.59 u 108
R 142.9 m
125
Deflection at mid span :
d2 y
EI Mx Wx W x Page
a 192
Wx Wx Wa
of 429 Wa
dx 2
Integrating, we get
dy
EI Wax C1
dx
1 dy
When, x
, 0
2 dx
1 Wal
? 0 Wa C1 or C1
2 2
dy Wal
? EI Wax
dx 2
Integrating again, we get
t.in
x 2 Wal
EIy Wa x C2
2 2
When x a, y 0
Wa3 Wa2l
? 0
C2
2 2
po
Wa3 Wa2l
or C2
2 2
2
Wax Walx ª Wa3 Wa2l º
? EIy « »
2 2 ¬ 2 2 ¼
gs
Wa ª x 2 lx a2 al º
or y « »
EI ¬ 2 2 2 2 ¼
At mid span,i,e., x l/2
blo
2
Wa ª l / 2 l u l / 2 a2 al º
y « »
EI « 2 2 2 2»
¬ ¼
2 2
Wa ª l a al º
« »
.
EI ¬ 8 2 2 ¼
tas
1u 1000 u 0.125 ª 1.52 0.1252 0.125 u 1.5 º

« »
208 u 109 u 8.59 u 10 8 ¬ 8 2 2 ¼
0.001366m 1.366mm
It will be in upward direction
lda

Question: What is meant by point of contraflexure or point of inflexion in a beam? Show
the same for the beam given below:
17.5kN/m 20kN
A
vi
C B D
4M 4M
2m
Ci
Answer: In a beam if the bending moment changes sign at a point, the point itself having zero
bending moment, the beam changes curvature at this point of zero bending moment
and this point is called the point of contra flexure.
Page 193 of 429
17.5kN/m 20kN
A C B D
4M 4M 2M
t.in
BMD
From the bending moment diagram we have seen that it is between A & C.
po
[If marks are more we should calculate exact point.]
gs
. blo
tas
vi lda
Ci
Page 194 of 429
5. Deflection of Beam

5.1 Introduction
x We know that the axis of a beam deflects from its initial position under action of applied
t.in
forces.
x In this chapter we will learn how to determine the elastic deflections of a beam.
Selection of co-ordinate axes
We will not introduce any other co-ordinate system.
We use general co-ordinate axis as shown in the
po
figure. This system will be followed in deflection of
beam and in shear force and bending moment
diagram. Here downward direction will be negative gs
i.e. negative Y-axis. Therefore downward deflection of
the beam will be treated as negative. We use above Co-ordinate system
To determine the value of deflection of beam
blo
subjected to a given loading where we will use the
d 2y
formula, EI Mx .
dx 2
.
Some books fix a co-ordinate axis as shown in the

tas
following figure. Here downward direction will be

positive i.e. positive Y-axis. Therefore downward
deflection of the beam will be treated as positive. As
beam is generally deflected in downward directions
lda
and this co-ordinate system treats downward

deflection is positive deflection. Some books use above co-ordinate system
To determine the value of deflection of beam
subjected to a given loading where we will use the
vi
d 2y
formula, EI M x .
dx 2
Ci
Why to calculate the deflections?
x To prevent cracking of attached brittle materials
x To make sure the structure not deflect severely and to “appear” safe for its occupants
x To help analyzing statically indeterminate structures

Page 195 of 429
Chapter-5 Deflection of Beam S K Mondal’s
x Information on deformation characteristics of members is essential in the study of vibrations
of machines
Several methods to compute deflections in beam

x Double integration method (without the use of singularity functions)
x Macaulay’s Method (with the use of singularity functions)
x Moment area method
x Method of superposition
x Conjugate beam method
t.in
x Castigliano’s theorem
x Work/Energy methods
Each of these methods has particular advantages or disadvantages.
po
Methods to find
deflection
Double integration
gs
Geometrical Energy Method
blo
Moment area Conjugate
method beam method
.
Castiglian’s Virtual
theorem Work
tas
Assumptions in Simple Bending Theory

x Beams are initially straight
lda
x The material is homogenous and isotropic i.e. it has a uniform composition and its
mechanical properties are the same in all directions
x The stress-strain relationship is linear and elastic
x Young’s Modulus is the same in tension as in compression
vi
x Sections are symmetrical about the plane of bending

x Sections which are plane before bending remain plane after bending
Ci
Non-Uniform Bending
x In the case of non-uniform bending of a beam, where bending moment varies from section to
section, there will be shear force at each cross section which will induce shearing stresses
x Also these shearing stresses cause warping (or out-of plane distortion) of the cross section so
that plane cross sections do not remain plane even after bending
Page 196 of 429
5.2 Elastic line or Elastic curve
We have to remember that the differential equation of the elastic line is
2
d y
EI 2 =M x
dx
t.in
Proof: Consider the following simply supported beam with UDL over its length.
po
gs
. blo
tas
From elementary calculus we know that curvature of a line (at point Q in figure)
d2 y
1 dx 2
3/2
where R radius of curvature
R ° § dy ·2 ½°
®1 ¨ ¸ ¾
lda
¯° © dx ¹ ¿°
dy
For small deflection, |0
dx
1 d2 y
or |
vi
R dx 2
Ci
Page 197 of 429
Bending stress of the beam (at point Q)
Mx .y
Vx
EI
From strain relation we get
1 H Vx
x and H x
R y E
1 Mx
?
R EI
d2 y Mx
Therefore
dx 2 EI
t.in
d2 y
or EI Mx
dx 2
5.3 General expression
po
d2y
From the equation EI M x we may easily find out the following relations.
dx 2
d4y gs
x EI Z Shear force density (Load)
dx 4
d3y
x EI Vx Shear force
dx3
blo
d2y
x EI M x Bending moment
dx 2
dy
x = ș = slope
dx
.
x y = G = Deflection, Displacement
tas
x Flexural rigidity = EI
lda
5.4 Double integration method (without the use of singularity functions)
x Vx = ³ Z dx
vi
x ³
Mx = Vx dx
d2y
x EI Mx
dx 2
Ci
1
T
EI ³
x Slope M x dx
x G Deflection ³ T dx
4-step procedure to solve deflection of beam problems by double integration method
Page 198 of 429
Step 1: Write down boundary conditions (Slope boundary conditions and displacement boundary
conditions), analyze the problem to be solved
d2y
Step 2: Write governing equations for, EI Mx
dx 2
Step 3: Solve governing equations by integration, results in expression with unknown integration
constants
Step 4: Apply boundary conditions (determine integration constants)
t.in
Following table gives boundary conditions for different types of support.
Types of support and Boundary Conditions Figure
Clamped or Built in support or Fixed end :

( Point A)
po
Deflection, y 0
Slope, T 0
Moment , M z 0 i.e.A finite value

gs
Free end: (Point B)
blo
Deflection, y z 0 i.e.A finite value
Slope, T z 0 i.e.A finite value
Moment , M 0
.
tas
Roller (Point B) or Pinned Support (Point A) or

Hinged or Simply supported.
Deflection, y 0
Slope, T z 0 i.e.A finite value
lda
Moment , M 0
vi
End restrained against rotation but free to

deflection
Ci
Slope, T 0
Shear force, V 0
Flexible support
Slope, T z 0 i .e. A finite value
Page 199 of 429
dy
Moment , M kr
dx
Shear force, V k. y
Using double integration method we will find the
t.in
deflection and slope of the following loaded
beams one by one.
(i) A Cantilever beam with point load at the free end.
(ii) A Cantilever beam with UDL (uniformly distributed load)
po
(iii) A Cantilever beam with an applied moment at free end.
(iv) A simply supported beam with a point load at its midpoint.
(v) A simply supported beam with a point load NOT at its midpoint.
gs
(vi) A simply supported beam with UDL (Uniformly distributed load)
(vii) A simply supported beam with triangular distributed load (GVL) gradually varied load.
(viii) A simply supported beam with a moment at mid span.
blo
(ix) A simply supported beam with a continuously distributed load the intensity of which at
§Sx ·
any point ‘x’ along the beam is wx w sin ¨ ¸
© L ¹
.
tas
(i) A Cantilever beam with point load at the free end.

We will solve this problem by double integration method. For that at first we have to calculate (Mx).
Consider any section XX at a distance ‘x’ from free end which is left end as shown in figure.
vi lda
Ci
? Mx = - P.x
We know that differential equation of elastic line
d2 y
EI Mx P.x
dx 2
Integrating both side we get Page 200 of 429
2
dy
³ EIdx 2
P ³ x dx
dy x2
or EI P. A .............(i)
dx 2
Again integrating both side we get
§ x2 ·
EI³ dy = ³ ¨© P 2 A ¸¹ dx
Px 3
or EIy = - Ax +B ..............(ii)
6
t.in
Where A and B is integration constants.
Now apply boundary condition at fixed end which is at a distance x = L from free end and we also
know that at fixed end
at x = L, y=0
po
dy
at x = L, 0
dx
PL3
from equation (ii) EIL = - + AL +B ..........(iii)
6
from equation (i) EI.(0) = -

PL2
+A
gs …..(iv)
2
blo
PL2 PL3
Solving (iii) & (iv) we get A = and B = -
2 3
Px 3 PL2 x PL3
Therefore, y=-
6EI 2EI 3EI
The slope as well as the deflection would be maximum at free end hence putting x = 0 we get
.
tas
PL3
ymax = - (Negative sign indicates the deflection is downward)
3EI
PL2
(Slope)max = T max =
2EI
lda
Remember for a cantilever beam with a point load at free end.
3
PL
G
vi
Downward deflection at free end,
3EI
Ci
PL2
And slope at free end, T
2EI
Page 201 of 429
(ii) A Cantilever beam with UDL (uniformly distributed load)
t.in
We will now solve this problem by double integration method, for that at first we have to calculate
(Mx).
Consider any section XX at a distance ‘x’ from free end which is left end as shown in figure.
x wx 2
w.x .
po
? Mx
2 2
d2 y wx 2
EI gs
dx 2 2
Integrating both sides we get
d2 y wx 2
³ EI
dx 2 ³
dx
blo
2
dy wx 3
or EI A ......(i)
dx 6
§ wx 3 ·
.
EI³ dy ³ ¨© 6 A ¸¹ dx
tas
wx 4
or EIy = - Ax B.......(ii)
24
> where A and B are integration constants@
lda
Now apply boundary condition at fixed end which is at a distance x = L from free end and we also
know that at fixed end.
at x = L, y=0
dy
at x = L, =0
vi
dx
-wL3 +wL3
from equation (i) we get EI u (0) = + A or A =
6 6
Ci
wL4
from equation (ii) we get EI.y = - + A.L + B
24
wL4
or B=-
8
The slope as well as the deflection would be maximum at the free end hence putting x = 0, we get
Page 202 of 429
4
wL
y max
8EI
>Negative sign indicates the deflection is downward@
wL3
slope max Tmax
6EI
Remember: For a cantilever beam with UDL over its whole length,
4
wL
Maximum deflection at free end G
t.in
8EI
wL3
T
po
Maximum slope,
6EI
gs
(iii) A Cantilever beam of length ‘L’ with an applied moment ‘M’ at free end.
. blo
tas
lda
Consider a section XX at a distance ‘x’ from free end, the bending moment at section XX is
(Mx) = -M
vi
d2 y
or EI M
dx 2
Ci

d2 y
or EI³ ³ M dx
dx 2
dy
or EI Mx + A ...(i)
dx
Page 203 of 429
EI³ dy = ³ M x +A dx
Mx 2
or EI y Ax + B ...(ii)
2
Where A and B are integration constants.
applying boundary conditions in equation (i) &(ii)
dy
at x = L, 0 gives A = ML
dx
ML2 ML2
t.in
at x = L, y = 0 gives B = ML2
2 2
2
Mx MLx ML2
Therefore deflection equation is y = -
2EI EI 2EI
Which is the equation of elastic curve.
po
2
ML
? Maximum deflection at free end G = (It is downward)
2EI
gs
ML
T
blo
? Maximum slope at free end
EI
Let us take a funny example: A cantilever beam AB of length ‘L’ and uniform flexural rigidity EI
has a bracket BA (attached to its free end. A vertical downward force P is applied to free end C of the
.
bracket. Find the ratio a/L required in order that the deflection of point A is zero.
tas
[ISRO – 2008]
vi lda
We may consider this force ‘P’ and a moment (P.a) act on free end A of the cantilever beam.
Ci
Page 204 of 429
3
PL
Due to point load ‘P’ at free end ‘A’ downward deflection G
3EI
ML2 (P.a)L2
Due to moment M = P.a at free end ‘A’ upward deflection G
2EI 2EI
For zero deflection of free end A
PL3 (P.a)L2
=
3EI 2EI
a 2
or
L 3
t.in
(iv) A simply supported beam with a point load P at its midpoint.
A simply supported beam AB carries a concentrated load P at its midpoint as shown in the figure.
po
gs
blo
We want to locate the point of maximum deflection on the elastic curve and find its value.
Bending moment at any point x (According to the shown co-ordinate system)
.
§P·
tas
Mx = ¨ ¸ .x
©2¹
and In the region L/2 < x < L
P
Mx = x L / 2
lda
2
d2 y P
EI .x In the region 0 < x < L/2
dx 2 2
vi
d2 y P
or EI ³ dx 2 ³ 2 x dx
Ci
dy P x2
or EI . A (i)
dx 2 2
Page 205 of 429
§P ·
EI ³ dy = ³ ¨ x 2 A ¸ dx
©4 ¹
3
Px
or EI y = Ax + B (ii)
12
> Where A and B are integrating constants@
Now applying boundary conditions to equation (i) and (ii) we get
at x = 0, y=0
dy
at x = L/2, 0
dx
t.in
PL2
A=- and B = 0
16
Px 3 PL12
? Equation of elastic line, y = - x
12 16
po
3
PL
Maximum deflection at mid span (x = L/2) G =
gs
48EI
blo
PL2
and maximum slope at each end T
16EI
.
tas
(v) A simply supported beam with a point load ‘P’ NOT at its midpoint.
A simply supported beam AB carries a concentrated load P as shown in the figure.
vi lda
We have to locate the point of maximum deflection on the elastic curve and find the value of this
Ci
deflection.
Taking co-ordinate axes x and y as shown below
Page 206 of 429
t.in
For the bending moment we have
po
§ P.a ·
In the region 0 d x d a, Mx ¨ L ¸ .x
© ¹
P.a
And, In the region a d x d L, Mx L - x
gs
L
So we obtain two differential equation for the elastic curve.
d2 y P.a
EI .x for 0 d x d a
blo
dx 2 L
d2 y P.a
and EI 2 . L - x for a d x d L
dx L
Successive integration of these equations gives
dy P.a x 2
.
EI . + A1 ......(i) for o d x d a
dx L 2
tas
dy P.a 2
EI P.a x - x A2 ......(ii) for a d x d L
dx L
P.a x 3
EI y . +A1x+B1 ......(iii) for 0 d x d a
L 6
lda
x 2 P.a x 3
EI y P.a . A 2 x + B2 .....(iv) for a d x d L
2 L 6
Where A1, A2, B1, B2 are constants of Integration.
Now we have to use Boundary conditions for finding constants:
vi
BCS (a) at x = 0, y = 0
(b) at x = L, y = 0
Ci
§ dy ·
(c) at x = a, ¨ ¸ = Same for equation (i) & (ii)
© dx ¹
(d) at x = a, y = same from equation (iii) & (iv)
Pb 2 P.a
We get A1
6L

L b2 ; A2
6L

2L2 a2
and B1 0; B2 Pa3 / 6EI
Page 207 of 429
Therefore we get two equations of elastic curve
Pbx 2
EI y = -
6L

L b2 x 2 ..... (v) for 0 d x d a
Pb ª§ L · º
EI y = « ¨ ¸
6L ¬© b ¹
3

x - a L2 b2 x - x3 » . ...(vi) for a d x d L
¼
For a > b, the maximum deflection will occur in the left portion of the span, to which equation (v)
applies. Setting the derivative of this expression equal to zero gives
a(a+2b) (L-b)(L+b) L2 b2
x=
3 3 3
t.in
at that point a horizontal tangent and hence the point of maximum deflection substituting this value
P.b(L2 b2 )3/2
of x into equation (v), we find, y max
9 3. EIL
Case –I: if a = b = L/2 then
po
2
L2 L/2
Maximum deflection will be at x = L/2
3
i.e. at mid point
and y max G
^
P. L/2 u L2 L/2
9 3 EIL
2
gs
3/2
` PL3
48EI
blo
(vi) A simply supported beam with UDL (Uniformly distributed load)
A simply supported beam AB carries a uniformly distributed load (UDL) of intensity w/unit length
over its whole span L as shown in figure. We want to develop the equation of the elastic curve and
find the maximum deflection G at the middle of the span.
.
tas
vi lda
Taking co-ordinate axes x and y as shown, we have for the bending moment at any point x
wL x2
Mx .x - w.
Ci
2 2
Then the differential equation of deflection becomes
d2 y wL x2
EI Mx .x - w.
dx 2 2 2
dy wL x 2 w x 3 Page 208 of 429

EI . . A .....(i)
dx 2 2 2 3
Again Integrating both side we get
wL x 3 w x 4
EI y . . Ax + B .....(ii)
2 6 2 12
Where A and B are integration constants. To evaluate these constants we have to use boundary
conditions.
at x = 0, y = 0 gives B=0
dy wL3
at x = L/2, 0 gives A
dx 24
t.in
Therefore the equation of the elastic curve
wL 3 w wL3 wx
y .x .x 4 .x = ªL3 2L.x 2 x 3 º¼
12EI 24EI 12EI 24EI ¬
The maximum deflection at the mid-span, we have to put x = L/2 in the equation and obtain
po
5wL
Maximum deflection at mid-span, G gs (It is downward)
384EI
And Maximum slope T A TB at the left end A and at the right end b is same putting x = 0 or x = L
blo
wL3
Therefore we get Maximum slope T
24EI
.
(vii) A simply supported beam with triangular distributed load (GVL)

tas
gradually varied load.

A simply supported beam carries a triangular distributed load (GVL) as shown in figure below. We
have to find equation of elastic curve and find maximum deflection G .

vi lda
Ci
In this (GVL) condition, we get Page 209 of 429
4
dy w
EI load .x .....(i)
dx 4 L
Separating variables and integrating we get
d3 y wx 2
EI Vx +A .....(ii)
dx 3 2L
Again integrating thrice we get
d2 y wx 3
EI Mx + Ax +B .....(iii)
dx 2 6L
t.in
dy wx 4 Ax 2
EI + +Bx + C .....(iv)
dx 24L 2
wx 5 Ax 3 Bx 2
EI y + + + Cx +D .....(v)
120L 6 2
Where A, B, C and D are integration constant.
po
Boundary conditions at x = 0, Mx = 0, y=0
at x = L, Mx = 0, y = 0 gives
wL 7wL3
A= , B = 0, C = - , D=0
6 360
wx
gs
Therefore y = -
360EIL
^
7L4 10L2 x 2 3x 4 ` (negative sign indicates downward deflection)
blo
dy
To find maximum deflection G , we have =0
dx
wL4
And it gives x = 0.519 L and maximum deflection G = 0.00652
EI
.
tas
(viii) A simply supported beam with a moment at mid-span

A simply supported beam AB is acted upon by a couple M applied at an intermediate point distance
‘a’ from the equation of elastic curve and deflection at point where the moment acted.
vi lda
M M
Considering equilibrium we get R A and RB
Ci
L L
Taking co-ordinate axes x and y as shown, we have for bending moment
M
In the region 0 d x d a, Mx .x
L
M
In the region a d x d L, Mx x-M
L
Page 210 of 429
So we obtain the difference equation for the elastic curve
2
dy M
EI .x for 0 d x d a
dx 2 L
d2 y M
and EI 2 .x M for a d x d L
dx L
Successive integration of these equation gives
M x2
dy
EI . A1 ....(i) for 0 d x d a
dxL 2
M x2
dy
EI - Mx+ A 2 .....(ii) for a d x d L
dxL 2
t.in
M x3
and EI y = . A1x + B1 ......(iii) for 0 d x d a
L V
M x 3 Mx 2
EI y = A 2 x + B2 ......(iv) for a d x d L
L V 2
Where A1, A2, B1 and B2 are integration constants.
po
To finding these constants boundary conditions
(a) at x = 0, y = 0
(b) at x = L, y = 0 gs
§ dy ·
(c) at x = a, ¨ ¸ = same form equation (i) & (ii)
© dx ¹
(d) at x = a, y = same form equation (iii) & (iv)
blo
ML Ma2 ML Ma2
A1 M.a + + , A2
3 2L 3 2L
Ma2
B1 0, B2
2
.
With this value we get the equation of elastic curve

tas
Mx
6L
y=- ^
6aL - 3a2 x 2 2L2 ` for 0 d x d a
? deflection of x = a,
Ma
y= ^
3aL - 2a2 L2 `
lda
3EIL
(ix) A simply supported beam with a continuously distributed load the

§Sx·
intensity of which at any point ‘x’ along the beam is wx w sin ¨ ¸
vi
© L ¹
Ci
At first we have to find out the bending moment at any point ‘x’ according to the shown co-ordinate
system.
We know that Page 211 of 429
d Vx §Sx ·
w sin ¨ ¸
dx © L ¹
§Sx ·
³ dV x ³ w sin ¨ ¸ dx +A
© L ¹
wL §Sx ·
or Vx .cos ¨ ¸A
S © L ¹
and we also know that
t.in
d Mx wL §Sx ·
dx
Vx
S
cos ¨ ¸A
© L ¹
Again integrating both sides we get
wL §Sx · ½
³ d M ³ ® cos ¨ ¸ A ¾ dx
po
x
¯S © L ¹ ¿
wL2 §Sx ·
or Mx
S 2
sin ¨ ¸ Ax +B
© L ¹
Where A and B are integration constants, to find out the values of A and B. We have to use boundary
gs
conditions
at x = 0, Mx = 0
blo
and at x = L, Mx = 0
wL2 §Sx ·
From these we get A = B = 0. Therefore Mx 2
sin ¨ ¸
S © L ¹
So the differential equation of elastic curve
.
d2 y wL2 §Sx·
EI Mx sin ¨ ¸
tas
dx 2 S 2
© L ¹
Successive integration gives
dy wL3 §Sx ·
EI cos ¨
3 ¸C .......(i)
dx S © L ¹
lda
wL4 §Sx ·
EI y 4 sin ¨ ¸ Cx D .....(ii)
S © L ¹
Where C and D are integration constants, to find out C and D we have to use boundary conditions
at x = 0, y=0
vi
at x = L, y=0
and that give C = D = 0
wL3 §Sx ·
Ci
dy
Therefore slope equation EI 3 cos ¨ ¸
dx S © L ¹
wL4 §Sx ·
and Equation of elastic curve y 4 sin ¨
S EI © L ¸¹
(-ive sign indicates deflection is downward)
§Sx ·
Deflection will be maximum if sin ¨ ¸ is maximum
© L ¹ Page 212 of 429
§Sx ·
sin ¨ ¸=1 or x = L/2
© L ¹
WL4
and Maximum downward deflection G = (downward).
S 4EI
5.5 Macaulay's Method (Use of singularity function)

x When the beam is subjected to point loads (but several loads) this is very convenient method
for determining the deflection of the beam.
t.in
x In this method we will write single moment equation in such a way that it becomes
continuous for entire length of the beam in spite of the discontinuity of loading.
x After integrating this equation we will find the integration constants which are valid for
entire length of the beam. This method is known as method of singularity constant.
po
Procedure to solve the problem by Macaulay’s method
Step – I: Calculate all reactions and moments
gs
Step – II: Write down the moment equation which is valid for all values of x. This must contain
brackets.
Step – III: Integrate the moment equation by a typical manner. Integration of (x-a) will be
blo
2 3
x-a § x2 · x-a so on.
not ¨ ax ¸ and integration of (x-a)2 will be
2 © 2 ¹ 3
Step – IV: After first integration write the first integration constant (A) after first terms and after
second time integration write the second integration constant (B) after A.x . Constant A and B are
.
valid for all values of x.

tas
Step – V: Using Boundary condition find A and B at a point x = p if any term in Macaulay’s method,
(x-a) is negative (-ive) the term will be neglected.
lda
(i) Let us take an example: A simply supported beam AB length 6m with a point load of 30 kN is
applied at a distance 4m from left end A. Determine the equations of the elastic curve between each
change of load point and the maximum deflection of the beam.
vi
Ci
Answer: We solve this problem using Macaulay’s method, for that first writes the general
momentum equation for the last portion of beam BC of the loaded beam.
d2 y
EI Mx 10x -30 x - 4 N.m ....(i)
dx 2
Page 213 of 429
By successive integration of this equation (using Macaulay’s integration rule
2
x a
e.g ³ x a dx 2
)
We get
dy 2
EI 5x 2 A -15 x-4 N.m2 ..... ii
dx
5 3
and EI y = x Ax + B - 5 (x - 4)3 N.m3 ..... iii
3
Where A and B are two integration constants. To evaluate its value we have to use following
boundary conditions.
t.in
at x = 0, y=0
and at x = 6m, y = 0
Note: When we put x = 0, x - 4 is negativre (–ive) and this term will not be considered for x = 0 , so
5 3
our equation will be EI y = x Ax +B, and at x = 0 , y = 0 gives B = 0
3
po
But when we put x = 6, x-4 is positive (+ive) and this term will be considered for x = 6, y = 0 so our
5 3
equation will be EI y = x + Ax + 0 – 5 (x – 4)3
3 gs
This gives
5 3
EI .(0) = .6 A.6 0 5(6 4)3
3
blo
or A = - 53
So our slope and deflection equation will be
dy 2
EI 5x 2 - 53 - 15 x - 4
dx
5 3 3
and EI y x - 53x + 0 - 5 x - 4
.
3
tas
Now we have two equations for entire section of the beam and we have to understand how we use
these equations. Here if x < 4 then x – 4 is negative so this term will be deleted. That so why in the
region o d x d 4m we will neglect (x – 4) term and our slope and deflection equation will be
lda
dy
EI 5x 2 -53
dx
5 3
and EI y
x - 53x
3
But in the region 4m x d 6m , (x – 4) is positive so we include this term and our slope and
vi
deflection equation will be

dy 2
EI 5x 2 - 53 - 15 x - 4
Ci
dx
5 3 3
EI y x - 53x - 5 x - 4
3
Now we have to find out maximum deflection, but we don’t know at what value of ‘x’ it will be
maximum. For this assuming the value of ‘x’ will be in the region 0 d x d 4m .
Page 214 of 429
dy
Deflection (y) will be maximum for that = 0 or 5x 2 - 53 = 0 or x = 3.25 m as our calculated x is
dx
in the region 0 d x d 4m ; at x = 3.25 m deflection will be maximum
5
or EI ymax = u 3.253 – 53 u 3.25
3
115
or ymax = - (-ive sign indicates downward deflection)
EI
But if you have any doubt that Maximum deflection may be in the range of 4 x d 6m , use EIy =
t.in
5x2 – 53x – 5 (x – 4)3 and find out x. The value of x will be absurd that indicates the maximum
deflection will not occur in the region 4 x d 6m .
dy
Deflection (y) will be maximum for that =0
dx
po
2
or 5x 2 - 53 - 15 x - 4 = 0
or 10x2 -120x + 293 = 0

or x = 3.41 m or 8.6 m
gs
Both the value fall outside the region 4 x d 6m and in this region 4 x d 6m and in this region
maximum deflection will not occur.

blo
(ii) Now take an example where Point load, UDL and Moment applied simultaneously in
a beam:
Let us consider a simply supported beam AB (see Figure) of length 3m is subjected to a point load 10
kN, UDL = 5 kN/m and a bending moment M = 25 kNm. Find the deflection of the beam at point D if
.
flexural rigidity (EI) = 50 KNm2.

tas
lda
Answer: Considering equilibrium

vi
¦M A 0 gives
-10 u 1 - 25 - 5 u 1 u 1 1 1/ 2 RB u 3 0
Ci
or RB 15.83kN
R A RB 10 5 u 1 gives R A 0.83 kN
We solve this problem using Macaulay’s method, for that first writing the general momentum
equation for the last portion of beam, DB of the loaded beam.
2
d2 y 0 5 x-2
EI Mx 0.83x -10 x-1 25 x-2
dx 2 Page 215 of 429
2
By successive integration of this equation (using Macaulay’s integration rule
2
x a
e.g ³ x a dx 2
)
We get
dy 0.83 2 2 5 3
EI .x A -5 x 1 25 x 2 x 2
dx 2 6
0.83 3 5 3 25 2 5 4
and EIy = x Ax +B - x 1 x 2 x 2
6 3 2 24
Where A and B are integration constant we have to use following boundary conditions to find out A
t.in
& B.
at x = 0, y=0
at x = 3m, y = 0
Therefore B = 0
po
0.83 5 5
and 0 = - u 33 A u 3 + 0 - u 23 12.5 u 12 u 14
6 3 24
or A = 1.93
EIy = - 0.138x3 1.93x -1.67 x 1

Deflextion at point D at x = 2m
3
gs 2
12.5 x 2 0.21 x 2
4
EIyD 0.138 u 23 1.93 u 2 1.67 u 13 8.85

blo
8.85 8.85
or yD m ive sign indicates deflection downward
EI 50 u 103
0.177mm downward .
.
(iii) A simply supported beam with a couple M at a distance ‘a’ from left end
tas
If a couple acts we have to take the distance in

the bracket and this should be raised to the
power zero. i.e. M(x – a)0. Power is zero because
(x – a)0 = 1 and unit of M(x – a)0 = M but we
lda
introduced the distance which is needed for

Macaulay’s method.
d2 y 0
EI M R A. x M x-a
dx 2
vi
Successive integration gives
dy M x2 1
. A - M x-a
Ci
EI
dx L 2
2
M 3 M x-a
EI y x Ax + B -
6L 2
Where A and B are integration constants, we have to use boundary conditions to find out A & B.
at x = 0, y = 0 gives B = 0
2
M L-a ML
at x = L, y = 0 gives A = Page 216 of 429
2L 6
8. Moment area method

x This method is used generally to obtain displacement and rotation at a single point on a
t.in
beam.
x The moment area method is convenient in case of beams acted upon with point loads in
which case bending moment area consist of triangle and rectangles.
po
A C B
Loading
L
Mn
MB
Mc θ
B.M.diag
Deflection
θ2
gs
OA
A
X
C
ymax
B
D
θ AD
θ AB
tBA
blo
tÎ A
x Angle between the tangents drawn at 2 points A&B on the elastic line, ș AB
.
1
ș AB = u Area of the bending moment diagram between A&B
tas
EI
A B.M.
i.e. slope T AB
EI
lda
x Deflection of B related to 'A'

M
yBA = Moment of diagram between B&A taking about B (or w.r.t. B)
EI
A B.M u x
i.e. deflection yBA
vi
EI
Important Note
Ci
If A1 = Area of shear force (SF) diagram

A2 = Area of bending moment (BM) diagram,
A1 u A2
Then, Change of slope over any portion of the loaded beam =
EI
Page 217 of 429
Some typical bending moment diagram and their area (A) and distance of
C.G from one edge x is shown in the following table. [Note the distance
will be different from other end]
Shape BM Diagram Area Distance from C.G
1. Rectangle
b
A bh x
2
t.in
2. Triangle
b
x
po
3
3. Parabola
gs b
x
4
. blo
tas
4. Parabola
5.Cubic Parabola
lda
6. y = k xn
7. Sine curve
vi
Determination of Maximum slope and deflection

by Moment Area- Method
Ci
(i) A Cantilever beam with a point load at free end
Page 218 of 429
Area of BM (Bending moment diagram)
1 PL2
A u L u PL
2 2
Therefore
A PL2
Maximum slope T (at free end)
EI 2EI
Ax
Maximum deflection G
EI
§ PL2 · § 2 ·
¨ ¸ u ¨ L¸
t.in
© 2 ¹ ©3 ¹ PL3
(at free end)
EI 3EI
(ii) A cantilever beam with a point load not at free end
po
1 Pa2
Area of BM diagram A u a u Pa
2 2
Therefore
A Pa2
Maximum slope T ( at free end)
gs
EI 2EI
Ax
EI
§ Pa2 · § a ·
blo
¨ ¸ u ¨ L- ¸
© 2 ¹ © 3¹ Pa2 § a ·
. L- (at free end)
EI 2EI ¨© 3 ¸¹
(iii) A cantilever beam with UDL over its whole length

.
1 § wL2 · wL3
tas
Area of BM diagram A uL u ¨ ¸
3 © 2 ¹ 6
Therefore
A wL3
Maximum slope T (at free end)
EI 6EI
lda
Ax
EI
§ wL3 · § 3 ·
¨ ¸u ¨ L¸
© 6 ¹ ©4 ¹ wL4
(at free end)
vi
EI 8EI
(iv) A simply supported beam with point load at mid-spam
Ci
Page 219 of 429
Area of shaded BM diagram
1 L PL PL2
A u u
2 2 4 16
Therefore
A PL2
Maximum slope T (at each ends)
EI 16EI
Ax
EI
§ PL2 L ·
¨ u ¸
© 16 3 ¹ PL3
(at mid point)
t.in
EI 48EI
(v) A simply supported beam with UDL over its whole length
Area of BM diagram (shaded)
po
2 § L · § wL2 · wL3
A u u¨ ¸
3 ¨© 2 ¸¹ © 8 ¹ 24
Therefore
A wL3 gs
Maximum slope T (at each ends)
EI 24EI
Ax
EI
blo
§ wL3 · § 5 L ·
¨ ¸u¨ u ¸
© 24 ¹ © 8 2 ¹ 5 wL4
(at mid point)
EI 384 EI
.
tas
9. Method of superposition
Assumptions:
x Structure should be linear
lda
x Slope of elastic line should be very small.

x The deflection of the beam should be small such that the effect due to the shaft or rotation of
the line of action of the load is neglected.
Principle of Superposition:
vi
• Deformations of beams subjected to combinations of loadings may be obtained as the linear

combination of the deformations from the individual loadings
Ci
• Procedure is facilitated by tables of solutions for common types of loadings and supports.
Example:
For the beam and loading shown, determine

the slope and deflection at point B.
Page 220 of 429
Superpose the deformations due to Loading I and Loading II as shown.
t.in
po
gs
. blo
tas
vi lda
10. Conjugate beam method

In the conjugate beam method, the length of the conjugate beam is the same as the length of the
Ci
actual beam, the loading diagram (showing the loads acting) on the conjugate beam is simply the
bending-moment diagram of the actual beam divided by the flexural rigidity EI of the actual beam,
and the corresponding support condition for the conjugate beam is given by the rules as shown
below.
Corresponding support condition for the conjugate beam

Page 221 of 429
Conjugates of Common Types of Real Beams

Conjugate beams for statically determinate Conjugate beams for Statically
t.in
real beams indeterminate real beams
po
gs
. blo
By the conjugate beam method, the slope and deflection of the actual beam can be found by
tas
using the following two rules:

x The slope of the actual beam at any cross section is equal to the shearing force at the
corresponding cross section of the conjugate beam.
x The deflection of the actual beam at any point is equal to the bending moment of the
lda
conjugate beam at the corresponding point.
Procedure for Analysis

x Construct the M / EI diagram for the given (real) beam subjected to the specified (real)
vi
loading. If a combination of loading exists, you may use M-diagram by parts

x Determine the conjugate beam corresponding to the given real beam
Ci
x Apply the M / EI diagram as the load on the conjugate beam as per sign convention
x Calculate the reactions at the supports of the conjugate beam by applying equations of
equilibrium and conditions
x Determine the shears in the conjugate beam at locations where slopes is desired in the
real beam, Vconj = ǉreal
x Determine the bending moments in the conjugate beam at locations where deflections is
Page 222 of 429
desired in the real beam, Mconj = yreal
The method of double integration, method of superposition, moment-area theorems, and

Castigliano’s theorem are all well established methods for finding deflections of beams, but they
require that the boundary conditions of the beams be known or specified. If not, all of them
become helpless. However, the conjugate beam method is able to proceed and yield a solution for the
possible deflections of the beam based on the support conditions, rather than the boundary
conditions, of the beams.
t.in
(i) A Cantilever beam with a point load ‘P’ at its free end.
For Real Beam: At a section a distance ‘x’ from free end

consider the forces to the left. Taking moments about the
section gives (obviously to the left of the section) Mx = -P.x
po
(negative sign means that the moment on the left hand side
of the portion is in the anticlockwise direction and is
therefore taken as negative according to the sign convention)
gs
so that the maximum bending moment occurs at the fixed
end i.e. Mmax = - PL ( at x = L)
blo
wL2 wL
.
Considering equilibrium we get, MA and Reaction R A

3 2
tas
Considering any cross-section XX which is at a distance of x from the fixed end.

W
At this point load (Wx ) .x
L
lda
Shear force Vx R A area of triangle ANM
wL 1 § w · wL wx 2
- . ¨ .x ¸ .x = + -
2 2 ©L ¹ 2 2L
vi
wL wL
at x 0, Vx i.e. Maximum shear force, Vmax
2 2
at x L, Vx 0
Ci
wx 2 2x
Bending moment Mx = R A .x - . - MA
2L 3
Page 223 of 429
3 2
wL wx wL
= .x - -
2 6L 3
? The bending moment variation is cubic
wL2 wL2
at x = 0, Mx i.e.Maximum B.M. Mmax .
3 3
at x L, Mx 0
t.in
po
gs
. blo
tas
vi lda
Ci
Page 224 of 429
Beam Deflection
GATE-1. A lean elastic beam of given flexural
t.in
rigidity, EI, is loaded by a single force F
as shown in figure. How many boundary
conditions are necessary to determine
the deflected centre line of the beam?
(a) 5 (b) 4
po
(c) 3 (d) 2
[GATE-1999]
2
dy
GATE-1. Ans. (d) EI M . Since it is second order differential equation so we need two boundary
dx 2 gs
conditions to solve it.
Double Integration Method

blo
GATE-2. A simply supported beam carrying a concentrated load W at mid-span deflects
by ǅ1 under the load. If the same beam carries the load W such that it is
distributed uniformly over entire length and undergoes a deflection ǅ2 at the
mid span. The ratio ǅ1: ǅ2 is: [IES-1995; GATE-1994]
.
(a) 2: 1 (b) 2:1 (c) 1: 1 (d) 1: 2

tas
§W·
5 ¨ ¸ l4
Wl3 © l ¹ 5Wl3
GATE-2. Ans. (d) G1 and G 2 Therefore ǅ1: ǅ2 = 5: 8
48EI 384EI 384EI
lda
GATE-3. A simply supported laterally loaded beam was found to deflect more than a
specified value. [GATE-2003]
Which of the following measures will reduce the deflection?
(a) Increase the area moment of inertia
(b) Increase the span of the beam
vi
(c) Select a different material having lesser modulus of elasticity

(d) Magnitude of the load to be increased
Ci
Wl3
GATE-3. Ans. (a) Maximum deflection (ǅ) =
48EI
To reduce, ǅ, increase the area moment of Inertia.
Page 225 of 429

In a cantilever subjected to a concentrated load at the free end
1. The bending stress is maximum at the free end
2. The maximum shear stress is constant along the length of the beam
3. The slope of the elastic curve is zero at the fixed end
Which of these statements are correct?
(a) 1, 2 and 3 (b) 2 and 3 (c) 1 and 3 (d) 1 and 2
t.in
IES-1. Ans. (b)
IES-2. A cantilever of length L, moment of inertia I. Young's modulus E carries a

concentrated load W at the middle of its length. The slope of cantilever at the
free end is: [IES-2001]
WL2 WL2 WL2 WL2
(a) (b) (c) (d)
po
2 EI 4 EI 8 EI 16 EI
2
L¬
W
2 ® WL2
IES-2. Ans. (c) R
2EI 8EI gs
IES-3. The two cantilevers A
and B shown in the
figure have the same
blo
uniform cross-section
and the same material.
Free end deflection of
cantilever 'A' is ǅ. [IES-2000]
The value of mid- span deflection of the cantilever ‘B’ is:
1 2
a G b G c G d 2G
.
2 3
tas
WL3 § WL2 · 5WL3

IES-3. Ans. (c) G ¨ ¸L
3EI © 2EI ¹ 6EI
W § 2Lx 2 x 3 · 5WL3
y mid ¨ ¸ G
EI © 2 6 ¹at x L 6EI
lda
IES-4. A cantilever beam of rectangular cross-section is subjected to a load W at its

free end. If the depth of the beam is doubled and the load is halved, the
deflection of the free end as compared to original deflection will be: [IES-1999]
(a) Half (b) One-eighth (c) One-sixteenth (d) Double
vi
Wl 3 Wl 3 u12 4Wl 3
IES-4. Ans. (c) Deflectionin cantilever
3EI 3Eah3 Eah3
4Wl 3 1 4Wl 3
If h is doubled, and W is halved, New deflection = u
Ci
3
2 Ea 2h 16 Eah3
IES-5. A simply supported beam of constant flexural rigidity and length 2L carries a
concentrated load 'P' at its mid-span and the deflection under the load is G . If a
cantilever beam of the same flexural rigidity and length 'L' is subjected to load
'P' at its free end, then the deflection at the free end will be: [IES-1998]
1
a G b G c 2G
Page 226 of 429 d 4G
2
3
W 2L WL3
IES-5. Ans. (c) G for simply supported beam
48 EI 6 EI
3
WL
and deflection for Cantilever 2G
3EI
IES-6. Two identical cantilevers are

loaded as shown in the
respective figures. If slope at
the free end of the cantilever in
figure E is ǉ, the slope at free
and of the cantilever in figure Figure E Figure F
t.in
F will be:
[IES-1997]
1 1 2
(a) T (b) T (c) T (d) T
3 2 3
T
ML PL / 2 L PL2
po
IES-6. Ans. (d) When a B. M is applied at the free end of cantilever,
EI EI 2 EI
PL2
When a cantilever is subjected to a single concentrated load at free end, then T
2 EI
IES-7.
gs
A cantilever beam carries a load W uniformly distributed over its entire length.
If the same load is placed at the free end of the same cantilever, then the ratio
of maximum deflection in the first case to that in the second case will be:
[IES-1996]
blo
(a) 3/8 (b) 8/3 (c) 5/8 (d) 8/5
Wl 3 Wl 3 3
IES-7. Ans. (a) y
8 EI 3EI 8
IES-8. The given figure shows a

cantilever of span 'L' subjected to
.
a concentrated load 'P' and a

tas
moment 'M' at the free end.

Deflection at the free end is
given by
[IES-1996]
PL2 ML2 ML2 PL3 ML2 PL3 ML2 PL3
lda
(a) (b) (c) (d)

2 EI 3EI 2 EI 3EI 3EI 2 EI 2 EI 48 EI
IES-8. Ans. (b)
IES-9. For a cantilever beam of length 'L', flexural rigidity EI and loaded at its free
end by a concentrated load W, match List I with List II and select the correct
vi
answer. [IES-1996]
List I List II
A. Maximum bending moment 1. Wl
B. Strain energy 2. Wl2/2EI
Ci
C. Maximum slope 3. Wl3/3EI

D. Maximum deflection 4. W2l2/6EI
(a) 1 4 3 2 (b) 1 4 2 3
(c) 4 2 1 3 (d) 4 3 1 2
IES-9. Ans. (b)
IES-10. Maximum deflection of a cantilever beam of length ‘l’ carrying uniformly

Page 227 of 429
distributed load w per unit length will be: [IES- 2008]
(a) wl4/ (EI) (b) w l4/ (4 EI) (c) w l4/ (8 EI) (d) w l4/ (384 EI)
[Where E = modulus of elasticity of beam material and I = moment of inertia of beam
cross-section]
IES-10. Ans. (c)
IES-11. A cantilever beam of length ‘l’ is subjected to a concentrated load P at a

distance of l/3 from the free end. What is the deflection of the free end of the
beam? (EI is the flexural rigidity) [IES-2004]
2 Pl 3 3Pl 3 14 Pl 3 15 Pl 3
(a) (b) (c) (d)
81EI 81EI 81EI 81EI
IES-11. Ans. (d) Moment Area method gives us
t.in
1 § 2Pl · § 2l · § l 4 ·
u u u l
Area 2 ¨© 3 ¸¹ ¨© 3 ¸¹ ¨© 3 9 ¸¹
GA x
EI EI
Pl3 2 7 14 Pl3
u u
EI 9 9 81 EI
2
po
§ 2l ·
W¨ ¸
Wa2 l a ½ © 3 ¹ l 2l / 3 ½
Alternatively Ymax ® ¾ ® ¾
EI ¯ 2 6 ¿ EI ¯ 2 6 ¿
Wl3 4 9 2
gs u u
EI 9 18
14 Wl3
81 EI
blo
IES-12. A 2 m long beam BC carries a single
concentrated load at its mid-span
and is simply supported at its ends
by two cantilevers AB = 1 m long and
CD = 2 m long as shown in the figure.
.
The shear force at end A of the

cantilever AB will be
tas
(a) Zero (b) 40 kg

(c) 50 kg (d) 60 kg [IES-1997]
IES-12. Ans. (c) Reaction force on B and C is same 100/2 = 50 kg. And we know that shear force is
same throughout its length and equal to load at free end.
lda
IES-13. Assertion (A): In a simply supported beam subjected to a concentrated load P at

mid-span, the elastic curve slope becomes zero under the load. [IES-2003]
Reason (R): The deflection of the beam is maximum at mid-span.
vi

IES-13. Ans. (a)
IES-14. At a certain section at a distance 'x' from one of the supports of a simply
Ci
supported beam, the intensity of loading, bending moment and shear force arc
Wx, Mx and Vx respectively. If the intensity of loading is varying continuously
along the length of the beam, then the invalid relation is: [IES-2000]
Mx dM x d 2M x dVx
a Slope Qx b Vx c Wx d Wx
Vx dx dx 2 dx
IES-14. Ans. (a)
Page 228 of 429
IES-15. The bending moment equation, as a function of distance x measured from the
left end, for a simply supported beam of span L m carrying a uniformly
distributed load of intensity w N/m will be given by [IES-1999]
wL w 3 wL w 2
a M= L-x - L-x Nm b M= x - x Nm
2 2 2 2
wL 2 w 3 wL 2 wLx
c M= L-x - L-x Nm d M= x - Nm
2 2 2 2
IES-15. Ans. (b)
IES-16. A simply supported beam with width 'b' and depth ’d’ carries a central load W
and undergoes deflection ǅ at the centre. If the width and depth are
t.in
interchanged, the deflection at the centre of the beam would attain the value
[IES-1997]
2 3 3/2
d d d d
a G b §¨ ·¸ G c §¨ ·¸ G d §¨ ·¸ G
b ©b¹ ©b¹ ©b¹
Wl3 Wl3
IES-16. Ans. (b) Deflection at center G
po
48EI § bd3 ·
48E ¨ ¸
© 12 ¹
Wl 3 Wl 3 Wl 3 d2 d2
In second case, deflection G c G
48EI c § db3 · § bd 3 · b 2 b2
gs 48 E ¨
© 12 ¹
¸ 48 E ¨
© 12 ¹
¸
IES-17. A simply supported beam of rectangular section 4 cm by 6 cm carries a mid-

blo
span concentrated load such that the 6 cm side lies parallel to line of action of
loading; deflection under the load is ǅ. If the beam is now supported with the 4
cm side parallel to line of action of loading, the deflection under the load will
be: [IES-1993]
(a) 0.44 ǅ (b) 0.67 ǅ (c) 1.5 ǅ (d) 2.25 ǅ
IES-17. Ans. (d) Use above explanation
.
tas
IES-18. A simply supported beam carrying a concentrated load W at mid-span deflects

by ǅ1 under the load. If the same beam carries the load W such that it is
distributed uniformly over entire length and undergoes a deflection ǅ2 at the
mid span. The ratio ǅ1: ǅ2 is: [IES-1995; GATE-1994]
(a) 2: 1 (b) 2:1 (c) 1: 1 (d) 1: 2
lda
§W·
5 ¨ ¸ l4
Wl3 © l ¹ 5Wl3
IES-18. Ans. (d) G1 and G 2 Therefore ǅ1: ǅ2 = 5: 8
48EI 384EI 384EI
Moment Area Method

vi
List-I List-II
A. Toughness 1. Moment area method
Ci
B. Endurance strength 2. Hardness

C. Resistance to abrasion 3. Energy absorbed before fracture in
a tension test
D. Deflection in a beam 4. Fatigue loading
(a) 4 3 1 2 (b) 4 3 2 1
(c) 3 4 2 1 (d) 3 4 1 2
IES-19. Ans. (c)
Page 229 of 429
Slope and Deflection at a Section

IAS-1. Which one of the following is represented by the area of the S.F diagram from
one end upto a given location on the beam? [IAS-2004]
(a) B.M. at the location (b) Load at the location
(c) Slope at the location (d) Deflection at the location
IAS-1. Ans. (a)
t.in
IAS-2. Which one of the following is the correct statement? [IAS-2007]
dM
If for a beam 0 for its whole length, the beam is a cantilever:
dx
(a) Free from any load (b) Subjected to a concentrated load at its free end
(c) Subjected to an end moment (d) Subjected to a udl over its whole span
po
IAS-2. Ans. (c) udl or point load both vary with x. But
if we apply Bending Moment (M) = const.
dM
and 0
dx gs
blo
IAS-3. In a cantilever beam, if the length is doubled while keeping the cross-section
and the concentrated load acting at the free end the same, the deflection at the
free end will increase by [IAS-1996]
(a) 2.66 times (b) 3 times (c) 6 times (d) 8 times
IAS-3. Ans. (d)
.
tas
3
PL3 3 G § L2 ·
G ? G fL ? 2 ¨ ¸ 8
3EI G1 © L1 ¹
lda
Conjugate Beam Method

IAS-4. By conjugate beam method, the slope at any section of an actual beam is equal
to: [IAS-2002]
(a) EI times the S.F. of the conjugate beam (b) EI times the B.M. of the conjugate beam
(c) S.F. of conjugate beam (d) B.M. of the conjugate beam
vi
IAS-4. Ans. (c)
IAS-5. I = 375 × 10-6 m4; l = 0.5 m

Ci
E = 200 GPa
Determine the stiffness of the
beam shown in the above figure
(a) 12 × 1010 N/m
(b) 10 × 1010 N/m
(c) 4 × 1010 N/m
(d) 8 × 1010 N/m
[IES-2002]
IAS-5. Ans. (c) Stiffness means required load for unit deformation. BMD of the given beam
Page 230 of 429
Loading diagram of conjugate beam
t.in
The deflection at the free end of the actual beam = BM of the at fixed point of conjugate
beam
1 ML ¬ 2L WL ¬ ¬ ¬ ¬ 3
y q L q q q L q L L 1 q L q WL q L 2L 3WL
2 EI ® 3 2EI ® 2 ® 2 2EI ® 3 ® 2EI
po
2EI 2 q 200 q10
q 375 q10
9 6
W
Or stiffness = 3 3
4 q1010 N / m
y 3L 3 q 0.5
gs
. blo
tas
vi lda
Ci
Page 231 of 429

Question: Consider the signboard mounting shown in figure below. The wind load
acting perpendicular to the plane of the figure is F = 100 N. We wish to limit
the deflection, due to bending, at point A of the hollow cylindrical pole of
outer diameter 150 mm to 5 mm. Find the wall thickness for the pole. [Assume
E = 2.0 X 1011 N/m2]
t.in
po
gs
Answer: Given: F = 100 N; d0 = 150 mm, 0.15 my = 5 mm; E = 2.0 X 1O11 N/m2
Thickness of pole, t
blo
The system of signboard mounting can be considered as a cantilever loaded at A i.e. W
= 100 N and also having anticlockwise moment of M = 100 x 1 = 100 Nm at the free
end. Deflection of cantilever having concentrated load at the free end,
WL3 ML2
y
3EI 2EI
.
100 u 53 100 u 53
5 u 10 3
tas
3 u 2.0 u 1011 u I 2 u 2.0 u 1011 u I

1 ª 100 u 53 100 u 53 º
or I « » 5.417 u 10 6 m4
5 u 10 3 ¬ 3 u 2.0 u 1011 2 u 2.0 u 1011 ¼
S 4
But I d0 di4
lda
64
S
? 5.417 u 106
64
0.15 4 di4
or di 0.141m or 141 mm
vi
d0 di 150 141
? t 4.5 mm
2 2
Ci

Question: Find the slope and deflection at the free end of a cantilever beam of length
6m as loaded shown in figure below, using method of superposition. Evaluate
their numerical value using E = 200 GPa, I = 1×10-4 m4 and W = 1 kN.
Page 232 of 429
Answer: We have to use superposition
theory.
1st consider
PL3 (3W ) q 23 8W
įc
3EI 3EI EI
2 2
PL (3W ).2 6W
șc
2EI 2EI EI
8W 6W 32W
Deflection at A due to this load(į1 ) = į c Rc .(6 2) = q4
EI EI EI
2nd consider:
t.in
2W
q 43 128W
įB
3EI 3EI
2
(2W ) q 4 16W
RB
2EI EI
Deflection at A due to this load(į 2 )
po
224W
=įB RB q (6 4)=
3EI
.
3rd consider :
W q 63 72W
(į3 ) į A
gs
3EI EI
W q 62 18W
blo
RA
2EI EI
Apply superpositioning form ula
6W 16W 18W 40W 40 q 10 3
ș=ș A ș B ș c
EI EI EI EI 200 q 10 9
q 10 4
.
32W 224W 72W 40W 563×W

tas
į į1 į 2 į 3 =
EI 3 EI EI EI 3EI
563×(10 3 )
= 8.93 m m
3 q (200 q 10 9 ) q 10 4
lda

Question: If two cantilever beams of identical dimensions but made of mild steel and
grey cast iron are subjected to same point load at the free end, within elastic
limit, which one will deflect more and why?
vi
Answer: Grey cost iron will deflect more.

Ci
We know that a cantilever beam of length 'L' end load 'P' will deflect at free end
PL3
(E ) =
3EI
Page 233 of 429
1
=E r
E
ECast Iron 125 GPa and EMild steel 200 GPa

Question: A uniform cantilever beam (EI = constant) of length L is carrying a
concentrated load P at its free end. What would be its slope at the (i) Free end
and (ii) Built in end
P
PL2
Answer: (i) Free end, ș =
2EI
t.in
(ii) Built-in end, ș0
po
gs
. blo
tas
vi lda
Ci
Page 234 of 429
6. Bending Stress in Beam

6.1 Euler Bernoulli’s Equation or (Bending stress formula) or Bending
Equation
t.in
V M E
po
y I
gs R
Where V = Bending Stress
M = Bending Moment
I = Moment of Inertia
blo
E = Modulus of elasticity
R = Radius of curvature
y = Distance of the fibre from NA (Neutral axis)
.
6.2 Assumptions in Simple Bending Theory

tas
All of the foregoing theory has been developed for the case of pure bending i.e. constant B.M along
the length of the beam. In such case
x The shear force at each c/s is zero.
lda
x Normal stress due to bending is only produced.

x Beams are initially straight
x The material is homogenous and isotropic i.e. it has a uniform composition and its
mechanical properties are the same in all directions
vi
x The stress-strain relationship is linear and elastic

x Young’s Modulus is the same in tension as in compression
x Sections are symmetrical about the plane of bending
Ci
x Sections which are plane before bending remain plane after bending
6.3
Page 235 of 429
Chapter-6 Bending Stress in Beam S K Mondal’s
t.in
Mc1
V max V t
I
Mc2
po
V min V c (Minimum in sense of sign)
I
6.4 Section Modulus (Z)
I
Z=
gs
y
blo
x Z is a function of beam c/s only
x Z is other name of the strength of the beam
x The strength of the beam sections depends mainly on the section modulus
M
.
V
tas
x The flexural formula may be written as,

Z
bh 2
x Rectangular c/s of width is "b" & depth "h" with sides horizontal, Z =
lda
6
a3
x Square beam with sides horizontal, Z =
6
a3
x Square c/s with diagonal horizontal, Z =
vi
6 2
Sd3
x Circular c/s of diameter "d", Z =
Ci
32
Page 236 of 429
A log diameter "d" is available. It is proposed to cut out a strongest beam
from it. Then
b( d 2 b 2 )
Z=
6
bd 3 d
Therefore, Zmax = for b =
9 3
6.5 Flexural Rigidity (EI)
t.in
Reflects both
x Stiffness of the material (measured by E)
x Proportions of the c/s area (measured by I )
6.6 Axial Rigidity = EA
po
6.7 Beam of uniform strength
It is one is which the maximum bending stress is same in every section along the longitudinal axis.
M D bh 2
For it
Where b = Width of beam
gs
h = Height of beam
blo
To make Beam of uniform strength the section of the beam may be varied by
x Keeping the width constant throughout the length and varying the depth, (Most widely used)
x Keeping the depth constant throughout the length and varying the width
x By varying both width and depth suitably.
.
6.8 Bending stress due to additional Axial thrust (P).

tas
A shaft may be subjected to a combined bending and axial thrust. This type of situation arises in
various machine elements.
If P = Axial thrust
vi lda
Ci
Then direct stress ( V d ) = P / A (stress due to axial thrust)
This direct stress ( V d ) may be tensile or compressive depending upon the load P is tensile or
compressive.
Page 237 of 429
My
And the bending stress ( V b ) = is varying linearly from zero at centre and extremum (minimum
I
or maximum) at top and bottom fibres.
If P is compressive then
P My
x At top fibre V (compressive)
A I
P
x At mid fibre V (compressive)
t.in
A
P My
x At bottom fibre V – (compressive)
A I
po
6.9 Load acting eccentrically to one axis
P P u e y
x V max where ‘e’ is the eccentricity at which ‘P’ is act.
A I gs
P P u e y
x V min
A I
Condition for No tension in any section
blo
2k 2
x For no tension in any section, the eccentricity must not exceed
d
[Where d = depth of the section; k = radius of gyration of c/s]
h h
For rectangular section (b x h) , e d i.e load will be 2e
.
x of the middle section.

6 3
tas
d d
x For circular section of diameter ‘d’ , e d i.e. diameter of the kernel, 2e
8 4
D2 d 2 D2 d 2
For hollow circular section of diameter ‘d’ , e d i.e. diameter of the kernel, 2e d .
8D 4D
vi lda
Ci
Page 238 of 429
Bending equation
GATE-1. A cantilever beam has the
square cross section 10mm ×
t.in
10 mm. It carries a transverse
load of 10 N. Considering only
the bottom fibres of the beam,
the correct representation of
the longitudinal variation of
[GATE-2005]
the bending stress is:
po
gs
blo
M V My 10 u x u 0.005
GATE-1. Ans. (a) Mx P.x or V 4
60.(x) MPa
I y I 0.01
12
At x 0; V 0
.
At x 1m; V 60MPa
tas
And it is linear as V f x
GATE-2. Two beams, one having square cross section and another circular cross-section,
are subjected to the same amount of bending moment. If the cross sectional
area as well as the material of both the beams are the same then [GATE-2003]
lda
(a) Maximum bending stress developed in both the beams is the same
(b) The circular beam experiences more bending stress than the square one
(c) The square beam experiences more bending stress than the circular one
(d) As the material is same both the beams will experience same deformation
M E V My
GATE-2. Ans. (b) ; or V ;
I U y I
vi
§a· §d·
M¨ ¸ M¨ ¸
©2¹ 6M ©2¹ 32M 4S S M 22.27M ª S d2 º
V sq ; V cir « a2 »
1 a3 S d4 S d3 a3 a3 ¬ 4 ¼
a.a3
Ci
12 64
? V sq V cir
Section Modulus
GATE-3. Match the items in Columns I and II. [GATE-2006]
Column-I Column-II
P. Addendum 1. Cam
Page 239 of 429 2. Beam
Q. Instantaneous centre of velocity
R. Section modulus 3. Linkage
S. Prime circle 4. Gear
(a) P – 4, Q – 2, R – 3, S – l (b) P – 4, Q – 3, R – 2, S – 1
(c) P – 3, Q – 2, R – 1, S – 4 (d) P – 3, Q – 4, R – 1, S – 2
GATE-3. Ans. (b)
Combined direct and bending stress

GATE-4. For the component loaded with a force F as shown in the figure, the axial
stress at the corner point P is: [GATE-2008]
t.in
po
(a)
F (3L b)
(b)
gs
F (3L b)
(c)
F (3L 4b)
(d)
F (3L 2b)
4b3 4b3 4b3 4b3
GATE-4. Ans. (d) Total Stress = Direct stress + Stress due to Moment
blo
P My F F (L b ) q b
= 2
A I 4b 2b q ( b )3
12
.

tas
Bending equation
IES-1. Beam A is simply supported at its ends and carries udl of intensity w over its
entire length. It is made of steel having Young's modulus E. Beam B is
lda
cantilever and carries a udl of intensity w/4 over its entire length. It is made of
brass having Young's modulus E/2. The two beams are of same length and have
same cross-sectional area. If ǔA and ǔB denote the maximum bending stresses
developed in beams A and B, respectively, then which one of the following is
correct? [IES-2005]
(a) ǔA/ǔB (b) ǔA/ǔB < 1.0
vi
(c) ǔA/ǔB > 1.0 (d) ǔA/ǔB depends on the shape of cross-section
My
IES-1. Ans. (d) Bending stress V , y and I both depends on the
I
Ci
VA
Shape of cross sec tion so depends on the shape of cross sec tion
VB
IES-2. If the area of cross-section of a circular section beam is made four times,
keeping the loads, length, support conditions and material of the beam
unchanged, then the qualities (List-I) will change through different factors
(List-II). Match the List-I with the List-II and select the correct answer using
the code given below the Lists: [IES-2005]
List-I Page 240 of 429
List-II
A. Maximum BM 1. 8
B. Deflection 2. 1
C. Bending Stress 3. 1/8
D. Section Modulus 4. 1/16
(a) 3 1 2 4 (b) 2 4 3 1
(c) 3 4 2 1 (d) 2 1 3 4
IES-2. Ans. (b) Diameter will be double, D = 2d.
A. Maximum BM will be unaffected
4
EI1 §d· 1
B. deflection ratio ¨4¸
EI2 © ¹ 16
My M d / 2 V2 §d·
3
1
C. Bending stress V or Bending stress ratio ¨D¸
t.in
I S d4 V1 © ¹ 8
64
3
Z2 I2 y1 §D·
D. Selection Modulus ratio u ¨d¸ 8
Z1 y1 I1 © ¹
IES-3. Consider the following statements in case of beams: [IES-2002]
po
1. Rate of change of shear force is equal to the rate of loading at a particular
section
2. Rate of change of bending moment is equal to the shear force at a
particular suction.
3.
gs
Maximum shear force in a beam occurs at a point where bending moment
is either zero or bending moment changes sign
Which of the above statements are correct?
(a) 1 alone (b) 2 alone (c) 1 and 2 (d) 1, 2 and 3
IES-3. Ans. (c)
blo
List-I (State of Stress) List-II (Kind of Loading)
1. Combined bending and torsion of circular

.
shaft
tas
2. Torsion of circular shaft

lda
3. Thin cylinder subjected to internal

pressure
vi
4. Tie bar subjected to tensile force

Ci
(a) 2 1 3 4 (b) 3 4 2 1
(c) 2 4 3 1 (d) 3 1 2 4
IES-4. Ans. (c)
Page 241 of 429
Section Modulus
IES-5. Two beams of equal cross-sectional area are subjected to equal bending
moment. If one beam has square cross-section and the other has circular
section, then [IES-1999]
(a) Both beams will be equally strong
(b) Circular section beam will be stronger
(c) Square section beam will be stronger
(d) The strength of the beam will depend on the nature of loading
S 4
IES-5. Ans. (b) If D is diameter of circle and 'a' the side of square section, d2 a 2 or d a
4 S
t.in
Sd2 a3 a3
Z for circular section = ; and Z for square section =
32 4 S 6
IES-6. A beam cross-section is used in

two different orientations as
shown in the given figure:
po
Bending moments applied to the
beam in both cases are same. The
maximum bending stresses
induced in cases (A) and (B) are
related as: gs
(a) V A 4V B (b) V A 2V B
VB VB
(c) VA (d) VA
2 4 [IES-1997]
blo
2
§b· b 2
b¨ ¸ 3 ub
bd 2
©2¹ b 2 b3
IES-6. Ans. (b) Z for rectangular section is , ZA , ZB
6 6 24 6 12
b3 b3
M Z A .V A Z B .V B or V A VB, or V A 2V B
24 12
.
tas
IES-7. A horizontal beam with square cross-section is simply supported with sides of
the square horizontal and vertical and carries a distributed loading that
produces maximum bending stress a in the beam. When the beam is placed
with one of the diagonals horizontal the maximum bending stress will be:
[IES-1993]
lda
1
(a) V (b) V (c) 2V (d) 2V
2
M
IES-7. Ans. (c) Bending stress =
Z
vi
a3
For rectangular beam with sides horizontal and vertical, Z =
6
3
a
Ci
For same section with diagonal horizontal, Z =

6 2
? Ratio of two stresses = 2
IES-8. Which one of the following combinations of angles will carry the maximum
load as a column? [IES-1994]
Page 242 of 429
IES-8. Ans. (a)
IES-9. Assertion (A): For structures steel I-beams preferred to other shapes. [IES-1992]
Reason (R): In I-beams a large portion of their cross-section is located far from
the neutral axis.
t.in
IES-9. Ans. (a)
po
IES-10. Assertion (A): A column subjected to eccentric load will have its stress at
centroid independent of the eccentricity.
gs [IES-1994]
Reason (R): Eccentric loads in columns produce torsion.
blo
IES-10. Ans. (c) A is true and R is false.
IES-11. For the configuration of loading shown in the given figure, the stress in fibre
AB is given by: [IES-1995]
§ P P.e.5 ·
.
(a) P/A (tensile) (b) ¨ ¸ (Compressive)

© A I xx ¹
tas
§ P P.e.5 ·
(c) ¨ ¸ (Compressive) (d) P/A (Compressive)
© A I xx ¹
vi lda
P My Pky
Ci
IES-11. Ans. (b) Vd (compressive), V x (tensile)

A Ix Ix
Page 243 of 429
IES-12. A column of square section 40 mm × 40
mm, fixed to the ground carries an
eccentric load P of 1600 N as shown in
the figure.
If the stress developed along the edge
CD is –1.2 N/mm2, the stress along the
edge AB will be:
(a) –1.2 N/mm2

(b) +1 N/mm2
(c) +0.8 N/mm2
t.in
(d) –0.8 N/mm2
po
[IES-1999]
gs P § 6e · 1600 § 6e ·
IES-12. Ans. (d) Compressive stress at CD = 1.2 N/mm2 = ¨1 ¸ ¨1 ¸
A© b ¹ 1600 © 20 ¹
6e 1600
or 0.2. Sostress at AB 1 0.2 0.8 N/mm2 (com)
20 1600
blo
IES-13. A short column of symmetric cross-

section made of a brittle material is
subjected to an eccentric vertical load P
at an eccentricity e. To avoid tensile
.
stress in the short column, the

tas
eccentricity e should be less than or equal

to:
(a) h/12 (b) h/6
(c) h/3 (d) h/2
vi lda
[IES-2001]
IES-13. Ans. (b)
Ci
IES-14. A short column of external diameter D and internal diameter d carries an

eccentric load W. Toe greatest eccentricity which the load can have without
producing tension on the cross-section of the column would be: [IES-1999]
Dd D2 d 2 D2 d 2 D2 d 2
(a) (b) (c) (d)
8 8d 8D 8
IES-14. Ans. (c)
Page 244 of 429
Bending equation
IAS-1. Consider the cantilever loaded as shown below: [IAS-2004]
t.in
po
What is the ratio of the maximum compressive to the maximum tensile stress?
(a) 1.0 (b) 2.0 (c) 2.5
gs (d) 3.0
My M § 2h ·
IAS-1. Ans. (b) ǔ= V compressive, Max u ¨ ¸ at lower end of A.
I I © 3 ¹
M §h·
ǔ tensile, max = u ¨ ¸ at upper end of B
blo
I ©3¹
IAS-2. A 0.2 mm thick tape goes over a frictionless pulley of 25 mm diameter. If E of

the material is 100 GPa, then the maximum stress induced in the tape is:
[IAS 1994]
.
tas
vi lda
V E 0.2 25
IAS-2. Ans. (d) Here y = 0.1 mm = 0.1 x 10-3 m, R = mm = 12.5 x 10-3 m
y R 2 2
Ci
100 u 103 u 0.1 u 10 3

or V MPa = 800MPa
12.5 u 10 3
Section Modulus
IAS-3. A pipe of external diameter 3 cm and internal diameter 2 cm and of length 4 m
is supported at its ends. It carries a point load of 65 N at its centre. The
sectional modulus of the pipe Page
will245
be:of 429 [IAS-2002]
65S 65S 65S 65S
(a) cm3 (b) cm3 (c) cm3 (d) cm3
64 32 96 128
S 4 4
I 64
3 2 65S
IAS-3. Ans. (c) Section modulus (z) cm3 cm3
y 3 96
2
IAS-4. A Cantilever beam of rectangular cross-section is 1m deep and 0.6 m thick. If

the beam were to be 0.6 m deep and 1m thick, then the beam would. [IAS-1999]
(a) Be weakened 0.5 times
t.in
(b) Be weakened 0.6 times
(c) Be strengthened 0.6 times
(d) Have the same strength as the original beam because the cross-sectional area
remains the same
I 0.6 u 13
1.2m3
po
IAS-4. Ans. (b) z1
y 0.5
I 1u 0.63
and z2 0.72m3
y 0.3
z2 0.72 gs
? 0.6 times
z1 1.2
IAS-5. A T-beam shown in the given figure is

blo
subjected to a bending moment such that
plastic hinge forms. The distance of the
neutral axis from D is (all dimensions are
in mm)
(a) Zero
(b) 109 mm
.
(c) 125 mm
tas
(d) 170 mm
[IAS-2001]
IAS-5. Ans. (b)
vi lda
Ci
IAS-6. Assertion (A): I, T and channel sections are preferred for beams. [IAS-2000]
Reason(R): A beam cross-section should be such that the greatest possible
amount of area is as far away from the neutral axis as possible.
Page 246
IAS-6. Ans. (a) Because it will increase area moment ofofinertia,
429 i.e. strength of the beam.
IAS-7. If the T-beam cross-section

shown in the given figure has
bending stress of 30 MPa in the
top fiber, then the stress in the
bottom fiber would be (G is
centroid)
(a) Zero
(b) 30 MPa
(c) –80 MPa
(d) 50 Mpa
t.in
[IAS-2000]
M V1 V2 V1 30
IAS-7. Ans. (c) or V 2 y2 u 110 30 u 80 MPa
po
I y1 y2 y1 30
As top fibre in tension so bottom fibre will be in compression.
IAS-8. Assertion (A): A square section is more economical in bending than the circular
section of same area of cross-section. [IAS-1999]
Reason (R): The modulus of the square section is less than of circular section of
gs
same area of cross-section.
blo
IAS-8. ans. (c)
Bimetallic Strip
IAS-9. A straight bimetallic strip of copper and steel is heated. It is free at ends. The
strip, will: [IAS-2002]
.
(a) Expand and remain straight (b) Will not expand but will bend
tas
(c) Will expand and bend also (d) Twist only

IAS-9. Ans. (c) As expansion of copper will be more than steel.

lda
IAS-10. A short vertical column having a

square cross-section is subjected to
an axial compressive force, centre
of pressure of which passes
through point R as shown in the
above figure. Maximum
vi
compressive stress occurs at point

(a) S
(b) Q
(c) R
Ci
(d) P
[IAS-2002]
IAS-10. Ans. (a) As direct and bending both the stress is compressive here.
IAS-11. A strut's cross-sectional area A is subjected to load P a point S (h, k) as shown

in the given figure. The stress at the point Q (x, y) is: [IAS-2000]
Page 247 of 429
P Phy Pkx
(a)
A Ix Iy
P Phx Pky
(b)
A Iy Ix
P Phy Pkx
(c)
A Iy Ix
P Phx Pky
(d)
A Iy Ix
t.in
IAS-11. Ans. (b) All stress are compressive, direct stress,
P My Pky
Vd (compressive), V x (compressive)
A Ix Ix
Mx Phx
and V y (compressive)
Iy Iy
po
gs
. blo
tas
vi lda
Ci
Page 248 of 429

Question: A Simply supported beam AB of span length 4 m supports a uniformly
distributed load of intensity q = 4 kN/m spread over the entire span and a
concentrated load P = 2 kN placed at a distance of 1.5 m from left end A. The
beam is constructed of a rectangular cross-section with width b = 10 cm and
depth d = 20 cm. Determine the maximum tensile and compressive stresses
developed in the beam to bending.
Answer:
t.in
X
2KN 4kN/M
A
B
1.5
po
4m
NA
RA RB
B=10cm
gs X C/s
R A + RB = 2 + 4×4.........(i)
-R A ×4 + 2×(4-1.5) + (4×4)×2=0.......(ii)
blo
or R A = 9.25 kN, RB =18-R A = 8.75 kN
if 0 b x b 2.5 m
Mx =RB ×x - 4x. x 2
-2(x-2.5)
.
=8.75x - 2x 2 - 2x + 5 = 6.75x - 2x 2 + 5 ...(ii)

tas
From (i) & (ii) we find out that bending movment at x = 2.1875 m in(i)
gives maximum bending movement
dM
[Just find for both the casses]
lda
dx
Mmax 8.25 q 2.1875 2 q18752 9.57K 7kNm
bh3 0.1q 0.23

Area movement of Inertia (I) = 6.6667 q105 m 4
12 12
vi
Maximum distance from NA is y = 10 cm = 0.1m

My (9.57 q103 )q 0.1 N
Tmax 14.355MPa
I 6.6667 q105 m2
Ci
Therefore maximum tensile stress in the lowest point in the beam is 14.355 MPa and
maximum compressive stress in the topmost fiber of the beam is -14.355 MPa.

Question: A simply supported beam made of rolled steel joist (I-section: 450mm ×
200mm) has a span of 5 m and it carriers a central concentrated load W. The
flanges are strengthened by two 300mm × 20mm plates, one riveted to each
flange over the entire length of the flanges. The second moment of area of the
Page 249
joist about the principal bending of 429
axis is 35060 cm4. Calculate
(i) The greatest central load the beam will carry if the bending stress in the
300mm/20mm plates is not to exceed 125 MPa.
(ii) The minimum length of the 300 mm plates required to restrict the
maximum bending stress is the flanges of the joist to 125 MPa.
Answer:
t.in
po
gs
blo
Moment of Inertia of the total section about X-X
(I) = moment of inertia of I –section + moment of inertia of the plates about X-X axis.
30 q 23 45 2 ¬ ¯°
2
¡
.
35060 2 ¡ 30 q 2 q ° 101370 cm 4
12 2 2 ® °±
tas
¡¢
(i) Greatest central point load(W):
For a simply supported beam a concentrated load at centre.
WL W q 5
lda
M= 1.25W
4 4
ı.I 125 q10
q 101370 q10
6 8
M 517194Nm
y 0.245
= 1.25W = 517194 or W = 413.76 kN
vi
(ii) Suppose the cover plates are absent for a distance of x-meters from each support.
Then at these points the bending moment must not exceed moment of resistance of
‘I’ section alone i.e
Ci
ı.I 35060 q108
125 q10
q
6
178878Nm
y 0.245
= Bending moment at x metres from each support
Page 250 of 429
W
= q x 178878
2
41760
or , q x 178878
2
or x 0.86464 m
Hence leaving 0.86464 m from each support, for the
middle 5 - 2×0.86464 = 3.27 m the cover plate should be
provided.
t.in
Question: A beam of rectangular cross-section 50 mm wide and 100 mm deep is simply
supported over a span of 1500 mm. It carries a concentrated load of 50 kN, 500
mm from the left support.
Calculate: (i) The maximum tensile stress in the beam and indicate where it occurs:
(ii) The vertical deflection of the beam at a point 500 mm from the right
po
support. E for the material of the beam = 2 × 105 MPa.
Answer: Taking moment about L
RR q1500 50 q 500
or , RR 16.667 kN gs
or , RL RR 50
= RL 50 16.667=33.333 kN
Take a section from right R,
blo
x-x at a distance x.
Bending moment (Mx ) RR .x
.
tas
Therefore maximum bending moment will occur at 'c' Mmax=16.667×1 KNm

(i) Moment of Inertia of beam cross-section
bh3 0.050q (0.100)3 4

(I ) m = 4.1667×106 m 4
12 12
lda
Applying bending equation

0.001¬
M ı E My
16.67q103
q 2 ®

or, ı max N / m 2 200MPa
I y S I 4.1667 q106
vi
It will occure where M is maximum at point 'C'

(ii) Macaulay's method for determing the deflection
Ci
of the beam will be convenient as there is point load.

d2y
M x EI 33.333q x 50q ( x 0.5)
dx 2
Page 251 of 429
Integrate both side we get
d2 y x 2 50
EI 2
33.333q ( x 0.5)2 c1 x c2
dx 2 2
at x=0, y=0 gives c2 0
at x=1.5, y=0 gives
0=5.556×(1.5)3 8.333q13 c1 q1.5
or , c1 6.945
= EIy 5.556q x 3 8.333( x 0.5)3 6.945q1 2.43
t.in
2.43
or , y m = -2.9167 mm[downward so -ive]
(2×10 q10 )q (4.1667q106 )
5 6

Question: If the beam cross-section is rectangular having a width of 75 mm, determine
po
the required depth such that maximum bending stress induced in the beam
does not exceed 40 MN/m2
Answer: Given: b =75 mm =0·075 m, V max =40 MN/m2
Depth of the beam, d: Figure below shows a rectangular section of width b = 0·075 m
gs
and depth d metres. The bending is considered to take place about the horizontal
neutral axis N.A. shown in the figure. The maximum bending stress occurs at the outer
d
fibres of the rectangular section at a distance above or below the neutral axis. Any
2
blo
My
fibre at a distance y from N.A. is subjected to a bending stress, V , where I
I
bd3
denotes the second moment of area of the rectangular section about the N.A. i.e. .
12
d
At the outer fibres, y = , the maximum bending stress there becomes
.
2
tas
vi lda
§d·
Mu ¨ ¸
©2¹ M
V max i
bd3 bd2
Ci
12 6
bd2
or M V max . (ii)
6
For the condition of maximum strength i.e. maximum moment M, the product bd2 must
be a maximum, since V max is constant for a given material. To maximize the quantity
bd2 we realise that it must be expressed in terms of one independent variable, say, b,
and we may do this from the right angle triangle relationship.
Page 252 of 429
2 2 2
b d D
2
or d D2 b 2
Multiplying both sides by b, we get bd2 bD2 b3
To maximize bd2 we take the first derivative of expression with respect to b and set it
equal to zero, as follows:
d d
db

bd2 db

bD2 b3 D2 3b2 b2 d2 3b2 d2 2b2 0
Solving, we have, depth d 2 b ...(iii)

This is the desired radio in order that the beam will carry a maximum moment M.
It is to be noted that the expression appearing in the denominator of the right side of
t.in
bd2
eqn. (i) i. e. is the section modulus (Z) of a rectangular bar. Thus, it follows; the
6
section modulus is actually the quantity to be maximized for greatest strength of the
beam.
Using the relation (iii), we have
d= 2 x 0·075 = 0·0106 m
po
bd2
Now, M = V max x Z = V max x
6
Substituting the values, we get
2
0.075 u 0.106 gs
M = 40 × = 0.005618 MNm
6
M 0.005618
V max 40MN / m2
Z 0.075 u 0.106 2 / 6
blo
Hence, the required depth d = 0·106 m = 106 mm
.
tas
vi lda
Ci
Page 253 of 429
7. Shear Stress in Beam

1. Shear stress in bending ( W )
vQ
W =
t.in
Ib
dM
Where, V = Shear force =
dx
c1
Q = Statical moment = ³ ydA
po
y1
I = Moment of inertia
b = Width of beam c/s.
2. Statical Moment (Q)

gs
c1
blo
Q= ³ ydA = Shaded Area × distance of the centroid of the shaded area from the neutral axis of
y1
the c/s.
.
3. Variation of shear stress

tas
Section Diagram Position of W max

W max
Rectangular N.A 3V
W max =
lda
2A
W max 1.5W mean
W NA
vi
Circular N.A
4
W max W mean
3
Ci
Page 254 of 429
Chapter-7 Shear Stress in Beam S K Mondal’s
Triangular h W max 1.5W mean
from N.A
6
W NA = 1.33 W mean
Trapezoidal h
from N.A
6
Section Diagram W max
t.in
Uni form In Flange,
I-Section V ª 2 h12 º
( W max ) W max y h1 h
1
2 8I ¬ ¼
W max y o
po
h
1 2
In Web
v
W max y ªb(h12 h12 ) th12 º
o
8It ¬ ¼
gs 1
vb 2
W m im y h1 ª h h12 º
8 It ¬ ¼
blo
1
2
4. Variation of shear stress for some more section [Asked in different examinations]
Non uniform I-Section Diagonally placed square section
.
tas
lda
L-section Hollow circle

vi
Ci
T-section Cross
Page 255 of 429
5. Rectangular section
3V
x Maximum shear stress for rectangular beam: W max =
t.in
2A
x For this, A is the area of the entire cross section
x Maximum shear occurs at the neutral axis
x Shear is zero at the top and bottom of beam
po
6. Shear stress in beams of thin walled profile section.
x Shear stress at any point in the wall distance "s" from the free edge
gs
A
Shearing occurs here
blo
O
B
.
Vx
tas
s
Vx
W ³ ydA
It o
where Vx Shear force

lda
W = Thickness of the section

I = Moment of inrertia about NA
x Shear Flow (q)

vi
s
Vx
Wt
I NA ³o
q = ydA
Ci
x Shear Force (F)
Page 256 of 429
F= ³ qds
t.in
x Shear Centre (e)
Point of application of shear stress resultant
po
gs
. blo
tas
vi lda
Ci
Page 257 of 429
Shear Stress Variation

GATE-1. The transverse shear stress acting
in a beam of rectangular cross-
t.in
section, subjected to a transverse
shear load, is:
(a) Variable with maximum at the
bottom of the beam
(b) Variable with maximum at the
top of the beam
po
(c) Uniform
(d) Variable with maximum on the
neutral axis
GATE-1. Ans (d) W max

3
W mean
gs [IES-1995, GATE-2008]
2
blo
GATE-2. The ratio of average shear stress to the maximum shear stress in a beam with a
square cross-section is: [GATE-1994, 1998]
2 3
(a) 1 (b) (c) (d) 2
3 2
GATE-2. Ans. (b)
3
.
W max W mean
tas
2
lda

vi

IES-1. At a section of a beam, shear force is F with zero BM. The cross-section is
square with side a. Point A lies on neutral axis and point B is mid way between
Ci
neutral axis and top edge, i.e. at distance a/4 above the neutral axis. If U A and
U B denote shear stresses at points A and B, then what is the value of U A / U B?
[IES-2005]
(a) 0 (b) ¾ (c) 4/3 (d) None of above
a § a2 · 3 V 2
V u ¨ y2 ¸ .a
VAy 2© 4 ¹ 3 V 2 WA 2 a3 4
IES-1. Ans. (c) W
Ib a4 2 a3
a
4y 2
or
W B 3 V °§ 2 2
½ 3
ua § a · ·°
12 . 3 . ®¨ a 4 ¨ ¸ ¸ ¾
Page 258 of 429 2 a °¯© ¨ © 4 ¹ ¸¹ °¿
IES-2. A wooden beam of rectangular cross-section 10 cm deep by 5 cm wide carries

maximum shear force of 2000 kg. Shear stress at neutral axis of the beam
section is: [IES-1997]
(a) Zero (b) 40 kgf/cm2 (c) 60 kgf/cm2 (d) 80 kgf/cm2
3 F 3 2000
IES-2. Ans. (c) Shear stress at neutral axis = u u 60 kg/cm 2
2 bd 2 10 u 5
IES-3. In case of a beam of circular cross-section subjected to transverse loading, the

maximum shear stress developed in the beam is greater than the average shear
stress by: [IES-2006; 2008]
t.in
(a) 50% (b) 33% (c) 25% (d) 10%
IES-3. Ans. (b) In the case of beams with circular cross-section, the ratio of the maximum shear
stress to average shear stress 4:3
po
gs
IES-4. What is the nature of distribution of shear stress in a rectangular beam?
[IES-1993, 2004; 2008]
(a) Linear (b) Parabolic (c) Hyperbolic (d) Elliptic
blo
IES-4. Ans. (b)
.
tas
V § h2 2·
W ¨ y1 ¸ indicating a parabolic distribution of shear stress across the cross-
4I © 4 ¹
lda
section.
IES-5. Which one of the following statements is correct? [IES 2007]

When a rectangular section beam is loaded transversely along the length, shear
stress develops on
vi
(a) Top fibre of rectangular beam (b) Middle fibre of rectangular beam
(c) Bottom fibre of rectangular beam (d) Every horizontal plane
IES-5. Ans. (b)
Ci
IES-6. A beam having rectangular cross-section is subjected to an external loading.

Page 259 due
The average shear stress developed of 429to the external loading at a particular
cross-section is t avg . What is the maximum shear stress developed at the same
cross-section due to the same loading? [IES-2009]
1 3
(a) tavg (b) tavg (c) tavg (d) 2 tavg
2 2
IES-6. Ans. (c)
t.in
Shear stress in a rectangular Shear stress in a circular beam, the
po
beam, maximum shear stress, maximum shear stress,
3F 4F 4
Wmax 1.5 W(average) Wmax W(average)
2b. h S 3
3 u d2
gs 4
IES-7. The transverse shear stress

acting in a beam of rectangular
cross-section, subjected to a
blo
transverse shear load, is:
(a) Variable with maximum at the
bottom of the beam
(b) Variable with maximum at the
top of the beam
.
(c) Uniform
tas
(d) Variable with maximum on the

neutral axis
[IES-1995, GATE-2008]
3
lda
IES-7. Ans (d) W max W mean

2
IES-8.
vi
Ci
A cantilever is loaded by a concentrated load P at the free end as shown. The

shear stress in the element LMNOPQRS is under consideration. Which of the
following figures represents the shear stress directions in the cantilever?
[IES-2002]
Page 260 of 429
t.in
IES-8. Ans. (d)
IES-9. In I-Section of a beam subjected to transverse shear force, the maximum shear
stress is developed. [IES- 2008]
po
(a) At the centre of the web (b) At the top edge of the top flange
(c) At the bottom edge of the top flange (d) None of the above
IES-9. Ans. (a)
IES-10. The given figure (allgs

dimensions are in mm) shows
an I-Section of the beam. The
shear stress at point P (very
close to the bottom of the
blo
flange) is 12 MPa. The stress at
point Q in the web (very close
to the flange) is:
(a) Indeterminable due to
incomplete data
(b) 60MPa
.
(c) 18 MPa
(d) 12 MPa
tas
[IES-2001]
IES-10. Ans. (b)
IES-11. Assertion (A): In an I-Section beam subjected to concentrated loads, the
shearing force at any section of the beam is resisted mainly by the web portion.
lda
Reason (R): Average value of the shearing stress in the web is equal to the
value of shearing stress in the flange. [IES-1995]
vi
IES-11. Ans. (c)
Shear stress distribution for different section

Ci
IES-12. The shear stress distribution over a beam cross-

section is shown in the figure above. The beam is of
(a) Equal flange I-Section
(b) Unequal flange I-Section
(c) Circular cross-section
(d) T-section
Page 261 of 429 [IES-2003]

IES-12. Ans. (b)
t.in
IAS-1. Consider the following statements: [IAS-2007]
Two beams of identical cross-section but of different materials carry same
bending moment at a particular section, then
po
1. The maximum bending stress at that section in the two beams will be
same.
2. The maximum shearing stress at that section in the two beams will be
same.
3. Maximum bending stress at that section will depend upon the elastic
gs
modulus of the beam material.
4. Curvature of the beam having greater value of E will be larger.
(a) 1 and 2 only (b) 1, 3 and 4 (c) 1, 2 and 3 (d) 2, 3 and 4
blo
My VAy
IAS-1. Ans. (a) Bending stress G = and shear stress ( W ) = both of them does not depends
I Ib
on material of beam.
IAS-2. In a loaded beam under bending [IAS-2003]

.
(a) Both the maximum normal and the maximum shear stresses occur at the skin
fibres
tas
(b) Both the maximum normal and the maximum shear stresses occur the neutral axis
(c) The maximum normal stress occurs at the skin fibres while the maximum shear
stress occurs at the neutral axis
(d) The maximum normal stress occurs at the neutral axis while the maximum shear
stress occurs at the skin fibres
lda
IAS-2. Ans. (c)

vi
Ci
V § h2 2·
W ¨ y1 ¸ indicating a parabolic distribution of shear stress across the cross-
4I © 4 ¹
section.
Shear stress distribution for different section

IAS-3. Page 262 of 429 diagram for a square beam with a
Select the correct shear stress distribution
diagonal in a vertical position: [IAS-2002]
t.in
IAS-3. Ans. (d)
IAS-4. The distribution of shear stress of a beam is shown in the given figure. The
cross-section of the beam is: [IAS-2000]
po
gs
IAS-4. Ans. (b)
IAS-5. A channel-section of the beam shown in the given figure carries a uniformly
blo
distributed load. [IAS-2000]
.
tas
vi lda
Ci
Assertion (A): The line of action of the load passes through the centroid of the
cross-section. The beam twists besides bending.
Reason (R): Twisting occurs since the line of action of the load does not pass
through the web of the beam.
(a) Both A and R are individually true
Page 263 and
of 429R is the correct explanation of A
IAS-5. Ans. (c) Twisting occurs since the line of action of the load does not pass through the shear.
t.in
po
gs
. blo
tas
vi lda
Ci
Page 264 of 429

Q. (i)A cantilever of circular solid cross-section is fixed at one end and carries a
concentrated load P at the free end. The diameter at the free end is 200 mm
and increases uniformly to 400 mm at the fixed end over a length of 2 m. At
what distance from the free end will the bending stresses in the cantilever be
maximum? Also calculate the value of the maximum bending stress if the
concentrated load P = 30 kN [15-Marks]
t.in
V M
Ans. We have .... (i)
y I
Taking distance x from the free end we have
M = 30x kN.m = 30x × 103 N.m
x
y = 100 + 200 100
po
2
100 50x mm
Sd4
and I =
64 gs
Let d be the diameter at x from free end.
4
ª
S «200
400 200 x º
»
¬ 2 ¼
blo
64
4
S 200 100x
mm 4
64
From equation (i), we have
V
.
100 50x u 103

tas
30x u 103
S
200 100x 4 u 1012
64
960x
200 100x 3 u 1012
lda
? V ...... (ii)
S
960x
200 100x 3 u 1012
S
dV
For max V, 0
dx
vi
1012 u 960
?
S
ª x 3100 200 100x 4 1. 200 100x 3 º
Ci
0
¬« ¼»
- 300x + 200 + 100x = 0
x = 1m
Page 265 of 429
30kN
200
400
2000mm
(2m)
t.in
Hence maximum bending stress occurs at the midway and from equation (ii), maximum
bending stress
960
V 1 200 100 3 u 1012
S
960 u 1012
3
11.32 MPa
po
S u 300

Question: A timber beam 15 cm wide and 20 cm deep carries uniformly distributed load
gs
over a span of 4 m and is simply supported.
If the permissible stresses are 30 N/mm2 longitudinally and 3 N/mm2
transverse shear, calculate the maximum load which can be carried by the
timber beam.
ωN
blo
m
N/A 20cm
.
tas
3
bh3 0.15 u 0.20
Answer: Moment of inertia (I) 104 m4
12 12
20
Distance of neutral axis from the top surface y 10 cm 0.1 m
2
lda
M V My
We know that or V
I y I
Where maximum bending moment due to uniformly
Z" 2 Z u 42
distributed load in simply supported beam ( M ) 2Z
8 8
vi
Considering longitudinal stress
30 u 106
2Z u 0.1
10 4
Ci
or, Z 15 kN/m¬
Page 266 of 429
Now consideng Shear
Z.L Z.4
Maximum shear force 2Z
2 2
2Z
Therefore average shear stress (W mean ) 66.67 Z
0.15 u 0.2
For rectangular cross-section
3 3
Maximum shear stress(W max ) .Wu 66.67Z 100 Z
2 2
Now 3 u 106 100Z ; Z 30 kN/m
So maximum load carring capacity of the beam = 15 kN/m (without fail).
t.in
po
gs
. blo
tas
vi lda
Ci
Page 267 of 429
8. Fixed and Continuous Beam

What is a beam?
A (usually) horizontal structural member that is subjected to a load that tends to bend it.
t.in
Types of Beams
po
Simply supported beam Cantilever beam
gs
Simply Supported Beams Cantilever Beam
blo
Single Overhang Beam

Continuous Beam
.
tas
Single Overhang Beam with internal hinge

Double Overhang Beam
lda
Fixed Beam Continuous beam
Continuous beams
vi
Beams placed on more than 2 supports are called continuous beams. Continuous beams are used
when the span of the beam is very large, deflection under each rigid support will be equal zero.
Ci
Analysis of Continuous Beams

(Using 3-moment equation)
Stability of structure
If the equilibrium and geometry of structure is maintained under the action of forces than the
Page 268 of 429
structure is said to be stable.
Chapter-8 Fixed and Continuous Beam Page-267
External stability of the structure is provided by the reaction at the supports. Internal stability is
provided by proper design and geometry of the member of the structure.
Statically determinate and indeterminate structures
Beams for which reaction forces and internal forces can be found out from static equilibrium
equations alone are called statically determinate beam.
t.in
Example:
P
po
gs RB
RA
blo
X i 0, Yi 0 and M 0
i is sufficient to calculate R A & RB .
Beams for which reaction forces and internal forces cannot be found out from static equilibrium
equations alone are called statically indeterminate beam. This type of beam requires deformation
.
equation in addition to static equilibrium equations to solve for unknown forces.

tas
Example:
P P
lda
RA RB Rc RD
vi
Ci
Page 269 of 429
t.in
po
Advantages of fixed ends or fixed supports
x Slope at the ends is zero. gs
x Fixed beams are stiffer, stronger and more stable than SSB.
x In case of fixed beams, fixed end moments will reduce the BM in each section.
x The maximum deflection is reduced.
blo
Bending moment diagram for fixed beam

Example:
.
tas
vi lda
Ci
BMD for Continuous beams

BMD for continuous beams can be obtained by superimposing the fixed end moments diagram over
the free bending moment diagram.
Page 270 of 429
t.in
po
Three - moment Equation for continuous beams OR
Clapeyron’s Three Moment Equation gs
. blo
tas
vi lda
Ci
Page 271 of 429
Overhanging Beam
t.in
IES-1. An overhanging beam ABC is supported at points A and B, as shown in the
above figure. Find the maximum bending moment and the point where it
occurs. [IES-2009]
(a) 6 kN-m at the right support

(b) 6 kN-m at the left support
po
(c) 4.5 kN-m at the right support
(d) 4.5 kN-m at the midpoint
between the supports
IES-1. Ans. (a) Taking moment about A

gs
VB u 2 = 2 u 1 6 u 3
blo
2VB 2 18
VB 10 kN
VA VB 26 8kN
? VA 8 10 2 kN
.
? Maximum Bending Moment =

tas
6 kN-m at the right support
IES-2. A beam of length 4 L is simply supported on two supports with equal overhangs
of L on either sides and carries three equal loads, one each at free ends and the
lda
third at the mid-span. Which one of the following diagrams represents correct
distribution of shearing force on the beam? [IES-2004]
vi
Ci
IES-2. Ans. (d)
Page 272 of 429
t.in
They use opposite sign conversions but for correct sign remember S.F & B.M of cantilever
is (-) ive.
po
IES-3. A horizontal beam carrying
uniformly distributed load is
supported with equal
overhangs as shown in the
given figure
(a) 3/4 (b) 2/3

gs
The resultant bending moment at the mid-span shall be zero if a/b is: [IES-2001]
(c) 1/2 (d) 1/3
IES-3. Ans. (c)
blo
Overhanging Beam
.
tas
IAS-1.
lda
If the beam shown in the given figure is to have zero bending moment at its
middle point, the overhang x should be: [IAS-2000]
(a) wl 2 / 4 P (b) wl 2 / 6 P (c) wl 2 / 8P (d) wl 2 /12 P
vi
wl
IAS-1. Ans. (c) Rc RD P
2
wl l l l· wl 2
Ci
§
Bending moment at mid point (M) = u RD u P ¨ x ¸ 0 gives x
2 4 2 © 2¹ 8P
IAS-2. A beam carrying a uniformly distributed load rests on two supports 'b' apart
with equal overhangs 'a' at each end. The ratio b/a for zero bending moment at
mid-span is: [IAS-1997]
1 3
(a) (b) 1 (c) (d) 2
2 Page 273 of 429 2
IAS-2. Ans. (d)
(i) By similarity in the B.M diagram a must be b/2

Z ª b22º
t.in
(ii) By formula M « a » 0 gives a = b/2
2¬4 ¼
IAS-3. A beam carries a uniformly distributed load and is supported with two equal
overhangs as shown in figure 'A'. Which one of the following correctly shows
the bending moment diagram of the beam? [IAS 1994]
po
gs
. blo
tas
IAS-3. Ans. (a)

vi lda
Ci
Page 274 of 429

Question: What are statically determinate and in determinate beams? Illustrate each
case through examples.
Answer: Beams for which reaction forces and internal forces can be found out from static
equilibrium equations alone are called statically determinate beam.
Example:
P
t.in
RB
po
RA
X i 0, Yi 0 and M 0 i is sufficient

to calculate R A & RB. gs
Beams for which reaction forces and internal forces cannot be found out from static
equilibrium equations alone are called statically indeterminate beam. This type of
beam requires deformation equation in addition to static equilibrium equations to solve
for unknown forces.
blo
Example:
P P
.
RA RB Rc RD
tas
vi lda
Ci
Page 275 of 429
9. Torsion

• In machinery, the general term “shaft” refers to a member, usually of circular cross-
section, which supports gears, sprockets, wheels, rotors, etc., and which is subjected to
torsion and to transverse or axial loads acting singly or in combination.
t.in
• An “axle” is a rotating/non-rotating member that supports wheels, pulleys,… and
carries no torque.
• A “spindle” is a short shaft. Terms such as lineshaft, headshaft, stub shaft, transmission
po
shaft, countershaft, and flexible shaft are names associated with special usage.
Torsion of circular shafts gs

1. Equation for shafts subjected to torsion "T"
blo
τ T Gθ
= = Torsion Equation
R J L
Where J = Polar moment of inertia
τ = Shear stress induced due to torsion T.

.
G = Modulus of rigidity
tas
θ = Angular deflection of shaft

R, L = Shaft radius & length respectively
Assumptions
lda
• The bar is acted upon by a pure torque.
• The section under consideration is remote from the point of application of the load and from
a change in diameter.
vi
• Adjacent cross sections originally plane and parallel remain plane and parallel after
twisting, and any radial line remains straight.

Ci
• The material obeys Hooke’s law
• Cross-sections rotate as if rigid, i.e. every diameter rotates through the same angle
Page 276 of 429
Chapter-9 Torsion S K Mondal’s
t.in
2. Polar moment of inertia
As stated above, the polar second moment of area, J is defined as
z R
po
J = 2π r 3 dr
0
For a solid shaft J = 2π

LM r OP
4 R
=
2 π R 4 π D4
= (6)
N4Q 0
4
gs
32
For a hollow shaft of internal radius r:

blo
Lr O
z
R
4
π π
J =
0
R
2π r dr =
3
2π M P
N4Q
=
2
( R4 − r 4 ) =
32
cD 4
−d4 h (7)
r
Where D is the external and d is the internal diameter.

.
tas
π d4
• Solid shaft “J” =
32
π
• Hollow shaft, "J” = (do 4 − di 4 )
32
lda
3. The polar section modulus

Zp= J / c, where c = r = D/2
vi
• For a solid circular cross-section, Zp = π D3 / 16

• For a hollow circular cross-section, Zp = π (Do4 - Di4 ) / (16Do)
• Then, τ max = T / Zp
Ci
• If design shears stress, τ d is known, required polar section modulus can be calculated from:
Zp = T / τ d
4. Power Transmission (P)

2π NT Page 277 of 429
• P (in Watt ) =
60
2π NT
• P (in hp) = (1 hp = 75 Kgm/sec).
4500
[Where N = rpm; T = Torque in N-m.]
5. Safe diameter of Shaft (d)

• Stiffness consideration
T Gθ
=
J L
• Shear Stress consideration
t.in
T τ
=
J R
We take higher value of diameter of both cases above for overall safety if other parameters are given.
po
6. In twisting
16T
• Solid shaft, τ max =
π d3
• Hollow shaft, τ max =

16Td o
π (d o 4 − di 4 )
gs
TL
Diameter of a shaft to have a maximum deflection " α "
blo
• d = 4.9 × 4
Gα
[Where T in N-mm, L in mm, G in N/mm2]
7. Comparison of solid and hollow shaft

.
• A Hollow shaft will transmit a greater torque than a solid shaft of the same weight & same
tas
material because the average shear stress in the hollow shaft is smaller than the average
shear stress in the solid shaft
⎡ If solid shaft dia = D ⎤

(τ max )holloow shaft 16
lda
• = ⎢ ⎥
(τ max ) solid shaft 15 ⎢ Hollow shaft, d o = D, di = D ⎥
⎣ 2⎦
• Strength comparison (same weight, material, length and τ max )
n2 + 1 External diameter of hollow shaft

vi
Th
= Where, n= [ONGC-2005]
Ts n n 2 − 1 Internal diameter of hollow shaft
• Weight comparison (same Torque, material, length and τ max )

Ci
Wh
=
(
n 2 − 1 n 2/3 ) Where, n=
External diameter of hollow shaft
[WBPSC-2003]
( )
2/3
Ws n4 − 1 Internal diameter of hollow shaft
• Strain energy comparison (same weight, material, length and τ max )
Uh n 2 + 1 1
= = 1+ 2
Us n 2
n Page 278 of 429
8. Shaft in series
θ = θ1 + θ 2
Torque (T) is same in all section
Electrical analogy gives torque(T) = Current (I)
9. Shaft in parallel
θ1 = θ 2 and T = T1 + T2
t.in
Electrical analogy gives torque(T) = Current (I)
10. Combined Bending and Torsion
po
• In most practical transmission situations shafts which carry torque are also subjected to
bending, if only by virtue of the self-weight of the gears they carry. Many other practical
applications occur where bending and torsion arise simultaneously so that this type of
gs
loading represents one of the major sources of complex stress situations.
•
blo
In the case of shafts, bending gives rise to tensile stress on one surface and compressive
stress on the opposite surface while torsion gives rise to pure shear throughout the shaft.
• For shafts subjected to the simultaneous application of a bending moment M and torque T
the principal stresses set up in the shaft can be shown to be equal to those produced by an
.
tas
equivalent bending moment, of a certain value Me acting alone.
• Figure
vi lda
• Maximum direct stress ( σ x ) & Shear stress ( (τ xy ) in element A

Ci
32 M P
σx = +
πd3 A
16T
τ xy = 3
πd
• Principal normal stresses ( σ 1,2 ) & Maximum

Page 279shearing
of 429 stress ( τ max )
2
σx ⎛σ ⎞
σ 1,2 = ± ⎜ x ⎟ + τ xy2
2 ⎝ 2 ⎠
2
σ1 − σ 2 ⎛σ ⎞
τ max = = ± ⎜ x ⎟ + (τ xy ) 2
2 ⎝ 2 ⎠
• Maximum Principal Stress ( σ max ) & Maximum shear stress ( τ max )
16 ⎡
σ max = M + M 2 +T2 ⎤
πd3 ⎣ ⎦
t.in
16
τ max = M 2 +T2
πd 3
• Location of Principal plane ( θ )
po
1 ⎛T ⎞
θ = tan −1 ⎜ ⎟
2 ⎝M ⎠
• Equivalent bending moment (Me) & Equivalent torsion (Te).
⎡M + M 2 +T2 ⎤
gs
Me = ⎢ ⎥
⎢⎣ 2 ⎥⎦
blo
Te = M 2 + T 2
• Important Note
o Uses of the formulas are limited to cases in which both M & T are known. Under any
.
other condition Mohr’s circle is used.

tas
• Safe diameter of shaft (d) on the basis of an allowable working stress.
32M e
o σw in tension , d = 3
πσ w
lda
16Te
o τw in shear , d= 3
πτ w
vi
11. Shaft subjected to twisting moment only

• Figure
Ci
Page 280 of 429
• Normal force ( Fn ) & Tangential for ( Ft ) on inclined plane AB
Fn = −τ × [ BC sin θ + AC cosθ ]
Ft = τ × [ BC cosθ - AC sinθ ]
• Normal stress ( σ n ) & Tangential stress (shear stress) ( σ t ) on inclined plane AB.
σn = −τ sin 2θ
σt = τ cos 2θ
t.in
• Maximum normal & shear stress on AB
θ ( σ n )max τ max
0 0 +τ
45° –τ 0
po
90 0 –τ
135 +τ 0
• Important Note
gs
• Principal stresses at a point on the surface of the shaft = + τ , - τ , 0
i.e σ 1,2 = ± τ sin2θ
blo
• Principal strains
τ τ
∈1 = (1 + μ ); ∈2 = − (1 + μ ); ∈3 = 0
E E
.
• Volumetric strain,
tas
∈v =∈1 + ∈2 + ∈3 = 0
• No change in volume for a shaft subjected to pure torque.

lda
12. Torsional Stresses in Non-Circular Cross-section Members

• There are some applications in machinery for non-circular cross-section members and shafts
where a regular polygonal cross-section is useful in transmitting torque to a gear or pulley
vi
that can have an axial change in position. Because no key or keyway is needed, the
possibility of a lost key is avoided.
Ci
• Saint Venant (1855) showed that τ max in a rectangular b × c section bar occurs in the middle
of the longest side b and is of magnitude formula
T T ⎛ 1.8 ⎞
τ max = = 2 ⎜
3+
α bc 2
bc ⎝ b / c ⎟⎠
Where b is the longer side and α factor that is function of the ratio b/c.
The angle of twist is given by Page 281 of 429
Tl
θ =
β bc3G
Where β is a function of the ratio b/c
Shear stress distribution in different cross-section
t.in
Rectangular c/s Elliptical c/s Triangular c/s
13. Torsion of thin walled tube
po
• For a thin walled tube
T
Shear stress, τ =
2 A0t
τ sL
gs
Angle of twist, φ=
2 AO G
blo
[Where S = length of mean centre line, AO = Area enclosed by mean centre line]
• Special Cases
o For circular c/s
J = 2π r 3t ; Ao = π r 2 ; S = 2π r
.
tas
[r = radius of mean Centre line and t = wall thickness]

T T .r T
∴ τ= = =
2π r t
2
J 2 Aot
TL τL TL
lda
ϕ= = =
GJ Ao JG 2π r 3tG
o For square c/s of length of each side ‘b’ and thickness ‘t’
A0 = b 2
vi
S =4b
o For elliptical c/s ‘a’ and ‘b’ are the half axis lengths.
A0 = π ab
Ci
⎡3 ⎤
S ≈ π ⎢ (a + b) − ab ⎥
⎣2 ⎦
Page 282 of 429
Torsion Equation
GATE-1. A solid circular shaft of 60 mm diameter transmits a torque of 1600 N.m. The
value of maximum shear stress developed is: [GATE-2004]
t.in
(a) 37.72 MPa (b) 47.72 MPa (c) 57.72 MPa (d) 67.72 MPa
16T
GATE-1. Ans. (a) τ =
π d3
GATE-2. Maximum shear stress developed on the surface of a solid circular shaft under
pure torsion is 240 MPa. If the shaft diameter is doubled then the maximum
po
shear stress developed corresponding to the same torque will be: [GATE-2003]
16T 16T 16T 240
GATE-2. Ans. (c) τ = , 240 = if diameter doubled d′ = 2d, then τ ′ = = = 30MPa
π d3 π d3 π ( 2d )
3
gs 8
GATE-3. A steel shaft 'A' of diameter 'd' and length 'l' is subjected to a torque ‘T’ Another
shaft 'B' made of aluminium of the same diameter 'd' and length 0.5l is also
subjected to the same torque 'T'. The shear modulus of steel is 2.5 times the
blo
shear modulus of aluminium. The shear stress in the steel shaft is 100 MPa. The
shear stress in the aluminium shaft, in MPa, is: [GATE-2000]
(a) 40 (b) 50 (c) 100 (d) 250
16T
GATE-3. Ans. (c) τ = as T & d both are same τ is same
π d3
.
tas
GATE-4. For a circular shaft of diameter d subjected to torque T, the maximum value of
the shear stress is: [GATE-2006]
64T 32T 16T 8T
(a) (b) (c) (d)
πd3 πd3 πd3 πd3
GATE-4. Ans. (c)
lda
Power Transmitted by Shaft

GATE-5. The diameter of shaft A is twice the diameter or shaft B and both are made of
the same material. Assuming both the shafts to rotate at the same speed, the
maximum power transmitted by B is: [IES-2001; GATE-1994]
vi
(a) The same as that of A (b) Half of A (c) 1/8 of A

th (d) 1/4th of A
2π N 16T τπ d3
GATE-5. Ans. (c) Power, P = T × and τ = or T =
60 π d3 16
Ci
τπ d3 2π N
or P = × or P α d3
16 60
Combined Bending and Torsion

GATE-6. A solid shaft can resist a bending moment of 3.0 kNm and a twisting moment of
4.0 kNm together, then the maximum torque that can be applied is: [GATE-1996]
(a) 7.0 kNm (b) 3.5 kNm
Page 283 of 429 (c)4.5 kNm (d) 5.0 kNm
GATE-6. Ans. (d) Equivalent torque ( Te ) = M2 + T 2 = 32 + 42 = 5kNm
Comparison of Solid and Hollow Shafts
GATE-7. The outside diameter of a hollow shaft is twice its inside diameter. The ratio of
its torque carrying capacity to that of a solid shaft of the same material and the
same outside diameter is: [GATE-1993; IES-2001]
15 3 1 1
(a) (b) (c) (d)
16 4 2 16
T Gθ τ τJ
GATE-7. Ans. (a) = = or T = if τ is const. T α J
J L R R
π ⎡ ⎛D⎞ ⎤
4
⎢D 4
− ⎜2⎟ ⎥
Th J 32 ⎣⎢ ⎝ ⎠ ⎥⎦ 15
= h = =
t.in
T J π 4 16
D
32
Shafts in Series
GATE-8. A torque of 10 Nm is transmitted through a stepped shaft as shown in figure.
po
The torsional stiffness of individual sections of lengths MN, NO and OP are 20
Nm/rad, 30 Nm/rad and 60 Nm/rad respectively. The angular deflection between
the ends M and P of the shaft is: [GATE-2004]
gs
blo
(a) 0.5 rad (b) 1.0 rad (c) 5.0 rad (d) 10.0 rad
TL
GATE-8. Ans. (b) We know that θ = or T = k.θ [let k = tortional stiffness]
GJ
T T T 10 10 10
∴θ = θMN + θNO + θ OP = MN + NO + OP = + + = 1.0 rad
k MN k NO k OP 20 30 60
.
Shafts in Parallel
tas
GATE-9. The two shafts AB and BC, of equal

length and diameters d and 2d, are
made of the same material. They are
joined at B through a shaft coupling,
while the ends A and C are built-in
lda
(cantilevered). A twisting moment T is

applied to the coupling. If TA and TC
represent the twisting moments at the
ends A and C, respectively, then [GATE-2005]
(a) TC = TA (b) TC =8 TA (c) TC =16 TA (d) TA=16 TC
vi
TL TL T TC T
GATE-9. Ans. (c) θ AB = θBC or A A = C C or A4 = or TA = C
πd π ( 2d)
4
GA JA GC JC 16
32 32
Ci
Torsion Equation
IES-1. Consider the following statements: [IES- 2008]
Maximum shear stress induced in Page
a power transmitting shaft is:
284 of 429
1. Directly proportional to torque being transmitted.
2. Inversely proportional to the cube of its diameter.
3. Directly proportional to its polar moment of inertia.
(a) 1, 2 and 3 (b) 1 and 3 only (c) 2 and 3 only (d) 1 and 2 only
T × r 16T
IES-1. Ans. (d) τ = =
J π d3
IES-2. A solid shaft transmits a torque T. The allowable shearing stress is τ . What is
the diameter of the shaft? [IES-2008]
16T 32T 16T T
(a) 3 (b) 3 (c) 3 (d) 3
πτ πτ τ τ
IES-2. Ans. (a)
t.in
IES-3. Maximum shear stress developed on the surface of a solid circular shaft under
pure torsion is 240 MPa. If the shaft diameter is doubled, then what is the
maximum shear stress developed corresponding to the same torque? [IES-2009]
16T
IES-3. Ans. (c) Maximum shear stress = = 240 MPa = τ
πd3
po
Maximum shear stress developed when diameter is doubled
16τ 1 ⎛ 16T ⎞ τ 240
= = = = = 30MPa
π ( 2d)
3
8 ⎜⎝ πd3 ⎟⎠ 8 8
IES-4.
gs
The diameter of a shaft is increased from 30 mm to 60 mm, all other conditions
remaining unchanged. How many times is its torque carrying capacity
increased? [IES-1995; 2004]
(a) 2 times (b) 4 times (c) 8 times (d) 16 times
blo
16T τπ d3
IES-4. Ans. (c) τ = or T = for same material τ = const.
π d3 16
3 3
T2 ⎛ d2 ⎞ ⎛ 60 ⎞
∴ T α d3 or =⎜ ⎟ =⎜ ⎟ =8
T1 ⎝ d1 ⎠ ⎝ 30 ⎠
.
IES-5. A circular shaft subjected to twisting moment results in maximum shear stress
tas
of 60 MPa. Then the maximum compressive stress in the material is: [IES-2003]
IES-5. Ans. (b)
IES-6. Angle of twist of a shaft of diameter ‘d’ is inversely proportional to [IES-2000]

(a) d (b) d2 (c) d3 (d) d4
lda
IES-6. Ans. (d)
IES-7. A solid circular shaft is subjected to pure torsion. The ratio of maximum shear
to maximum normal stress at any point would be: [IES-1999]
(a) 1 : 1 (b) 1: 2 (c) 2: 1 (d) 2: 3
vi
16T 32T
IES-7. Ans. (a) Shear stress = and normal stress =
πd 3
πd3
∴ Ratio of shear stress and normal stress = 1: 2
Ci
IES-8. Assertion (A): In a composite shaft having two concentric shafts of different
materials, the torque shared by each shaft is directly proportional to its polar
moment of inertia. [IES-1999]
Reason (R): In a composite shaft having concentric shafts of different
materials, the angle of twist for each shaft depends upon its polar moment of
inertia.
(c) A is true but R is false Page 285 of 429
IES-8. Ans. (c)
IES-9. A shaft is subjected to torsion as shown. [IES-2002]
Which of the following figures represents the shear stress on the element
LMNOPQRS ?
t.in
po
gs
blo
IES-9. Ans. (d)

IES-10. A round shaft of diameter 'd' and
.
length 'l' fixed at both ends 'A' and

tas
'B' is subjected to a twisting moment

'T’ at 'C', at a distance of 1/4 from A
(see figure). The torsional stresses in
the parts AC and CB will be:
(a) Equal
(b) In the ratio 1:3
lda
(c) In the ratio 3 :1

(d) Indeterminate [IES-1997]
T τ Gθ GRθ 1
IES-10. Ans. (c) = = or τ = ∴τ ∞
J R L L L
vi
Hollow Circular Shafts

IES-11. One-half length of 50 mm diameter steel rod is solid while the remaining half is
hollow having a bore of 25 mm. The rod is subjected to equal and opposite
Ci
torque at its ends. If the maximum shear stress in solid portion is τ or, the
maximum shear stress in the hollow portion is: [IES-2003]
15 4 16
(a) τ (b) τ (c) τ (d) τ
16 3 15
T τ τJ
IES-11. Ans. (d) = or T =
J r r
τJ τ J ⎡ D⎤
or s = h h ; ⎢ rs = rh = ⎥ Page 286 of 429
rs rh ⎣ 2⎦
π
D4
Js 32 1 1 ⎛ 16 ⎞
or τ h = τ × =τ × =τ × =τ × =τ ⎜ ⎟
π
( ⎡ ⎛d⎞ ⎤
) ⎡ ⎛ 25 ⎞ ⎤
4 4
Jh D4 − d 4 ⎝ 15 ⎠
32 ⎢1 − ⎜ ⎟ ⎥ ⎢ 1 − ⎜ ⎟ ⎥
⎣⎢ ⎝ D ⎠ ⎦⎥ ⎣⎢ ⎝ 50 ⎠ ⎦⎥
Power Transmitted by Shaft

IES-12. In power transmission shafts, if the polar moment of inertia of a shaft is
doubled, then what is the torque required to produce the same angle of twist?
[IES-2006]
(a) 1/4 of the original value (b) 1/2 of the original value
t.in
(c) Same as the original value (d) Double the original value
IES-12. Ans. (d)
T Gθ τ T.L
= = or Q = if θ is const. T α J if J is doubled then T is also doubled.
J L R G.J
IES-13. While transmitting the same power by a shaft, if its speed is doubled, what
po
should be its new diameter if the maximum shear stress induced in the shaft
remains same? [IES-2006]
1 1
(a) of the original diameter (b) of the original diameter
2 gs 2
1
(c) 2 of the original diameter (d) 1
of the original diameter
( 2) 3
IES-13. Ans. (d) Power (P) = torque ( T ) × angular speed (ω )

blo
1 T′ ω 1
if P is const.Tα =
if = or T ′ = ( T / 2 )
ω T ω′ 2
16T 16 ( T / 2 ) ⎛ d′ ⎞ 1
σ = 3 = or ⎜ ⎟ = 3
πd π ( d′ )
3
⎝d⎠ 2
.
IES-14. For a power transmission shaft transmitting power P at N rpm, its diameter is
tas
proportional to: [IES-2005]

1/3 1/ 2 2/3
⎛P⎞ ⎛P⎞ ⎛P⎞ ⎛P⎞
(a) ⎜ ⎟ (b) ⎜ ⎟ (c) ⎜ ⎟ (d) ⎜ ⎟
⎝N⎠ ⎝N⎠ ⎝N⎠ ⎝N⎠
2π N 16T τπ d3
IES-14. Ans. (a) Power, P = T × and τ = or T =
lda
60 πd3
16
1/3
τπ d3 2π N 480 P ⎛P⎞
or P = × or d3 = 2 or d α ⎜ ⎟
16 60 π JN ⎝N⎠
IES-15. A shaft can safely transmit 90 kW while rotating at a given speed. If this shaft
vi
is replaced by a shaft of diameter double of the previous one and rotated at

half the speed of the previous, the power that can be transmitted by the new
shaft is: [IES-2002]
(a) 90 kW (b) 180 kW (c) 360 kW (d) 720 kW
Ci
IES-15. Ans. (c)
IES-16. The diameter of shaft A is twice the diameter or shaft B and both are made of
the same material. Assuming both the shafts to rotate at the same speed, the
maximum power transmitted by B is: [IES-2001; GATE-1994]
(a) The same as that of A (b) Half of A (c) 1/8th of A (d) 1/4th of A
2π N 16T τπ d3
IES-16. Ans. (c) Power, P = T × and τ = or T =
60 πd 3
16
Page 287 of 429
τπ d 2π N
3
or P = × or P α d3
16 60
IES-17. When a shaft transmits power through gears, the shaft experiences [IES-1997]
(a) Torsional stresses alone
(b) Bending stresses alone
(c) Constant bending and varying torsional stresses
(d) Varying bending and constant torsional stresses
IES-17. Ans. (d)

IES-18. The equivalent bending moment under combined action of bending moment M
and torque T is: [IES-1996; 2008; IAS-1996]
1⎡
t.in
(a) M2+T2 (b) M + M 2 +T2 ⎤
2 ⎣ ⎦
1 1
(c) [M + T ] (d) ⎡ M + T ⎤
2 2
2 4⎣ ⎦
IES-18. Ans. (b)
po
IES-19. A solid circular shaft is subjected to a bending moment M and twisting moment
T. What is the equivalent twisting moment Te which will produce the same
maximum shear stress as the above combination? [IES-1992; 2007]
(a) M2 + T2 (b) M + T gs (c) M2 +T2 (d) M – T
IES-19. Ans. (c) Te = M2 + T2
IES-20. A shaft is subjected to fluctuating loads for which the normal torque (T) and
blo
bending moment (M) are 1000 N-m and 500 N-m respectively. If the combined
shock and fatigue factor for bending is 1.5 and combined shock and fatigue
factor for torsion is 2, then the equivalent twisting moment for the shaft is:
[IES-1994]
(a) 2000N-m (b) 2050N-m (c) 2100N-m (d) 2136 N-m
.
(1.5 × 500 ) + ( 2 ×1000 )

2 2
IES-20. Ans. (d) Teq = = 2136 Nm
tas
IES-21. A member is subjected to the combined action of bending moment 400 Nm and
torque 300 Nm. What respectively are the equivalent bending moment and
equivalent torque? [IES-1994; 2004]
lda
(a) 450 Nm and 500 Nm (b) 900 Nm and 350 Nm

(c) 900 Nm and 500 Nm (d) 400 Nm and 500 Nm
M + M2 + T 2 400 + 4002 + 3002
IES-21. Ans. (a) Equivalent Bending Moment (Me ) = = = 450N.m
2 2
vi
Equivalent torque ( Te ) = M2 + T 2 = 4002 + 3002 = 500N.m
IES-22. A shaft was initially subjected to bending moment and then was subjected to
Ci
torsion. If the magnitude of bending moment is found to be the same as that of

the torque, then the ratio of maximum bending stress to shear stress would be:
[IES-1993]
(a) 0.25 (b) 0.50 (c) 2.0 (d) 4.0
IES-22. Ans. (c) Use equivalent bending moment formula,
1st case: Equivalent bending moment (Me) = M
0 + 02 + T 2 T
2nd case: Equivalent bending momentPage
(Me)288
= of 429 =
2 2
IES-23. A shaft is subjected to simultaneous action of a torque T, bending moment M
and an axial thrust F. Which one of the following statements is correct for this
situation? [IES-2004]
(a) One extreme end of the vertical diametral fibre is subjected to maximum
compressive stress only
(b) The opposite extreme end of the vertical diametral fibre is subjected to
tensile/compressive stress only
(c) Every point on the surface of the shaft is subjected to maximum shear stress only
(d) Axial longitudinal fibre of the shaft is subjected to compressive stress only
IES-23. Ans. (a)
IES-24. For obtaining the
t.in
maximum shear stress
induced in the shaft
shown in the given
figure, the torque
should be equal to
(a) T (b) Wl + T
po
1
⎡ ⎛ wL ⎞ ⎤
2 2
(c) ⎢(Wl ) + ⎜
2
⎟ ⎥
⎣⎢ ⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎦⎥ gs
1
⎡⎧ wL2 ⎫
2
⎤2
(d) ⎢ ⎨Wl + ⎬ + T 2
⎥
⎢⎣ ⎩ 2 ⎭ ⎥⎦ [IES-1999]
blo
2
wL
IES-24. Ans. (d) Bending Moment, M = Wl +
2
IES-25. Bending moment M and torque is applied on a solid circular shaft. If the
maximum bending stress equals to maximum shear stress developed, them M is
.
equal to: [IES-1992]

tas
T
(a) (b) T (c) 2T (d) 4T
2
32 × M 16T
IES-25. Ans. (a) σ = and τ =
π d3 π d3
lda
IES-26. A circular shaft is subjected to the combined action of bending, twisting and
direct axial loading. The maximum bending stress σ, maximum shearing force
3σ and a uniform axial stress σ(compressive) are produced. The maximum
compressive normal stress produced in the shaft will be: [IES-1998]
(a) 3 σ (b) 2 σ (c) σ (d) Zero
vi
IES-26. Ans. (a) Maximum normal stress = bending stress σ + axial stress (σ) = 2 σ
We have to take maximum bending stress σ is (compressive)
2
⎛σ ⎞ σb
Ci
The maximum compressive normal stress = − ⎜ b ⎟ + τ xy2

2 ⎝ 2 ⎠
2
−2σ ⎛ −2σ ⎞
( )
2
= − ⎜ ⎟ + 3σ = −3σ
2 ⎝ 2 ⎠
IES-27. Which one of the following statements is correct? Shafts used in heavy duty
speed reducers are generally subjected
Page 289 ofto:
429 [IES-2004]
(a) Bending stress only
(b) Shearing stress only
(c) Combined bending and shearing stresses
(d) Bending, shearing and axial thrust simultaneously
IES-27. Ans. (c)

IES-28. The ratio of torque carrying capacity of a solid shaft to that of a hollow shaft is
given by: [IES-2008]
( ) ( )
−1
(a) 1 − K 4 (b) 1 − K 4 (c)K 4 (d)1/ K 4
Di
Where K = ; Di = Inside diameter of hollow shaft and Do = Outside diameter of hollow
t.in
Do
shaft. Shaft material is the same.
IES-28. Ans. (b) τ should be same for both hollow and solid shaft
−1
Ts ⎛ ⎛ Di ⎞ ⎞
4
Ts Th Ts D4
= ⇒ = 4 o 4 ⇒ = ⎜1 − ⎜ ⎟ ⎟
π 4
D
32 o
π
32 o
D4 − Di4 ( ) Th Do − Di Th ⎜ ⎝ Do ⎠ ⎟
⎝ ⎠
po
Ts
( )
−1
∴ 1− k4
Th
IES-29. A hollow shaft of outer dia 40 mm and inner dia of 20 mm is to be replaced by a

solid shaft to transmit the same torque at the same maximum stress. What
should be the diameter of the solid shaft?
gs
[IES 2007]
(a) 30 mm (b) 35 mm (c) 10 × (60)1/3 mm (d) 10 × (20)1/3 mm
IES-29. Ans. (c) Section modules will be same
blo
π
(404 − 204 )
JH Js 64 π d4
= or = ×
RH Rs 40 64 d
2
2
or, d3 = (10)3 × 60 or d = 10 3 60 mm
.
tas
IES-30. The diameter of a solid shaft is D. The inside and outside diameters of a hollow
D 2D
shaft of same material and length are and respectively. What is the
3 3
ratio of the weight of the hollow shaft to that of the solid shaft? [IES 2007]
3
lda
(a) 1:1 (b) 1: (c) 1:2 (d) 1:3

π ⎛ 4D D ⎞ 2 2
⎜ − ⎟× L× ρ × g
WH 4 ⎜⎝ 3 3 ⎟⎠
IES-30. Ans. (a) = =1
WS π 2
D × L× ρ × g
4
vi
IES-31. What is the maximum torque transmitted by a hollow shaft of external radius R
and internal radius r? [IES-2006]
Ci
π π π π ⎛ R4 − r 4 ⎞
(a)
16
(R 3
−r 3
)f s (b)
2R
(R 4
−r 4
)f s (c)
8R
(R 4
−r 4
)f s (d) ⎜
32 ⎝
⎟ fs
R ⎠
( f s = maximum shear stress in the shaft material)
π
T fs J
R4 − r 4
π ( )
IES-31. Ans. (b) =
J R
or T = × fs =
R
2
R
× fs =
2R
R 4 − r 4 .fs . ( )
Page 290 of 429
IES-32. A hollow shaft of the same cross-sectional area and material as that of a solid
shaft transmits: [IES-2005]
(a) Same torque (b) Lesser torque
(c) More torque (d) Cannot be predicted without more data
T n2 + 1 DH
IES-32. Ans. (c) H = , Where n =
TS n n2 − 1 dH
IES-33. The outside diameter of a hollow shaft is twice its inside diameter. The ratio of
its torque carrying capacity to that of a solid shaft of the same material and the
same outside diameter is: [GATE-1993; IES-2001]
15 3 1 1
(a) (b) (c) (d)
16 4 2 16
T Gθ τ τJ
t.in
IES-33. Ans. (a) = = or T = if τ is const. T α J
J L R R
π ⎡ ⎛D⎞ ⎤
4
⎢D − ⎜ ⎟ ⎥
4
Th J 32 ⎣⎢ ⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎥⎦ 15
= h = =
T J π 4 16
D
32
po
IES-34. Two hollow shafts of the same material have the same length and outside
diameter. Shaft 1 has internal diameter equal to one-third of the outer
diameter and shaft 2 has internal diameter equal to half of the outer diameter.
gs
If both the shafts are subjected to the same torque, the ratio of their twists
θ1 / θ 2 will be equal to: [IES-1998]
(a) 16/81 (b) 8/27 (c) 19/27 (d) 243/256
4
d14 − ⎛⎜ 1 ⎞
blo
d
⎟
IES-34. Ans. (d) Q ∞
1 Q
∴ 1 = ⎝ 2 ⎠ = 243
4
256
d14 − ⎛⎜ 1 ⎞
J Q2 d
⎟
⎝ 3 ⎠
IES-35. Maximum shear stress in a solid shaft of diameter D and length L twisted
.
through an angle θ is τ. A hollow shaft of same material and length having

tas
outside and inside diameters of D and D/2 respectively is also twisted through
the same angle of twist θ. The value of maximum shear stress in the hollow
shaft will be: [IES-1994; 1997]
16 8 4
(a ) τ ( b) τ (c) τ ( d )τ
lda
15 7 3
T Gθ τ G.R.θ
IES-35. Ans. (d) = = or τ = if θ is const. τ α R and outer diameter is same in both
J L R L
the cases.
Note: Required torque will be different.
vi
IES-36. A solid shaft of diameter 'D' carries a twisting moment that develops maximum
shear stress τ. If the shaft is replaced by a hollow one of outside diameter 'D'
and inside diameter D/2, then the maximum shear stress will be: [IES-1994]
Ci
(a) 1.067 τ (b) 1.143 τ (c) 1.333 τ (d) 2 τ

T Gθ τ TR 1
IES-36. Ans. (a) = = or τ = if T is const. τ α
J L R J J
τh J D4 16
= = = = 1.06666
τ Jh ⎛D⎞
4
15
D −⎜ ⎟
4
⎝2⎠
IES-37. A solid shaft of diameter 100 mm, length

Page 291 of 429 1000 mm is subjected to a twisting
moment 'T’ The maximum shear stress developed in the shaft is 60 N/mm2. A
hole of 50 mm diameter is now drilled throughout the length of the shaft. To
develop a maximum shear stress of 60 N/mm2 in the hollow shaft, the torque 'T’
must be reduced by: [IES-1998]
(a) T/4 (b) T/8 (c) T/12 (d)T/16
Tr 16T T ′32(d / 2) T ′ 15
IES-37. Ans. (d) τs = = = 4 or =
J πd d − ( d / 2)
3 4
T 16
1
∴ Reduction =
16
IES-38. Assertion (A): A hollow shaft will transmit a greater torque than a solid shaft of
the same weight and same material. [IES-1994]
Reason (R): The average shear stress in the hollow shaft is smaller than the
t.in
average shear stress in the solid shaft.
IES-38. Ans. (a)
po
IES-39. A hollow shaft is subjected to torsion. The shear stress variation in the shaft
along the radius is given by: [IES-1996]
gs
blo
IES-39. Ans. (c)
Shafts in Series
IES-40. What is the total angle of
.
twist of the stepped

tas
shaft subject to torque T

shown in figure given
above?
16Tl 38Tl
(a) (b)
π Gd 4 π Gd 4
lda
64Tl 66Tl
(c) (d)
π Gd 4 π Gd 4 [IES-2005]
T × 2l T×l Tl 66Tl
4 [
IES-40. Ans. (d) θ = θ1 + θ 2 = + = 64 + 2] =
πd4
π Gd Gd4
× ( 2d)
4
G. G×
32 32
vi
Shafts in Parallel
Ci
IES-41. For the two shafts connected in parallel, find which statement is true?
(a) Torque in each shaft is the same [IES-1992]
(b) Shear stress in each shaft is the same
(c) Angle of twist of each shaft is the same
(d) Torsional stiffness of each shaft is the same
IES-41. Ans. (c)
Page 292 of 429
IES-42. A circular section rod ABC is fixed at ends A and C. It is subjected to torque T
at B. AB = BC = L and the polar moment of inertia of portions AB and BC are 2
J and J respectively. If G is the modulus of rigidity, what is the angle of twist at
point B? [IES-2005]
TL TL TL 2TL
(a) (b) (c) (d)
3GJ 2GJ GJ GJ
IES-42. Ans. (a) θ AB = θBC
TABL TBC.L
or = or TAB = 2TBC
G.2J G.J
t.in
TAB + TBC = T or TBC = T / 3
T L TL
or QB = Q AB = . =
3 GJ 3GJ
IES-43. A solid circular rod AB of diameter D and length L is fixed at both ends. A
po
torque T is applied at a section X such that AX = L/4 and BX = 3L/4. What is the
maximum shear stress developed in the rod? [IES-2004]
16T 12T 8T 4T
(a) (b) (c) (d)
π D3 π D3 π D3 π D3
IES-43. Ans. (b)
gs θ AX = θ XB & TA + TB = T
3L
TA.L / 4 TB × 4
=
blo
or
GJ GJ
3T
or TA = 3TB or TA = ,
4
3
16 × ×T
16TA 4 12T
τ max = = =
π D3 π D3
4
π D3
.
tas
IES-44. Two shafts are shown in

the above figure. These
two shafts will be
lda
torsionally equivalent to
each other if their
(a) Polar moment of inertias
are the same
(b) Total angle of twists are
the same
vi
(c) Lengths are the same

(d) Strain energies are the
same [IES-1998]
IES-44. Ans. (b)
Ci
Torsion Equation
IAS-1. Assertion (A): In theory of torsion, shearing strains increase radically away
from the longitudinal axis of the bar.
Page 293 of 429 [IAS-2001]
Reason (R): Plane transverse sections before loading remain plane after the
torque is applied.
IAS-1. Ans. (b)
IAS-2. The shear stress at a point in a shaft subjected to a torque is: [IAS-1995]
(a) Directly proportional to the polar moment of inertia and to the distance of the point
form the axis
(b) Directly proportional to the applied torque and inversely proportional to the polar
moment of inertia.
(c) Directly proportional to the applied torque and polar moment of inertia
(d) inversely proportional to the applied torque and the polar moment of inertia
t.in
T τ
IAS-2. Ans. (b) =
J R
IAS-3. If two shafts of the same length, one of which is hollow, transmit equal torque
and have equal maximum stress, then they should have equal. [IAS-1994]
(a) Polar moment of inertia (b) Polar modulus of section
po
(c) Polar moment of inertia (d) Angle of twist
T τ J
IAS-3. Ans. (b) = Here T & τ are same, so should be same i.e. polar modulus of section will
J R R
be same. gs
Hollow Circular Shafts
IAS-4. A hollow circular shaft having outside diameter 'D' and inside diameter ’d’
blo
subjected to a constant twisting moment 'T' along its length. If the maximum
shear stress produced in the shaft is σs then the twisting moment 'T' is given
by: [IAS-1999]
π D −d
4 4
π D −d
4 4
π D −d 4 4
π D −d4
4
(a) σ s (b) σs (c) σs (d) σs
8 D4 16 D4 32 D4 64 D4
.
π
T Gθ τ τJ
σs × (D 4
− d4 ) π (D 4
− d4 )
tas
IAS-4. Ans. (b) = = gives T = = 32 = σs

J L R R D 16 D
2
Torsional Rigidity
lda
IAS-5. Match List-I with List-II and select the correct answer using the codes given
List-I (Mechanical Properties) List-II ( Characteristics)
A. Torsional rigidity 1. Product of young's modulus and second
moment of area about the plane of
bending
vi
B. Modulus of resilience 2. Strain energy per unit volume

C. Bauschinger effect 3. Torque unit angle of twist
D. Flexural rigidity 4. Loss of mechanical energy due to local
Ci
yielding
(a) 1 3 4 2 (b) 3 2 4 1
(c) 2 4 1 3 (d) 3 1 4 2
IAS-5. Ans. (b)
IAS-6. Assertion (A): Angle of twist per unit length of a uniform diameter shaft
depends upon its torsional rigidity. [IAS-2004]
Reason (R): The shafts are subjected to torque only.
Page 294 of 429
IAS-6. Ans. (c)

IAS-7. A shaft is subjected to a bending moment M = 400 N.m alld torque T = 300 N.m
The equivalent bending moment is: [IAS-2002]
(a) 900 N.m (b) 700 N.m (c) 500 N.m (d) 450 N.m
M + M 2 + T 2 400 + 4002 + 3002

IAS-7. Ans. (d) Me = = = 450 Nm
2 2
t.in
IAS-8. A hollow shaft of length L is fixed at its both ends. It is subjected to torque T at
L
a distance of from one end. What is the reaction torque at the other end of
3
po
the shaft? [IAS-2007]
2T T T T
(a) (b) (c) (d)
3 2 3 4
IAS-8. Ans. (c) gs
blo
IAS-9. A solid shaft of diameter d is replaced by a hollow shaft of the same material
2d
and length. The outside diameter of hollow shaft while the inside diameter
3
.
d
tas
is . What is the ratio of the torsional stiffness of the hollow shaft to that of
3
the solid shaft? [IAS-2007]
2 3 5
(a) (b) (c) (d) 2
3 5 3
lda
π ⎧⎪⎛ 2d ⎞ ⎛ d ⎞ ⎫⎪
4 4
⎨⎜ ⎟ −⎜ ⎟ ⎬
⎛T ⎞ GJ K H 32 ⎪⎩⎝ 3 ⎠ ⎝ 3 ⎠ ⎭⎪ 5
IAS-9. Ans. (c) Torsional stiffness = ⎜ ⎟= or =
π 4
=
⎝θ ⎠ L KS .d 3
32
vi
IAS-10. Two steel shafts, one solid of diameter D and the other hollow of outside
diameter D and inside diameter D/2, are twisted to the same angle of twist per
unit length. The ratio of maximum shear stress in solid shaft to that in the
Ci
hollow shaft is: [IAS-1998]

4 8 16
(a) τ (b) τ (c) τ (d) τ
9 7 15
T τ Gθ Gθ R
IAS-10. Ans. (d) = = or τ = as outside diameter of both the shaft is D so τ is
J R L L
same for both the cases.
Page 295 of 429
Shafts in Series
IAS-11. Two shafts having the same length and material are joined in series. If the
ratio of the diameter of the first shaft to that of the second shaft is 2, then the
ratio of the angle of twist of the first shaft to that of the second shaft is:
[IAS-1995; 2003]
(a) 16 (b) 8 (c) 4 (d) 2
1 1
IAS-11. Ans. (a) Angle of twist is proportional to ∞
J d4
IAS-12. A circular shaft fixed at A has diameter D for half of its length and diameter
D/2 over the other half. What is the rotation of C relative of B if the rotation of
t.in
B relative to A is 0.1 radian? [IAS-1994]
(a) 0.4 radian (b) 0.8 radian (c) 1.6 radian (d) 3.2 radian
po
(T, L and C remaining same in both cases)
T Gθ 1 1 πd 4
IAS-12. Ans. (c)
J
=
L
or θ∞
J
or θ∞ 4 ∵ J =
d 32
gs
θ d 4
Here = or θ = 1.6 radian.
0.1 (d / 2)4
blo
Shafts in Parallel
IAS-13. A stepped solid circular shaft shown in the given figure is built-in at its ends
and is subjected to a torque To at the shoulder section. The ratio of reactive
torque T1 and T2 at the ends is (J1 and J2 are polar moments of inertia):
.
J 2 × l2 J 2 × l1
tas
(a) (b)
J1 × l1 J 1 × l2
J ×l J ×l
(c) 1 2 (d) 1 1
J 2 × l1 J 2 × l2
lda
[IAS-2001]
T1l1 T2l2 T1 ⎛ J1 l2 ⎞
IAS-13. Ans. (c) θ1 = θ 2 or = or =⎜ × ⎟
GJ1 GJ 2 T2 ⎝ J 2 l1 ⎠
IAS-14. Steel shaft and brass shaft of same length and diameter are connected by a
vi
flange coupling. The assembly is rigidity held at its ends and is twisted by a
torque through the coupling. Modulus of rigidity of steel is twice that of brass.
If torque of the steel shaft is 500 Nm, then the value of the torque in brass shaft
Ci
will be: [IAS-2001]

(a) 250 Nm (b) 354 Nm (c) 500 Nm (d) 708 Nm
IAS-14. Ans. (a)
Ts ls Tl Ts Tb Tb Gb 1 Ts
θ1 = θ 2 or = bb or = or = = or Tb = = 250 Nm
Gs J s Gb J b Gs Gb Ts Gs 2 2
IAS-15. A steel shaft with bult-in ends is subjected to the action of a torque Mt applied
at an intermediate cross-section 'mn' as shown in the given figure. [IAS-1997]
Page 296 of 429
Assertion (A): The magnitude of the twisting moment to which the portion BC
M ta
is subjected is
a+b
t.in
Reason(R): For geometric compatibility, angle of twist at 'mn' is the same for
the portions AB and BC.
po
IAS-15. Ans. (a)
IAS-16. A steel shaft of outside diameter 100 mm is solid over one half of its length and
hollow over the other half. Inside diameter of hollow portion is 50 mm. The
shaft if held rigidly at two ends and a pulley is mounted at its midsection i.e., at
gs
the junction of solid and hollow portions. The shaft is twisted by applying
torque on the pulley. If the torque carried by the solid portion of the shaft is
16000kg-m, then the torque carried by the hollow portion of the shaft will be:
[IAS-1997]
blo
(a) 16000 kg-m (b) 15000 kg-m (c) 14000 kg-m (d) 12000 kg-m
π
TsL THL JH 32
(
100 4 − 50 4 )
IAS-16. Ans.(b) θ s = θH or = or TH = TS × = 16000 × = 15000kgm
π
GJs GJH Js
32
100 4
( )
.
tas
vi lda
Ci
Page 297 of 429

Conventional Question IES 2010
Q. A hollow steel rod 200 mm long is to be used as torsional spring. The ratio of
inside to outside diameter is 1 : 2. The required stiffness of this spring is 100
N.m /degree.
Determine the outside diameter of the rod.
Value of G is 8 × 104 N/mm2 . [10 Marks]
Ans. Length of a hollow steel rod = 200mm
t.in
Ratio of inside to outside diameter = 1 : 2
Stiffness of torsional spring = 100 Nm /degree. = 5729.578 N m/rad
4 2
Rigidity of modulus (G) = 8 × 10 N / mm
Find outside diameter of rod : -
We know that
T G.θ
=
po
Where T = Torque
J L
T ⎛N− M⎞
= Stiffness ⎜ ⎟
θ ⎝ rad ⎠
J = polar moment
Stiffness =
T
=
G.J
gs
θ = twist angle in rad
θ L
L = length of rod.
blo
d2 = 2d1
π
J=
32
(
× d 42 - d14 )
π d1 1
J=
32
(
× 16d14 - d14 ) ∵
d2
=
2
.
π
tas
J= × d14 × 15
32
8 × 104 × 106 N / m2 π
5729.578Nm / rad = × × d14 × 15
0.2 32
5729.578 × .2 × 32
lda
10
= d14
8 × 10 × π × 15
d1 = 9.93 × 10−3 m.
d1 = 9.93mm.
d 2 = 2 × 9.93 = 19.86 mm Ans.
vi
Conventional Question GATE - 1998

Question: A component used in the Mars pathfinder can be idealized as a circular bar
Ci
clamped at its ends. The bar should withstand a torque of 1000 Nm. The
component is assembled on earth when the temperature is 30°C. Temperature
on Mars at the site of landing is -70°C. The material of the bar has an
allowable shear stress of 300 MPa and its young's modulus is 200 GPa. Design
the diameter of the bar taking a factor of safety of 1.5 and assuming a
coefficient of thermal expansion for the material of the bar as 12 × 10–6/°C.
Answer: Given:
Page 298 of 429
Tmax = 1000Nm; tE = 30 C; tm = −700 C;
0
τ allowable = 300MPa
E = 200GPa; F.O.S. = 1.5; α = 12 × 10 / C −6 0
Diameter of the bar,D :

Change in length,δ L = L ∝ Δt,where L = original length,m.
Change in lengthat Mars = L × 12 × 10 −6 × ⎣⎡30 − ( −70 )⎦⎤ = 12 × 10 −4 L meters
Change in length 12 × 10 −4 L
Linear strain = = = 12 × 10 −4
original length L
2
σ a = axial stress = E × linear strain = 200 × 109 × 12 × 10 −4 = 2.4 × 108 N / m
From max imum shear stress equation,we have
t.in
⎡⎛ 16T ⎞ 2 ⎛ σ a ⎞ 2 ⎤
τ max = ⎢⎜ 3 ⎟
+⎜ ⎟ ⎥
⎣⎢⎝ π D ⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎦⎥
τ allowable
300
where, τ max = = 200MPa =
F.O.S 1.5
po
2
⎛ 16 × 1000 ⎞
( )
2
4 × 1016 = ⎜ ⎟ + 1.2 × 10
8
⎝ π D 3
⎠ gs
16 × 1000
or = 1.6 × 108
π D3
1/3
⎛ 16 × 1000 ⎞
or D = ⎜ 8 ⎟
= 0.03169 m = 31.69 mm
⎝ π × 1.6 × 10 ⎠
blo
Q. In a torsion test, the specimen is a hollow shaft with 50 mm external and 30 mm
internal diameter. An applied torque of 1.6 kN-m is found to produce an
angular twist of 0.4º measured on a length of 0.2 m of the shaft. The Young’s
modulus of elasticity obtained from a tensile test has been found to be 200 GPa.
.
Find the values of

tas
(i) Modulus of rigidity.

(ii) Poisson’s ratio. [10-Marks]
Ans. We have
T τ Gθ
= = ......... (i)
J r L
lda
Where J = polar moment of inertia
J=
π
32
(
D4 − d4 )
=
π
32
(504 − 304 × 10−12 )
vi
= 5.338 × 10−7
T = 1.6 kN − m = 1.6 × 103 N-m
Ci
θ = 0.4º
l = 0.2 m
E = 200 × 109 N/m 2
T Gθ
From equation (i) =
J L
Page 299 of 429
⎡ π ⎤
G × ⎢ 0.4 ×
1.6 × 103 ⎣ 180 ⎥⎦
=
5.338 × 10 − 7 0.2
1.6 × 0.2 × 103 × 180
⇒ G=
0.4 × π × 5.338 × 10 − 7
= 85.92 GPa
We also have
E = 2 G (1 + v)
∴ 200 = 2 × 85.92 (1 + v )
⇒ 1 + v = 1.164
t.in
⇒ v = 0.164
Conventional Question IAS - 1996

Question: A solid circular uniformly tapered shaft of length I, with a small angle of
taper is subjected to a torque T. The diameter at the two ends of the shaft are
D and 1.2 D. Determine the error introduced of its angular twist for a given
po
length is determined on the uniform mean diameter of the shaft.
Answer: For shaft of tapering's section, we have
2TL ⎡ R12 + R1R 2 + R 22 ⎤ 32TL ⎡ D12 + D1D2 + D22 ⎤
θ= ⎢ ⎥= ⎢ ⎥
3Gπ ⎣ R13R32 ⎦ 3Gπ ⎣ gsD13D32 ⎦
32TL ⎡ (1.2 ) + 1.2 × 1 + (1) ⎤
2 2
= ⎢ ⎥ [∵ D1 = D and D2 = 1.2D]
3Gπ D4 ⎢ ( ) ( )
3 3
⎣ 1.2 × 1 ⎥
⎦
32TL
blo
= × 2.1065
3Gπ D4
1.2D + D
Now, Davg = = 1.1D
2
32TL ⎡ 3 (1.1D ) ⎤ 32TL
2
3 32TL
∴ θ'= ×⎢ ⎥= × = × 2.049
.
3Gπ ⎢ (1.1D ) ⎥ 3Gπ (1.2 ) .D

6 4 4 3Gπ D4
⎣ ⎦
tas
θ − θ ' 2.1065 − 2.049

Error = = = 0.0273 or 2.73%
θ 2.1065
Conventional Question ESE-2008

lda
Question: A hollow shaft and a solid shaft construction of the same material have the
same length and the same outside radius. The inside radius of the hollow
shaft is 0.6 times of the outside radius. Both the shafts are subjected to the
same torque.
(i) What is the ratio of maximum shear stress in the hollow shaft to that of
vi
solid shaft?
(ii) What is the ratio of angle of twist in the hollow shaft to that of solid shaft?
T τ Gθ
Ci
Solution: Using = =
J R L
Inside radius (r)
Given, = 0.6 and Th = Ts = T
Out side (R)
T .R T .R
(i) τ = gives ; For hollow shaft (τh ) =
π 4
J
2
(R −r 4)
Page 300 of 429
T .R
and for solid shaft ( τ s)=
π 4
.R
2
τn R4 1 1
Therefore = 4 = 4
= = 1.15
τs R −r 4 ⎛ r ⎞⎟ 1− 0.64
1− ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
⎜⎝ R ⎠
TL T .L T .L
(ii) θ = gives θh = and θs =
GJ π ⎛ π ⎞
G. (R 4 − r 4 ) G.⎜⎜ .R 4 ⎟⎟⎟
2 ⎜⎝ 2 ⎠
t.in
θh R4 1 1
Therefore = 4 = 4
= = 1.15
θs R − r 4 ⎛ r ⎞⎟ 1− 0.64
1− ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
⎜⎝ R ⎠
Conventional Question ESE-2006:
po
Question: Two hollow shafts of same diameter are used to transmit same power. One
shaft is rotating at 1000 rpm while the other at 1200 rpm. What will be the
nature and magnitude of the stress on the surfaces of these shafts? Will it be
the same in two cases of different? Justify your answer.
Answer: We know power transmitted (P) = Torque (T) ×rotation speed ( ω )
gs
T .R PR P. D
And shear stress ( τ ) = = = 2
J ωJ ⎜ ⎛ 2 π N ⎞ π
⎟⎟ ( D 4 − d 4 )
⎜⎜⎝
60 ⎟ 32
⎠
blo
1
Therefore τ α as P, D and d are constant.
N
So the shaft rotating at 1000 rpm will experience greater stress then 1200 rpm shaft.

Question: A 5 cm diameter solid shaft is welded to a flat plate by 1 cm filled weld. What
.
will be the maximum torque that the welded joint can sustain if the
tas
permissible shear stress in the weld material is not to exceed 8 kN/cm2?

Deduce the expression for the shear stress at the throat from the basic
theory.
Answer: Consider a circular shaft connected to a
plate by means of a fillet joint as shown in
lda
figure. If the shaft is subjected to a torque,

shear stress develops in the weld.
Assuming that the weld thickness is very
small compared to the diameter of the
shaft, the maximum shear stress occurs in
the throat area. Thus, for a given torque
vi
the maximum shear stress in the weld is

⎛d ⎞
T ⎜⎜ + t ⎟⎟⎟
⎜⎝ 2 ⎠
τmax =
Ci
J
Where T = Torque applied.
d = outer diameter of the shaft
t = throat thickness
J = polar moment of area of the throat
section
π ⎡ π
(d + 2t ) − d 4 ⎤⎥⎦ = d 3 × t
4
= ⎢
32 ⎣ 4
Page 301 of 429
d
T
[As t <<d] then τmax = 2 = 2T
π 3 πtd 2
d t
4
Given
d = 5 cm = 0.05 m & t = 1cm = 0.1 m
8000N
τmax = 8 kN / cm 2 = = 80MPa = 80 ×106 N / m 2
(10 ) m
−4 2
πd 2t τmax π × 0.052 × 0.01× 80 ×106

∴T = = = 3.142 kNm
2 2
t.in
Question: The ratio of inside to outside diameter of a hollow shaft is 0.6. If there is a
solid shaft with same torsional strength, what is the ratio of the outside
diameter of hollow shaft to the diameter of the equivalent solid shaft.
Answer: Let D = external diameter of hollow shaft
po
So d = 0.6D internal diameter of hollow shaft
And Ds=diameter of solid shaft
From torsion equation
T τ
=
J R
τJ 3
π
2
{D 4 − ( 0 .6 D )4 }
gs
o r ,T = = τ × f o r h o llo w s h a f t
R (D / 2 )
blo
π
D s4
τJ
and T= = J × 32 f o r s o lid s h a f t
R Ds
2
πD 3 π D 3s
τ {1 − ( 0 . 6 ) 4 } = τ
16 16
D 1
.
or, = 3 = 1 .0 7 2
Ds 1 − ( 0 .6 )4
tas

Question: A cantilever tube of length 120 mm is subjected to an axial tension P = 9.0 kN,
A torsional moment T = 72.0 Nm and a pending Load F = 1.75 kN at the free
end. The material is aluminum alloy with an yield strength 276 MPa. Find the
lda
thickness of the tube limiting the outside diameter to 50 mm so as to ensure a

factor of safety of 4.
πD 3 t
Answer: Polar moment of inertia (J) =2πR 3t =
4
vi
Ci
Page 302 of 429
T τ T.R TD TD 2T 2 × 72 18335
= or, τ = = = = = =
J R J 2J πD 3 t πD 2t π × (0.050)2 × t t
2×
4
P 9000 9000 57296
Direct stress (σ1 ) = = = =
A πdt π(0.050)t t
d
My M 2 Md
Maximum bending stress (σ 2 ) = = = [J = 2I ]
I I J
1750 × 0.120 × 0.050 × 4 106952
= =
π × (0.050)3 t t
164248
t.in
∴ Total longitudinal stress (σb ) = σ1 + σ 2 =
t
Maximum principal stress
σ ⎛σ ⎞
2
164248
2
⎛164248 ⎞⎟ ⎛18335 ⎞⎟
2
⎛ 276 ×106 ⎟⎞
(σ1) = b + ⎜⎜⎜ b ⎟⎟⎟ + τ 2 = ⎜⎜ ⎜ ⎜
2 ⎝2⎠ 2t
+ ⎟ + ⎜
⎜⎝ 2t ⎟⎠ ⎜⎝ t ⎠⎟ ⎟ = ⎜
⎜⎝ 4 ⎟⎟⎟
⎠
po
or , t = 2.4 ×10−3 m = 2.4 mm
Conventional Question ESE-2000 & ESE 2001
Question: A hollow shaft of diameter ratio 3/8 required to transmit 600 kW at 110 rpm,
the maximum torque being 20% greater than the mean. The shear stress is
gs
not to exceed 63 MPa and the twist in a length of 3 m not to exceed 1.4
degrees. Determine the diameter of the shaft. Assume modulus of rigidity for
the shaft material as 84 GN/m2.
Answer: Let d = internal diameter of the hollow shaft
blo
And D = external diameter of the hollow shaft
(given) d = 3/8 D = 0.375D
Power (P)= 600 kW, speed (N) =110 rpm, Shear stress( τ )= 63 MPa. Angle of twist ( θ
)=1.4°, Length ( ) =3m , modulus of rigidity (G) = 84GPa
2πN
We know that, (P) = T. ω = T. [T is average torque]
60
.
3
60× P 60× (600×10 )
tas
or T= = = 52087Nm
2πN 2× π ×110
∴ Tmax = 1.2×T = 1.2×52087 =62504 Nm
First we consider that shear stress is not to exceed 63 MPa
T τ
From torsion equation =
lda
J R
T .R T .D
or J = =
τ 2τ
π ⎡ 4 4⎤ 62504× D
or ⎢ D − (0.375 D ) ⎥ =
32 ⎣ ⎦ 2× (63×106 )
vi
or D = 0.1727 m = 172.7 mm −−−−(i )

17 ×1.4
Second we consider angle of twist is not exceed 1.40 = radian
Ci
180
Page 303 of 429
T Gθ
From torsion equation =
J
T Gθ
or =
J
π 62504×3
or ⎡⎣⎢ D 4 − (0.375 D) 4 ⎤⎦⎥ =
32 ⎛ π ×1.5 ⎞⎟
(84×109 ) ⎜⎜
⎜⎝ 180 ⎠⎟⎟
or D = 0.1755m = 175.5mm −−−−(ii )
So both the condition will satisfy if greater of the two value is adopted
t.in
so D=175.5 mm

Question: Determine the torsional stiffness of a hollow shaft of length L and having
outside diameter equal to 1.5 times inside diameter d. The shear modulus of
the material is G.
po
Answer: Outside diameter (D) =1.5 d
π π
Polar modulus of the shaft (J) =
32
( D 4 − d 4 ) = d 4 (1.54 −1)
32
T τ Gθ gs
We know that = =
J R L
π 4
G.θ d (1.54 − 1)
GθJ 32 0.4Gθd 4
or T = = =
blo
L L L

Question: The maximum normal stress and the maximum shear stress analysed for a
shaft of 150 mm diameter under combined bending and torsion, were found
to be 120 MN/m2 and 80 MN/m2 respectively. Find the bending moment and
.
torque to which the shaft is subjected.

tas
If the maximum shear stress be limited to 100 MN/m2, find by how much the
torque can be increased if the bending moment is kept constant.
Answer: Given: σ max = 120MN / m2 ;τ max = 80MN / m2 ;d = 150mm = 0.15m
lda
Part − 1: M; T
We know that for combined bending and torsion, we have the following expressions:
16 ⎡
σ max = M + M2 + T 2 ⎤ − − − (i)
π d3 ⎣ ⎦
16
τ max = 3 ⎡ M2 + T 2 ⎤ − − − − ( ii )
vi
and
πd ⎣ ⎦
Substituting the given values in the above equations, we have
16 ⎡M + M2 + T 2 ⎤ − − − − − − ( iii )
Ci
120 = 3 ⎣
π × ( 0.15 ) ⎦
16 ⎡ M2 + T 2 ⎤ − − − − − − − − − ( iv )
80 =
π × ( 0.15 )
3 ⎣ ⎦
80 × π × ( 0.15 )
3
or M +T =
2 2
= 0.053 − − − − − − ( v )
16
Page 304 of 429
Substituting this values in equation ( iii ) , we get
16
120 = [M + 0.053]
π × ( 0.1503 )
∴ M = 0.0265MNm
Substituting for M in equation ( v ) , we have
( 0.0265 )
2
+ T 2 = 0.053
or T = 0.0459MNm
Part II : [∵τ max = 100MN / m2 ]
t.in
Increase in torque :
Bending moment (M) to be kept cons tan t = 0.0265MNm
2
⎡100 × π × ( 0.15 )3 ⎤
( 0.0265 )
2
or +T =⎢
2
⎥ = 0.004391
⎢⎣ 16 ⎥⎦
po
∴ T = 0.0607 MNm
∴The increased torque = 0.0607 − 0.0459 = 0.0148MNm

gs
Question: A solid shaft is to transmit 300 kW at 120 rpm. If the shear stress is not to
exceed 100 MPa, Find the diameter of the shaft, What percent saving in
weight would be obtained if this shaft were replaced by a hollow one whose
internal diameter equals 0.6 of the external diameter, the length, material
blo
and maximum allowable shear stress being the same?
Answer: Given P= 300 kW, N = 120 rpm, τ =100 MPa, d H = 0.6 DH
Diameter of solid shaft, Ds:
2πNT 2π ×120×T
We know that P = or 300 = or T=23873 Nm
60×1000 60×1000
.
T τ
tas
We know that =
J R
π 4
100×106 × Ds
τ .J 32
or, T= or, 23873 =
R Ds
lda
2
or, Ds= 0.1067 m =106.7mm
Percentage saving in weight:

TH = Ts
vi
Ci
Page 305 of 429
⎛τ × J ⎞⎟ ⎛τ × J ⎞⎟
⎜⎜ ⎟ = ⎜⎜ ⎟
⎝⎜ R ⎠⎟ H
⎝⎜ R ⎠⎟ s
4 4
{D − d } D H4 − (0 .6 D H ) 4
or , H
= D s3 H
or , = D s3
DH DH
Ds 1 0 6 .7
or ,DH = = = 1 1 1 .8 m m
3
(1 − 0 .6 ) 4 3
1 − 0 .6 4
WH A L ρ g A
A g a in = H H H = H
WS As Ls ρ s g As
π
(D H2 − d H2 ) D H2 (1 − 0 .6 2 ) ⎛ 1 1 1 .8 ⎞ 2
t.in
AH 4 ⎟ 1 − 0 .6 )2 = 0 .7 0 2
= ⎜⎜
⎜⎝ 1 0 6 .7 ⎠⎟⎟ (
= =
As π 2 D 2
D s
4 s
⎛ W ⎞
∴ P e rc e n ta g e s a v in g s in w e ig h t = ⎜⎜⎜1 - H ⎟⎟⎟ × 1 0 0
⎜⎝ W ⎠⎟ s
po
= (1 -0 .7 0 2 )× 1 0 0 = 2 9 .8 %
gs
. blo
tas
vi lda
Ci
Page 306 of 429
t.in
po
gs
blo
.
tas
lda
vi
Ci
Page 307 of 429
10. Thin Cylinder

1. Thin Rings
Uniformly distributed loading (radial) may be due to
t.in
either
• Internal pressure or external pressure
• Centrifugal force as in the case of a rotating ring
Case-I: Internal pressure or external pressure
po
• s = qr Where q = Intensity of loading in kg/cm of Oce
r = Mean centreline of radius
s = circumferential tension or hoop’s
gs
tension
(Radial loading ducted outward)
s qr
• Unit stress, σ= =
blo
A A
σ qr
• Circumferential strain, ∈c = =
E AE
• Diametral strain, ( ∈d ) = Circumferential strain, ( ∈c )
.
tas
Case-II: Centrifugal force
wω 2 r 2
• Hoop's Tension, s = Where w = wt. per unit length of circumferential element
g
ω = Angular velocity
lda
s wω 2 r
• Radial loading, q = =
r g
s w 2 2
• Hoop's stress, σ= = .ω r
vi
A Ag
2. Thin Walled Pressure Vessels

Ci
For thin cylinders whose thickness may be considered small compared to their diameter.
Inner dia of the cylinder (d i )
> 15 or 20
wall thickness (t)
Page 308 of 429
Chapter-10 Thin Cylinder S K Mondal’s
3. General Formula
σ1 σ2 p
+ =
r1 r2 t
Where σ 1 =Meridional stress at A
σ 2 =Circumferential / Hoop's stress
P = Intensity of internal gas pressure/ fluid pressure
t = Thickness of pressure vessel.
t.in
4. Some cases:
• Cylindrical vessel
pr pD pr pD
σ1 = = σ2 = = ⎡⎣ r1 → ∞, r2 = r ⎤⎦
2t 4t t 2t
σ1 − σ 2
po
pr pD
τ max = = =
2 4t 8t
• Spherical vessel
pr pD
σ1 = σ 2 = = [r1 = r2 = r]
• Conical vessel
2t 4t
gs
py tan α py tan α
σ1 = [ r1 → ∞ ] and σ2 = α
blo
2t cos α t cos α
Notes: σ2 σ2
π α α
• Volume 'V' of the spherical shell, V= Di3 σ1
6
1/3
α
.
⎛ 6V ⎞
⇒ Di = ⎜ ⎟
tas
⎝ π ⎠
• Design of thin cylindrical shells is based on hoop's stress
5. Volumetric Strain (Dilation)

lda
ΔV
• Rectangular block, =∈x + ∈y + ∈z
V0
• Cylindrical pressure vessel
σ1 σ2 pr
∈ 1=Longitudinal strain = −μ = [1 − 2μ ]
vi
E E 2 Et
pr σ2 σ1
∈2 =Circumferential strain = [1 − 2μ ]−μ =
E 2 Et
Ci
E
ΔV pr pD
Volumetric Strain, =∈1 +2 ∈2 = [5 − 4μ] = [5 − 4μ]
Vo 2 Et 4 Et
i.e. Volumetric strain, (∈v ) = longitudinal strain (∈1 ) + 2 × circumferential strain (∈2 )
• Spherical vessels
pr Page 309 of 429
∈=∈1 =∈2 = [1 − μ ]
2 Et
ΔV 3 pr
= 3 ∈= [1 − μ ]
V0 2 Et
6. Thin cylindrical shell with hemispherical end

Condition for no distortion at the junction of cylindrical and hemispherical portion
t2 1 − μ
= Where, t1= wall thickness of cylindrical portion
t1 2 − μ
t2 = wall thickness of hemispherical portion
t.in
7. Alternative method
Consider the equilibrium of forces in the z-direction acting on the part
cylinder shown in figure.
po
Force due to internal pressure p acting on area π D2/4 = p. π D2/4
Force due to longitudinal stress sL acting on area π Dt = σ 1 π Dt
Equating: p. π D2/4 = σ 1 π Dt gs
pd pr
or σ1 = =
4t 2t
Now consider the equilibrium of forces in the x-direction acting on the
blo
sectioned cylinder shown in figure. It is assumed that the
circumferential stress σ 2 is constant through the thickness of the
cylinder.
Force due to internal pressure p acting on area Dz = pDz
.
Force due to circumferential stress σ 2 acting on area 2tz = σ 2 2tz

tas
Equating: pDz = σ 2 2tz
pD pr
or σ 2 = =
2t t
vi lda
Ci
Page 310 of 429
Longitudinal stress
GATE-1. The maximum principal strain in a thin cylindrical tank, having a radius of 25
cm and wall thickness of 5 mm when subjected to an internal pressure of 1MPa,
is (taking Young's modulus as 200 GPa and Poisson's ratio as 0.2) [GATE-1998]
t.in
(a) 2.25 × 10–4 (b) 2.25 (c) 2.25 × 10–6 (d) 22.5
pr 1× 250
GATE-1. Ans. (a) Circumferential or Hoop stress (σ c ) = = = 50MPa
t 5
pr
Longitudinal stress (σ l ) = = 25MPa
2t
po
σc σl 50 × 106 25 × 106
ec = −μ = − 0.2 × = 2.25 × 10−4
E E 200 × 109 200 × 109
Maximum shear stress gs

GATE-2. A thin walled cylindrical vessel of well thickness, t and diameter d is fitted
with gas to a gauge pressure of p. The maximum shear stress on the vessel wall
will then be: [GATE-1999]
blo
pd pd pd pd
(a) (b) (c) (d)
t 2t 4t 8t
pd pd σc − σl pd
GATE-2. Ans. (d) σ c = , σl = , Maximum shear stress = =
2t 4t 2 8t
Change in dimensions of a thin cylindrical shell due to an internal

.
pressure
tas
Statement for Linked Answers and Questions 3 and 4

A cylindrical container of radius R = 1 m, wall
thickness 1 mm is filled with water up to a depth
of 2 m and suspended along its upper rim. The
lda
density of water is 1000 kg/m3 and acceleration

due to gravity is 10 m/s2. The self-weight of the
cylinder is negligible. The formula for hoop
stress in a thin-walled cylinder can be used at all
points along the height of the cylindrical
container.
vi
[GATE-2008]
GATE-3. The axial and circumferential stress ( σ a , σ c ) experienced by the cylinder wall
Ci
at mid-depth (1 m as shown) are

(a) (10,10) MPa (b) (5,10) MPa (c) (10,5) MPa (d) (5,5)MPa
GATE-3. Ans. (a) Pressure (P) = h ρ g = 1 × 1000 × 10 = 10 kPa
Axial Stress ( σ a ) ⇒ σ a × 2πRt = ρg × πR L
2
ρ gRL
1000 × 10 × 1 × 1
or σ a = = = 10 MPa
t 1 × 10 −3
PR Page 10 ×311
1 of 429
Circumferential Stress( σ c )= = = 10 MPa
t 1 × 10 −3
GATE-4. If the Young's modulus and Poisson's ratio of the container material are 100
GPa and 0.3, respectively, the axial strain in the cylinder wall at mid-depth is:
(a) 2 × 10–5 (b) 6 × 10–5 (c) 7 × 10–5 (d) 1.2 × 10–5
σa σc 10 10
GATE-4. Ans. (c) εa = −μ = −3
− 0 .3 × −3
= 7 × 10 −5
E E 100 × 10 100 × 10
t.in
Circumferential or hoop stress
IES-1. Match List-I with List-II and select the correct answer: [IES-2002]
List-I List-II
(2-D Stress system loading) (Ratio of principal stresses)
A. Thin cylinder under internal pressure 1. 3.0
po
B. Thin sphere under internal pressure 2. 1.0
C. Shaft subjected to torsion 3. –1.0
4. 2.0
Codes: A B C A B C
(a) 4 2 3 (b) 1 3 2
IES-1. Ans. (a)

(c) 4 3 2 (d) 1 2 3
gs
IES-2. A thin cylinder of radius r and thickness t when subjected to an internal
blo
hydrostatic pressure P causes a radial displacement u, then the tangential
strain caused is: [IES-2002]
du 1 du u 2u
(a) (b) . (c) (d)
dr r dr r r
IES-2. Ans. (c)
.
tas
IES-3. A thin cylindrical shell is subjected to internal pressure p. The Poisson's ratio
of the material of the shell is 0.3. Due to internal pressure, the shell is subjected
to circumferential strain and axial strain. The ratio of circumferential strain to
axial strain is: [IES-2001]
(a) 0.425 (b) 2.25 (c) 0.225 (d) 4.25
lda
σc σl pr
IES-3. Ans. (d) Circumferential strain, ec = −μ = (2 − μ )
E E 2Et
σl σc pr
Longitudinal strain, el = −μ = (1 − 2μ )
E E 2Et
IES-4. A thin cylindrical shell of diameter d, length ‘l’ and thickness t is subjected to
vi
an internal pressure p. What is the ratio of longitudinal strain to hoop strain in

terms of Poisson's ratio (1/m)? [IES-2004]
m−2 m−2 2m − 1 2m + 2
Ci
(a) (b) (c) (d)

2m + 1 2m − 1 m−2 m −1
Pr
IES-4. Ans. (b) longitudinal stress (σ l ) =
2t
Page 312 of 429
Pr
hoop stress (σ c ) =
t
σl 1 σc 1 1
− −
∈l m−2
∴ = E m E = 2 m =
∈c σ c 1 σ l 1 2m − 1
− 1−
E mE 2m
IES-5. When a thin cylinder of diameter 'd' and thickness 't' is pressurized with an
internal pressure of 'p', (1/m = μ is the Poisson's ratio and E is the modulus of
elasticity), then [IES-1998]
pd ⎛ 1 1 ⎞
t.in
(a) The circumferential strain will be equal to ⎜ − ⎟
2tE ⎝ 2 m ⎠
pd ⎛ 1 ⎞
(b) The longitudinal strain will be equal to ⎜1 − ⎟
2tE ⎝ 2m ⎠
pd
po
(c) The longitudinal stress will be equal to
2t
(d) The ratio of the longitudinal strain to circumferential strain will be equal to
m−2 gs
2m − 1
IES-5. Ans. (d) Ratio of longitudinal strain to circumferential strain
⎛1⎞ ⎛1⎞
σl − ⎜ ⎟ σ c σ l − ⎜ ⎟ {2σ l } m − 2
⎝m⎠ = ⎝m⎠
blo
= =
⎛1⎞ ⎛1⎞ 2m − 1
σ c − ⎜ ⎟ σ l {2σ l } − ⎜ ⎟ σ l
⎝m⎠ ⎝m⎠
σ σ pr
Circumferential strain, ec = c − μ l = (2 − μ )
E E 2Et
.
σl σc pr
Longitudinal strain, el = −μ = (1 − 2μ )
tas
E E 2Et
IES-6. A thin cylinder contains fluid at a pressure of 500 N/m2, the internal diameter
of the shell is 0.6 m and the tensile stress in the material is to be limited to 9000
lda
N/m2. The shell must have a minimum wall thickness of nearly [IES-2000]
(a) 9 mm (b) 11 mm (c) 17 mm (d) 21 mm
IES-6. Ans. (c)
IES-7. A thin cylinder with closed
lids is subjected to internal
vi
pressure and supported at

the ends as shown in figure.
The state of stress at point
X is as represented in
Ci
[IES-1999]
Page 313 of 429
IES-7. Ans. (a) Point 'X' is subjected to circumferential and longitudinal stress, i.e. tension on all
faces, but there is no shear stress because vessel is supported freely outside.
IES-8. A thin cylinder with both ends closed is subjected to internal pressure p. The
longitudinal stress at the surface has been calculated as σo. Maximum shear
stress at the surface will be equal to: [IES-1999]
( a ) 2σ o ( b ) 1.5σ o (c) σ o (d) 0.5σ o
IES-8. Ans. (d)
2σ o − σ o σ o
Longitudinal stress = σ o and hoop stress = 2σ o Max. shear stress = =
2 2
t.in
IES-9. A metal pipe of 1m diameter contains a fluid having a pressure of 10 kgf/cm2. lf
the permissible tensile stress in the metal is 200 kgf/cm2, then the thickness of
the metal required for making the pipe would be: [IES-1993]
(a) 5 mm (b) 10 mm (c) 20 mm (d) 25 mm
pd 10 × 100 1000
IES-9. Ans. (d) Hoop stress = or 200 = or t = = 2.5 cm
2t 2×t 400
po
IES-10. Circumferential stress in a cylindrical steel boiler shell under internal
pressure is 80 MPa. Young's modulus of elasticity and Poisson's ratio are
respectively 2 × 105 MPa and 0.28. The magnitude of circumferential strain in
gs
the boiler shell will be: [IES-1999]
(a) 3.44 × 10–4 (b) 3.84 × 10–4 (c) 4 × 10–4 (d) 4.56 ×10 –4
1
IES-10. Ans. (a) Circumferential strain = (σ 1 − μσ 2 )
E
blo
Since circumferential stress σ 1 = 80 MPa and longitudinal stress σ 2 = 40 MPa
1
6 [
∴Circumferential strain = 80 − 0.28 × 40 ] ×106 = 3.44 x10−4
2 ×10 ×10
5
IES-11. A penstock pipe of 10m diameter carries water under a pressure head of 100 m.
.
If the wall thickness is 9 mm, what is the tensile stress in the pipe wall in MPa?
tas
[IES-2009]
(a) 2725 (b) 545·0 (c) 272·5 (d) 1090
Pd
IES-11. Ans. (b) Tensile stress in the pipe wall = Circumferential stress in pipe wall =
2t
Where, P = ρgH = 980000N / m2
lda
980000 × 10
∴ Tensile stress = = 544.44 × 106 N / m2 = 544.44MN / m2 = 544.44MPa
2 × 9 × 10−3
IES-12. A water main of 1 m diameter contains water at a pressure head of 100 metres.
The permissible tensile stress in the material of the water main is 25 MPa.
vi
2
What is the minimum thickness of the water main? (Take g = 10 m/ s ).
[IES-2009]
(a) 10 mm (b) 20mm (c) 50 mm (d) 60 mm
Ci
IES-12. Ans. (b) Pressure in the main = ρgh = 1000 × 10 × 1000 = 10 N / mm = 1000 KPa
6 2
Pd
Hoop stress = σc =
2t
∴ t=
Pd
=
(
106 (1) ) =
1
m = 20 mm
2σc 2 × 25 × 10 6
50
Page 314 of 429
Longitudinal stress
IES-13. Hoop stress and longitudinal stress in a boiler shell under internal pressure
are 100 MN/m2 and 50 MN/m2 respectively. Young's modulus of elasticity and
Poisson's ratio of the shell material are 200 GN/m2 and 0.3 respectively. The
hoop strain in boiler shell is: [IES-1995]
−3 −3 −3 −3
(a) 0.425 × 10 (b) 0.5 × 10 (c) 0.585 × 10 (d) 0.75 × 10
1 1
IES-13. Ans. (a) Hoop strain = (σ h − μσ l ) = [100 − 0.3 × 50] = 0.425 × 10−3
E 200 × 1000
IES-14. In strain gauge dynamometers, the use of how many active gauge makes the
dynamometer more effective? [IES 2007]
t.in
(a) Four (b) Three (c) Two (d) One
IES-14. Ans. (b)
Volumetric strain
IES-15. Circumferential and longitudinal strains in a cylindrical boiler under internal
po
steam pressure are ε1 and ε 2 respectively. Change in volume of the boiler
cylinder per unit volume will be: [IES-1993; IAS 2003]
(a) ε1 + 2ε 2 (b) ε ε2
1 2 (c) 2ε 1 + ε 2 (d) ε 12ε 2
IES-15. Ans. (c) Volumetric stream = 2 × circumferential strain + longitudinal strain
gs
IES-16. The volumetric strain in case of a thin cylindrical shell of diameter d, thickness
t, subjected to internal pressure p is: [IES-2003; IAS 1997]
pd pd pd pd
(a) . ( 3 − 2 μ ) (b) . ( 4 − 3μ ) (c) . ( 5 − 4μ ) (d) . ( 4 − 5μ )
blo
2tE 3tE 4tE 4tE
(Where E = Modulus of elasticity, μ = Poisson's ratio for the shell material)
IES-16. Ans. (c) Remember it.
Spherical Vessel
.
tas
IES-17. For the same internal diameter, wall thickness, material and internal pressure,
the ratio of maximum stress, induced in a thin cylindrical and in a thin
spherical pressure vessel will be: [IES-2001]
(a) 2 (b) 1/2 (c) 4 (d) 1/4
IES-17. Ans. (a)
lda
IES-18. From design point of view, spherical pressure vessels are preferred over
cylindrical pressure vessels because they [IES-1997]
(a) Are cost effective in fabrication
(b) Have uniform higher circumferential stress
(c) Uniform lower circumferential stress
vi
(d) Have a larger volume for the same quantity of material used
IES-18. Ans. (d)
Ci
Circumferential or hoop stress

IAS-1. The ratio of circumferential stress to longitudinal stress in a thin cylinder
subjected to internal hydrostatic pressure is: [IAS 1994]
(a) 1/2 (b) 1 Page 315 of 429 (c) 2 (d) 4
IAS-1. Ans. (c)
IAS-2. A thin walled water pipe carries water under a pressure of 2 N/mm2 and
discharges water into a tank. Diameter of the pipe is 25 mm and thickness is
2·5 mm. What is the longitudinal stress induced in the pipe? [IAS-2007]
(a) 0 (b) 2 N/mm2 (c) 5 N/mm2 (d) 10 N/mm2
Pr 2 × 12.5
IAS-2. Ans. (c) σ= = = 5 N/mm 2
2t 2 × 2.5
IAS-3. A thin cylindrical shell of mean diameter 750 mm and wall thickness 10 mm has
its ends rigidly closed by flat steel plates. The shell is subjected to internal
fluid pressure of 10 N/mm2 and an axial external pressure P1. If the
t.in
longitudinal stress in the shell is to be zero, what should be the approximate
value of P1? [IAS-2007]
(a) 8 N/mm2 (b) 9 N/mm2 (c) 10 N/mm2 (d) 12 N/mm2
⎛ π × 7502 ⎞
10 × ⎜ ⎟
⎝ 4 ⎠
po
IAS-3. Ans. (c) Tensile longitudinal stress due to internal fluid pressure ( δ 1) t =
π × 750 ×10
tensile. Compressive longitudinal stress due to external pressure p1 ( δ l)c =
⎛ π × 750 ⎞
2
P1 × ⎜ ⎟
gs
⎝ 4 ⎠ compressive. For zero longitudinal stress ( δ ) = ( δ ) .
l t l c
π × 750 × 10
IAS-4. Assertion (A): A thin cylindrical shell is subjected to internal fluid pressure
that induces a 2-D stress state in the material along the longitudinal and
blo
circumferential directions. [IAS-2000]
Reason(R): The circumferential stress in the thin cylindrical shell is two times
the magnitude of longitudinal stress.
.

tas

Pr Pr
IAS-4. Ans. (b) For thin cell σc = σl =
t 2t
lda
IAS-5. Match List-I (Terms used in thin cylinder stress analysis) with List-II
(Mathematical expressions) and select the correct answer using the codes
given below the lists: [IAS-1998]
List-I List-II
A. Hoop stress 1. pd/4t
B. Maximum shear stress 2. pd/2t
vi
C. Longitudinal stress 3. pd/2σ

D. Cylinder thickness 4. pd/8t
Ci
(a) 2 3 1 4 (b) 2 3 4 1
(c) 2 4 3 1 (d) 2 4 1 3
IAS-5. Ans. (d)
Longitudinal stress
IAS-6. Assertion (A): For a thin cylinder under internal pressure, At least three strain
gauges is needed to know the stressPage 316 of
state 429
completely at any point on the shell.
Reason (R): If the principal stresses directions are not know, the minimum
number of strain gauges needed is three in a biaxial field. [IAS-2001]
IAS-6. Ans. (d) For thin cylinder, variation of radial strain is zero. So only circumferential and
longitudinal strain has to measurer so only two strain gauges are needed.
Maximum shear stress
t.in
IAS-7. The maximum shear stress is induced in a thin-walled cylindrical shell having
an internal diameter 'D' and thickness’t’ when subject to an internal pressure
'p' is equal to: [IAS-1996]
(a) pD/t (b) pD/2t (c) pD/4t (d) pD/8t
PD PD σ − σ l PD
IAS-7. Ans. (d) Hoop stress(σ c ) = and Longitudinalstress(σ l ) = ∴τ max = c =
2t 4t 2 8t
po
Volumetric strain
IAS-8. Circumferential and longitudinal strains in a cylindrical boiler under internal
steam pressure are ε1 and ε2
gs respectively. Change in volume of the boiler
cylinder per unit volume will be: [IES-1993; IAS 2003]

blo
(a) ε1 + 2ε 2 (b) ε1ε 22 (c) 2ε 1 + ε 2 (d) ε 12ε 2
IAS-8. Ans. (c) Volumetric stream = 2 x circumferential strain + longitudinal strain.
IAS-9. The volumetric strain in case of a thin cylindrical shell of diameter d, thickness
t, subjected to internal pressure p is: [IES-2003; IAS 1997]
.
pd pd pd pd
(a) . ( 3 − 2 μ ) (b) . ( 4 − 3μ ) (c) . ( 5 − 4μ ) (d) . ( 4 − 5μ )
tas
2tE 3tE 4tE 4tE

(Where E = Modulus of elasticity, μ = Poisson's ratio for the shell material)
IAS-9. Ans. (c) Remember it.
lda
IAS-10. A thin cylinder of diameter ‘d’ and thickness 't' is subjected to an internal
pressure 'p' the change in diameter is (where E is the modulus of elasticity and
μ is the Poisson's ratio) [IAS-1998]
2 2 2 2
pd pd pd pd
(a) (2 − μ ) (b) (1 + μ ) (c) (2 + μ ) (d) (2 + μ )
vi
4tE 2tE tE 4tE

IAS-10. Ans. (a)
Ci
IAS-11. The percentage change in volume of a thin cylinder under internal pressure
having hoop stress = 200 MPa, E = 200 GPa and Poisson's ratio = 0·25 is:
[IAS-2002]
(a) 0.40 (b) 0·30 (c) 0·25 (d) 0·20
Pr
IAS-11. Ans. (d) Hoop stress (σ t ) = = 200 × 106 Pa
t Page 317 of 429
Pr σ
Volumetric strain (ev ) = ( 5 − 4μ ) = t ( 5 − 4μ )
2 Et 2E
200 ×10 6
2
9 (
= 5 − 4 × 0.25 ) =
2 × 200 × 10 1000
IAS-12. A round bar of length l, elastic modulus E and Poisson's ratio μ is subjected to
an axial pull 'P'. What would be the change in volume of the bar? [IAS-2007]
Pl Pl (1 − 2 μ ) Pl μ Pl
(a) (b) (c) (d)
(1 − 2μ ) E E E μE
t.in
IAS-12. Ans. (b)
P
σx = , σ y = 0 and σ z = 0
A
σx σx
or ε x = , ε y = −μ
po
E E
σx
and ε z = − μ
E
σx P
or ε v = ε x + ε y + ε z = (1 − 2μ ) = (1 − 2μ )
E
Pl
gs
AE
δ V = ε v × V = ε v . Al = (1 − 2μ )
E
blo
IAS-13. If a block of material of length 25 cm. breadth 10 cm and height 5 cm undergoes
a volumetric strain of 1/5000, then change in volume will be: [IAS-2000]
(a) 0.50 cm3 (b) 0.25 cm3 (c) 0.20 cm3 (d) 0.75 cm3
IAS-13. Ans. (b)
.
tas
Volume change(δV)
Volumetricstrain(ε v ) =
Initial volume(V)
1
or (δ V ) = ε v × V = × 25 × 10 × 5 = 0.25cm3
5000
vi lda
Ci
Page 318 of 429

Question: A thin cylinder of 100 mm internal diameter and 5 mm thickness is subjected
to an internal pressure of 10 MPa and a torque of 2000 Nm. Calculate the
magnitudes of the principal stresses.
Answer: Given: d = 100 mm = 0.1 m; t = 5 mm = 0.005 m; D = d + 2t = 0.1 + 2 x 0.005 =
0.11 m p = 10 MPa, 10 x 106N/m2; T= 2000 Nm.
pd 10 × 106 × 0.1
Longitudinal stress, σ l = σ x = = = 50 × 106 N / m2 = 50MN / m2
t.in
4t 4 × 0.005
pd 10 × 106 × 0.1
Circumferential stress, σ c = σ y = = = 100MN / m2
2t 2 × 0.005
To find the shear stress, using Torsional equation,
T τ
po
= , we have
J R
TR T ×R 2000 × ( 0.05 + 0.005 )
τ = τ xy = = = = 24.14MN / m2
π π
J
32
(
D4 − d4
32
) 0.114 − 0.14
gs ( )
Principal stresses are:
2
σx + σy ⎛σx −σy ⎞
⎟ + (τ xy )
2
σ 1,2 = ± ⎜
2 2 ⎠
blo
⎝
2
50 + 100 ⎛ 50 − 100 ⎞
+ ( 24.14 )
2
= ± ⎜ ⎟
2 ⎝ 2 ⎠
= 75 ± 34.75 = 109.75 and 40.25MN / m2
σ 1 (Major principal stress ) = 109.75MN / m2 ;
.
tas
σ 2 ( min or principal stress ) = 40.25MN / m2 ;

Question: A thin cylindrical pressure vessel of inside radius ‘r’ and thickness of metal ‘t’
lda
is subject to an internal fluid pressure p. What are the values of

(i) Maximum normal stress?
(ii) Maximum shear stress?
p.r
Answer: Circumferential (Hoop) stress (σc ) =
vi
t
p.r
Longitudinal stress (σ )==
2t
Ci
σc − σ p.r
Therefore (ii) Maximum shear stress, ( τ max) = =
2 4t
Question: A thin cylindrical vessel of internal diameter d and thickness t is closed at
both ends is subjected to an internal pressure P. How much would be the
hoop and longitudinal stress in the material?
Page 319 of 429
Answer: For thin cylinder we know that
Pd
Hoop or circumferential stress (σ c ) =
2t
Pd
And longitudinal stress (σ ) =
4t
Therefore σ c = 2σ

Q. A cylindrical shell has the following dimensions:
Length = 3 m
Inside diameter = 1 m
t.in
Thickness of metal = 10 mm
Internal pressure = 1.5 MPa
Calculate the change in dimensions of the shell and the maximum intensity of
shear stress induced. Take E = 200 GPa and Poisson’s ratio ν = 0.3 [15-Marks]
Ans. We can consider this as a thin cylinder.
po
pd
Hoop stresses, σ1 =
2t
pd
Longitudinal stresses, σ2 =
4t gs
σ1 − σ 2
Shear stress =
2
pd
=
blo
8t
Hence from the given data
1.5 × 106 × 1
σ1 = −3
= 0.75 × 108
2 × 10 × 10
= 75 MPa
1.5 × 106 × 1
.
σ2 = = 37.5 × 106
tas
−3
4 × 10 × 10
= 37.5 MPa
ε1 Hoop strain
1
ε1 = ( σ − vσ2 )
E 1
lda
Pd
= (2 − v )
4tE
1.5 × 106 × 1
= ( 2 − 0.3 )
4 × 10 × 10−3 × 200 × 109
vi
37.5 × 106
= ( 2 − 0.3 )
200 × 109
= 0.31875 × 10−3
Ci
Δd
= 0.3187 × 10−3
d
∴ change in diameter,
Δd = 1 × 0.31875 × 10−3 m
= 0.31875 mm
Page 320 of 429
Logitudinal strain, ε2
pd
∈2 = (1 − 2v )
4tE
37.5 × 106
= (1 − 2 × 0.3)
200 × 109
= 7.5 × 10−5
Δl
= 7.5 × 10−5
l
or Δl = 7.5 × 10−5 × 3
t.in
= 2.25 × 10−4 m = 0.225mm
⇒ Change in length = 0.225 mm and maximum shear stress,

pd 1.5 × 106 × 1
σ= =
8t 8 × 10 × 10−3
po
= 18.75 MPa
Conventional Question IES-1998 gs

Question: A thin cylinder with closed ends has an internal diameter of 50 mm and a
wall thickness of 2.5 mm. It is subjected to an axial pull of 10 kN and a torque
of 500 Nm while under an internal pressure of 6 MN/m2
(i) Determine the principal stresses in the tube and the maximum shear
blo
stress.
(ii) Represent the stress configuration on a square element taken in the load
direction with direction and magnitude indicated; (schematic).
Answer: Given: d = 50 mm = 0.05 m D = d + 2t = 50 + 2 x 2.5 = 55 mm = 0.055 m;
Axial pull, P = 10 kN; T= 500 Nm; p = 6MN/m2
.
(i) Principal stresses ( σ 1,2 ) in the tube and the maximum shear stress ( t max ):
tas
pd P 6 × 106 × 0.05 10 × 103

σx = + = +
4t π dt 4 × 2.5 × 10 −3
π × 0.05 × 2.5 × 10−3
= 30 × 106 + 25.5 × 106 = 55.5 × 106 N / m2
lda
pd 6 × 106 × 0.05
σy = = = 60 × 106
2t 2 × 2.5 × 10−3
Principal stresses are:
⎛σx + σy ⎞ ⎛σx −σy ⎞ 2
σ 1,2 = ⎜ ⎟± ⎜ ⎟ + τ xy − − − (1)
vi
⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠
T τ
Us e Torsional equation, = − − − (i)
J R
Ci
π π ⎡
where J =
32
(D 4
)
− d4 =
32 ⎣
( 0.055 ) − ( 0.05 ) ⎤ = 2.848 × 10−7 m4
4 4
⎦
( J = polar moment of in ertia )
Substituting the values in ( i ) , we get
Page 321 of 429
500 τ
=
2.848 × 10−7 ( 0.055 / 2 )
500 × ( 0.055 / 2 )
or τ= = 48.28 × 106 N / m2
2.848 × 10−7
Now, substituting the various values in eqn. (i), we have
⎛ 55.5 × 106 + 60 × 106 ⎞ ⎛ 55.5 × 106 − 60 × 106 ⎞
( )
2
σ 1,2 = ⎜ ⎟ ± ⎜ ⎟ + 48.28 × 10
6
⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠
(55.5 + 60) × 106
= ± 4.84 × 1012 + 2330.96 × 1012
2
t.in
= 57.75 × 106 ± 48.33 × 106 = 106.08MN / m2 ,9.42MN / m2
Principal stresses are : σ 1 = 106.08MN / m2 ; σ 2 = 9.42MN / m2
σ1 − σ 2 106.08 − 9.42
Maximum shear stress,τ max = = = 48.33MN / m2
2 2
(ii) Stress configuration on a square element :
po
gs
. blo
tas
vi lda
Ci
Page 322 of 429
11. Thick Cylinder

1. Thick cylinder
Inner dia of the cylinder (d i )
< 15 or 20
wall thickness (t)
t.in
2. General Expression
po
gs
. blo
3. Difference between the analysis of stresses in thin & thick cylinders

tas
• In thin cylinders, it is assumed that the tangential stress σ t is uniformly distributed over
the cylinder wall thickness.
In thick cylinder, the tangential stress σ t has the highest magnitude at the inner surface of
lda
the cylinder & gradually decreases towards the outer surface.
• The radial stress σr is neglected in thin cylinders while it is of significant magnitude in case
of thick cylinders.
vi
4. Strain
Ci
du
• Radial strain, ∈r = .
dr
u
• Circumferential /Tangential strain ∈t =
r
σz ⎛σ σ ⎞
• Axial strain, ∈z = −μ⎜ r + t ⎟
E ⎝ E E ⎠ Page 323 of 429
Chapter-11 Thick Cylinder S K Mondal’s
5. Stress
pi ri 2
• Axial stress, σ z = 2
r0 − ri 2
B
• Radial stress, σr = A−
r2
B
• Circumferential /Tangential stress, σt = A +
r2
t.in
[Note: Radial stress always compressive so its magnitude always –ive. But in some books they
B
assume that compressive radial stress is positive and they use, σr = − A]
r2
po
6. Boundary Conditions
At r = ri , σ r = − pi
At r = ro σ r = − po
gs
p r2 − p r2 ri 2 ro2
7. A = i i 2 2o o and B = ( pi − po ) 2 2
blo
ro − ri (ro − ri )
8. Cylinders with internal pressure (pi) i.e. po = 0

.
pi ri 2
σz = 2 2
tas
•
r0 − ri
pi ri 2 ⎡ r02 ⎤
• σr = − ⎢ − 1⎥ [ -ive means compressive stress]
r02 − ri 2 ⎣ r 2 ⎦
lda
pi ri 2 ⎡ r02 ⎤
• σt = + ⎢ 2 + 1⎥
r02 − ri 2 ⎣r ⎦
vi
(a) At the inner surface of the cylinder

(i ) r = ri
(ii ) σ r = − pi
Ci
pi (ro2 + ri 2 )
(iii ) σ t = +
ro2 − ri 2
ro2
(iv) τ max = . pi
ro2 − ri 2
(b) At the outer surface of the cylinder
Page 324 of 429
(i ) r = ro
(ii ) σ r = 0
2pi ri2
(iii ) σ t = 2 2
ro − ri
(c) Radial and circumferential stress distribution within the cylinder wall when only
internal pressure acts.
t.in
9. Cylinders with External Pressure (po) i.e. pi = 0
po
po ro2 ⎡ ri 2 ⎤
gs
• σr = − ⎢i − 2 ⎥
ro2 − ri 2 ⎣ r ⎦
blo
po ro2 ⎡ ri 2 ⎤
• σ t = − 2 2 ⎢i + 2 ⎥
ro − ri ⎣ r ⎦
(a) At the inner surface of the cylinder
.
(i) r = ri
tas
(ii) σr = o
2 po ro2
(iii) σt = −
ro2 − ri 2
lda
(b) At the outer surface of the cylinder

(i) r = ro
(ii) σ r = − po
po (ro2 + ri 2 )
vi
(iii) σt = − 2 2
ro − ri
(c) Distribution of radial and circumferential stresses within the cylinder wall when
Ci
only external pressure acts
Page 325 of 429
t.in
10. Lame's Equation [for Brittle Material, open or closed end]
There is a no of equations for the design of thick cylinders. The choice of equation depends upon two
parameters.
• Cylinder Material (Whether brittle or ductile)
po
• Condition of Cylinder ends (open or closed)
When the material of the cylinder is brittle, such as cast iron or cast steel, Lame's Equation is used to
determine the wall thickness. Condition of cylinder ends may open or closed.
gs
It is based on maximum principal stress theory of failure.
There principal stresses at the inner surface of the cylinder are as follows: (i) (ii) & (iii)
blo
(i ) σ r = − pi
pi (r02 + ri 2 )
(ii ) σ t = +
r02 − ri 2
.
pi ri 2
(iii ) σ z = + 2 2
tas
ro − ri
• σt >σz >σr
ro σ t + pi
• σ t is the criterion of design =
lda
ri σ t − pi
• For ro = ri + t
⎡ σ +p ⎤
• t = ri × ⎢ t i
− 1⎥ ( Lame ' s Equation)
vi
⎣⎢ σ t − pi ⎥⎦
σ ult
• σt =
Ci
fos
11. Clavarino's Equation [for cylinders with closed end & made of ductile material]
When the material of a cylinder is ductile, such as mild steel or alloy steel, maximum strain theory
of failure is used (St. Venant's theory) is used.
Three principal stresses at the inner surface of the cylinder are as follows (i) (ii) & (iii)
Page 326 of 429
(i ) σ r = − pi
pi (ro2 + ri 2 )
(ii )σ t = +
(ro2 − ri 2 )
pi ri 2
(iii )σ z = +
(ro2 − ri 2 )
1
• ∈t = ⎡σ t − (σ r + σ z ) ⎤
E⎣ ⎦
σ σ yld / fos
t.in
• ∈t = =
E E
σ yld
• Or σ = σ t − μ (σ r + σ z ). Where σ =
fos
• σ is the criterion of design
po
ro σ + (1 − 2μ ) pi
=
ri σ − (1 + μ ) pi
• For ro = ri + t
gs
⎡ σ + (1 − 2 μ ) pi ⎤
t = ri ⎢ − 1⎥ ( Clavarion's Equation )
⎣ σ − (1 + μ ) pi
blo
⎦
12. Birne's Equation [for cylinders with open end & made of ductile material]
When the material of a cylinder is ductile, such as mild steel or alloy steel, maximum strain theory
.
of failure is used (St. Venant's theory) is used.

tas
Three principal stresses at the inner surface of the cylinder are as follows (i) (ii) & (iii)
(i ) σ r = − pi
pi (ro2 + ri 2 )
lda
(ii )σ t = +
(ro2 − ri 2 )
(iii )σ z = 0
σ yld
• σ = σ t − μσ r where σ =
vi
fos
• σ is the criterion of design
σ + (1 − μ ) pi
Ci
ro
=
ri σ − (1 + μ ) pi
• For ro = ri + t
⎡ σ + (1 − μ ) pi ⎤
t = ri × ⎢ − 1⎥ (Birnie's Equation)
⎣ σ − (1 + μ ) pi ⎦
Page 327 of 429
13. Barlow’s equation: [for high pressure gas pipe brittle or ductile material]
pi
t = ro [GAIL exam 2004]
σt
σy
Where σ t = for ductile material
fos
σ ult
= for brittle material
fos
14. Compound Cylinder (A cylinder & A Jacket)
t.in
• When two cylindrical parts are assembled by shrinking or press-fitting, a contact pressure is
created between the two parts. If the radii of the inner cylinder are a and c and that of the
outer cylinder are (c- δ ) and b, δ being the radial interference the contact pressure is given
by:
po
Eδ ⎢ (b − c ) (c − a ) ⎥
⎡ 2 2 2 2 ⎤
P= ⎢ ⎥ Where E is the Young's modulus of the material

c ⎢ 2c 2 (b 2 − a 2 ) ⎥
⎣ ⎦
• The inner diameter of the jacket is slightly smaller than the outer diameter of cylinder
•
gs
When the jacket is heated, it expands sufficiently to move over the cylinder
• As the jacket cools, it tends to contract onto the inner cylinder, which induces residual
compressive stress.
blo
• There is a shrinkage pressure 'P' between the cylinder and the jacket.
• The pressure 'P' tends to contract the cylinder and expand the jacket
• The shrinkage pressure 'P' can be evaluated from the above equation for a given amount of
interference δ
.
tas
• The resultant stresses in a compound cylinder are found by supervision losing the 2- stresses
stresses due to shrink fit
stresses due to internal pressure
Derivation:
vi lda
Ci
Due to interference let us assume δ j = increase in inner diameter

of jacket and δc = decrease in outer diameter of cylinder.
so δ= δ j + δc i.e. without sign.
Page 328 of 429
Now δ j =∈ j c ⎡ ⎤
⎣⎢∈ j = tangential strain⎥⎦
1
= [ σt − µσr ] c
E
⎡ ⎤
⎢σ t =circumferential stress⎥
⎢ ⎥
cP ⎡⎢ b 2 + c 2 ⎤ ⎢ p(b2 +c 2 ) ⎥
= + µ⎥ − − − ( i ) ⎢ + ⎥
E ⎢⎣ b − c
2 2 ⎥
⎦
⎢ ( b 2
-c 2
) ⎥
⎢ ⎥
⎢ ⎥
⎢⎣σ r =-p (radial stress) ⎥⎦
⎡ 2 2 ⎤
⎢ σ t = − p(c + a ) ⎥
t.in
1 ⎢
And in similar way δc =∈c c =
E
[ σt − µσ r ]c ⎢ (c 2 − a2 ) ⎥⎥
⎢ ⎥
⎢⎣ σ r = −p ⎥⎦
cP ⎡⎢ c 2 + a 2 ⎤⎥
=- - µ − − − (ii ) Here -ive signrepresents contraction
E ⎢⎣ c 2 − a 2 ⎥⎦
po
Adding ( i ) & ( ii )
Pc ⎡ 2c 2 ( b 2 − a 2 ) ⎤ E δ ⎡⎢ (b 2 − c 2 )(c 2 − a 2 ) ⎤⎥
∴ δ = δ j + δc = ⎢ 2 ⎥ or P =
E ⎢ (b − c 2 )(c 2 − a 2 ) ⎥ c ⎢⎣ 2c 2 (b 2 − a 2 ) ⎥⎦
⎣ ⎦ gs
15. Autofrettage
blo
Autofrettage is a process of pre-stressing the cylinder before using it in operation.
We know that when the cylinder is subjected to internal pressure, the circumferential stress at the
inner surface limits the pressure carrying capacity of the cylinder.
In autofrettage pre-stressing develops a residual compressive stresses at the inner surface. When
.
the cylinder is actually loaded in operation, the residual compressive stresses at the inner surface
tas
begin to decrease, become zero and finally become tensile as the pressure is gradually increased.
Thus autofrettage increases the pressure carrying capacity of the cylinder.
lda
16. Rotating Disc

The radial & circumferential (tangential) stresses in a rotating disc of uniform thickness are given
by
vi
ρω 2 ⎛ 2 R02 Ri2 ⎞
σr = ( 3 + μ ) ⎜ R0 + Ri − 2 − r 2 ⎟
2
8 ⎝ r ⎠
Ci
ρω 2 ⎛ R02 Ri2 1 + 3μ 2 ⎞
σt = ( 3 + μ ) ⎜ R02 + Ri2 + − .r ⎟
8 ⎝ r2 3+ μ ⎠
Where Ri = Internal radius
Ro = External radius
ρ = Density of the disc material
ω = Angular speed Page 329 of 429
μ = Poisson's ratio.
⎛ 3+ μ ⎞ 2 ⎡ 2 ⎛ 1− μ ⎞ 2 ⎤
Or, Hoop’s stress, σt = ⎜ ⎟ .ρω . ⎢ R0 + ⎜ ⎟ Ri ⎥
⎝ 4 ⎠ ⎣ ⎝ 3 + μ ⎠ ⎦
⎛ 3+ μ ⎞
Radial stress, σr = ⎜ ⎟ .ρω ⎡⎣ R0 − Ri ⎤⎦
2 2 2
⎝ 8 ⎠
t.in
po
gs
. blo
tas
vi lda
Ci
Page 330 of 429
Lame's theory
GATE-1. A thick cylinder is subjected to an internal pressure of 60 MPa. If the hoop
stress on the outer surface is 150 MPa, then the hoop stress on the internal
t.in
surface is: [GATE-1996; IES-2001]
GATE-1. Ans. (c) If internal pressure = pi; External pressure = zero
p r2 ⎡r2 ⎤
Circumferential or hoop stress (σc) = 2 i i 2 ⎢ o2 + 1⎥
ro − ri ⎣ r ⎦
At pi = 60MPa, σ c = 150MPa and r = ro
po
2
r2 ⎡ ro2 ⎤ ri2 r2 150 5 ⎛r ⎞ 9
∴ 150 = 60 2 i 2 ⎢ 2 + 1⎥ = 120 2 2 or 2 i 2 = = or ⎜ o ⎟ =
ro − ri ⎣ ro ⎦ ro − ri ro − ri 120 4 ⎝ ri ⎠ 5
∴ at r = ri
σ c = 60
ri2
ro2 − ri2
⎡ ro2 ⎤ 5 ⎛9 ⎞
gs
⎢ 2 + 1⎥ = 60 × × ⎜ + 1⎟ = 210 MPa
⎣ ri ⎦ 4 ⎝5 ⎠
blo
Thick cylinder
IES-1. If a thick cylindrical shell is subjected to internal pressure, then hoop stress,
.
radial stress and longitudinal stress at a point in the thickness will be:
tas
(a) Tensile, compressive and compressive respectively [IES-1999]

(b) All compressive
(c) All tensile
(d) Tensile, compressive and tensile respectively
IES-1. Ans. (d) Hoop stress – tensile, radial stress – compressive and longitudinal stress – tensile.
vi lda
Ci
Radial and circumferential stress Distribution of radial and circumferential

distribution within the cylinder wall stresses within the cylinder wall when only
when only internal pressure acts. external pressure acts.
IES-2. Where does the maximum hoop stress in a thick cylinder under external
pressure occur? [IES-2008]
(a) At the outer surface (b) At the inner surface
(c) At the mid-thickness (d) At the 2/3rd outer radius
Page 331 of 429
IES-2. Ans. (b)
Circumferential or hoop stress = σ t
IES-3. In a thick cylinder pressurized from inside, the hoop stress is maximum at
t.in
(a) The centre of the wall thickness (b) The outer radius [IES-1998]
(c) The inner radius (d) Both the inner and the outer radii
IES-3. Ans. (c)
IES-4. Where does the maximum hoop stress in a thick cylinder under external
pressure occur? [IES-2008]
po
(a) At the outer surface (b) At the inner surface
(c) At the mid-thickness (d) At the 2/3rd outer radius
IES-4. Ans. (a) Maximum hoop stress in thick cylinder under external pressure occur at the outer
surface.
gs
. blo
tas
IES-5. A thick-walled hollow cylinder having outside and inside radii of 90 mm and 40
mm respectively is subjected to an external pressure of 800 MN/m2. The
maximum circumferential stress in the cylinder will occur at a radius of
[IES-1998]
lda
(a) 40 mm (b) 60 mm (c) 65 mm (d) 90 mm

IES-5. Ans. (a)
IES-6. In a thick cylinder, subjected to internal and external pressures, let r1 and r2 be
the internal and external radii respectively. Let u be the radial displacement of
a material element at radius r, r2 ≥ r ≥ r1 . Identifying the cylinder axis as z axis,
vi
the radial strain component ε rr is: [IES-1996]

(a) u/r (b)u /θ (c) du/dr (d) du/dθ
Ci
IES-6. Ans. (c) The strains εr and εθ may be given by
Page 332 of 429
∂ur 1
εr = = ⎡σ r − vσ θ ⎤⎦ since σ z = 0
∂r E ⎣
εθ =
( r + ur ) Δθ − rΔθ = ur = 1 σ − vσ
⎡ θ r⎤
r Δθ r E ⎣ ⎦
Representation of radial and

circumferential strain.
t.in
Lame's theory
IES-7. A thick cylinder is subjected to an internal pressure of 60 MPa. If the hoop
stress on the outer surface is 150 MPa, then the hoop stress on the internal
surface is: [GATE-1996; IES-2001]
po
IES-7. Ans. (c) If internal pressure = pi; External pressure = zero

p r2 ⎡r2 ⎤
Circumferential or hoop stress (σc) = 2 i i 2 ⎢ o2 + 1⎥
gs
ro − ri ⎣ r ⎦
At pi = 60MPa, σ c = 150MPa and r = ro
2
ri2 ⎡ ro2 ⎤ ri2 ri2 150 5 ⎛r ⎞ 9
∴ 150 = 60 ⎢ 2 + 1⎥ = 120 or = = or ⎜ o ⎟ =
ro2 − ri2 ⎣ ro ro2 − ri2 ro2 − ri2 120 4 r 5
blo
⎦ ⎝ i ⎠
∴ at r = ri
ri2 ⎡ ro2 ⎤ 5 ⎛9 ⎞
σ c = 60 ⎢ 2 + 1⎥ = 60 × × ⎜ + 1⎟ = 210 MPa
r − ri2
2
o ⎣ir ⎦ 4 ⎝5 ⎠
IES-8. A hollow pressure vessel is subject to internal pressure. [IES-2005]

.
Consider the following statements:

tas
1. Radial stress at inner radius is always zero.

2. Radial stress at outer radius is always zero.
3. The tangential stress is always higher than other stresses.
4. The tangential stress is always lower than other stresses.
lda
(a) 1 and 3 (b) 1 and 4 (c) 2 and 3 (d) 2 and 4

IES-8. Ans. (c)
IES-9. A thick open ended cylinder as shown in the

figure is made of a material with permissible
normal and shear stresses 200 MPa and 100 MPa
vi
respectively. The ratio of permissible pressure

based on the normal and shear stress is:
[di = 10 cm; do = 20 cm]
(a) 9/5 (b) 8/5
Ci
(c) 7/5 (d) 4/5

[IES-2002]
IES-9. Ans. (b)
Longitudinal and shear stress

IES-10. A thick cylinder of internal radius and external radius a and b is subjected to
internal pressure p as well as external pressure p. Which one of the following
statements is correct? Page 333 of 429 [IES-2004]
The magnitude of circumferential stress developed is:
(a) Maximum at radius r = a (b) Maximum at radius r = b
(c) Maximum at radius r = ab (d) Constant
IES-10. Ans. (d)
B Pr 2 − P r 2 Pa2 − Pb2
σc = A + 2 A = i i 2 2o o = = −P
r ro − ri b2 − a2
(Pi − Po ) ro2ri2
∴σc = −P B= =o
ro2 − ri2

In a thick walled cylindrical pressure vessel subjected to internal pressure, the
Tangential and radial stresses are:
1. Minimum at outer side
t.in
2. Minimum at inner side
3. Maximum at inner side and both reduce to zero at outer wall
4. Maximum at inner wall but the radial stress reduces to zero at outer wall
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
(a) 1 and 2 (b) 1 and 3 (c) 1 and 4 (d) 4 only
IES-11. Ans. (c)
po
IES-12. Consider the following statements at given point in the case of thick cylinder
subjected to fluid pressure: [IES-2006]
1. Radial stress is compressive
2. Hoop stress is tensile gs
3. Hoop stress is compressive
4. Longitudinal stress is tensile and it varies along the length
5. Longitudinal stress is tensile and remains constant along the length of the
cylinder
blo
(a) Only 1, 2 and 4 (b) Only 3 and 4 (c) Only 1,2 and 5 (d) Only 1,3 and 5
IES-12. Ans. (c) 3. For internal fluid pressure Hoop or circumferential stress is tensile.
4. Longitudinal stress is tensile and remains constant along the length of the cylinder.
IES-13. A thick cylinder with internal diameter d and outside diameter 2d is subjected
.
to internal pressure p. Then the maximum hoop stress developed in the

cylinder is: [IES-2003]
tas
2 5
(a) p (b) p (c) p (d) 2p
3 3
IES-13. Ans. (c) In thick cylinder, maximum hoop stress
2
⎛d ⎞
d +⎜ ⎟ 2
lda
r +r
2 2
⎝2⎠ =5 p
σ hoop = p × 22 12 = p ×
r2 − r1 ⎛d⎞
2
3
d2 −⎜ ⎟
⎝2⎠
vi
Compound or shrunk cylinder

IES-14. Autofrettage is a method of: [IES-1996; 2005; 2006]
(a) Joining thick cylinders (b) Relieving stresses from thick cylinders
Ci
(c) Pre-stressing thick cylinders (d) Increasing the life of thick cylinders
IES-14. Ans. (c)
List-I List-II
A. Wire winding 1. Hydrostatic stress
B. Lame's theory 2. Strengthening of thin cylindrical shell
C. Solid sphere subjected to uniform Page 3343.of 429
Strengthening of thick cylindrical shell
pressure on the surface
D. Autofrettage 4. Thick cylinders
Coeds: A B C D A B C D
(a) 4 2 1 3 (b) 4 2 3 1
(c) 2 4 3 1 (d) 2 4 1 3
IES-15. Ans. (d)
IES-16. If the total radial interference between two cylinders forming a compound
cylinder is δ and Young's modulus of the materials of the cylinders is E, then
the interface pressure developed at the interface between two cylinders of the
same material and same length is: [IES-2005]
(a) Directly proportional of E x δ (b) Inversely proportional of E/ δ
(c) Directly proportional of E/ δ (d) Inversely proportional of E / δ
t.in
IES-16. Ans. (a)
δ =
PD2 ⎢
⎡ (
2D22 D32 − D12 )
⎤
⎥
( )(
E ⎢ ⎡ D32 − D22 D22 − D12 ⎤ ⎥
⎣⎣ ⎦⎦ )
∴ P α E.δ
Alternatively : if E ↑ then P ↑
po
and if δ ↑ then P ↑ so P α Eδ
gs
blo
IES-17. A compound cylinder with inner radius 5 cm and outer radius 7 cm is made by
shrinking one cylinder on to the other cylinder. The junction radius is 6 cm
.
and the junction pressure is 11 kgf/cm2. The maximum hoop stress developed in
tas
the inner cylinder is: [IES-1994]

(a) 36 kgf/cm2 compression (b) 36 kgf/cm2 tension
(c) 72 kgf/cm2 compression (d) 72 kgf/cm2 tension.
IES-17. Ans. (c)
lda
Thick Spherical Shell

IES-18. The hemispherical end of a pressure vessel is fastened to the cylindrical
portion of the pressure vessel with the help of gasket, bolts and lock nuts. The
bolts are subjected to: [IES-2003]
(a) Tensile stress (b) Compressive stress (c) Shear stress (d) Bearing stress
vi
IES-18. Ans. (a)

Ci
Longitudinal and shear stress

IAS-1. A solid thick cylinder is subjected to an external hydrostatic pressure p. The
state of stress in the material of the cylinder is represented as: [IAS-1995]
Page 335 of 429
t.in
IAS-1. Ans. (c)
po
gs
blo
Distribution of radial and circumferential stresses within the cylinder wall when only
external pressure acts.
.
tas
vi lda
Ci
Page 336 of 429

Question: The pressure within the cylinder of a hydraulic press is 9 MPa. The inside
diameter of the cylinder is 25 mm. Determine the thickness of the cylinder
wall, if the permissible tensile stress is 18 N/mm2
Answer: Given: P = 9 MPa = 9 N/mm2, Inside radius, r1 = 12.5 mm;
σ t = 18 N/mm2
Thickness of the cylinder:
⎡r2 + r2 ⎤
t.in
Usin g the equation;σ t = p ⎢ 22 12 ⎥ , we have
⎣ r2 − r1 ⎦
⎡ r 2 + 12.52 ⎤
18 = 9 ⎢ 22 2 ⎥
⎣ r2 − 12.5 ⎦
or r2 = 21.65mm
po
∴ Thickness of the cylinder = r2 − r1 = 21.65 − 12.5 = 9.15 mm

Q. A spherical shell of 150 mm internal diameter has to withstand an internal
gs
pressure of 30 MN/m2. Calculate the thickness of the shell if the allowable
stress is 80 MN/m2.
Assume the stress distribution in the shell to follow the law
2b b
σr = a − and σ 0 = a + . [10 Marks]
blo
r3 r3
Ans. A spherical shell of 150 mm internal diameter internal pressure = 30 MPa.

Allowable stress = 80 MN/m2
2b
Assume radial stress = σr = a −
r3
.
b
tas
Circumference stress = σθ = a + 3
r
At internal diameter (r)
vi lda
Ci
Page 337 of 429
σr = −30N / mm2
σθ = 80N / mm2
2b
−30 = a − ..............(i)
(75)3
b
80 = a + .................(ii)
(75)3
Soluing eq n (i)&(ii)
110 × 753 130
t.in
b= a=
3 3
At outer Radius (R) radial stress should be zero
2b
o=a−
R3
po
2b 2 × 110 × 753
R3 = = = 713942.3077
a 130
3×
3
R = 89.376mm
There fore thickness of cylinder = (R − r)
gs
= 89.376 − 75 = 14.376mm
blo
Question: A thick spherical vessel of inner 'radius 150 mm is subjected to an internal
pressure of 80 MPa. Calculate its wall thickness based upon the
(i) Maximum principal stress theory, and
(ii) Total strain energy theory.
Poisson's ratio = 0.30, yield strength = 300 MPa
.
Answer: Given:
tas
1
r1 = 150mm; p (σ r ) = 80MPa = 80 × 106 N / m2 ; μ = = 0.30;
m
σ = 300MPa = 300 × 106 N / m2
Wall thickness t :
lda
(i) Maximum principal stress theory :

⎛ K 2 + 1⎞ ⎛ r2 ⎞
We know that,σ r ⎜ 2 ⎟ ≤σ ⎜ Where K = ⎟
⎝ K − 1⎠ ⎝ r1 ⎠
⎛ K 2 + 1⎞
or 80 × 106 ⎜ 2 ⎟ ≤ 300 × 10
6
vi
⎝ K − 1⎠
or K ≥ 1.314
or K = 1.314
Ci
r2
i.e. = 1.314 or r2 = r1 × 1.314 = 150 × 1.314 = 197.1mm
r1
∴ Metal thickness, t = r2 − r1 = 197.1 − 150 = 47.1 mm
(ii) Total strain energy theory:
Use σ + σ − μσ σ ≤ σ y2
2
1
2
2 1 2
Page 338 of 429
2σ r2 ⎡⎣K 4 (1 + μ ) + (1 − μ ) ⎤⎦
σ2 ≥
(K )
2
2
−1
( ) ⎡⎣K 4 (1 + 03 ) + (1 − 0.3 ) ⎤⎦
2
2 × 80 × 106
∴ ( 300 × 10 ) 6 2
≥
(K )
2
2
−1
( ) ( + 0.7 )
2
or 3002 K 2 − 1 = 2 × 802 1.3K 4
gives K = 1.86 or 0.59
It is clear that K > 1
t.in
∴ K = 1.364
r2
or = 1.364 or r2 = 150 × 1.364 = 204.6 mm
r1
∴ t = r2 − r1 = 204.6 − 150 = 54.6 mm
po
Question: What is the difference in the analysis of think tubes compared to that for thin
tubes? State the basic equations describing stress distribution in a thick
tube.
Answer: The difference in the analysis of stresses in thin and thick cylinder:
gs
(i) In thin cylinder, it is assumed that the tangential stress is uniformly distributed
over the cylinder wall thickness. In thick cylinder, the tangential stress has highest
magnitude at the inner surface of the cylinder and gradually decreases towards the
outer surface.
blo
(ii) The radial stress is neglected in thin cylinders, while it is of significant magnitude
in case of thick cylinders.
Basic equation for describing stress distribution in thick tube is Lame's equation.
B B
σr = 2
− A and σt = 2 + A
r r
.

tas
Question: What is auto frettage?

How does it help in increasing the pressure carrying capacity of a thick
cylinder?
Answer: Autofrettage is a process of pre-stressing the cylinder before using it in operation.
We know that when the cylinder is subjected to internal pressure, the circumferential
lda
stress at the inner surface limits the pressure carrying capacity of the cylinder.
In autofrettage pre-stressing develops a residual compressive stresses at the inner
surface. When the cylinder is actually loaded in operation, the residual compressive
stresses at the inner surface begin to decrease, become zero and finally become tensile
as the pressure is gradually increased. Thus autofrettage increases the pressure
vi
carrying capacity of the cylinder.

Question: When two cylindrical parts are assembled by shrinking or press-fitting, a
Ci
contact pressure is created between the two parts. If the radii of the inner
cylinder are a and c and that of the outer cylinder are (c- δ ) and b, δ being
the radial interference the contact pressure is given by:
Eδ ⎢ (b − c ) (c − a ) ⎥
⎡ 2 2 2 2 ⎤
P=
c ⎢⎢ 2c 2 (b 2 − a 2 ) ⎥⎥
⎣ ⎦
Where E is the Young's modulus of ofthe
Page 339 429 material, Can you outline the steps
involved in developing this important design equation?
Answer:
t.in
po
gs
blo
Due to interference let us assume δ j = increase in inner diameter
of jacket and δc = decrease in outer diameter of cylinder.
so δ= δ j + δc i.e. without sign.
⎡ ⎤
.
Now δ j =∈ j c ⎣⎢∈ j = tangential strain⎥⎦

tas
1
= [ σt − µσr ] c
E
⎡ ⎤
⎢σ t =circumferential stress⎥
⎢ ⎥
cP ⎡⎢ b 2 + c 2 ⎤
⎥ − − − (i )
⎢ p(b2 +c 2 ) ⎥
lda
= + µ ⎢ + ⎥
E ⎢⎣ b 2 − c 2 ⎥
⎦
⎢ ( b 2
-c 2
) ⎥
⎢ ⎥
⎢ ⎥
⎢⎣σ r =-p (radial stress) ⎥⎦
And in similar way δc =∈c c
⎡ 2 2 ⎤
⎢σ t = − p(c + a ) ⎥
vi
1 ⎢
= [ σt − µσ r ] c ⎢ (c 2 − a2 ) ⎥⎥
E ⎢ ⎥
⎢⎣σ r = −p ⎥⎦
Ci
cP ⎡⎢ c 2 + a 2 ⎤⎥
=- - µ − − − (ii ) Here -ive signrepresents contraction
E ⎢⎣ c 2 − a 2 ⎥⎦
Adding (i ) & (ii )
Pc ⎡⎢ 2c 2 (b 2 − a 2 ) ⎤⎥
∴ δ = δ j + δc =
E ⎢⎣ (b 2 − c 2 )(c 2 − a 2 ) ⎥⎦
E δ ⎡⎢ (b 2 − c 2 )(c 2 − a 2 ) ⎤⎥
or P = Proved.
Page 340 of 429
c ⎢⎣ 2c 2 (b 2 − a 2 ) ⎥⎦
Question: A steel rod of diameter 50 mm is forced into a bronze casing of outside
diameter 90 mm, producing a tensile hoop stress of 30 MPa at the outside
diameter of the casing.
Find (i) The radial pressure between the rod and the casing
(ii) The shrinkage allowance and
(iii) The rise in temperature which would just eliminate the force fit.
Assume the following material properties:
−5 o
Es = 2×105 MPa, μS = 0.25 , αs = 1.2×10 / C
−5
Eb = 1×105 MPa , μb = 0.3, μb = 1.9×10 /o C
Answer:
t.in
po
gs
There is a shrinkage pressure P between the steel rod and the bronze casing. The
pressure P tends to contract the steel rod and expand the bronze casing.
(i) Consider Bronze casing, According to Lames theory
B Piri 2 − P0 r02
σt = +A Where A =
blo
r2 r02 − ri 2
(Pi − P0 )r02 ri 2
and B =
r02 − ri 2
Pi = P, P0 = 0 and
Pri2 Pr02 ri 2 2Pri2
.
A= , B= =
r02 − ri 2 r02 − ri 2 r02 − ri 2
tas
B Pr 2 Pr 2 2Pr 2
∴ 30 = 2
+A= 2 i 2 + 2 i 2 = 2 i 2
ro r0 − ri r0 − ri r0 − ri
30(r02 − ri 2 ) ⎡r 2 ⎤ ⎡⎛ 90 ⎞2 ⎤
or , P= = 15 ⎢ 0
− 1⎥ = 15 ⎢⎜ ⎟⎟ − 1⎥ MPa=33.6MPa
⎜
lda
2ri 2 ⎢r 2 ⎥ ⎢⎜⎝ 50 ⎠⎟ ⎥
⎣ i ⎦ ⎣⎢ ⎦⎥
Therefore the radial pressure between the rod and the casing is P= 33.6 MPa.
(ii) The shrinkage allowance:
Let δ j = increase in inert diameter of bronze casing
δ C= decrease in outer diameter of steel rod
vi
1st consider bronze casing:

Ci
B
Tangential stress at the inner surface(σ t ) j = +A
ri 2
⎡ ⎛ 90 ⎞2 ⎤
⎢ ⎜ ⎟⎟ + 1⎥
Pr 2 P (r02 + r12 ) ⎢ ⎜⎜ ⎟ ⎥
Pr 2
= 2 0 2+ 2 i 2= = 33.6 × ⎢ ⎝ 50 ⎠ ⎥ = 63.6MPa
⎢ ⎥
r0 − ri r0 − ri (r02 − ri 2 ) 2
⎢ ⎜⎛ 90 ⎞⎟ − 1⎥
Page 341 of 429 ⎢ ⎜⎝⎜ ⎠⎟⎟ ⎥
⎣⎢ 50 ⎦⎥
and radial stress(σr ) j = −P = −33.6MPa
longitudial stress(σ ) j = 0
1⎡
Therefore tangential strain (εt ) j = (σt ) j − µ(σr ) j ⎤⎥⎦
E ⎢⎣
1
= 5
[63.6 + 0.3 × 33.6] =7.368×10 -4
1×10
∴ δ j = (εt ) j × d i = 7.368 ×10−4 × 0.050 = 0.03684 mm
2nd Consider steel rod:

Circumferential stress (σ t )s = −P
t.in
and radial stress (σr )s = −P
1 ⎡
∴ δc = (∈t )s × d i = (σt )S − µ(σr )s ⎤⎦⎥ × d i
Es ⎣⎢
Pd i 33.6 × 0.050
=− (1− µ) = − [1− 0.3 ] = −0.00588mm [reduction]
po
Es 2 ×105
Total shrinkage = δ j + δc =0.04272mm[it is diametral] = 0.02136 mm [radial]
(iii) Let us temperature rise is ( Δt ) gs

As αb > αs due to same temperature rise steel not will expand less than bronze
casing. When their difference of expansion will be equal to the shrinkage then
force fit will eliminate.
blo
d i × αb ×Δt − d i × αs ×Δt = 0.04272
0.04272 0.04272
or t = = = 122o C
⎡ ⎤ ⎡ −5 −5 ⎤
d i ⎢⎣αb − αs ⎥⎦ 50 × ⎢⎣1.9 ×10 − 1.2 ×10 ⎥⎦

.
Question: A thick walled closed-end cylinder is made of an AI-alloy (E = 72 GPa,

tas
1
= 0.33), has inside diameter of 200 mm and outside diameter of 800 mm.
m
The cylinder is subjected to internal fluid pressure of 150 MPa. Determine the
principal stresses and maximum shear stress at a point on the inside surface
of the cylinder. Also determine the increase in inside diameter due to fluid
lda
pressure.
200 800
Answer: Given: r1 = = 100mm = 0.1m;r2 = = 400mm = 0.4;p = 150MPa = 150MN / m2 ;
2 2
1
E = 72GPa = 72 × 109 N / m2 ; = 0.33 = μ
m
Principal stress and maximum shear stress:
vi
Using the condition in Lame’s equation:

b
σr = −a
r2
Ci
At r = 0.1m, σ 2 = +p = 150MN / m2
r = 0.4m, σ 2 = 0
Substituting the values in the above equation we have
Page 342 of 429
b
150 = −a − − − − (i)
( 0.1)
2
b
0= −a − − − − ( ii )
( 0.4 )
2
From ( i ) and ( ii ) , we get

a = 10 and b = 1.6
t.in
po
gs
blo
The circumferential ( or hoop ) stress by Lame ' s equation,is given by

b
σc = +a
.
r2
tas
1.6
∴ (σ c )max ,at r ( = r1 ) = 0.1m = + 10 = 170MN / m2 ( tensile ) , and
0.12
1.6
(σ c )min ,at r ( = r2 ) = 0.4m = 2 + 10 = 20MN / m2 ( tensile ) .
0.4
∴ Pr incipal stresses are 170 MN / m2 and 20MN / m2
lda
(σ c )max − (σ c )min 170 − 20

Maximum shear stress, τ max = = = 75MN / m2
2 2
Increase in inside diameter,δ d1 :

vi
150 × ( 0.1)
2
pr 2
We know,longitudinal ( or axial ) stress, σ l = 2 1 2 = = 10MN / m2
r2 − r1 ( 0.4 )2 − ( 0.1)2
Circumferential ( or hoop ) strain at the inner radius,is given by :
Ci
1 1
∈1 = ⎡σ c + μ (σ r − σ l ) ⎤⎦ = ⎡170 × 106 + 0.33 (150 − 10 ) × 106 ⎤⎦ = 0.003
E⎣ 72 × 10 9 ⎣
δ d1
Also, ∈1 =
d1
δd
or 0.003 = 1
0.1
δ d1 = 0.003 × 0.1 = 0.003 m or 0.3 Pagemm343 of 429
12. Spring
1. A spring is a mechanical device which is used for the efficient storage
and release of energy.
t.in
2. Helical spring – stress equation
Let us a close-coiled helical spring has coil diameter D, wire diameter d and number of turn n. The
D
spring material has a shearing modulus G. The spring index, C = . If a force ‘P’ is exerted in both
d
po
ends as shown.
The work done by the axial

force 'P' is converted into gs
strain energy and stored in
the spring.
U=(average torque)
blo
×(angular displacement)
T
= ×θ
2
.
TL
From the figure we get, θ =
tas
GJ
PD
Torque (T)=
2
length of wire (L)=πDn

lda
πd 4
Polar m om ent of Inertia(J)=
32
4P 2D 3 n
Therefore U=
Gd 4
vi
According to Castigliano's theorem, the displacement corresponding to force P is obtained by

partially differentiating strain energy with respect to that force.
Ci
∂U ∂ ⎢⎡ 4 p 2 D3n ⎥⎤ 8PD3n
Therefore δ = = =
∂P ∂P ⎢⎣ Gd 4 ⎥⎦ Gd 4
8 PD 3 n
Axial deflection δ =
Gd 4
P Gd 4
Spring stiffness or spring constant (k ) = =
δ 8Page
D 3 n344 of 429
Chapter-12 Spring S K Mondal’s
16T 16 ( PD / 2 ) 8PD
The torsional shear stress in the bar, τ 1 = = =
πd3 πd3 πd3
P 4P 8PD ⎛ 0.5d ⎞
The direct shear stress in the bar, τ 2 = = =
⎛ πd ⎞2
πd2 π d 3 ⎜⎝ D ⎟⎠
⎜ ⎟
⎝ 4 ⎠
8PD ⎛ 0.5d ⎞ 8PD
Therefore the total shear stress, τ = τ 1 + τ 2 = 3 ⎜
1+ ⎟ = Ks
πd ⎝ D ⎠ πd3
8PD
τ = Ks
πd3
t.in
0.5d
Where K s = 1 + is correction factor for direct shear stress.
D
3. Wahl’s stress correction factor
po
8PD
τ =K
πd3
Where K = ⎜
⎛ 4C − 1 0.615 ⎞
+
C ⎟⎠
gs
is known as Wahl’s stress correction factor
⎝ 4C − 4
Here K = KsKc; Where K s is correction factor for direct shear stress and Kc is correction
blo
factor for stress concentration due to curvature.
Note: When the spring is subjected to a static force, the effect of stress concentration is neglected
8PD
due to localized yielding. So we will use, τ = K s
πd3
.
tas
4. Equivalent stiffness (keq)

Spring in series (δ e = δ1 + δ 2 ) Spring in Parallel (δ e = δ1 = δ 2 )
lda
1 1 1 K1 K 2 K eq = K1 + K 2
vi
= + or K eq =
K eq K1 K 2 K1 + K 2
Ci
Shaft in series ( θ = θ1 + θ 2 ) Shaft in Parallel ( θ eq = θ1 = θ 2 )
Page 345 of 429
1 1 1 K1 K 2 K eq = K1 + K 2
= + or K eq =
K eq K1 K 2 K1 + K 2
5. Important note
• If a spring is cut into ‘n’ equal lengths then spring constant of each new spring = nk
• When a closed coiled spring is subjected to an axial couple M then the rotation,
64 MDnc
φ=
Ed 4
6. Laminated Leaf or Carriage Springs
t.in
3PL3
• Central deflection, δ =
8Enbt 3
3PL
• Maximum bending stress, σ max =
2nbt 2
po
Where P = load on spring
b = width of each plate
n = no of plates
L= total length between 2 points gs
t =thickness of one plate.
7. Belleville Springs
blo
4 Eδ ⎡ ⎛ δ⎞ 3⎤
Load, P = ⎢ (h − δ) ⎜ h − 2 ⎟ t + t ⎥
(1 − μ 2 ) k f D02 ⎣ ⎝ ⎠ ⎦
Do
Where, E = Modulus of elasticity
δ = Linear deflection
μ =Poisson’s Ratio
.
tas
kf =factor for Belleville spring P
Do = outside diamerer t
h = Deflection required to flatten Belleville spring ho
t = thickness
Note:
lda
• Total stiffness of the springs kror = stiffness per spring × No of springs

• In a leaf spring ratio of stress between full length and graduated leaves = 1.5
• Conical spring- For application requiring variable stiffness
• Belleville Springs -For application requiring high capacity springs into small space
vi
Ci
Page 346 of 429
Helical spring
GATE-1. If the wire diameter of a closed coil helical spring subjected to compressive
load is increased from 1 cm to 2 cm, other parameters remaining same, then
deflection will decrease by a factor of: [GATE-2002]
t.in
(a) 16 (b) 8 (c) 4 (d) 2
8PD3N
GATE-1. Ans. (a) δ =
G.d4
GATE-2. A compression spring is made of music wire of 2 mm diameter having a shear

strength and shear modulus of 800 MPa and 80 GPa respectively. The mean coil
po
diameter is 20 mm, free length is 40 mm and the number of active coils is 10. If
the mean coil diameter is reduced to 10 mm, the stiffness of the spring is
approximately [GATE-2008]
(a) Decreased by 8 times (b) Decreased by 2 times
(c) Increased by 2 times (d) Increased by 8 times
GATE-2. Ans. (d) Spring constant (K) =

P
=
gs
G.d 4
or K ∝
1
δ 8D 3 N D3
3 3
K 2 ⎛ D1 ⎞ ⎛ 20 ⎞
blo
=⎜ ⎟ =⎜ ⎟ =8
K1 ⎜⎝ D2 ⎟⎠ ⎝ 10 ⎠
GATE-3. Two helical tensile springs of the same material and also having identical mean
coil diameter and weight, have wire diameters d and d/2. The ratio of their
stiffness is: [GATE-2001]
.
(a) 1 (b) 4 (c) 64 (d) 128

tas
G.d 4
P d4
GATE-3. Ans. (c) Spring constant (K) = = Therefore k ∞
δ 8D 3 N n
GATE-4. A uniform stiff rod of length 300 mm

and having a weight of 300 N is
lda
pivoted at one end and connected to

a spring at the other end. For
keeping the rod vertical in a stable
position the minimum value of
spring constant K needed is:
(a) 300 N/m (b) 400N/m
vi
(c) 500N/m (d) 1000 N/m
[GATE-2004]
Ci
GATE-4. Ans. (c) Inclined it to a very low angle, dθ

For equilibrium taking moment about ‘hinge’
⎛l ⎞ W 300
W × ⎜ dθ ⎟ − k ( ldθ ) × l = 0 or k = = = 500N / m
⎝ 2 ⎠ 2l 2 × 0.3
GATE-5. A weighing machine consists of a 2 kg pan resting on spring. In this condition,

with the pan resting on the spring, the length of the spring is 200 mm. When a
mass of 20 kg is placed on the pan, the length of the spring becomes 100 mm.
Page 347 of 429
For the spring, the un-deformed length lo and the spring constant k (stiffness)
are: [GATE-2005]
(a) lo = 220 mm, k = 1862 N/m (b) lo = 210 mm, k = 1960 N/m
(c) lo = 200 mm, k = 1960 N/m (d) lo = 200 mm, k = 2156 N/m
GATE-5. Ans. (b) Initial length = lo m and stiffness = k N/m
2 × g = k ( lo − 0.2 )
2 × g + 20 × g = k ( lo − 0.1)
Just solve the above equations.
Springs in Series
GATE-6. The deflection of a spring with 20 active turns under a load of 1000 N is 10 mm.
The spring is made into two pieces each of 10 active coils and placed in parallel
under the same load. The deflection of this system is: [GATE-1995]
t.in
(a) 20 mm (b) 10 mm (c) 5 mm (d) 2.5 mm
GATE-6. Ans. (d) When a spring is cut into two, no. of coils gets halved.
∴ Stiffness of each half gets doubled.
When these are connected in parallel, stiffness = 2k + 2k = 4k
Therefore deflection will be ¼ times. = 2.5 mm
po
Helical spring
IES-1.
gs
A helical coil spring with wire diameter ’d’ and coil diameter 'D' is subjected to
external load. A constant ratio of d and D has to be maintained, such that the
extension of spring is independent of d and D. What is this ratio? [IES-2008]
blo
4/3 4/3
D d
(a)D3 / d4 (b)d3 / D4 (c) 3 (d) 3
d D
8PD3N
IES-1. Ans. (a) δ =
Gd4
D 1
T = F× ; U= Tθ
.
2 2
tas
FD TL
Τ= ; θ=
2 GJ
L = π DN
2
1 ⎛ FD ⎞ ⎛ L ⎞ 4F2D3N
U= =
2 ⎜⎝ 2 ⎟⎠ ⎜⎝ GJ ⎟⎠ Gd4
lda
∂U 8FD3N
δ= =
∂F Gd4
IES-2. Assertion (A): Concentric cylindrical helical springs are used to have greater
spring force in a limited space. [IES-2006]
vi
Reason (R): Concentric helical springs are wound in opposite directions to

prevent locking of coils under heavy dynamic loading.
Ci

IES-2. Ans. (b)
IES-3. Assertion (A): Two concentric helical springs used to provide greater spring
force are wound in opposite directions. [IES-1995; IAS-2004]
Reason (R): The winding in opposite directions in the case of helical springs
prevents buckling.
Page
(a) Both A and R are individually true 348R
and of is
429
the correct explanation of A
IES-3. Ans. (c) It is for preventing locking not for buckling.
IES-4. Which one of the following statements is correct? [IES-1996; 2007; IAS-1997]
If a helical spring is halved in length, its spring stiffness
(a) Remains same (b) Halves (c) Doubles (d) Triples
4
Gd 1
IES-4. Ans. (c) Stiffness of sprin ( k ) = so k ∞ andn wiil behalf
8D3n n
IES-5. A body having weight of 1000 N is dropped from a height of 10 cm over a close-
coiled helical spring of stiffness 200 N/cm. The resulting deflection of spring is
t.in
nearly [IES-2001]
(a) 5 cm (b) 16 cm (c) 35 cm (d) 100 cm
1 2
IES-5. Ans. (b) mg(h + x) = kx
2
IES-6. A close-coiled helical spring is made of 5 mm diameter wire coiled to 50 mm
mean diameter. Maximum shear stress in the spring under the action of an
po
axial force is 20 N/mm2. The maximum shear stress in a spring made of 3 mm
diameter wire coiled to 30 mm mean diameter, under the action of the same
force will be nearly [IES-2001]
(a) 20 N/mm2 (b) 33.3 N/mm2 (c) 55.6 N/mm2 (d) 92.6 N/mm2
8PD
IES-6. Ans. (c) Use τ = k s
IES-7.
π d3
gs
A closely-coiled helical spring is acted upon by an axial force. The maximum
shear stress developed in the spring is τ . Half of the length of the spring is cut
off and the remaining spring is acted upon by the same axial force. The
blo
maximum shear stress in the spring the new condition will be: [IES-1995]
(a) ½ τ (b) τ (c) 2 τ (d) 4 τ
8PD
IES-7. Ans. (b) Use τ = k s it is independent of number of turn
π d3
IES-8. The maximum shear stress occurs on the outermost fibers of a circular shaft
under torsion. In a close coiled helical spring, the maximum shear stress
.
occurs on the [IES-1999]

tas
(a) Outermost fibres (b) Fibres at mean diameter (c) Innermost fibres (d) End coils
IES-8. Ans. (c)
IES-9. A helical spring has N turns of coil of diameter D, and a second spring, made of
same wire diameter and of same material, has N/2 turns of coil of diameter 2D.
If the stiffness of the first spring is k, then the stiffness of the second spring
lda
will be: [IES-1999]

(a) k/4 (b) k/2 (c) 2k (d) 4k
Gd 4 Gd 4 k
IES-9. Ans. (a) Stiffness (k) = 3
; Second spring,stiffness (k 2 ) = =
64 R N 64 ( 2 R ) ×
3 N 4
2
vi
IES-10. A closed-coil helical spring is subjected to a torque about its axis. The spring
wire would experience a [IES-1996; 1998]
Ci
(a) Bending stress

(b) Direct tensile stress of uniform intensity at its cross-section
(c) Direct shear stress
(d) Torsional shearing stress
IES-10. Ans. (a)
IES-11. Given that: [IES-1996]

d = diameter of spring, R = mean radius of coils, n = number of coils and G =
modulus of rigidity, the stiffness of the close-coiled helical spring subject to an
Page 349 of 429
axial load W is equal to
4 3 4
Gd Gd Gd Gd 4
(a) (b) (c) (d)
64 R 3 n 64 R 3 n 32 R 3 n 64 R 2 n
IES-11. Ans. (a)
IES-12. A closely coiled helical spring of 20 cm mean diameter is having 25 coils of 2 cm

diameter rod. The modulus of rigidity of the material if 107 N/cm2. What is the
stiffness for the spring in N/cm? [IES-2004]
(a) 50 (b) 100 (c) 250 (d) 500
Gd4 10 (N / cm ) × 2 ( cm )
7 2 4 4
IES-12. Ans. (b) Stiffness of sprin ( k ) = = = 100N / cm

8D3n 8 × 203 ( cm3 ) × 25
t.in
IES-13. Which one of the following expresses the stress factor K used for design of
closed coiled helical spring? [IES-2008]
4C − 4 4C − 1 0.615 4C − 4 0.615 4C − 1
(a) (b) + (c) + (d)
4C − 1 4C − 4 C 4C − 1 C 4C − 4
Where C = spring index
IES-13. Ans. (b)
po
IES-14. In the calculation of induced shear stress in helical springs, the Wahl's
correction factor is used to take care of [IES-1995; 1997]
(a) Combined effect of transverse shear stress and bending stresses in the wire.
(b) Combined effect of bending stress and curvature of the wire.
gs
(c) Combined effect of transverse shear stress and curvature of the wire.
(d) Combined effect of torsional shear stress and transverse shear stress in the wire.
IES-14. Ans. (c)
IES-15. While calculating the stress induced in a closed coil helical spring, Wahl's
blo
factor must be considered to account for [IES-2002]
(a) The curvature and stress concentration effect (b) Shock loading
(c) Poor service conditions (d) Fatigue loading
IES-15. Ans. (a)
IES-16. Cracks in helical springs used in Railway carriages usually start on the inner
side of the coil because of the fact that [IES-1994]
.
(a) It is subjected to the higher stress than the outer side.

tas
(b) It is subjected to a higher cyclic loading than the outer side.

(c) It is more stretched than the outer side during the manufacturing process.
(d) It has a lower curvature than the outer side.
IES-16. Ans. (a)
IES-17. Two helical springs of the same material and of equal circular cross-section
lda
and length and number of turns, but having radii 20 mm and 40 mm, kept
concentrically (smaller radius spring within the larger radius spring), are
compressed between two parallel planes with a load P. The inner spring will
carry a load equal to [IES-1994]
(a) P/2 (b) 2P/3 (c) P/9 (d) 8P/9
3
Wo Ri3 ⎛ 20 ⎞ 1 W W 8
vi
IES-17. Ans. (d) = 3 = ⎜ ⎟ = ; Wo = i So Wi + i = P or Wi = P

Wi Ro ⎝ 40 ⎠ 8 8 8 9
IES-18. A length of 10 mm diameter steel wire is coiled to a close coiled helical spring
Ci
having 8 coils of 75 mm mean diameter, and the spring has a stiffness K. If the
same length of wire is coiled to 10 coils of 60 mm mean diameter, then the
spring stiffness will be: [IES-1993]
(a) K (b) 1.25 K (c) 1.56 K (d) 1.95 K
Gd 4
IES-18. Ans. (c) Stiffness of spring (k) = Where G and d is same
64 R 3 n
Page 350 of 429
k 1 1 1
Therefore = 3
= 3
=
k2 ⎛ R ⎞ ⎛ n ⎞ ⎛ 75 ⎞ ⎛ 8 ⎞ 1.56
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ 60 ⎟ ⎜ 10 ⎟
⎝ R2 ⎠ ⎝ n2 ⎠ ⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠
IES-19. A spring with 25 active coils cannot be accommodated within a given space.
Hence 5 coils of the spring are cut. What is the stiffness of the new spring?
(a) Same as the original spring (b) 1.25 times the original spring [IES-2004]
(c) 0.8 times the original spring (d) 0.5 times the original spring
4
Gd 1 k n 25
IES-19. Ans. (b) Stiffness of spring ( k ) = ∴ kα or 2 = 1 = = 1.25
8D3n n k1 n2 20
t.in
IES-20. Wire diameter, mean coil diameter and number of turns of a closely-coiled steel
spring are d, D and N respectively and stiffness of the spring is K. A second
spring is made of same steel but with wire diameter, mean coil diameter and
number of turns 2d, 2D and 2N respectively. The stiffness of the new spring is:
[IES-1998; 2001]
(a) K (b) 2K (c) 4K (d) 8K
po
Gd4
IES-20. Ans. (a) Stiffness of spring ( k ) =
8D3n
IES-21. When two springs of equal lengths are arranged to form cluster springs which
of the following statements are the: gs [IES-1992]
1. Angle of twist in both the springs will be equal
2. Deflection of both the springs will be equal
3. Load taken by each spring will be half the total load
4. Shear stress in each spring will be equal
(a) 1 and 2 only (b) 2 and 3 only (c) 3 and 4 only (d) 1, 2 and 4 only
blo
IES-21. Ans. (a)
When two springs of equal lengths are arranged to form a cluster spring
1. Angle of twist in both the springs will be equal
2. Deflection of both the springs will be equal
3. Load taken by each spring will be half the total load
.
4. Shear stress in each spring will be equal

tas
Which of the above statements is/are correct?

(a) 1 and 2 (b) 3 and 4 (c)2 only (d) 4 only
IES-22. Ans. (a) Same as [IES-1992]
vi lda
Ci
Page 351 of 429
t.in
po
gs
Close-coiled helical spring with axial load
blo
IES-23. Under axial load, each section of a close-coiled helical spring is subjected to
(a) Tensile stress and shear stress due to load [IES-2003]
(b) Compressive stress and shear stress due to torque
(c) Tensile stress and shear stress due to torque
(d) Torsional and direct shear stresses
.
IES-23. Ans. (d)

tas
IES-24. When a weight of 100 N falls on a spring of stiffness 1 kN/m from a height of 2
m, the deflection caused in the first fall is: [IES-2000]
(a) Equal to 0.1 m (b) Between 0.1 and 0.2 m
(c) Equal to 0.2 m (d) More than 0.2 m
1 2
IES-24. Ans. (d) use mg (h + x ) =
lda
kx
2
Subjected to 'Axial twist'

IES-25. A closed coil helical spring of mean coil diameter 'D' and made from a wire of
diameter 'd' is subjected to a torque 'T' about the axis of the spring. What is the
vi
maximum stress developed in the spring wire? [IES-2008]

8T 16T 32T 64T
(a) 3 (b) 3 (c) 3 (d) 3
πd πd πd πd
Ci
IES-25. Ans. (b)
Springs in Series
IES-26. When a helical compression spring is cut into two equal halves, the stiffness of
each of the result in springs will be: [IES-2002; IAS-2002]
(a) Unaltered (b) Double (c) One-half (d) One-fourth
IES-26. Ans. (b)
Page 352 of 429
IES-27. If a compression coil spring is cut into two equal parts and the parts are then
used in parallel, the ratio of the spring rate to its initial value will be: [IES-1999]
(a) 1 (b) 2 (c) 4 (d) Indeterminable for want of sufficient data
IES-27. Ans. (c) When a spring is cut into two, no. of coils gets halved.
∴ Stiffness of each half gets doubled.
When these are connected in parallel, stiffness = 2k + 2k = 4k
Springs in Parallel
IES-28. The equivalent spring stiffness for the
system shown in the given figure (S is
the spring stiffness of each of the three
springs) is:
(a) S/2 (b) S/3
(c) 2S/3 (d) S
t.in
po
[IES-1997; IAS-2001]
1 1 1 2
IES-28. Ans. (c) = + or Se = S gs
Se 2 S S 3
. blo
tas
IES-29. Two coiled springs, each having stiffness K, are placed in parallel. The stiffness
of the combination will be: [IES-2000]
K K
( a ) 4K ( b ) 2K (c) (d)
2 4
IES-29. Ans. (b) W = kδ = k1δ + k 2δ
vi lda
Ci
IES-30. A mass is suspended at the bottom of two springs in series having stiffness 10
N/mm and 5 N/mm. The equivalent spring stiffness of the two springs is nearly
[IES-2000]
(a) 0.3 N/mm (b) 3.3 N/mm (c) 5 N/mm (d) 15 N/mm
1 1 1 10
IES-30. Ans. (b) = + or Se =
Se 10 5 3 Page 353 of 429
IES-31. Figure given above shows a spring-
mass system where the mass m is
fixed in between two springs of
stiffness S1 and S2. What is the
equivalent spring stiffness?
(a) S1- S2 (b) S1+ S2
(c) (S1+ S2)/ S1 S2 (d) (S1- S2)/

S1 S2
t.in
[IES-2005]
IES-31. Ans. (b)
IES-32. Two identical springs
po
labelled as 1 and 2 are
arranged in series and
subjected to force F as
shown in the given
figure.
gs
Assume that each spring constant is K. The strain energy stored in spring 1 is:
[IES-2001]
F2 F2 F2 F2
(a) (b) (c) (d)
blo
2K 4K 8K 16 K
2
1 2 1 ⎛ F ⎞
IES-32. Ans. (c) The strain energy stored per spring = k .x / 2 = × keq × ⎜ ⎟⎟ / 2 and here total
2 2 ⎜k
⎝ eq ⎠
force ‘F’ is supported by both the spring 1 and 2 therefore keq = k + k =2k
.
IES-33. What is the equivalent stiffness (i.e. spring

tas
constant) of the system shown in the given

figure?
(a) 24 N/mm (b) 16 N/mm
(c) 4 N/mm (d) 5.3 N/mm
lda
[IES-1997]
vi
IES-33. Ans. (a) Stiffness K1 of 10 coils spring = 8 N/mm

∴ Stiffness K2 of 5 coils spring = 16 N/mm
Though it looks like in series but they are in parallel combination. They are not subjected
to same force. Equivalent stiffness (k) = k1 + k2 = 24 N/mm
Ci
Helical spring
IAS-1. Assertion (A): Concentric cylindrical helical springs which are used to have
Page 354
greater spring force in a limited space of 429
is wound in opposite directions.
Reason (R): Winding in opposite directions prevents locking of the two coils in
case of misalignment or buckling. [IAS-1996]
IAS-1. Ans. (a)
IAS-2. An open-coiled helical spring of mean diameter D, number of coils N and wire
diameter d is subjected to an axial force' P. The wire of the spring is subject to:
[IAS-1995]
(a) direct shear only (b) combined shear and bending only
(c) combined shear, bending and twisting (d) combined shear and twisting only
t.in
IAS-2. Ans. (d)
IAS-3. Assertion (A): Two concentric helical springs used to provide greater spring
force are wound in opposite directions. [IES-1995; IAS-2004]
Reason (R): The winding in opposite directions in the case of helical springs
prevents buckling.
po
IAS-3. Ans. (c) It is for preventing locking not for buckling.
gs
IAS-4. Which one of the following statements is correct? [IES-1996; 2007; IAS-1997]
If a helical spring is halved in length, its spring stiffness
(a) Remains same (b) Halves (c) Doubles (d) Triples
Gd4 1
IAS-4. Ans. (c) Stiffness of sprin ( k ) = so k ∞ andn wiil behalf
blo
8D3n n
IAS-5. A closed coil helical spring has 15 coils. If five coils of this spring are removed
by cutting, the stiffness of the modified spring will: [IAS-2004]
(a) Increase to 2.5 times (b) Increase to 1.5 times
(c) Reduce to 0.66 times (d) Remain unaffected
.
Gd 4 1 K N 15
IAS-5. Ans. (b) K= or K α or 2 = 1 = = 1.5
tas
8D3 N N K1 N 2 10
IAS-6. A close-coiled helical spring has wire diameter 10 mm and spring index 5. If the
spring contains 10 turns, then the length of the spring wire would be: [IAS-2000]
(a) 100 mm (b) 157 mm (c) 500 mm (d) 1570 mm
lda
IAS-6. Ans. (d) l = π Dn = π ( cd ) n = π × ( 5 ×10 ) ×10 = 1570 mm
IAS-7. Consider the following types of stresses: [IAS-1996]

1. torsional shear 2. Transverse direct shear 3. Bending stress
The stresses, that are produced in the wire of a close-coiled helical spring
subjected to an axial load, would include
vi
(a) 1 and 3 (b) 1 and 2 (c) 2 and 3 (d) 1, 2 and 3

IAS-7. Ans. (b)
Ci
IAS-8. Two close-coiled springs are subjected to the same axial force. If the second
spring has four times the coil diameter, double the wire diameter and double
the number of coils of the first spring, then the ratio of deflection of the second
spring to that of the first will be: [IAS-1998]
1
(a) 8 (b) 2 (c) (d) 1/16
2
Page 355 of 429
⎛ D2 ⎞⎛ N2 ⎞
⎜ ⎟⎜ ⎟
8PD N 3
δ 2 ⎝ D1 ⎠⎝ N1 ⎠ 43 × 2
IAS-8. Ans. (a) δ = or = = =8
Gd4 δ1 ⎛ d2 ⎞
4
24
⎜ ⎟
⎝ d1 ⎠
IAS-9. A block of weight 2 N falls from a height of 1m on the top of a spring· If the
spring gets compressed by 0.1 m to bring the weight momentarily to rest, then
the spring constant would be: [IAS-2000]
(a) 50 N/m (b) 100 N/m (c) 200N/m (d) 400N/m
IAS-9. Ans. (d) Kinetic energy of block = potential energy of spring
1 2 2Wh 2 × 2 × 1
or W × h = k .x or k = 2 = N / m = 400 N / m
t.in
2 x 0.12
IAS-10. The springs of a chest expander are 60 cm long when unstretched. Their
stiffness is 10 N/mm. The work done in stretching them to 100 cm is: [IAS-1996]
(a) 600 Nm (b) 800 Nm (c) 1000 Nm (d) 1600 Nm
⎧ ⎫
po
1 2 1 ⎪⎪ 10N ⎪⎪
⎬ × {1 − 0.6} m = 800Nm
2
IAS-10. Ans. (b) E = kx = × ⎨ 2
2 2 ⎪⎛ 1 ⎞ ⎪
m
⎪⎩ ⎜⎝ 1000 ⎟⎠ ⎪⎭
IAS-11.
gs
A spring of stiffness 'k' is extended from a displacement x1 to a displacement x2
the work done by the spring is: [IAS-1999]
2
1 2 1 2 1 1 ⎛ x1 + x2 ⎞
(a) k x1 − k x2 (b) k ( x1 − x2 ) 2 (c) k ( x1 + x2 ) 2 (d) k ⎜ ⎟
2 2 2 2 ⎝ 2 ⎠
blo
1 2 1 2
IAS-11. Ans. (a) Work done by the spring is = k x1 − k x 2
2 2
IAS-12. A spring of stiffness 1000 N/m is stretched initially by 10 cm from the

.
undeformed position. The work required to stretch it by another 10 cm is:

[IAS-1995]
tas
(a) 5 Nm (b) 7 Nm (c) 10 Nm (d) 15 Nm.

1 1
( ) {
IAS-12. Ans. (d) E = k x 22 − x12 = × 1000 × 0.202 − 0.102 = 15Nm
2 2
}
Springs in Series
lda
IAS-13. When a helical compression spring is cut into two equal halves, the stiffness of
each of the result in springs will be: [IES-2002; IAS-2002]
(a) Unaltered (b) Double (c) One-half (d) One-fourth
IAS-13. Ans. (b)
vi
IAS-14. The length of the chest-expander spring when it is un-stretched, is 0.6 m and its
stiffness is 10 N/mm. The work done in stretching it to 1m will be: [IAS-2001]
(a) 800 J (b) 1600 J (c) 3200 J (d) 6400 J
IAS-14. Ans. (a)
Ci
1 1 ⎛ 10N ⎞ 1 10 N
⎟ × (1 − 0.6 ) m = × 1
2
Work done = k.x 2 = × ⎜ 2
× 0.42 m 2 = 800 J
2 2 ⎝ 1mm ⎠ 2 ⎛ ⎞
⎜ ⎟m
⎝ 1000 ⎠
Page 356 of 429
Springs in Parallel
IAS-15. The equivalent spring stiffness for the
system shown in the given figure (S is
the spring stiffness of each of the three
springs) is:
(a) S/2 (b) S/3
(c) 2S/3 (d) S
t.in
[IES-1997; IAS-2001]
1 1 1 2
IAS-15. Ans. (c) = + or Se = S
Se 2 S S 3
po
gs
blo
IAS-16. Two identical springs, each of stiffness K, are

assembled as shown in the given figure. The
combined stiffness of the assembly is:
(a) K2 (b) 2K
.
(c) K (d) (1/2)K

tas
lda
[IAS-1998]
IAS-16. Ans. (b) Effective stiffness = 2K. Due to applied force one spring will be under tension and
another one under compression so total resistance force will double.
vi
Flat spiral Spring

IAS-17. Mach List-I (Type of spring) with List-II (Application) and select the correct
answer: [IAS-2000]
Ci
List-I List-II
A. Leaf/Helical springs 1. Automobiles/Railways coachers
B. Spiral springs 2. Shearing machines
C. Belleville springs 3. Watches
Codes: A B C A B C
(a) 1 2 3 (b) 1 3 2
(c) 3 1 2 (d) 2 3 1
IAS-17. Ans. (b)
Page 357 of 429
Semi-elliptical spring
IAS-18. The ends of the leaves of a semi-elliptical leaf spring are made triangular in
plain in order to: [IAS 1994]
(a) Obtain variable I in each leaf
(b) Permit each leaf to act as a overhanging beam
(c) Have variable bending moment in each leaf
(d) Make Mil constant throughout the length of the leaf.
IAS-18. Ans. (d) The ends of the leaves of a semi-elliptical leaf spring are made rectangular in plan
in order to make M/I constant throughout the length of the leaf.
t.in
po
gs
. blo
tas
vi lda
Ci
Page 358 of 429

Question: A close-coiled helical spring has coil diameter D, wire diameter d and number
of turn n. The spring material has a shearing modulus G. Derive an
expression for the stiffness k of the spring.
Answer: The work done by the
axial force 'P' is
converted into strain
energy and stored in
t.in
the spring.
U=(average torque)
×(angular displacement)
T
= ×θ
2
po
TL
From the figure we get, θ =
GJ
PD
Torque (T)=
2 gs
length of wire (L)=πDn
πd 4
Polar m om ent of Inertia(J)=
32
blo
4P 2D 3 n
Therefore U=
Gd 4
According to Castigliano's theorem, the displacement corresponding to force P is
obtained by partially differentiating strain energy with respect to that force.
∂U ∂ ⎡⎢ 4 p 2 D 3n ⎤⎥ 8PD 3n
Therefore δ = = =
.
∂P ∂P ⎢⎣ Gd 4 ⎥⎦ Gd 4
tas
P Gd 4
So Spring stiffness, (k ) = =
δ 8D3n

lda
Q. A stiff bar of negligible weight transfers a load P to a combination of three

helical springs arranged in parallel as shown in the above figure. The springs
are made up of the same material and out of rods of equal diameters. They are
of same free length before loading. The number of coils in those three springs
are 10, 12 and 15 respectively, while the mean coil diameters are in ratio of 1 :
1.2 : 1.4 respectively. Find the distance ‘x’ as shown in figure, such that the stiff
vi
bar remains horizontal after the application of load P. [10 Marks]

P
x
Ci
l l
Page 359 of 429
Ans. Same free length of spring before loading
The number of coils in the spring 1,2 and 3 is 10, 12 and 15 mean diameter of spring 1,2
and 3 in the ratio of 1 : 1.2 : 1.4 Find out distance x so that rod remains horizontal
after loading.
Since the rod is rigid and remains horizontal after the load p is applied therefore the
deflection of each spring will be same
δ1 = δ2 = δ3 = δ (say)
Spring are made of same material and out of the rods of equal diameter
G1 = G2 = G3 = G and d1 = d 2 = d3 = d
Load in spring 1
Gd 4 δ Gd 4 δ Gd 4 δ
P1 = = = .....(1)
64R13n1 64R13 × 10 640R13
t.in
Load in spring 2
Gd 4 δ Gd 4 δ Gd 4 δ
P2 = = = .....(2)
64 × R32n2 64 × (1.2)3 × 12R13 1327.10R13
Load in spring 3
Gd 4 δ Gd4 δ Gd 4 δ
po
P3 = = = .....(3)
64R33n3 64 × (1.4)3 × 15R13 2634.2R13
From eqn (1) & (2)
640
P2 = P1
1327.1
P2 = 0.482 P1
gs
from eq n (1) & (3)
blo
640
P3 = P1 = 0.2430 P1
2634.2
Taking moment about the line of action P1
P2 × L + P3 × 2L = P.x
.
0.4823 P1L + 0.2430 P1 × 2L = P.x.

tas
x=
( 0.4823 + 0.486 ) P1L ........(4)
P
total load in the rod is
P=P1 +P2 +P3
lda
P = P1 + .4823P1 + 0.2430P1
P = 1.725 P1 ......(5)
Equation (4) & (5)
0.9683L 0.9683L
vi
x= = = 0.5613L
1.725 P1 / P1 1.725
x = 0.5613 L
Ci

Question: A close-coiled helical spring has coil diameter to wire diameter ratio of 6. The
spring deflects 3 cm under an axial load of 500N and the maximum shear
stress is not to exceed 300 MPa. Find the diameter and the length of the
spring wire required. Shearing modulus of wire material = 80 GPa.
P Gd 4
Answer: Stiffness, K = =
δ 8D 3 n Page 360 of 429
500 (80 ×10 )× d
9
D
or , = [given c= = 6]
0.03 8 × 63 × n d
or , d = 3.6 ×10−4 n −−− (i )
For static loading correcting factor(k)
⎛ 0.5 ⎞⎟ ⎛ ⎞
k=⎜⎜1+ ⎟ = ⎜⎜1+ 0.5 ⎟⎟ = 1.0833
⎜⎝ c ⎠⎟ ⎝⎜ 6 ⎠⎟
8PD
We know that (τ ) =k
πd3
t.in
8kPC ⎡ D ⎤
d2 = ⎢ ∵ C = = 6⎥
πτ ⎢⎣ d ⎥⎦
1.0833 × 8 × 500 × 6
d= 6
= 5.252×10−3 m = 5.252 mm
π × 300 ×10
So D=cd=6×5.252mm=31.513mm
po
From, equation (i) n=14.59 15
Now length of spring wire(L) =πDn =π× 31.513×15 mm =1.485 m

Question:
gs
A coil spring of stiffness 'k' is cut to two halves and these two springs are
assembled in parallel to support a heavy machine. What is the combined
stiffness provided by these two springs in the modified arrangement?
Answer: When it cut to two halves stiffness of
blo
each half will be 2k. Springs in parallel.
Total load will be shared so
Total load = W+W
or δ.K eq = δ.(2k ) + δ.(2k )
or K eq = 4k.
.
tas
lda

Question: A helical spring B is placed inside the coils of a second helical spring A ,
having the same number of coils and free axial length and of same material.
The two springs are compressed by an axial load of 210 N which is shared
vi
between them. The mean coil diameters of A and B are 90 mm and 60 mm and
the wire diameters are 12 mm and 7 mm respectively. Calculate the load
shared by individual springs and the maximum stress in each spring.
Ci
Gd4
Answer: The stiffness of the spring (k) =
8D 3 N
Here load shared the springs are arranged in parallel
Equivalent stiffness(k e )=k A +k B
4 3
⎛d ⎞ ⎛ DB ⎞⎟ 4 3
K
Hear A = ⎜⎜⎜ A ⎟⎟⎟ ⎜⎜ ⎟ [As N = N ] = ⎜⎛12 ⎞⎟⎟ ×⎛⎜ 60 ⎞⎟⎟ = 2.559
⎟ ⎜⎜ ⎟ ⎜⎜ ⎟
⎝⎜ d ⎠⎟ ⎝⎜⎜ D ⎠⎟
A
KB B A
N
⎝ 7 ⎠ ⎝ 90 ⎠
Page 361Total
of 429 load 210 N
Let total deflection is 'x' m x= =
Equivalet stiffness K A + KB
210 210
Load shared by spring 'A'(FA ) = K A × x = = =151N
⎛ k B ⎞⎟ ⎛ 1 ⎞⎟
⎜⎜1 + ⎟ ⎜⎜1 + ⎟
⎜⎝ k ⎠⎟⎟ ⎝⎜ 2.559 ⎠⎟
A
Load shared by spring 'A'(FB ) = K B × x = ( 210 −151) = 59 N

⎛ 0.5 ⎞ 8PD
For static load: τ = ⎜⎜1+ ⎟⎟⎟ 3
⎜⎝ C ⎠ πd
⎧
⎪ ⎫
⎪
⎪
⎪ ⎪
⎪
⎪ 0.5 ⎪ 8×151× 0.090
(τ A )max = ⎨1 + ⎛ ⎞⎪⎬
⎪ = 21.362 MPa
⎪
⎪ 90 ⎟⎪⎪ π ×(0.012)
3
t.in
⎪ ⎜
⎜⎜ ⎟⎟⎪
⎪
⎪ ⎝ 12 ⎠⎪
⎩ ⎪
⎭
⎛ ⎞⎟
⎜⎜ ⎟
⎜⎜ 0.5 ⎟⎟⎟ 8×59× 0.060
(τ B )max = ⎜⎜1 + ⎟ = 27.816 MPa
⎜⎜ ⎛⎜ 60 ⎞⎟⎟⎟⎟ π ×(0.007)
3
⎜⎝ ⎜⎜⎝ 7 ⎠⎟⎟⎠⎟⎟
po
Question: A close-coiled spring has mean diameter of 75 mm and spring constant of 90
kN/m. It has 8 coils. What is the suitable diameter of the spring wire if
gs
maximum shear stress is not to exceed 250 MN/m2? Modulus of rigidity of the
spring wire material is 80 GN/m2. What is the maximum axial load the spring
can carry?
Answer: Given D = 75mm; k = 80kN / m; n = 8
blo
τ = 250MN / m2 ; G = 80GN / m2 = 80 × 109 N / m2
Diameter of the spring wire, d:
π
T =τ × d3 ( where T = P × R )
16
π
We know, (
P × 0.0375 = 250 × 106 × ) d3 − − − (i)
.
16
tas
Also P = kδ
or P = 80 × 103 × δ − − − ( ii )
Using the relation:
8PD3n 8P × ( 0.075 ) × 8
3
P
δ = = = 33.75 × 10−14 × 4
lda
Gd4
80 × 10 × d
9 4
d
Substituting for δ in equation(ii), we get
P
P = 80 × 103 × 33.75 × 10−14 × 4 or d = 0.0128m or 12.8mm
d
Maximum axial load the spring can carry P:
vi
From equation (i), we get

π
(
P × 0.0375 = 250 × 106 × ) 16
× ( 0.0128 ) ;
3
∴ P = 2745.2N = 2.7452kN
Ci
Page 362 of 429
t.in
po
gs
blo
.
tas
lda
vi
Ci
Page 363 of 429
13. Theories of Column

1. Introduction
• Strut: A member of structure which carries an axial compressive load.
• Column: If the strut is vertical it is known as column.
t.in
• A long, slender column becomes unstable when its axial compressive load reaches a value
called the critical buckling load.
• If a beam element is under a compressive load and its length is an order of magnitude larger
than either of its other dimensions such a beam is called a columns.
po
• Due to its size its axial displacement is going to be very small compared to its lateral
deflection called buckling.
• Buckling does not vary linearly with load it occurs suddenly and is therefore dangerous
•
gs
Slenderness Ratio: The ratio between the length and least radius of gyration.
• Elastic Buckling: Buckling with no permanent deformation.
blo
• Euler buckling is only valid for long, slender objects in the elastic region.
• For short columns, a different set of equations must be used.
2. Which is the critical load?

.
• At this value the structure is in equilibrium regardless of the magnitude of the angle
tas
(provided it stays small)

• Critical load is the only load for which the structure will be in equilibrium in the disturbed
position
lda
• At this value, restoring effect of the moment in the spring matches the buckling effect of the
axial load represents the boundary between the stable and unstable conditions.
• If the axial load is less than Pcr the effect of the moment in the spring dominates and the
structure returns to the vertical position after a small disturbance – stable condition.
vi
• If the axial load is larger than Pcr the effect of the axial force predominates and the structure
buckles – unstable condition.
Ci
• Because of the large deflection caused by buckling, the least moment of inertia I can be
expressed as, I = Ak2
• Where: A is the cross sectional area and r is the radius of gyration of the cross sectional area,
Imin
i.e. kmin =
A
Page 364 of 429
Chapter-13 Theories of Column S K Mondal’s
• Note that the smallest radius of gyration of the column, i.e. the least moment of inertia I
should be taken in order to find the critical stress. l/ k is called the slenderness ratio, it is a
measure of the column's flexibility.
3. Euler’s Critical Load for Long Column

Assumptions:
(i) The column is perfectly straight and of uniform cross-section
(ii) The material is homogenous and isotropic
t.in
(iii) The material behaves elastically
(iv) The load is perfectly axial and passes through the centroid of the column section.
(v) The weight of the column is neglected.
π 2 EI
Pcr = 2
po
Euler’s critical load, le
Where e=Equivalent length of column (1st mode of bending)
gs
4. Remember the following table
blo
Case Diagram Pcr Equivalent
length(le)
Both ends hinged/pinned π 2 EI

.
2
tas
lda
Both ends fixed 4π 2 EI

2
2
vi
Ci
One end fixed & other end free π 2 EI 2

4 2
Page 365 of 429
C
Chapter-13 Theorie
es of Colum
mn S K Mo
ondal’s
O end fixed & other en

One nd pinned
/h
hinged 2
5 Slenderrness Rattio of Collumn

5.
π 2 EI
Pcr =
t.in
2
wheere I=A k 2minn
Le
π 2 EA
= 2
k min = leasst radius of gyration
⎛ e ⎞
⎜ ⎟
⎝ kmin ⎠
po
∴ Sleenderness Ratio
R = e
kmin
6 Rankine
6. e’s Cripp
pling Load
d gs
R
Rankine theoory is applieed to both
• Shortt strut /column (valid up
pto SR-40)
• Long
g Column (Valid upto SR
R 120)
. blo
tas
lda
• Slend
derness ratioo
vi
π2 E Pcr
e
= (σ e = critiical stress)=
=
k σe A
Ci
• Cripp
pling Load , P
σc A
• P= 2
⎛ ⎞
1+ K '⎜ e ⎟
⎝k ⎠
σc Page 366
wherre k' = Rankkine constannt = 2
deepends on of
m429
material & end conditioons
π E
σ c = crushing stress
• For steel columns
1
K’ = for both ends fixed
25000
1
= for one end fixed & other hinged 20 ≤ e
≤ 100
12500 k
t.in
7. Other formulas for crippling load (P)
• Gordon’s formula,
Aσ c
P= 2
b = a constant, d = least diameter or breadth of bar
⎛ ⎞
1+ b⎜ e ⎟
po
⎝d ⎠
• Johnson Straight line formula,
⎡ ⎛ ⎞⎤
P = σ c A ⎢1 − c ⎜ e ⎟ ⎥ c = a constant depending on material.
⎣ ⎝ k ⎠⎦
gs
• Johnson parabolic formulae :
blo
where the value of index ‘b' depends on the end conditions.
• Fiddler’s formula,
.
A⎡ ⎤
( )
2
P= ( σc + σe ) − σc + σe − 2cσ c σ e ⎥
tas
C ⎢⎣ ⎦
π2 E
where, σ e = 2
⎛ ⎞
⎜ e
k ⎟⎠
lda
8. Eccentrically Loaded Columns

• Secant formula
⎡ P ⎤
vi
⎛ e ⎞
P
P ey c P
σ m ax = ⎢1 + 2 sec ⎜ ⎟ ⎥
A ⎣ k ⎝ 2k ⎠ EA ⎦ u
P P
Ci
Where σ max =maximum compressive stress

M
M
P = load
Page 367 of 429
A = Area of c/s
y c = Distance of the outermost fiber in compression from the NA
e = Eccentricity of the load
le = Equivalent length
I
k = Radius of gyration =
A
E = Modulus of elasticity of the material
⎛ P ⎞
M = P.e.Sec ⎜⎜ e
t.in
⎟⎟
⎝ 2k EA ⎠
Where M = Moment introduced.
• Prof. Perry’s Formula
po
⎛ σ max ⎞⎛ σ d ⎞ e1 yc
⎜ − 1⎟⎜1 − ⎟= 2
⎝ σd ⎠⎝ σ e ⎠ k
Where σ max = maximum compressive stress gs
P Load
σd = =
A c/s area
P Euler's load
blo
σe = e =
A c / s area
π 2 EI
pe = Euler ' s load = 2
e
e ' = Versine at mid-length of column due to initial curvature

.
tas
e = Eccentricity of the load

e1 = e '+ 1.2e
yc = distance of outer most fiber in compression form the NA
k = Radius of gyration
lda
If σ max is allowed to go up to σ f (permssible stress)

e1 yc
Then, η=
k2
vi
2
σ f + σ e (1 + η ) ⎧ σ f + σ e (1 + η ) ⎫
σd = − ⎨ ⎬ − σeσf
2 ⎩ 2 ⎭
Ci
• Perry-Robertson Formula
⎛ e⎞
η = 0.003 ⎜ ⎟
⎝k ⎠
⎛ ⎞ ⎧ e ⎫
σ f + σ e ⎜1 + 0.003 e ⎟
⎝ k ⎠ ⎪ σ f + σ e (1 + 0.003 k ⎪
σd = − ⎨ ⎬ − σeσ f
2 ⎪ Page 368 of2429 ⎪
⎩ ⎭
9. ISI’s Formula for Columns and Struts
e
• For =0 to 160
k
σy
fos
Pc =
⎛ fos × pc ' ⎞
1 + 0.2sec ⎜ e ⎟
⎝k 4E ⎠
Where, Pc = Permissible axial compressive stress
t.in
Pc’ = A value obtained from above Secant formula
σ y = Guaranteed minimum yield stress = 2600 kg/cm2 for mild steel
fos = factor of safety = 1.68
le
= Slenderness ratio
po
k
E = Modulus of elasticity = 2.045 × 10 kg / cm for mild steel
6 2
le
• For
k
> 160
gs
. blo
tas
vi lda
Ci
Page 369 of 429
Strength of Column
GATE-1. The rod PQ of length L and with
flexural rigidity EI is hinged at
both ends. For what minimum
t.in
force F is it expected to buckle?
π 2 EI 2π 2EI
(a) (b)
L2 L2
π 2 EI π 2 EI
(c) (b)
2L2 2L2
po [GATE-2008]
gs
GATE-1. Ans. (b) Axial component of the force FPQ = F Sin 450
π 2 EI
We know for both end fixed column buckling load (P) =
L2
blo
2π 2EI
and Fsin450 = P or F=
L2
Equivalent Length
GATE-2. The ratio of Euler's buckling loads of columns with the same parameters
.
having (i) both ends fixed, and (ii) both ends hinged is:
[GATE-1998; 2002; IES-2001]
tas
(a) 2 (b) 4 (c) 6 (d) 8

GATE-2. Ans. (b) Euler’s buckling loads of columns
4π 2EI
(1) both ends fixed = 2
l
π 2EI
lda
( 2 ) both ends hinged = 2

l
Euler's Theory (For long column)

GATE-3. A pin-ended column of length L, modulus of elasticity E and second moment of
vi
the cross-sectional area I is loaded centrically by a compressive load P. The

critical buckling load (Pcr) is given by: [GATE-2006]
EI π 2 EI π EI
(a) Pcr = (b) Pcr = (c) Pcr = (d)
π 2 L2
Ci
2
3L L2
π 2 EI
Pcr = 2
L
GATE-3. Ans. (d)
GATE-4. What is the expression for the crippling load for a column of length ‘l’ with one
end fixed and other end free? [IES-2006; GATE-1994]
2π 2 EI π 2 EI Page 370 of 4294π
2
EI π 2 EI
(a) P = (b) P= (c) P= (d) P=
l2 4l 2 l2 l2
GATE-4. Ans. (b)
21. The piston rod of diameter 20 mm and length 700 mm in a hydraulic cylinder is subjected to
a compressive force of 10 KN due to the internal pressure. The end conditions for the rod may
be assumed as guided at the piston end and hinged at the other end. The Young’s modulus is
200 GPa. The factor of safety for the piston rod is
(a) 0.68 (b) 2.75 (c) 5.62 (d) 11.0 [GATE-2007]
21. Ans. (c)
t.in
po
gs
Classification of Column
blo
IES-1. A structural member subjected to an axial compressive force is called
[IES-2008]
(a) Beam (b) Column (c) Frame (d) Strut
IES-1. Ans. (d) A machine part subjected to an axial compressive force is called a strut. A strut may
be horizontal, inclined or even vertical. But a vertical strut is known as a column,
.
pillar or stanchion.
The term column is applied to all such members except those in which failure would be
tas
by simple or pure compression. Columns can be categorized then as:

1. Long column with central loading
2. Intermediate-length columns with central loading
3. Columns with eccentric loading
4. Struts or short columns with eccentric loading
lda
IES-2. Which one of the following loadings is considered for design of axles?
(a) Bending moment only [IES-1995]
(b) Twisting moment only
(c) Combined bending moment and torsion
(d) Combined action of bending moment, twisting moment and axial thrust.
vi
IES-2. Ans. (a) Axle is a non-rotating member used for supporting rotating wheels etc. and do not
transmit any torque. Axle must resist forces applied laterally or transversely to their
axes. Such members are called beams.
Ci
Page 371 of 429
IES-3. The curve ABC is the Euler's
curve for stability of column. The
horizontal line DEF is the
strength limit. With reference to
this figure Match List-I with List-
II and select the correct answer
using the codes given below the
lists:
List-I List-II
(Regions) (Column specification)
A. R1 1. Long, stable
B. R2 2. Short
C. R3 3. Medium
t.in
D. R4 4. Long, unstable
[IES-1997]
(a) 2 4 3 1 (b) 2 3 1 4
(c) 1 2 4 3 (d) 2 1 3 4
IES-3. Ans. (b)
po
IES-4. Mach List-I with List-II and select the correct answer using the codes given
List-I List-II
A. Polar moment of inertia of section 1. Thin cylindrical shell
B. Buckling 2. Torsion of shafts
C. Neutral axis
D. Hoop stress
gs 3. Columns
4. Bending of beams
(a) 3 2 1 4 (b) 2 3 4 1
blo
(c) 3 2 4 1 (d) 2 3 1 4
IES-4. Ans. (b)
Strength of Column
IES-5. Slenderness ratio of a column is defined as the ratio of its length to its
(a) Least radius of gyration (b) Least lateral dimension [IES-2003]
.
(c) Maximum lateral dimension (d) Maximum radius of gyration

tas
IES-5. Ans. (a)
IES-6. Assertion (A): A long column of square cross section has greater buckling
stability than a similar column of circular cross-section of same length, same
material and same area of cross-section with same end conditions.
Reason (R): A circular cross-section has a smaller second moment of area than
lda
a square cross-section of same area. [IES-1999; IES-1996]

IES-6. Ans. (a)
vi
Equivalent Length
IES-7. Four columns of same material and same length are of rectangular cross-
Ci
section of same breadth b. The depth of the cross-section and the end
conditions are, however different are given as follows: [IES-2004]
Column Depth End conditions
1 0.6 b Fixed-Fixed
2 0.8 b Fixed-hinged
3 1.0 b Hinged-Hinged
4 2.6 b Fixed-Free
Which of the above columns Euler buckling load maximum?
(a) Column 1 (b) ColumnPage
2 372 of 429(c) Column 3 (d) Column 4
IES-7. Ans. (b)
IES-8. Match List-I (End conditions of columns) with List-II (Equivalent length in
terms of length of hinged-hinged column) and select the correct answer using
the codes given below the Lists: [IES-2000]
List-I List-II
A. Both ends hinged 1. L
B. One end fixed and other end free 2. L/ 2
C. One end fixed and the other pin-pointed 3. 2L
D. Both ends fixed 4. L/2
(a) 1 3 4 2 (b) 1 3 2 4
(c) 3 1 2 4 (d) 3 1 4 2
IES-8. Ans. (b)
IES-9. The ratio of Euler's buckling loads of columns with the same parameters
t.in
having (i) both ends fixed, and (ii) both ends hinged is:
[GATE-1998; 2002; IES-2001]
(a) 2 (b) 4 (c) 6 (d) 8
IES-9. Ans. (b) Euler’s buckling loads of columns
4π 2EI
(1) both ends fixed = 2
l
po
π 2EI
( 2 ) both ends hinged = 2
l
Euler's Theory (For long column) gs

IES-10. What is the expression for the crippling load for a column of length ‘l’ with one
end fixed and other end free? [IES-2006; GATE-1994]
2π 2 EI π 2 EI 4π 2 EI π 2 EI
(a) P= (b) P= (c) P= (d) P=
blo
l2 4l 2 l2 l2
IES-10. Ans. (b)
IES-11. Euler's formula gives 5 to 10% error in crippling load as compared to

experimental results in practice because: [IES-1998]
(a) Effect of direct stress is neglected
.
(b) Pin joints are not free from friction

tas
(c) The assumptions made in using the formula are not met in practice
(d) The material does not behave in an ideal elastic way in tension and compression
IES-11. Ans. (c)
IES-12. Euler's formula can be used for obtaining crippling load for a M.S. column with
hinged ends.
lda
l
Which one of the following conditions for the slenderness ratio is to be
k
satisfied? [IES-2000]
l l l l
(a) 5 < <8 (b) 9 < < 18 (c) 19 < < 40 (d) ≥ 80
k k k k
vi
IES-12. Ans. (d)
IES-13. If one end of a hinged column is made fixed and the other free, how much is the
Ci
critical load compared to the original value? [IES-2008]

(a) ¼ (b) ½ (c) Twice (d) Four times
IES-13. Ans. (a) Critical Load for both ends hinged = π 2EI/ l 2
And Critical Load for one end fixed, and other end free = π 2EI/4l2
IES-14. If one end of a hinged column is made fixed and the other free, how much is the
critical load compared to the original value? [IES-2008]
(a) ¼ (b) ½ (c) Twice (d) Four times
π 2EI Page 373 of 429
IES-14. Ans. (a) Original load = 2
I
When one end of hinged column is fixed and other free. New Le = 2L
π2EI π2EI 1
∴ New load = = = × Original value
( 2L ) 2
4L2
4
below the Lists: [IES-1995; 2007; IAS-1997]
List-I (Long Column) List-II (Critical Load)
A. Both ends hinged 1. π 2EI/4l2
B. One end fixed, and other end free 2. 4 π 2EI/ l2
C. Both ends fixed 3. 2 π 2EI/ l2
D. One end fixed, and other end hinged 4. π 2EI/ l2
t.in
(a) 2 1 4 3 (b) 4 1 2 3
(c) 2 3 4 1 (d) 4 3 2 1
IES-15. Ans. (b)
IES-16. The ratio of the compressive critical load for a long column fixed at both the
ends and a column with one end fixed and the other end free is: [IES-1997]
po
(a) 1 : 2 (b) 1: 4 (c) 1: 8 (d) 1: 16
IES-16. Ans. (d) Critical Load for one end fixed, and other end free is π 2EI/4l2 and both ends fixed
is 4 π 2EI/ l 2
IES-17. The buckling load will be maximum for a column, if [IES-1993]

gs
(a) One end of the column is clamped and the other end is free
(b) Both ends of the column are clamped
(c) Both ends of the column are hinged
(d) One end of the column is hinged and the other end is free
blo
IES-17. Ans. (b) Buckling load of a column will be maximum when both ends are fixed
IES-18. If diameter of a long column is reduced by 20%, the percentage of reduction in

Euler buckling load is: [IES-2001]
(a) 4 (b) 36 (c) 49 (d) 59
4 ′
π 2 EI p − p′ d − d
4
( )
.
4
⎛ 0.8d ⎞
IES-18. Ans. (d) P= P ∞ I or P ∞ d or
4
= = 1− ⎜ ⎟ = 0.59
tas
2
L p d4 ⎝ d ⎠
IES-19. A long slender bar having uniform rectangular cross-section 'B x H' is acted
upon by an axial compressive force. The sides B and H are parallel to x- and y-
axes respectively. The ends of the bar are fixed such that they behave as pin-
lda
jointed when the bar buckles in a plane normal to x-axis, and they behave as
built-in when the bar buckles in a plane normal to y-axis. If load capacity in
either mode of buckling is same, then the value of H/B will be: [IES-2000]
(a) 2 (b) 4 (c) 8 (d) 16
π 2 EI 4π 2 EI ′ BH3 HB3 H
IES-19. Ans. (a) Pxx = and Pyy = as Pxx = Pyy then I = 4I′ or = 4 × or = 2
L2 L 2
12 12 B
vi
IES-20. The Euler's crippling load for a 2m long slender steel rod of uniform cross-
section hinged at both the ends is 1 kN. The Euler's crippling load for 1 m long
Ci
steel rod of the same cross-section and hinged at both ends will be: [IES-1998]
(a) 0.25 kN (b) 0.5 kN (c) 2 kN (d) 4 kN
π 2 EI
IES-20. Ans. (d) For column with both ends hinged, P = . If ‘l’ is halved, P will be 4 times.
l2
IES-21. If σc and E denote the crushing stress and Young's modulus for the material of
a column, then the Euler formula can be applied for determination of cripping
load of a column made of this material only, if its slenderness ratio is:
Page 374 of 429
(a) More than π E / σc (b) Less than π E / σc [IES-2005]
⎛ E⎞ ⎛ E⎞
(c) More than π2⎜ ⎟ (d) Less than π2⎜ ⎟
⎝ σc ⎠ ⎝ σc ⎠
IES-21. Ans. (a) For long column PEuler < Pcrushing
2
π 2EI π 2EAK 2 ⎛ le ⎞ π E2
le
or < σcA or < σcA or ⎜ ⎟ > or > π E / σc
le 2
le 2
⎝ ⎠k σc k
IES-22. Four vertical columns of same material, height and weight have the same end
conditions. Which cross-section will carry the maximum load? [IES-2009]
(a) Solid circular section (b) Thin hollow circular section
(c) Solid square section (d) I-section
IES-22. Ans. (b)
t.in
Rankine's Hypothesis for Struts/Columns
IES-23. Rankine Gordon formula for buckling is valid for [IES-1994]
(a) Long column (b) Short column
(c) Short and long column (d) Very long column
po
IES-23. Ans. (c)
Prof. Perry's formula

gs
List-I (Formula/theorem/ method) List-II (Deals with topic)
A. Clapeyron's theorem 1. Deflection of beam
B. Maculay's method 2. Eccentrically loaded column
blo
C. Perry's formula 3. Riveted joints
4. Continuous beam
Code: A B C A B C
(a) 3 2 1 (b) 4 1 2
(c) 4 1 3 (d) 2 4 3
IES-24. Ans. (b)
.
tas
Classification of Column
lda
IAS-1. Mach List-I with List-II and select the correct answer using the codes given
List-I List-II
A. Polar moment of inertia of section 1. Thin cylindrical shell
B. Buckling 2. Torsion of shafts
C. Neutral axis 3. Columns
vi
D. Hoop stress 4. Bending of beams

(a) 3 2 1 4 (b) 2 3 4 1
(c) 3 2 4 1 (d) 2 3 1 4
Ci
IAS-1. Ans. (b)
Strength of Column
IAS-2. Assertion (A): A long column of square cross-section has greater buckling
stability than that of a column of circular cross-section of same length, same
material, same end conditions and same area of cross-section. [IAS-1998]
Reason (R): The second moment of area of a column of circular cross-section is
Page 375 of 429
smaller than that of a column of square cross section having the same area.
IAS-2. Ans. (a)
IAS-3. Which one of the following pairs is not correctly matched? [IAS-2003]
(a) Slenderness ratio : The ratio of length of the column to the least radius of gyration
(b) Buckling factor : The ratio of maximum load to the permissible axial load on the
column
(c) Short column : A column for which slenderness ratio < 32
(d) Strut : A member of a structure in any position and carrying an axial
t.in
compressive load
IAS-3. Ans. (b) Buckling factor: The ratio of equivalent length of the column to the least radius of
gyration.
Equivalent Length
po
IAS-4. A column of length 'I' is fixed at its both ends. The equivalent length of the
column is: [IAS-1995]
(a) 2 l (b) 0.5 l (c) 2 l (d) l
IAS-4. Ans. (b) gs
IAS-5. Which one of the following statements is correct? [IAS-2000]
(a) Euler's formula holds good only for short columns
(b) A short column is one which has the ratio of its length to least radius of gyration
blo
greater than 100
(c) A column with both ends fixed has minimum equivalent or effective length
(d) The equivalent length of a column with one end fixed and other end hinged is half
of its actual length
IAS-5. Ans. (c) A column with both ends fixed has minimum equivalent effective length (l/2)
.
Euler's Theory (For long column)

tas
4π 2 EI
IAS-6. For which one of the following columns, Euler buckling load = ?
l2
(a) Column with both hinged ends [IAS-1999; 2004]
lda
(b) Column with one end fixed and other end free
(c) Column with both ends fixed
(d) Column with one end fixed and other hinged
IAS-6. Ans. (c)
IAS-7. Assertion (A): Buckling of long columns causes plastic deformation. [IAS-2001]
Reason (R): In a buckled column, the stresses do not exceed the yield stress.
vi
Ci

IAS-7. Ans. (d) And Critical Load for one end fixed, and other end free = π 2EI/4l2
IAS-8. Match List-I with List-II and select the correct answer using the code given
below the Lists: [IES-1995; 2007; IAS-1997]
List-I (Long Column) List-II (Critical Load)
A. Both ends hinged Page 376 of 429 π EI/4l
1. 2 2
B. One end fixed, and other end free 2. 4 π 2EI/ l 2
C. Both ends fixed 3. 2 π 2EI/ l 2
D. One end fixed, and other end hinged 4. π 2EI/ l 2
(a) 2 1 4 3 (b) 4 1 2 3
(c) 2 3 4 1 (d) 4 3 2 1
IAS-8. Ans. (b)
t.in
po
gs
. blo
tas
vi lda
Ci
Page 377 of 429

Conventional Question ESE-2001, ESE 2000
Question: Differentiate between strut and column. What is the general expression used
for determining of their critical load?
Answer: Strut: A member of structure which carries an axial compressive load.
Column: If the strut is vertical it is known as column.
Compressive force
For strut failure due to compression or σc =
Area
If σc > σ yc it fails.
t.in
π 2 EI
Euler's formula for column ( PC ) = 2
e

Q. Two long columns are made of identical lengths ‘l’ and flexural rigidities ‘EI’.
po
Column 1 is hinged at both ends whereas for column 2 one end is fixed and the
other end is free.
(i) Write the expression for Euler’s buckling load for column 1.
(ii) What is the ratio of Euler’s buckling load of column 1 to that column 2? [ 2 Marks]
Ans. (i)
P1 =
π2EI
( right )
; P2 =
π2EI
gs
L2 4L2
For column l, both end hinged l e = L
blo
P1
(ii) =4
P2

Q. The piston rod of diameter 20 mm and length 700 mm in a hydraulic cylinder is
.
subjected to a compressive force of 10 kN due to internal pressure. The piston end

tas
of the rod is guided along the cylinder and the other end of the rod is hinged at the
cross-head. The modulus of elasticity for piston rod material is 200 GPa. Estimate
the factor of safety taken for the piston rod design. [2 Marks]
Ans.
lda
P 20mm P
P PL π2 EI
σ= ; δ= ; e = ; Pe = 2
(considering one end of the column is fixed and
A AE 2
vi
e
other end is hinged)
Pe = Euler Crippling load
Compressive load, Pc = σ c × Area = 10 kN
Ci
Euler’s load, Pe =
( ) (
2π2 × 200 × 109 × π × 0.0204 / 64 ) = 63.278 kN
2
(0.7)
Euler 's load
F.S =
Compressive load
63.278
F.S = = 6.3
10
Page 378 of 429
Question: State the limitation of Euler's formula for calculating critical load on
columns
Answer: Assumptions:
(i) The column is perfectly straight and of uniform cross-section
(ii) The material is homogenous and isotropic
(iii) The material behaves elastically
(iv) The load is perfectly axial and passes through the centroid of the column section.
(v) The weight of the column is neglected.

Question: What is the value of Euler's buckling load for an axially loaded pin-ended
(hinged at both ends) strut of length 'l' and flexural rigidity 'EI'? What would
t.in
be order of Euler's buckling load carrying capacity of a similar strut but
fixed at both ends in terms of the load carrying capacity of the earlier one?
Answer: From Euler's buckling load formula,
π 2EI
Critical load (PC ) = 2
e
po
Equivalent length ( e ) = for both end hinged = for both end fixed.
2
π 2EI
So for both end hinged (Pc )beh = 2
and for both fixed (Pc )bef =

gs
π 2EI
=
4 π 2EI
( 2)
2 2
blo
Question: Euler's critical load for a column with both ends hinged is found as 40 kN.
What would be the change in the critical load if both ends are fixed?
Answer: We know that Euler's critical laod,
π 2 EI
PEuler= [Where E = modulus of elasticity, I = least moment of inertia
.
2
e
tas
e = equivalent length ]
For both end hinged ( e) =
And For both end fixed ( e) = /2
2
π EI
∴ (PEuler )b.e.h. = 2
=40 kN(Given)
lda
π 2EI π 2 EI
and (PEuler )b.e.F . = = 4 × = 4 × 40 = 160 kN
( / 2)2 2

Question: A hollow cast iron column of 300 mm external diameter and 220 mm internal
vi
diameter is used as a column 4 m long with both ends hinged. Determine the
safe compressive load the column can carry without buckling using Euler's
formula and Rankine's formula
E = 0.7×105 N/mm2, FOS = 4, Rankine constant (a) = 1/1600
Ci
Crushing Stress ( σ c ) = 567 N/mm2

Answer: Given outer diameter of column (D) = 300 mm = 0.3 m.
Inner diameter of the column (d) = 220 mm = 0.22 m.
Length of the column ( ) = 4 m
End conditions is both ends hinged. Therefore equivalent length ( e )= = 4 m.
Yield crushing stress ( σ c ) = 567 MPa = 567×106 N/m2
Rankine constant (a) = 1/ 1600 and E379
Page = 0.7×10
of 429 5 N/mm2 = 70 x 109 N/m2
π π ⎡0.3 4 − 0.224 ⎤ = 2.826 ×10−4 m 4
Moment of Inertia(I) = (D 4 − d 4 ) =
64 64 ⎢⎣ ⎥⎦
π
I 64
(D 4 − d 4 ) D 2 + d 2 0.32 + 0.222
Slenderness ratio(k)= = = = = 0.093m
A π 2 2 16 16
(D − d )
4
π 2 π
Area(A) = (D − d 2 ) = (0.32 − 0.222 ) = 0.03267 m 2
4 4
(i) Euler's buckling load, PEuler
π 2EI π 2 × (70 ×109 ) × (2.826 ×10−4 )
PEuler = = = 12.2MN
t.in
2
e 42
PEuler 12.2
∴ Safe load = = = 3.05 MN
fos 4
(ii)Rankine's buckling load, PRankine
σ c .A (567×10 )× 0.03267
6
po
PRankine = 2
= 2
= 8.59 MN
⎛ ⎞ 1 ⎛ 4 ⎞⎟
1 + a.⎜⎜ e ⎟⎟ 1+ ×⎜⎜ ⎟
⎜⎝ k ⎠⎟ 1600 ⎜⎝ 0.093 ⎠⎟
PRankine 8.59
∴ Safe load = = = 2.148 MPa
fos 4
gs
Question: A both ends hinged cast iron hollow cylindrical column 3 m in length has a
blo
critical buckling load of P kN. When the column is fixed at both the ends, its
critical buckling load raise by 300 kN more. If ratio of external diameter to
internal diameter is 1.25 and E = 100 GPa determine the external diameter of
column.
π 2 EI
Answer: Pc =
I e2
.
tas
For both end hinged column

π 2EI
P= −−− (i )
L2
For both end fixed column
lda
π 2EI 4π 2EI
P+300= = −−− ( ii )
(L 2)
2
L2
Dividing (ii) by (i) we get

vi
P+300
= 4 or P=100kN
P
Moment of inertia of a hollow cylinder c/s is
Ci
π PL2
I=
64
(D4 − d 4 ) = 2
πE
64 (100 ×10 ) 3
3 2
4 4
orD − d = 2 9
= 1.8577 ×10−5
π π ×100 ×10
Page 380 of 429
D D
given = 1.25 or d =
d 1.25-5
⎡ ⎛ 1 ⎞ ⎤ 4
or D4 ⎢⎢1− ⎜⎜ ⎟ ⎥ = 1.8577 ×10−5

⎜⎝1.25 ⎟⎠⎟ ⎥
⎢⎣ ⎥⎦
or D=0.0749 m = 74.9 mm

Question: A piston rod of steam engine 80 cm long in subjected to a maximum load of 60
kN. Determine the diameter of the rod using Rankine's formula with
permissible compressive stress of 100 N/mm2. Take constant in Rankine's
t.in
1
formula as for hinged ends. The rod may be assumed partially fixed
7500
with length coefficient of 0·6.
Answer: Given: l = 80 cm = 800 mm ;P = 60kN = 60 × 103 N, σ c = 100N / mm2 ;
1
a= for hinged ends; length coefficient = 0.6
po
7500
To find diameter of the rod, d:
Use Rankine’s formula
σcA
P= 2
⎛l ⎞
1+ a ⎜ e ⎟
⎝k⎠
gs
Here le = 0.6l = 0.6 × 800 = 480 mm [∵length coefficient = 0.6]
π
blo
d4
I 64 d
k= = =
A π 4
d2
4
⎛π ⎞
100 × ⎜ d2 ⎟
⎝4 ⎠
.
∴ 60 × 103 = 2
1 ⎡ 480 ⎤
tas
1+
7500 ⎢⎣ d / 4 ⎥⎦
Solving the above equation we get the value of ‘d’
Note: Unit of d comes out from the equation will be mm as we put the equivalent
length in mm.
d = 33.23mm
lda
or

Question: A hollow cylinder CI column, 3 m long its internal and external diameters as
80 mm and 100 mm respectively. Calculate the safe load using Rankine
formula: if
vi
(i) Both ends are hinged and

(ii) Both ends are fixed.
2
Take crushing strength of material as 600 N / mm , Rankine constant 1/1600
and factor of safety = 3.
Ci
π
Answer: Moment of Inertia (I)= (0.14 − 0.08 4 ) m 4 = 2.898 ×10−6 m 4
64
Page 381 of 429
C
Chapter-13 Theorie
es of Colum
mn S K Mo
ondal’s
π
Area( A) =
4
(0.12 − 0.082 ) = 2.8274
2 0−3 m 2
×10
I 2.898 ×10−6
Radius off gyration (k) ( = = = 0..032 m
A 2.8274 ×10−3
σ c .A
PRankine = 2
; [ e = equ
uivalent len
ngth]
⎛ e ⎞⎟
1+ a ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
⎜⎝ k ⎠
(600 ×10 )×(2.8274 ×10 )

6 −3
(i) = 2
; [ e = l = 3 m for both
h end hinged]
t.in
⎛ 1 ⎞⎟ ⎛ 3 ⎞⎟
1+ ⎜⎜ ×⎜
⎜⎝1600 ⎟⎟⎠ ⎝⎜⎜ 0.0 ⎟
032 ⎟⎠
=2 2.61026kN N
P 26126
Safe load d (P)= Rankine = = 87.09 kN
FOS S 3
po
(ii) For bo oth end fixxed, e = = 1.5 m
2
(600 ×106 )×(2.8274 ×10−3 )
PRankinee = 2
= 714.8 kN
k
1 ⎛ 1.5 ⎟⎞
1+ ×⎜⎜
gs
1600 ⎜⎝ 0.032
0
⎟⎟
⎠
P 714.88
Safe load d (P)= Rankkine = = 238.27 7 kN
FOS S 3
blo
C
Convention
nal Questiion AMIE--1997
Q
Question: A slender column is built-in att one end and
a an ecceentric load is applied at the
free end. Working from the first prin nciples fin
nd the exp pression foor the
maximum m length off column su uch that th
he deflectio
on of the fr
ree end dooes not
.
exceed th
he eccentriccity of load
ding.
tas
vi lda
Ci
A
Answer: Above figuure shows a slender coluumn of lengtth ‘I’. The coolumn is built in at one
e end B
and eccentric load P is applied at the
t free end A.
he deflection
Let y be th n at any secttion XX disttant x from the fixed ennd B. Let δ be the
deflection at
a A.
The bendinng moment ata the section XX is giveen by
Page 382 of 429
2
dy
EI = P (δ + e − y ) − − − − (i)
dx 2
d2 y d2 y P P
EI 2 + Py = P (δ + e ) or 2
+ y = (δ + e )
dx dx EI EI
The solution to the above differential equation is
⎡ P⎤ ⎡ P⎤
y = C1 cos ⎢ x ⎥ + C2 sin ⎢ x ⎥ + (δ + e ) − − − ( ii )
⎢⎣ EI ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ EI ⎥⎦
Where C1 and C2 are the cons tan ts.
At the end B, x = 0 and y = 0
∴ 0 = C1 cos 0 + C2 sin 0 + (δ + e )
t.in
or C1 = − (δ + e )
Differentiating equation ( ii ) we get
dy P ⎡ P ⎤ P ⎡ P ⎤
= −C1 sin ⎢ x ⎥ + C2 cos ⎢ x ⎥
dx EI ⎢⎣ EI ⎥⎦ EI ⎢⎣ EI ⎥⎦
po
Again,at the fixed end B,
dy
When x = 0, =0
dx gs
P P
∴ 0 = (δ + e ) × 0 + C2 cos 0
EI EI
or C2 = 0
At the free end A,x = ,y = δ
blo
Substituting for x and y in equation (ii ) ,we have
⎡ P ⎤
δ = − (δ + e ) cos ⎢ ⎥ = (δ + e )
⎣ EI ⎦
⎡ P ⎤
.
e
∴ cos ⎢ ⎥= − − − (iii )
tas
⎣ EI ⎦ δ + e
It is mentioned in the problem that the deflection of the free end does not exceed the
eccentricity. It means that δ = e
Substituting this value in equation (iii), we have
⎡ P⎤ e 1
lda
cos ⎢ ⎥= =
⎣ EI ⎦ δ + e 2
P ⎛ 1⎞ π
∴ = cos −1 ⎜ ⎟ =
EI ⎝ 2⎠ 3
π EI
vi
∴ =
3 P

Ci
Question: A long strut AB of length ' ' is of uniform section throughout. A thrust P is
applied at the ends eccentrically on the same side of the centre line with
eccentricity at the end B twice than that at the end A. Show that the
maximum bending moment occurs at a distance x from the end A,
2 − cos k P
Where, tan(kx)= and k=
sin k EI
Page 383 of 429
C
Chapter-13 Theorie
es of Colum
mn S K Mo
ondal’s
An
nswer: Let at a distance 'x' from
L m end A defllection of the
b
beam is y
d 2y
∴ EI = −P.y
dx 2
d 2y P
o
or 2
+ y =0
dx EI
E
d 2y ⎡ ⎤
o
or + k 2y = 0 ⎢∵ k = P giiven ⎥
dx 2 ⎢ EI ⎥
⎢⎣ ⎥⎦
C.F of this diifferential equation
C
y = A cos kx + B sin kx, Where
W A & B constant.
t.in
I is clear at x = 0, y = e
It
A at x = , y= 2e
And
∴ e = A..................(i )
⎡ 2e − e cos k ⎤
s k + B sin k
2e = A cos or B = ⎢ ⎥
po
⎢⎣ sin k ⎥⎦
⎡ 2e − e cos k ⎤
os kx + ⎢
∴ y = e co ⎥ sin kx
⎢⎣ s k
sin ⎥⎦
Where be ending mom ment is maximum, gs
dy
the deflection will be maximum so s =0
dx
dy ⎡ 2e − e coss k ⎤
∴ e sin kx + k . ⎢
= −ek ⎥ cos kx = 0
blo
dx ⎢⎣ sin k ⎥⎦
2 − cos k
or tan kx =
sin k
C
Convention
nal Questiion ESE-1996
.
Q
Question: The link of
o a mecha anism is su ubjected to axial com
mpressive fo orce. It has
s solid
tas
circular cross-sectio
c on with dia ameter 9 mm
m and len ngth 200 mm m. The two o ends
of the linkk are hing
ged. It is made
m of stee
el having yield
y strength = 400 N/mm
N 2
and elastic moduluss = 200 kN N/mm2. Calcculate the critical lo

oad that thhe link
can carryy. Use Johnnon's equatiion.
A
Answer: According to
t Johnson'ss equation
⎡ σ y ⎛ ⎞⎟2 ⎤⎥
lda
⎢
Pcr = σ y .A ⎢1− ⎜⎜ ⎟
⎢⎣ 4n π 2E ⎜⎝ k ⎟⎠ ⎥⎥⎦
πd2
Hear A=arrea of crosss section= = 63.62 2 mm 2
4
⎛ πd 4 ⎞⎟
vi
⎜⎜ ⎟
I ⎜⎝ 64 ⎠⎟⎟ d
least radiu
us of gyratio
on (k) = = = = 2.55 mm
A ⎛ πd 2 ⎞⎟ 4
⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
⎜⎝ 4 ⎠⎟
Ci
For both end

e hinged n=1
⎡ 400 ⎛ 200 ⎞⎟ ⎤⎥
2
⎢
∴ Pcr = 400 × 63.62 ⎢1− ⎜ ⎟ =15.262kN
⎜
⎢⎣ 4 ×1× π 2 × (200 ×103 ) × ⎜⎝ 2.25 ⎠⎟ ⎥⎥⎦
C
Convention
nal Questiion GATE--1995
Q
Question: Find the shortest
s length of a hinged
h Page 384
stee
el429
of column having
h a re
ectangular cross-
section 60
00 mm × 10 00 mm, forr which the e elastic Euler formuula applies. Take
yield strength and modulus of elasticity value for steel as 250 MPa and 200
GPa respectively.
Answer: Given: Cross-section, (= b x d) = 600 mm x 100 mm = 0.6 m x 0.1 m = 0.06 m2;
P
Yield strength = = 250MPa = 250MN / m 2 ; E = 200 GPa = 200 ×1012 N / m 2
A
Length of the column, L :
bd 3 0.6 × 0.13
Least area moment of Inertia, I = = = 5 ×10−5 m4
12 12
I 5 ×10−5
Also, k2 = = = 8.333 ×10−4 m 2
A 0.6 × 0.1
[ ∵ I = AK 2 ( where A = area of cross-section, k = radius of gyration)]
t.in
From Euler's formula for column, we have
π 2EI π 2EI
Crushing load , Pcr = = 2
L2e L
For both endhinged type of column, Le = L
po
π 2EAk 2
or Pcr =
L2
⎛ P ⎞ π 2EI
or Yield stress ⎜⎜ cr ⎟⎟⎟ = 2
gs ⎜⎝ A ⎠ L
π 2Ek 2
or L2 =
(Pcr / A)
Substituting the value, we get
blo
π 2 × 200 ×109 × 0.0008333
L2 = = 6.58
250 ×106
L = 2.565 m

.
Question: Determine the temperature rise necessary to induce buckling in a lm long

tas
circular rod of diameter 40 mm shown in the Figure below. Assume the rod to
be pinned at its ends and the coefficient of thermal expansion as 20 ×10−6 / 0 C
. Assume uniform heating of the bar.
vi lda
Ci
Answer: Let us assume the buckling load be'P'.
Page 385 of 429
δL = L. ∝ . t , Where t is the temperature rise.
δL
or t=
L. ∝
PL δL.AE
Also, δL = or P=
AE L
π 2EI
Pcr = 2 −− − ( where L e =equivalent length)
Le
π 2EI δL.A.E
or = [QLe =L For both endhinged]
L2 L
π 2I
t.in
or δL =
LA
δL π 2I π 2I
t= = = 2
L. ∝ LA.L. ∝ L A. ∝
π
po
4
π 2 × ×(0.040)
Temperature rise t= 64 = 49.350 C
2 π 4
(1) × ×(0.040) × 20 ×10 −6
4
So the rod will buckle when the temperature rises more than 49.35°C.
gs
. blo
tas
vi lda
Ci
Page 386 of 429
14. Strain Energy Method

1. Resilience (U)
• Resilience is an ability of a material to absorb energy when
elastically deformed and to return it when unloaded.
t.in
• The strain energy stored in a specimen when stained within
the elastic limit is known as resilience.
σ2 ∈2 E
U= × V o lu m e or U = × V o lu m e
po
2E 2
2. Proof Resilience gs
• Maximum strain energy stored at elastic limit. i.e. the strain energy stored in the body upto
elastic limit.
• This is the property of the material that enables it to resist shock and impact by storing
blo
energy. The measure of proof resilience is the strain energy absorbed per unit volume.
3. Modulus of Resilience (u)

The proof resilience per unit volume is known as modulus of resilience. If σ is the stress due to
.
gradually applied load, then

tas
σ2 ∈2 E
u= or u=
2E 2
lda
4. Application
3 L
P2 L P2.
P2 L 4 4
U= = +
π
2 AE 2 (2d ) 2 E πd 2 L/4 L
2.
vi
E
4 4
2d
Ci
Strain energy becomes smaller & smaller as the cross sectional area of bar
is increased over more & more of its length i.e. A ↑ , U ↓
5. Toughness
• This is the property which enables a material to be twisted, bent or stretched under impact
Page be
load or high stress before rupture. It may 387 considered
of 429 to be the ability of the material to
C
Chapter-14 Strain En
nergy Meth
hod S K Mo
ondal’s
absorrb energy in
i the plasttic zone. Th
he measure
e of toughneess is the amount of energy
absorrbed after beeing stressed
d upto the point
p of fractture.
• Toug
ghness is an ability to ab
bsorb energy
y in the plasstic range.
• The ability
a to witthstand occa
asional stressses above th
he yield streess without ffracture.
• Toug
ghness = streength + ducttility
• The materials with
w higherr modulus of toughne
ess are useed to makee components and
strucctures that will
w be expossed to sudden and impacct loads.
M
Modulus off Toughnes
ss
t.in
• nit volume of materiall
The ability of un
to absorb energy
y in the plasttic range.
• The amount of work per unit
u volumee
that the material can withstand
d
po
withoout failure.
• The area
a under the entire stress strain
n
diagrram is called
d modulus off toughness,
h is a meassure of energy that can
which n UT = Хu Зf
be absorbed
a by
y the unit volume off
gs
mateerial due to impact
i loadiing before itt
blo
fractu
ures.
6 Strain energy
6. e in shear an
nd torsion
n
• Strain energy
e per unit
u volumee, (u s ) T A
.
τ2 Gγ 2
us = or, u s =
tas
2G 2
• Totall Strain Eneergy (U) for a Shaft in Torsion
1
U s = Tφ
lda
2
O B
1 ⎛ T 2L ⎞ 1 GJφ 2 dφ φ
∴U s = ⎜ ⎟ or
2 ⎝ GJ ⎠ 2 L
τ 2max 2π L 2
vi
2G r 2 ∫
or Us = ρ dρ
• Case
es
Ci
τ 2max
•Sollid shaft , U s = ×π r2L
4G
τ 2max π ( D − d ) L τ 2max ( D + d )
4 4 2 2
• Hollow shaft , U s = × = × × Volume

4G D2 4G D2
Page 388 of 429
Chapter--14 Strain
n Energy Method
M S K Mondal’s
2
τ
•T
Thin walledd tube , U s = × sLt
4G
w
where s = Leength of meean centre linne
2 2π n 2
GJ ⎛ dφ ⎞ GJ ⎛ PR ⎞
• Conical sppring , US = ∫ ⎜ ⎟ dx =
2 ⎝ dx ⎠ 2 ∫
0
⎜ ⎟ .R.dα ( R = Radius
⎝ GJ ⎠
R )
2 2πn
P
∫ R dα (R varries with ∝ )
3
=
2GJ 0
3 ⎛ P2 L ⎞
t.in
• Cantilever beam
b with load
l 'p' at ennd, Us = ⎜ ⎟
5 ⎝ bhG ⎠
πP 2 R 3 n
• Helical sprring , U s = (∵ L = 2π Rn )
GJ
po
7. Strain energy in bending.
Mx
• An ded by arc, θ =
ngle subtend ∫ EI .dxx
• Sttrain energy
y stored in beam.
gs
L
M x2
Ub = ∫
0
2E I
.d x
blo
2
EI
L
⎛ d 2y ⎞ ⎛ d 2y M ⎞
or U b =
2 ∫
0
⎜ 2 ⎟
⎝ dx ⎠
dx ⎜
⎝
∵
dx 2
= − ⎟
EI ⎠
• Cases
P 2 L3
.
o Cantilever beam with a end load

l P , Ub =
tas
6 EI
P 2 L3
o Simplly supported
d with a load e, U b =
d P at centre
96 EI
E
• mportant Note
Im N
lda
o For pu
ure bending
g
• M is consttant along th
he length ‘L
L’
ML
• θ=
EI
vi
M 2L EIθ 2
• U= wn =
if Misknow if curvature θ / L isknown
2EI 2L
Ci
o For noon-uniform bending

b
• Strain energy in shea
ar is neglecte
ed
• Strain energy in bend
ding is only considered.
8. Castiiglione’s theorem
∂U Page 389 of 429
= δn
∂P
Pn
Chapter-14 Strain Energy Method S K Mondal’s
∂U 1 ⎛ ∂M x ⎞
=
∂p EI ∫ Mx ⎜
⎝ ∂p
⎟dx
⎠
• Note:
o Strain energy, stored due to direct stress in 3 coordinates
1
U= ⎡ ∑ (σ x ) 2 − 2 μ ∑ σ x σ y ⎤⎦
2E ⎣
o If σ x = σ y = σ z ,in case of equal stress in 3 direction then
3σ 2 σ2
[1 − 2μ] =
t.in
U= (volume strain energy)
2E 2k
po
gs
. blo
tas
vi lda
Ci
Page 390 of 429
Strain Energy or Resilience

GATE-1. The strain energy stored in the beam with flexural rigidity EI and loaded as
shown in the figure is: [GATE-2008]
t.in
po
P 2L3 2P 2L3 4P 2L3 8P 2L3
(a) (b) (c) (d)
3EI 3EI gs 3EI 3EI
4L L 3L 4L
M 2dx M 2dx M 2dx M 2dx
GATE-1. Ans. (c) ∫ EI
=∫
EI
+∫
EI
+∫
EI
0 0 L 3L
⎡ ⎤
blo
L 3L L 4L
M 2dx M 2dx 2 2
⎢By symmetry M dx = M dx ⎥
= 2∫ +∫ ⎢ ∫ EI ∫ EI ⎥⎥
0
EI L
EI ⎢⎣ 0 3L ⎦
L 3L
(Px )2 dx (PL )2 dx 4P 2L3
= 2∫ +∫ =
0
EI L
EI 3EI
.
PL3
tas
GATE-2. is the deflection under the load P of a cantilever beam [length L, modulus
3EI
of elasticity, E, moment of inertia-I]. The strain energy due to bending is:
[GATE-1993]
P 2 L3 P 2 L3 P 2 L3 P 2 L3
(a) (b) (c ) (d )
lda
3EI 6 EI 4 EI 48 EI
GATE-2. Ans. (b) We may do it taking average
3
⎛ P ⎞ PL P 2 L3
Strain energy = Average force x displacement = ⎜ ⎟ × =
⎝ 2 ⎠ 3EI 6 EI
∂U
vi
Alternative method: In a funny way you may use Castiglione’s theorem, δ = . Then
∂P
∂U PL3 PL3
δ= = or U = ∫ ∂U = ∫ ∂P Partially integrating with respect to P we get
∂P 3EI 3EI
Ci
P2L3
U=
6EI
Page 391 of 429
C
Chapter-14 Strain En
nergy Meth
hod S K Mo
ondal’s
G
GATE-3. The stresss-strain behaviour
T b of a
m
material i
is shown in figur re. Its
r
resilience hness, in Nm/m
and tough N 3,
a respectively
are
(aa) 28 × 104, 76 × 104
(bb) 28 × 104, 48 × 104
(cc) 14 × 104, 90
9 × 104
(dd) 76 × 104
[GATEE-2000]
G
GATE-3. An
ns. (c) Resiliience = area under this curve
c up to 0.004 strain n
1
t.in
= × 0.004 × 70 × 106 = 14 4 × 10 4 Nm/m
m3
2
T
Toughness = area under this curve up u to 0.012 strain
s
1
7 × 106 × ( 0.0
= 14 × 10 4 + 70 012 − 0.004 ) + × ( 0.012 − 0.004 ) × (120 − 70 ) × 10
06 Nm/m3
2
= 90 × 104 Nm m/m3
po
G
GATE-4. A square ba ar of side 4 cm and le ength 100 cmm is subjec cted to an aaxial load P.P The
s
same bar iss then usedd as a cantiilever beamm and subje ected to alll end load P.P The
r
ratio of the
e strain ene ergies, storred in the bar in the second case to that stored
in
n the first case, is: gs [GATEE-1998]
(a
a) 16 (b) 400 (c) 1000 (d) 2500
2
⎛W⎞
⎜ A ⎟ AL W 2L
G
GATE-4. A
Ans. (d) U1 = ⎝ ⎠ =
2E 2AE
blo
2 3 2 3
W L W L 2W 2L3
U2 = = =
6EI ⎛ 1 ⎞ Ea 4
6E ⎜ a4 ⎟
⎝ 12 ⎠
2
U2 4L2 ⎛ 100 ⎞
o
or = 2 = 4×⎜ ⎟ = 2500
U1 a ⎝ 4 ⎠
.
tas
T
Toughn
ness
G
GATE-5. The total ar
T rea under the stress--strain curv
ve of a milld steel spe
ecimen testted up
to failure under tensio on is a mea asure of [GATEE-2002]
a) Ductility
(a (b) Ultimate
U streength (c) Stiffn
ness (d) Tough
hness
G
GATE-5. An
ns. (d)
lda
Prev
vious 20-Ye
2 ars IE
ES Que
estion
ns
vi
S
Strain E
Energy
y or Re
esilienc
ce
IES-1. What is the
W e strain en
nergy store
ed in a bod me V with stress σ due
dy of volum d to
g
gradually a
applied load
d? [IES
S-2006]
Ci
σE σ E2 σV 2 σ 2V
(a
a) (b) (c) (d)
V V E 2E
W
Where, E = Modulus
M of elasticity
e
1 σ2
IES-1. Ans. (d) Strain Energy = . ×V
2 E
IES-2. A bar havinng length L and uniform cross s-section with

w area A is subjec
cted to
b
both tensile force P and torqu ue Page
T. If
392Gof 429
is the she
ear modulus and E is the
Y
Young's moodulus, the internal sttrain energ gy stored in
n the bar iss: [IES
S-2003]
2 2 2 2 2 2
T L P L T L P L T L P L T L P2 L
2
(a) + (b) + (c) + (d) +
2GJ AE GJ 2 AE 2GJ 2 AE GJ AE
1 1 1 PL 1 TL
IES-2. Ans. (c) Internal strain energy = Pδ + T θ = P + T
2 2 2 AE 2 GJ
IES-3. Strain energy stored in a body of volume V subjected to uniform stress s is:
[IES-2002]
(a) s E / V (b) sE2/ V (c) sV2/E (d) s2V/2E
IES-3. Ans. (d)
IES-4. A bar of length L and of uniform cross-sectional area A and second moment of
t.in
area ‘I’ is subjected to a pull P. If Young's modulus of elasticity of the bar
material is E, the expression for strain energy stored in the bar will be:
[IES-1999]
P2L PL2 PL2 P2L
(a) (b) (c)
(d)
2AE 2EI AE AE
1 1 ⎛P⎞ ⎛P L⎞ PL2
IES-4. Ans. (a) Strain energy = x stress x strain x volume = × ⎜ ⎟ × ⎜ . ⎟ × ( AL ) =
po
2 2 ⎝ A⎠ ⎝ A E ⎠ 2 AE
IES-5. Which one of the following gives the correct expression for strain energy
stored in a beam of length L and of uniform cross-section having moment of
gs
inertia ‘I’ and subjected to constant bending moment M? [IES-1997]
ML ML M 2L M 2L
(a ) (b) (c) (d)
EI 2 EI EI 2 EI
IES-5. Ans. (d)
blo
2
IES-6. A steel specimen 150 mm in cross-section stretches by 0·05 mm over a 50 mm
gauge length under an axial load of 30 kN. What is the strain energy stored in
the specimen? (Take E = 200 GPa) [IES-2009]
(a) 0.75 N-m (b) 1.00 N-m (c) 1.50 N-m (d) 3.00 N-m
IES-6. Ans. (a) Strain Energy stored in the specimen
.
( 30000 ) × 50 × 10 −3
2
tas
1 1 ⎛ PL ⎞ P2L
= Pδ = P ⎜ = = = 0.75 N-m
2 2 ⎝ AE ⎟⎠ 2AE 2 × 150 × 10−6 × 200 × 109
IES-7. What is the expression for the strain energy due to bending of a cantilever
beam (length L. modulus of elasticity E and moment of inertia I)? [IES-2009]
lda
P 2 L3 P 2 L3 P 2 L3 P 2 L3
(a) (b) (c) (d)
3EI 6 EI 4 EI 48EI
L
(Px)2 dx P2 ⎛ x 3 ⎞
L
P2L3
IES-7. Ans. (b) Strain Energy Stored = ∫ = ⎜ ⎟ =
0
2E 2EI ⎝ 3 ⎠ 0 6EI
vi
IES-8. The property by which an amount of energy is absorbed by a material without

plastic deformation, is called: [IES-2000]
(a) Toughness (b) Impact strength (c) Ductility (d) Resilience
Ci
IES-8. Ans. (d)
IES-9. 30 C 8 steel has its yield strength of 400 N/mm2 and modulus of elasticity of 2 ×
105 MPa. Assuming the material to obey Hooke's law up to yielding, what is its
proof resilience? [IES-2006]
(a) 0·8 N/mm2 (b) 0.4 N/mm2 (c) 0·6 N/mm2 (d) 0·7 N/mm2
1 σ 2 1 ( 400 )
2
IES-9. Ans. (b) Proof resilience (Rp ) = . = × = 0.4N / mm2

2 E 2 2 × 105
Page 393 of 429
Toughness
IES-10. Toughness for mild steel under uni-axial tensile loading is given by the shaded
portion of the stress-strain diagram as shown in [IES-2003]
t.in
po
IES-10. Ans. (d) Toughness of material is the total area under stress-strain curve.

gs
Strain Energy or Resilience
blo
IAS-1. Total strain energy stored in a simply supported beam of span, 'L' and flexural
rigidity 'EI 'subjected to a concentrated load 'W' at the centre is equal to:
[IAS-1995]
W 2 L3 W 2 L3 W 2 L3 W 2 L3
(a) (b) (c) (d)
40 EI 60 EI 96 EI 240 EI
.
L L/2 L/2 2
M2 dx M2 dx 1 W 2L3
tas
⎛ Wx ⎞
IAS-1. Ans. (c) Strain energy = ∫0 2EI = 2 × ∫0 2EI = EI × ∫0 ⎜ 2 ⎟
⎝ ⎠
dx =
96EI
∂U ∂U
Alternative method: In a funny way you may use Castiglione’s theorem, δ = =
∂P ∂W
WL3
lda
We know that δ = for simply supported beam in concentrated load at mid span.
48EI
∂U ∂U WL3 WL3
Then δ = = = or U = ∫ ∂U = ∫ ∂W partially integrating with
∂P ∂W 48EI 48EI
W 2L3
respect to W we get U =
vi
96EI
IAS-2. If the cross-section of a member is subjected to a uniform shear stress of

intensity 'q' then the strain energy stored per unit volume is equal to (G =
Ci
modulus of rigidity). [IAS-1994]

(a) 2q2/G (b) 2G / q2 (c) q2 /2G (d) G/2 q2
IAS-2. Ans. (c)
IAS-3. The strain energy stored in the beam with flexural rigidity EI and loaded as
shown in the figure is: [GATE-2008]
Page 394 of 429
P 2L3 2P 2L3 4P 2L3 8P 2L3

(a) (b) (c) (d)
3EI 3EI 3EI 3EI
4L L 3L 4L
M 2dx M 2dx M 2dx M 2dx
IAS-3. Ans. (c) ∫ =∫ +∫ +∫
t.in
0
EI 0
EI L
EI 3L
EI
L
M 2dx
3L
M 2dx ⎡ L 2 4L 2 ⎤
= 2∫ +∫ ⎢By symmetry M dx = M dx ⎥
EI EI ⎢ ∫ EI ∫ EI ⎥⎥
0 L ⎣⎢ 0 3L ⎦
L 3L
(Px )2 dx (PL )2 dx 4P 2L3
= 2∫ +∫ =
EI EI 3EI
po
0 L
IAS-4. Which one of the following statements is correct? [IAS-2004]

The work done in stretching an elastic string varies
(a) As the square of the extension (b) As the square root of the extension
gs
(c) Linearly with the extension (d) As the cube root of the extension
⎡ 2⎤
σ2 1 2 1 ⎢ (δl ) ⎥
IAS-4. Ans. (a) = ∈ E = ⎢ 2 ⎥E
2E 2 2⎢ L ⎥
⎣ ⎦
blo
Toughness
IAS-5. Match List-I with List-II and select the correct answer using the codes given
List-I (Mechanical properties) List-II (Meaning of properties)
.
A. Ductility 1. Resistance to indentation

B. Hardness 2. Ability to absorb energy during plastic
tas
C. Malleability deformation
D. Toughness 3. Percentage of elongation
4. Ability to be rolled into flat product
(a) 1 4 3 2 (b) 3 2 4 1
lda
(c) 2 3 4 1 (d) 3 1 4 2
IAS-5. Ans. (d)
IAS-6. Match List-I (Material properties) with List-II (Technical

definition/requirement) and select the correct answer using the codes below
the lists: [IAS-1999]
vi
List-I List-II
A. Hardness 1. Percentage of elongation
B. Toughness 2. Resistance to indentation
C. Malleability 3. Ability to absorb energy during plastic deformation
Ci
D. Ductility 4. Ability to be rolled into plates

(a) 3 2 1 4 (b) 2 3 4 1
(c) 2 4 3 1 (d) 1 3 4 2
IAS-6. Ans. (b)
IAS-7. A truck weighing 150 kN and travelling at 2m/sec impacts which a buffer
spring which compresses 1.25cm per 10 kN. The maximum compression of the
spring is: Page 395 of 429 [IAS-1995]
(a) 20.00 cm
(b) 22.85 cm
(c) 27.66 cm
(d) 30.00 cm
IAS-7. Ans. (c) Kinetic energy of the truck = strain energy of the spring
⎛ 150 × 103 ⎞ 2
⎜ ⎟×2
1 1 2 mv 2 ⎝ 9.81 ⎠
mv = kx or x =
2
= = 0.2766m = 27.66 cm
2 2 k ⎡ 10 × 1000 ⎤
⎢ 0.0125 ⎥
⎣ ⎦
t.in
po
gs
. blo
tas
vi lda
Ci
Page 396 of 429

Q. A close coiled helical spring made of wire diameter d has mean coil radius R,
number of turns n and modulus of rigidity G. The spring is subjected to an
axial compression W.
(1) Write the expression for the stiffness of the spring.
(2) What is the magnitude of the maximum shear stress induced in the spring
wire neglecting the curvature effect? [2 Marks]
W Gd4
Ans. (1) Spring stiffness, K = =
t.in
X 8nD3
8WD
(2) Maximum shear stress, τ =
πd3

Q. A semicircular steel ring of mean radius 300 mm is suspended vertically with
po
the top end fixed as shown in the above figure and carries a vertical load of 200
N at the lowest point.
Calculate the vertical deflection of the lower end if the ring is of rectangular
cross- section 20 mm thick and 30 mm wide.
5 2
Value of Elastic modulus is 2 × 10 N/mm .
gs
Influence of circumferential and shearing forces may be neglected.
[10 Marks]
. blo
tas
Ans. Load applied, F = 200 N

Mean Radius, R = 300 mm
lda
5 2
Elastic modules, E = 2 × 10 N/mm
I = Inertia of moment of cross – section
bd3
I= b = 20 mm
12
d = 30 mm
vi
20 × ( 30 )
3
= = 45,000 mm4
12
Ci
⇒ Influence of circumferential and shearing force are neglected strain energy at the section.
Page 397 of 429
π 2
M Rd θ R
u= ∫ 2EI
for
4
≥ 10
0
M = F × R sin θ
∂M
⇒ = R sinθ
∂F
π
∂u F R2 sin2 θ FR2
δ= =∫ dθ ⇒ ×π
∂F 0 EI 2EI
π × 200 × ( 300 )
2
π FR2
δ= =
t.in
2EI 2 × 2 × 105 × 45000
δ = 3.14 × 10−3 mm.
po
Question: A simply supported beam is subjected to a single force P at a distance b from
one of the supports. Obtain the expression for the deflection under the load
using Castigliano's theorem. How do you calculate deflection at the mid-point
of the beam?
Answer:
gs
Let load P acts at a distance b from the support B, and L be the total length of the
beam.
Pb
Re action at A, RA = , and
L
blo
Pa
Re action at A, RB =
L
.
tas
Strain energy stored by beam AB,

lda
U = Strain energy stored by AC (U AC) + strain energy stored by BC (U BC)

2 2
a ⎛ Pb ⎞ dx b ⎛ Pa ⎞ dx P 2b2 a 3 P 2b2 a 3
= ∫
0 ⎜ L ⎟ 2EI ∫0 ⎜ L ⎟ 2EI
⎝
.x
⎠
+
⎝
.x
⎠
=
6EIL2
+
6EIL2
P 2b2 a 2 P ( L − b ) b
2 2
2
P 2b2 a 2
= ( a + b ) = = ⎡⎣∵ ( a + b ) = L )⎤⎦
6EIL2 6EIL 6EIL
vi
∂U 2P ( L − b ) b P ( L − b ) b2
2 2 2
Deflection under the load P , δ = y = = =

∂P 6EIL 3EIL
Deflection at the mid-span of the beam can be found by Macaulay's method.
Ci
By Macaulay's method, deflection at any section is given by
Page 398 of 429
P (x − a)
3
3
Pbx Pb 2
EIy =
6L
−
6L
(
L − b2 x −) 6
Where y is deflection at any distance x from the support.
L
At x = , i, e. at mid-span,
2
3
⎛L ⎞
P ⎜ − a⎟
Pb × ( L / 2 )
3
Pb 2 L 2
EIy =
6L
−
6L
(
L − b2 × − ⎝
2
) 6
⎠
or, EIy =
PbL 2
−
Pb L(
2
− b 2
−
P)( L − 2 a )
3
48 12 48
P ⎡ 2
( )
t.in
bL − 4b L2 − b2 − ( L − 2a ) ⎤
3
y=
48EI ⎣ ⎦
po
gs
. blo
tas
vi lda
Ci
Page 399 of 429
15. Theories of Failure

1. Introduction
• Failure: Every material has certain strength, expressed in terms of stress or strain, beyond
t.in
which it fractures or fails to carry the load.
• Failure Criterion: A criterion used to hypothesize the failure.
• Failure Theory: A Theory behind a failure criterion.
Why Need Failure Theories?
po
• To design structural components and calculate margin of safety.
• To guide in materials development.
• To determine weak and strong directions.
Failure Mode
gs
• Yielding: a process of global permanent plastic deformation. Change in the geometry of the
blo
object.
• Low stiffness: excessive elastic deflection.
• Fracture: a process in which cracks grow to the extent that the component breaks apart.
.
• Buckling: the loss of stable equilibrium. Compressive loading can lead to bucking in
tas
columns.
• Creep: a high-temperature effect. Load carrying capacity drops.

lda
Failure Modes:
Excessive elastic Yielding Fracture
deformation
1. Stretch, twist, or • Plastic deformation at room • Sudden fracture of brittle
bending temperature materials
vi
2. Buckling • Creep at elevated • Fatigue (progressive

temperatures fracture)
3. Vibration • Yield stress is the important • Stress rupture at elevated
Ci
design factor temperatures

• Ultimate stress is the
important design factor
2. Maximum Principal Stress Theory
(W. Rankin’s Theory- 1850) – Brittle Material
The maximum principal stress criterion:
Page 400 of 429
Chapter--15 Theo
ories of Fa
ailure S K Mondal’s
• Ra
ankin stated
d max principal stress theory
t as folllows- a matterial fails by
y fracturing
g when the
la
argest princiipal stress exceeds the ultimate
u strrength σu in a simple tension test. That
T is, at
th
he onset of frracture, |σ1| = σu OR |σ
σ3| = σu
• Crrack will sttart at the most highly
y stressed point
p in a brittle materrial when th
he largest
prrincipal streess at that pooint reachess σu
• Crriterion hass good experrimental verrification, even though it assumess ultimate strength is
sa
ame in comp
pression and
d tension
t.in
ure surface according
Failu g to maximu
um princip
po
pal stress th
heory
gs
• Th
his theory of
o yielding has
h very pooor agreemen
nt with experiment. How
wever, the theory
t has
beeen used succcessfully forr brittle matterials.
blo
• Used to descrribe fracture of brittle materials
m su
uch as cast iron
i
• Liimitations
o Doesn
n’t distinguissh between tension or co
ompression
o Doesn
n’t depend on
o orientatiion of princcipal planess so only ap
pplicable to
o isotropic
.
materrials
tas
• Generalizatioon to 3-D stress case is easy:

e
vi lda
3. Maximum She ear Stress

s or Stres
ss differe
ence theo
ory
Ci
(Guest’s or Tres
sca’s Theory-1868)- Ductilee Material
The Tressca Criterio
on:
• Allso known as the Maxim
mum Shear Stress
S criterrion.
• Yiielding will occur when the maximu
um shear sttress reaches that which
h caused yie
elding in a
simple tension
n test.
Page 401 of 429
C
Chapter-15 Theorie
es of Failure S K Mo
ondal’s
• Recall that yield
ding of a material
m occu
urred by slip
ppage betweeen planes oriented at 45° to
princcipal stressees. This shoould indicatee to you tha
at yielding of a material depends on the
maxiimum shear stress in the material rather
r than the um normal stress.
t maximu
If σ 1 > σ 2 > σ 3 Then
T σ1 − σ 3 = σ y
• Failu
ure by slip (yielding)
( occcurs when the
t maximu g stress, τ max exceeds th
um shearing he yield
stress τ f as deterrmined in a uniaxial ten

nsion test.
• This theory givess satisfactory

ry result for ductile ma
aterial.
t.in
po
gs
blo
Failur
re surface according
a t maximu
to um shear sttress theory
y
.
tas
4 Strain Energy
4. E Th
heory (Ha
aigh’s Theory)
T
The theory associated
d with Haig
gh
T
This theory is
i based on the assump
ption that sttrains are re
ecoverable up
u to the ela
astic limit, and
a the
lda
energy absorrbed by the material

m at failure
f up too this point is a single valued
v function indepen
ndent of
th
he stress system causin
ng it. The strrain energy per unit vollume causin
ng failure is equal to the
e strain
energy at thee elastic limiit in simple tension.
1 σ y2
U= ⎡σ 1 + σ 2 + σ 3 − 2μ (σ 1σ 2 + σ 2σ 3 + σ 3σ 1 ) ⎦ =
2 2 2
⎤
2E ⎣
vi
2E
σ 12 + σ 22 + σ 32 − 2μ (σ 1σ 2 + σ 2σ 3 + σ 3σ 1 ) = σ y2 For 3D-
3 stress
σ 12 + σ 22 − 2μσ
μ 1σ 2 = σ y2 For 2D-
2 stress
Ci
5 Shear Strain
5. S En
nergy Theeory (Disttortion En
nergy The
eory or M
Mises-Hen
nky
Theory
y or Von-M
Misses Theory)-Du uctile Maaterial
V
Von-Mises C
Criterion:
• Also known as th
he Maximum
m Energy of Distortion criterion
c
• Page
Based on a more complex vieew of the rolle of the402 ofncipal
prin 429 stresss differencess.
Chapter--15 Theo
ories of Fa
• In
n simple term
ms, the von Mises criterrion considerrs the diameeters of all tthree Mohr’ss circles as
coontributing to
t the characterization of
o yield onse
et in isotropiic materials.
• W
When the critterion is app
plied, its rela
ationship to the uniaxia
al tensile yield strength is:
• Foor a state off plane stress ( σ3 =0)
σ 12 − σ 1σ 2 + σ 22 = σ y2
• It is often con
nvenient to express
e this as an equivalent stress, σ e:
1 ⎡ 2 2 2⎤
1/2
σe = ⎢⎣(σ1 − σ2 ) + (σ2 − σ3 ) + (σ3 − σ1 ) ⎥⎦
t.in
2
1 ⎡ 2 2 2 2 2 2 ⎤ 1/2
or σe = ⎢⎣(σ x − σ y ) + (σ y − σz ) + (σ x − σz ) + 6(
6 τ xy + τ yz + τ zx )⎥⎦
2
• In
n formulatin
ng this failurre theory wee used generalized Hooke's law for an isotropicc material
soo the theory
y given is only appliccable to tho
ose materials but it ca
an be generalized to
po
an
nisotropic materials.
m
• Th
he von Misees theory is a little lesss conservativ
ve than the Tresca theoory but in most
m cases
th
here is little difference in
i their pred
dictions of fa
ailure. Mostt experimenttal results te
end to fall
on
n or between
n these two theories.
t
• It gives very good
g result in
gs
i ductile material.
m
. blo
tas
6. Maximum Prin
ncipal Strrain Theo
ory (St. Ve
enant The
eory)
lda
According
g to this theeory, yieldin
ng will occurr when the maximum principal sttrain just ex
xceeds the
strain at the tensile yield point in either sim n or compreession. If ε1 and ε2 are maximum
mple tension
and minim
mum princip
pal strains correspondin
c ng to σ1 and σ2, in the lim
miting case
vi
Ci
Page 403 of 429
C
Chapter-15 Theorie
es of Failure S K Mo
ondal’s
t.in
7 Mohr’s theory- Brittle
7. B Ma
aterial
M
Mohr’s Theo
ory
• Mohrr’s theory iss used to prredict the fracture
fr of a material having
h diffeerent properrties in
po
tensiion and comp
pression. Crriterion mak
kes use of Mo
ohr’s circle
• at τ depends on σ, or τ = f(σ). Note the
In Mohr’s circle, we note tha t vertical line PC reprresents
o planes with same σ but differing τ , which means
statees of stress on m the weeakest plane
e is the
one with
w um τ , pointt P.
maximu
• Pointts on the outer
o
gs
circle are the weeakest planes. On thesse planes th
he maximu
um and
minim
mum princip
pal stresses are sufficien
nt to decide whether or not failure w
will occur.
• Expeeriments aree done on a given mateerial to dete
ermine the states of strress that re
esult in
blo
failurre. Each sta
ate defines a Mohr’s ciircle. If the
e data are obtained
o froom simple tension,
simple compression, and purre shear, the three resu
ulting circless are adequa
ate to constrruct an
enve
elope (AB & A’B’)
• Mohrr’s envelope thus represents the locu
us of all possible failuree states.
.
tas
vi lda
H
Higher shearr stresses arre to the lefft of origin, since most brittle mateerials have higher stren
ngth in
compression
Ci
8 Comparison
8.
A comparison
n among thee different failure
f theorries can be made
m by sup
perposing th
he yield surfa
faces as
shown in figu
ure
Page 404 of 429
Chapter--15 Theo
ories of Fa
t.in
po
gs
blo
.
tas
vi lda
Ci
Page 405 of 429
Chapter-15 Theories of Failure S K Mondal’s
Maximum Shear stress or Stress Difference Theory

GATE-1. Match 4 correct pairs between list I and List II for the questions [GATE-1994]
List-I List-II
t.in
(a) Hooke's law 1. Planetary motion
(b) St. Venant's law 2. Conservation Energy
(c) Kepler's laws 3. Elasticity
(d) Tresca's criterion 4. Plasticity
(e) Coulomb's laws 5. Fracture
(f) Griffith's law 6. Inertia
po
GATE-1. Ans. (a) - 3, (c) -1, (d) -5, (e) -2
St. Venant's law: Maximum principal strain theory
GATE-2. Which theory of failure will you use for aluminium components under steady
loading? [GATE-1999]
(a) Principal stress theory
(c) Strain energy theory
gs
(b) Principal strain theory
(d) Maximum shear stress theory
GATE-2. Ans. (d) Aluminium is a ductile material so use maximum shear stress theory
blo
Shear Strain Energy Theory (Distortion energy theory)
GATE-3. According to Von-Mises' distortion energy theory, the distortion energy under
three dimensional stress state is represented by [GATE-2006]
.
tas
lda
GATE-3. Ans. (c)
Vs =
1
12G
{
(σ 1 − σ 2 ) + (σ 2 − σ 3 ) + (σ 3 − σ 1 )
2 2 2
} Where E = 2G(1 + μ ) simplify and get result.
vi
GATE-4. A small element at the critical section of a component is in a bi-axial state of

stress with the two principal stresses being 360 MPa and 140 MPa. The
Ci
maximum working stress according to Distortion Energy Theory is:

[GATE-1997]
GATE-4. Ans. (c) According to distortion energy theory if maximum stress (σt) then
or σ t2 = σ 12 + σ 22 − σ 1σ 2
or σ t2 = 3602 + 1402 − 360 × 140
or σ t = 314 MPa
Page 406 of 429
Chapter--15 Theo
ories of Fa
Pre
evious
s 20-Y
Years IES
I Qu
uestio
ons
Maxim
mum Principa
P al Stres
ss The
eory
IES-1. Match Liist-I (Theor ry of Failure) with Liist-II (Pred
dicted Ratio o of Shear Stress to
Direct Stress
S at Yield
Y Condition for Steel
S Speciimen) and select the e correct
answer using
u the code given below
b the Lists:
L [IIES-2006]
List-I List-II
A. Maxim mum shear sttress theoryy 1. 1·0
B. Maxim mum distortion energy th heory 2. 0·577
C. Maxim mum principaal stress theeory 3. 0·62
t.in
D. Maxim mum principaal strain theeory 4. 0·50
(a) 1 2 4 3 (b
b) 4 3 1 2
(c) 1 3 4 2 (d
d) 4 2 1 3
ns. (d)
IES-1. An
IES-2. From a tension

t tesst, the yieldd strength of steel is found to be 200 N/mm m2. Using
po
a factor of safety of 2 and app plying max ximum prin ncipal stresss theory ofo failure,
the perm missible stress in the steel
s shaft subjected to
t torque w will be: [IIES-2000]
(a) 50 N/mmm2 (b) 57.7 N/mm
N 2 (c) 86.6. N/mm2 (d) 100 N/mm2
ns. (d) For pure
IES-2. An p shear τ = ±σ x gs
IES-3. A circular solid shhaft is sub bjected to a bendingg moment of 400 kN
Nm and a
twisting moment of o 300 kNm m. On the basis of th
he maximu
um princip
pal stress
theory, the
t direct stress is σ and acc cording to
o the maximum shea ar stress
theory, the
t shear sttress is τ . The
T σ τ is:
ratio σ/ [IIES-2000]
blo
1 3 9 11
(a ) (b) (c) (d)
5 9 5 6
ns. (c) σ =
IES-3. An
16
π d3(M + M2 + T 2 ) and τ =
16
π d3 ( M2 + T 2 )
σ M + M2 + T 2 4 + 42 + 32 9
.
Therefore = = =
τ
tas
M2 + T 2 42 + 32 5
IES-4. A transm mission sha aft subjecte

ed to bendiing loads must
m be designed on the basis
of [IIES-1996]
(a) Maximmum normall stress theory
(b) Maximmum shear stress
s theory
y
lda
(c) Maximmum normal stress and maximum

m sh
hear stress theories
t
(d) Fatigu
ue strength
ns. (a)
IES-4. An
IES-5. Design ofo shafts ma als is based on

ade of britttle materia [IIES-1993]
vi
(a) Guest''s theory (b

b) Rankine’s theory (cc) St. Venantt's theory (d)) Von Mises theory
ns. (b) Ran
IES-5. An nkine's theorry or maxim
mum principple stress th
heory is mosst commonly y used for
brittle ma
aterials.
Ci
Maxim
mum Shear
S s
stress o Stress Diffference
or e Theory
IES-6. Which onne of the fo
ollowing fig
gures repre
esents the maximum shear stress theory
or Tresca
a criterion
n? [IIES-1999]
Page 407 of 429
IES-6. Ans. (b)
IES-7. According to the maximum shear stress theory of failure, permissible twisting
moment in a circular shaft is 'T'. The permissible twisting moment will the
same shaft as per the maximum principal stress theory of failure will be:
[IES-1998: ISRO-2008]
(a) T/2 (b) T (c) 2T (d) 2T
16T σ yt
IES-7. Ans. (d) Given τ = = principal stresses for only this shear stress are
π d3 2
σ 1,2 = τ 2 = ±τ maximum principal stress theory of failure gives
16 ( 2T )
t.in
max[σ 1,σ 2 ] = σ yt =
π d3
IES-8. Permissible bending moment in a circular shaft under pure bending is M
according to maximum principal stress theory of failure. According to
maximum shear stress theory of failure, the permissible bending moment in
the same shaft is: [IES-1995]
(a) 1/2 M (b) M (c) 2M (d) 2M
po
IES-8. Ans. (b) σ =
16
π d3
(
M + M2 + T 2 )16
and τ = 3 M2 + T 2 put T = 0
πd
( )
⎛ 32M ⎞
32M 16M′ σ yt ⎜⎝ π d3 ⎟⎠ 16M
or σ yt =
π d3
and τ =
π d3
=
2
=
2
=
gs
π d3
ThereforeM′ = M
IES-9. A rod having cross-sectional area 100 x 10- 6 m2 is subjected to a tensile load.
Based on the Tresca failure criterion, if the uniaxial yield stress of the material
blo
is 200 MPa, the failure load is: [IES-2001]
(a) 10 kN (b) 20 kN (c) 100 kN (d) 200 kN
IES-9. Ans. (b) Tresca failure criterion is maximum shear stress theory.
P sin 2θ P σ yt
We know that,τ = or τ max = = or P = σ yt × A
A 2 2A 2
.
IES-10. A cold roller steel shaft is designed on the basis of maximum shear stress
tas
theory. The principal stresses induced at its critical section are 60 MPa and - 60
MPa respectively. If the yield stress for the shaft material is 360 MPa, the
factor of safety of the design is: [IES-2002]
(a) 2 (b) 3 (c) 4 (d) 6
IES-10. Ans. (b)
lda
IES-11. A shaft is subjected to a maximum bending stress of 80 N/mm2 and maximum

shearing stress equal to 30 N/mm2 at a particular section. If the yield point in
tension of the material is 280 N/mm2, and the maximum shear stress theory of
failure is used, then the factor of safety obtained will be: [IES-1994]
(a) 2.5 (b) 2.8 (c) 3.0 (d) 3.5
vi
2
⎛ 80 − 0 ⎞
⎟ + 30 = 50 N/mm
2 2
IES-11. Ans. (b) Maximum shear stress = ⎜
⎝ 2 ⎠
σy
Ci
280
According to maximum shear stress theory, τ = ; ∴ F .S . = = 2.8
2 2 × 50
IES-12. For a two-dimensional state stress ( σ 1 > σ 2 , σ 1 > 0, σ 2 < 0 ) the designed values
are most conservative if which one of the following failure theories were used?
[IES-1998]
(a) Maximum principal strain theory (b) Maximum distortion energy theory
(c) Maximum shear stress theory (d) Maximum principal stress theory
Page 408 of 429
IES-12. Ans. (c)
t.in
Graphical comparison of different failure theories
Above diagram shows that σ 1 > 0, σ 2 < 0 will occur at 4th quadrant and most
conservative design will be maximum shear stress theory.
po
IES-13. Who postulated the maximum distortion energy theory? [IES-2008]
(a) Tresca (b) Rankine (c) St. Venant (d) Mises-Henky
IES-13. Ans. (d)
IES-14.
(a) Tresca (b) Rankine (c) St. Venant
gs
Who postulated the maximum distortion energy theory? [IES-2008]
(d) Mises-Henky
IES-14. Ans. (d)
Maximum shear stress theory → Tresca
blo
Maximum principal stress theory → Rankine
Maximum principal strain theory → St. Venant
Maximum shear strain energy theory → Mises – Henky
IES-15. The maximum distortion energy theory of failure is suitable to predict the
failure of which one of the following types of materials? [IES-2004]
(a) Brittle materials (b) Ductile materials (c) Plastics (d) Composite materials
.
IES-15. Ans. (b)

tas
IES-16. If σy is the yield strength of a particular material, then the distortion energy
theory is expressed as [IES-1994]
(σ 1 − σ 2 ) + ( σ 2 − σ 3 ) + (σ 3 − σ 1 )
2 2 2
(a) = 2σ y2
(b) (σ 2
− σ 22 + σ 32 ) − 2 μ (σ 1σ 2 + σ 2σ 3 + σ 3σ 1 ) = σ y2
lda
(σ 1 − σ 2 ) + (σ 2 − σ 3 ) + (σ 3 − σ 1 ) = 3σ y2
2 2 2
(c)
(d) (1 − 2 μ )(σ 1 + σ 2 + σ 3 ) = 2 (1 + μ ) σ y
2 2
IES-16. Ans. (a)

vi
IES-17. If a shaft made from ductile material is subjected to combined bending and
twisting moments, calculations based on which one of the following failure
theories would give the most conservative value? [IES-1996]
(a) Maximum principal stress theory (b) Maximum shear stress theory.
Ci
(d Maximum strain energy theory (d) Maximum distortion energy theory.

IES-17. Ans. (b)
Page 409 of 429
t.in
Maximum Principal Strain Theory
IES-18. Match List-I (Failure theories) with List-II (Figures representing boundaries of
these theories) and select the correct answer using the codes given below the
Lists: [IES-1997]
po
List-I List-II
A. Maximum principal stress
theory
B. Maximum shear stress theory

gs
blo
C. Maximum octahedral stress

theory
.
tas
D. Maximum shear strain

energy theory
lda
(a) 2 1 3 4 (b) 2 4 3 1
(c) 4 2 3 1 (d) 2 4 1 3
IES-18. Ans. (d)
vi
Maximum Principal Stress Theory

Ci
IAS-1. For σ1 ≠ σ 2 and σ3 = 0, what is the physical boundary for Rankine failure
theory? [IAS-2004]
(a) A rectangle (b) An ellipse (c) A square (d) A parabola
Page 410 of 429
IAS-1. Ans. (c) Rankine failure theory or
Maximum principle stress theory.
t.in
1. Experiments have shown that the distortion-energy theory gives an
accurate prediction about failure of a ductile component than any other
theory of failure.
po
2. According to the distortion-energy theory, the yield strength in shear is less
than the yield strength in tension.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
(a) 1 only (b) 2 only (c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2
σy
τy = = 0.577σ y
IAS-2. Ans. (c)
3
gs
1. Distortion-energy theory is in better agreement for predicting the failure of
blo
ductile materials.
2. Maximum normal stress theory gives good prediction for the failure of
brittle materials.
3. Module of elasticity in tension and compression are assumed to be different
stress analysis of curved beams.
Which of these statements is/are correct?
.
(a) 1, 2 and 3 (b) 1 and 2 (c) 3 only (d) 1 and 3

tas
IAS-3. Ans. (b)
IAS-4. Which one of the following graphs represents Mises yield criterion? [IAS-
1996]
vi lda
IAS-4. Ans. (d)
Maximum Principal Strain Theory

Ci
IAS-5. Given that the principal stresses σ1 > σ 2 > σ 3 and σe is the elastic limit stress in
simple tension; which one of the following must be satisfied such that the
elastic failure does not occur in accordance with the maximum principal strain
theory? [IAS-2004]
σe ⎛σ σ σ ⎞ σe⎛σ σ σ ⎞
(a) <⎜ 1 −μ 2 −μ 3 ⎟ (b) >⎜ 1 −μ 2 −μ 3 ⎟
E ⎝E E E⎠ E ⎝E E E⎠
Page 411 of 429
σe⎛σ σ σ ⎞ σe⎛σ σ σ ⎞
(c) >⎜ 1 +μ 2 +μ 3 ⎟ (d) <⎜ 1 +μ 2 −μ 3 ⎟
E ⎝E E E⎠ E ⎝E E E⎠
IAS-5. Ans. (b) Strain at yield point>principal strain
σe σ1 σ2 σ3
> −μ −μ
E E E E
t.in
po
gs
. blo
tas
vi lda
Ci
Page 412 of 429

Q. The stress state at a point in a body is plane with
σ 1 = 60N / mm 2 & σ 2 = −36 N / mm 2
If the allowable stress for the material in simple tension or compression is
100 N/mm2 calculate the value of factor of safety with each of the following
criteria for failure
(i) Max Stress Criteria
(ii) Max Shear Stress Criteria
t.in
(iii) Max strain criteria
(iv) Max Distortion energy criteria [10 Marks]
Ans. The stress at a point in a body is plane

σ1 = 60 N / mm2 σ2 = −36 N / mm2
Allowable stress for the material in simple tension or compression is 100 N/mm2
po
Find out factor of safety for
(i) Maximum stress Criteria : - In this failure point occurs when max principal stress
reaches the limiting strength of material.
Therefore. Let F.S factor of safety
σ ( allowable )
σ1 =
F.S
gs
100 N / mm2
F.S = = 1.67 Ans.
blo
60 N / mm2
(ii) Maximum Shear stress criteria : - According to this failure point occurs at a point in a
member when maximum shear stress reaches to shear at yield point
σyt
γ max = σyt = 100 N / mm2
2 F.S
.
σ1 − σ2 60 + 36 96
γ max = = = = 48 N / mm2
tas
2 2 2
100
48 =
2 × F.S
100 100
F.S = = = 1.042
lda
2 × 48 96
F.S = 1.042 Ans.
(iii) Maximum Strain Criteria ! – In this failure point occurs at a point in a member when
maximum strain in a bi – axial stress system reaches the limiting value of strain (i.e
strain at yield point)
vi
2
⎛σ ⎞
σ 12
+ σ 22
− 2μσ 1σ 2 = ⎜ allowable ⎟
⎝ FOS ⎠
FOS = 1.27
Ci
( μ = 0.3assume)
(iv) Maximum Distortion energy criteria ! – In this failure point occurs at a point in a
member when distortion strain energy per unit volume in a bi – axial system reaches the
limiting distortion strain energy at the of yield
Page 413 of 429
2
⎛σ ⎞
σ12 + σ22 − σ1 × σ2 = ⎜ yt ⎟
⎝ F.S ⎠
2
⎛ 100 ⎞
60 + ( 36 ) − ×60 × −36 = ⎜
2 2
⎟
⎝ F.S ⎠
F.S = 1.19

Question: A mild steel shaft of 50 mm diameter is subjected to a beading moment of 1.5
t.in
kNm and torque T. If the yield point of steel in tension is 210 MPa, find the
maximum value of the torque without causing yielding of the shaft material
according to
(i) Maximum principal stress theory
(ii) Maximum shear stress theory.
po
32M
Answer: We know that, Maximum bending stress (σb ) =
πd 3
16T
and Maximum shear stress (τ ) = gs
πd 3
Principal stresses are given by:
2
σ ⎛σ ⎞ 16 ⎡ 2⎤
= b ± ⎜⎜ b ⎟⎟⎟ + τ 2 = 2
⎢M ± M + T ⎥⎦
blo
σ1,2
2 ⎜
⎝2⎠ πd 3 ⎣
(i ) According to Maximum principal stress theory
Maximum principal stress=Maximum stress at elastic limit (σ y )
16 ⎡M + M 2 + T 2 ⎤ = 210 ×106
.
or ⎢⎣ ⎥⎦
πd 3
tas
16 ⎡1500 + 15002 + T 2 ⎤ = 210 ×106

or 3 ⎢⎣ ⎥⎦
π (0.050)
or T = 3332 Nm = 3.332 kNm
lda
(ii ) According to Maximum shear stress theory

σ1 − σ 2 σ y
τmax = =
2 2
or , σ1 − σ 2 = σ y
16
vi
or , 2× 3
M 2 + T 2 = 210 ×106
πd
or , T = 2096 N m = 2.096 kNm
Ci

Question: Illustrate the graphical comparison of following theories of failures for two-
dimensional stress system:
(i) Maximum normal stress theory
(ii) Maximum shear stress theory
(iii) Distortion energy theory Page 414 of 429
Answer:
Chapter--15 Theo
ories of Fa
t.in
Conventtional Que
estion ESE
E-2004
Question
n: State th
he Von- Miises's theor ry. Also givve the natur rally expreession.
Answer: Accordinng to this theory
t yielding would occur
o when total distorrtion energy
y absorbed
po
per unitt volume duue to applied d loads exceeeds the distortion enerrgy absorbed
d per unit
volume at the tensiile yield poin
nt. The failu
ure criterion is
2 2 2
(σ1 − σ 2 ) + (σ 2 − σ 3 ) + (σ 3 − σ1) = 2σ 2y
[sym
mbols has usual
gs u meaning]
Conventtional Que
estion ESE
E-2002
Question
n: Derive an expresssion for the distortiion energy
y per unit volume fo or a body
subjectted to a uniform
u ress state, given by the σ 1 and
str d σ 2 with the
t third
blo
pal stress σ3 being ze
princip ero.
Answer: Accordinng to this theory
t yielding would occur
o when total distorrtion energy
y absorbed
per unitt volume duue to appliedd loads exceeeds the distortion enerrgy absorbedd per unit
volume at the tensiile yield point. Total strrain energy ET and straain energy for
f volume
change EV can be giiven as
.
tas
Substitu
uting strains in terms of
o stresses th
he distortion
n energy can
n be given ass
lda
At the tensile
t yield point, σ1 = σy , σ2 = σ3 = 0 which gives
vi
The faillure criterion

n is thus obttained by eq
quating Ed and Edy , whiich gives
Ci
In a 2-D
D situation iff σ3 = 0, the criterion red
duces to
Conventtional Que
estion GAT
TE-1996
Question
n: A cube of 5mm sid
de is loaded as shownn in figure below.
(i) Determine the
t princip s σ1 ,σ2 ,σ3 .
pal stresses
(ii) Will the cub
W be yield if the yield strength
s off the mater
rial is 70 MPa?
M Use
Von-Mises th heory. Page 415 of 429
Answer: he material σet = 70 MPa
Yield sttrength of th a = 70 MN/m
m2 or 70 N/m
mm2.
t.in
(i) Principal stress σ1, σ2 , σ3 :
po
2000 1000
σx = = 80 N/mm2 ; σy = = 40 N/mm2
5×5 5×5
500 800
σz = = 20 N/mm2 ; gs τ xy = = 32 N/mm2
5×5 5×5
σ x + σy ⎛ σ x − σ y ⎞⎟ 80 + 40
2
⎛ 80 − 40 ⎞⎟
± ⎜⎜⎜ ⎜⎜⎜
2
⎟ + τ xy ⎟⎟ + (32)
2
σ= ⎟ = ±
2 ⎝⎜ 2 ⎠⎟ 2 ⎝ 2 ⎠
blo
2 2
= 60 ± (20) + (32) = 97.74, 22.26
∴ σ1 = 97.74N/mm2 , or 97.74 MPa
and σ2 = 22.96N/mm2 or 22.96 MPa
σ3 = σz = 20N/mm2 or 22 MPa
.
(ii) Will the cube yieldor not?

tas
According to Von-Mises yield criteria, yielding will occur if

2 2 2
(σ1 − σ2 ) + (σ2 − σ3 ) + ( σ3 − σ1) ≥ 2σyt2
2 2 2
Now (σ1 − σ2 ) + (σ2 − σ3 ) + ( σ3 − σ1)
lda
2 2 2
= (97.74 − 22.96) + (22.96 − 20) + (20 − 97.74)
= 11745.8 −− − (i )
2
and, 2σyt2 = 2 ×(70) = 9800 −− − (ii )
Since 11745.8 > 9800 so yielding will occur.
vi

Question: A thin-walled circular tube of wall thickness t and mean radius r is subjected
to an axial load P and torque T in a combined tension-torsion experiment.
(i) Determine the state of stress existing in the tube in terms of P and T.
Ci
(ii) Using Von-Mises - Henky failure criteria show that failure takes place
σ 2 + 3τ 2 = σ0 , where σ0 is the yield stress in uniaxial tension,
when
σ and τ are respectively the axial and torsional stresses in the tube.
Answer: Mean radius of the tube = r,

Wall thickness of the tube = t,
Axial load = P, and
Page 416 of 429
Torque = T.
(i) The state of stress in the tube:
P
Due to axial load, the axial stress in the tube σ x =
2πrt
Due to torque, shear stress,
Tr Tr T
τ xy = = =
J 2πr t 2πr 3 t
3
π
J=
2
{ 4
}
(r + t ) − r 4 = 2πr 3t -neglecting t 2 higher power of t.
P T
∴ The state of stress in the tube is, σ x = , σy = 0, τ xy =
2πrt 2πr 3 t
(ii) Von Mises-Henky failure in tension for 2-dimensional stress is
σ02 = σ12 + σ22 − σ1σ2
t.in
σx + σy ⎛ σ − σ y ⎞⎟2
σ1 = + ⎜⎜⎜ x ⎟ + τ xy
2
2 ⎜⎝ 2 ⎠⎟⎟
2
σ x + σy ⎛ σ x − σ y ⎞⎟
σ2 = − ⎜⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ + τ xy
2
po
2 ⎜⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎟
σx σ x2 2
In this case, σ1 = + + τ xy , and
2 4
σx σ2
σ2 =
2
2
gs
− x + τ xy
4
(∵ σy = 0)
2 2 2
⎡σ σ x2 ⎤ ⎡σ 2 ⎤ ⎡ 2 ⎤⎡ 2 ⎤
∴ σ = ⎢⎢ x +
2 2 ⎥
+ τ xy + ⎢ x − σx + τ 2 ⎥ − ⎢ σx + σx + τ 2 ⎥ ⎢ σx − σx + τ 2 ⎥
⎥ ⎢2 xy ⎥ ⎢2 xy ⎥ ⎢ xy ⎥
blo
0
⎢⎣ 2 4 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ 4 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ 4 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ 2 4 ⎥⎦
⎡ σ2 σ2 σ σ2 ⎤ ⎡σ2 σ2 2 ⎤
= ⎢⎢ x + x + τ xy2
+ 2. x . x + τ xy 2 ⎥
+ ⎢ x + x + τ 2 + 2. σ x . σ x + τ 2 ⎥
⎥ ⎢4 xy xy ⎥
⎢⎣ 4 4 2 4 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ 4 2 4 ⎥⎦
⎡ σ2 σ2 ⎤
− ⎢ x − x − τ xy 2 ⎥
.
⎢4 4 ⎥
⎣ ⎦
tas
= σ x2 + 3τ xy
2
σ0 = σ x2 + 3τ xy
2
lda

Question: Find the maximum principal stress developed in a cylindrical shaft. 8 cm in
diameter and subjected to a bending moment of 2.5 kNm and a twisting
moment of 4.2 kNm. If the yield stress of the shaft material is 300 MPa.
Determine the factor of safety of the shaft according to the maximum
shearing stress theory of failure.
vi
Answer: Given: d = 8 cm = 0.08 m; M = 2.5 kNm = 2500 Nm; T = 4.2 kNm = 4200 Nm
σyield (σyt ) = 300 MPa = 300 MN/m2
2 2
Equivalent torque, Te = M 2 + T 2 = (2.5) + (4.2) = 4.888 kNm
Ci
Maximum shear stress developed in the shaft,

16T 16 × 4.888 ×103
τmax = 3
= 3
×10−6 MN/m2 = 48.62MN/m2
πd π ×(0.08)
300
Permissible shear stress = = 150MN/m2
2
150 Page 417 of 429
∴ Factor of safety = = 3.085
48.62
t.in
po
gs
.blo
tas
vi lda
Ci
Page 418 of 429
t.in
po
gs
blo
.
tas
lda
vi
Ci
Page 419 of 429
16. Rive
eted and Weld
ded Joint
J
Th
heory at
a a Glance
G e (for IES,
I G
GATE, PSU)
t.in
po
gs
. blo
tas
lda
vi
Ci
Page 420 of 429
Chapter--16 Riveted
d and Welde
ed Joint S K Mondal’s
t.in
po
gs
blo
.
tas
vi lda
Ci
Page 421 of 429
Chapter-16 Riveted and Welded Joint S K Mondal’s
Failure of riveted joint

GATE-1. Bolts in the flanged end of pressure vessel are usually pre-tensioned Indicate
which of the following statements is NOT TRUE? [GATE-1999]
t.in
(a) Pre-tensioning helps to seal the pressure vessel
(b) Pre-tensioning increases the fatigue life of the bolts
(c) Pre-tensioning reduces the maximum tensile stress in the bolts
(d) Pre-tensioning helps to reduce the effect of pressure pulsations in the pressure vessel
GATE-1. Ans. (c)
po
Statement for Linked Answers and Questions Q2 and Q3
A steel bar of 10 × 50 mm is cantilevered with two M 12 bolts (P and Q) to support a static
load of 4 kN as shown in the figure. gs
. blo
tas
GATE-2. The primary and secondary shear loads on bolt P, respectively, are:
[GATE-2008]
lda
(A) 2 kN, 20 kN (B) 20 kN, 2kN (C) 20kN,0kN (D) 0kN, 20 kN

4 kN
GATE-2. Ans. (a) Primary (Direct) Shear load = = 2k N
2
GATE-3. The resultant stress on bolt P is closest to [GATE-2008]

vi
(A) 132 MPa (B) 159 MPa (C) 178 MPa (D) 195 MPa
GATE-3. Ans. (b)
Ci
GATE-4. A bolted joint is shown below. The maximum shear stress, in MPa, in the bolts
at A and B, respectively are: [GATE-2007]
Page 422 of 429
Chapter--16 Riveted
d and Welde
ed Joint S K Mondal’s
t.in
(a) 242.6, 42.5 (b) 42
25.5, 242.6 (c) 42.5, 42.5 42.6, 242.6
(d) 24
GATE-4. Ans. (a)
po
GATE-5. A bracke et (shown in
i figure) is
i rigidly mounted
m on
n wall usinng four rive
ets. Each
rivet is 6 mm in dia
ameter and
d has an efffective leng
gth of 12 m
mm. [GA
ATE-2010]
gs
. blo
tas
Direct sh
hear stress (in MPa) in the mostt heavily lo
oaded rivet is:
(a) 4.4 (b) 8.8
8 (c) 17.6 (d
d) 35.2
lda
GATE-5. Ans. (b)

1000 F 250
F= = 250 N and z= = = 8.8MPa
4 A π (6) 2
4
vi
Efficiency of
o a rive
eted jo
oint
GATE-6. If the raatio of the diameter
d o rivet holle to the piitch of rive
of ets is 0.25, then the
Ci
tearing efficiency
e o the joint is:
of [GAATE-1996]
(a) 0.50 (b) 0.7
75 (c) 0.2
25 (d) 0.8
87
GATE-6. Ans. (b)
Page 423 of 429
GATE-7. A manufacturer of rivets claims that the failure load in shear of his product is
500 ± 25 N. This specification implies that [GATE-1992]
t.in
(a) No rivet is weaker than 475 N and stronger than 525 N
(b) The standard deviation of strength of random sample of rivets is 25 N
(c) There is an equal probability of failure strength to be either 475 Nor 525 N
(d) There is approximately two-to-one chance that the strength of a rivet lies between
475 N to 525 N
GATE-7. Ans. (a)
po

gs
IES-1. An eccentrically loaded
riveted joint is shown with 4
blo
rivets at P, Q, R and S.
Which of the rivets are the
most loaded?
(a) P and Q
(b) Q and R
(c) Rand S
.
(d) Sand P
tas
[IES-2002]
IES-1. Ans. (b)
lda
IES-2. A riveted joint has been designed to

support an eccentric load P. The load
generates value of F1 equal to 4 kN and F2
equal to 3 kN. The cross-sectional area of
each rivet is 500 mm2. Consider the
following statements:
vi
1. The stress in the rivet is 10 N / mm2

2. The value of eccentricity L is 100 mm
3. The value of load P is 6 kN
4. The resultant force in each rivet is 6 kN
Ci
Which of these statements are correct?

(a) 1 and 2 (b) 2 and 3
(c) 3 and 4 (d) 1 and 3 [IES-2003]
IES-2. Ans. (d)
Page 424 of 429
P = 2F2 = 2 x 3 = 6 kN
and P.L = F1l + F1l = 2 F1l
or 6 L = 2 × 4l = 8l
L 8
or =
l 6
Resultant force on rivet,
t.in
R = F12 +F22 +2F1F2 cosθ
( 4 ) + ( 3)
2 2
= + 2 × 4 × 3cos θ
= 5 kN
po
∴ Shear stress on rivet,
R 5×103
τ= = =10 N/mm 2
Area 500
IES-3. If permissible stress in

plates of joint through a
gs
pin as shown in the
given figure is 200 MPa,
blo
then the width w will be
(a) 15 mm
(b) 18 mm
(c) 20 mm
(d) 25 mm
.
tas
[IES-1999]
IES-3. Ans. (a) (w – 10) × 2 × 10-6 × 200 × 106 = 2000 N; or w = 15 mm.
IES-4. For the bracket bolted as

shown in the figure, the bolts
lda
will develop
(a) Primary tensile stresses and
secondary shear stresses
(b) Primary shear stresses and
secondary shear stresses
(c) Primary shear stresses and
vi
secondary tensile stresses

(d) Primary tensile stresses and
secondary compressive
stresses
Ci
[IES-2000]
IES-4. Ans. (a)
IES-5. Assertion (A): In pre-loaded bolted joints, there is a tendency for failure to
occur in the gross plate section rather than through holes. [IES-2000]
Reason (R): The effect of pre-loading is to create sufficient friction between the
assembled parts so that no slippage occurs.
Page 425 of 429
IES-5. Ans. (a)
IES-6. Two rigid plates are clamped by means of bolt and nut with an initial force N.
After tightening, a separating force P (P < N) is applied to the lower plate,
which in turn acts on nut. The tension in the bolt after this is: [IES-1996]
(a) (N + P) (b) (N – P) (c) P (d) N
IES-6. Ans. (a)
Efficiency of a riveted joint

IES-7. Which one of the following structural joints with 10 rivets and same size of
plate and material will be the most efficient? [IES-1994]
t.in
po
gs
IES-7. Ans. (b)
blo
IES-8. The most efficient riveted joint possible is one which would be as strong in
tension, shear and bearing as the original plates to be joined. But this can
never be achieved because: [IES-1993]
(a) Rivets cannot be made with the same material
(b) Rivets are weak in compression
.
(c) There should be at least one hole in the plate reducing its strength
tas
(d) Clearance is present between the plate and the rivet

IES-8. Ans. (c) Riveted joint can't be as strong as original plates, because there should be at least
one hole in the plate reducing its strength.
Advantages and disadvantages of welded joints

lda
IES-9. Assertion (A): In a boiler shell with riveted construction, the longitudinal scam
is, jointed by butt joint. [IES-2001]
Reason (R): A butt joint is stronger than a lap joint in a riveted construction.
vi

IES-9. Ans. (c)
Ci
Page 426 of 429

IAS-1. Two identical planks of
wood are connected by
bolts at a pitch distance
of 20 cm. The beam is
subjected to a bending
moment of 12 kNm, the
shear force in the bolts
t.in
will be:
(a) Zero (b) 0.1 kN
(c) 0.2 kN (d) 4 kN
[IAS-2001]
IAS-1. Ans. (a)
po
IAS-2. Match List-I with List-II and select the correct answer using the code given
below the Lists: [IAS-2007]
List-I List-II
(Stress Induced) (Situation/ Location)
A. Membrane stress gs 1. Neutral axis of beam
B. Torsional shear stress 2. Closed coil helical spring under axial load
C. Double shear stress 3. Cylindrical shell subject to fluid pressure
D. Maximum shear stress 4. Rivets of double strap butt joint
(a) 3 1 4 2 (b) 4 2 3 1
blo
(c) 3 2 4 1 (d) 4 1 3 2
IAS-2. Ans. (c)
.
tas
vi lda
Ci
Page 427 of 429

Question: The longitudinal joint of a thin cylindrical pressure vessel, 6 m internal
diameter and 16 mm plate thickness, is double riveted lap point with no
staggering between the rows. The rivets are of 20 mm nominal (diameter with
a pitch of 72 mm. What is the efficiency of the joint and what would be the
safe pressure inside the vessel? Allowable stresses for the plate and rivet
materials are; 145 MN/m2 in shear and 230 MN/m2 in bearing. Take rivet hole
diameter as 1.5 mm more than the rivet diameter.
Answer: Given: Diameter of rivet = 20 mm
t.in
Diameter of hole = 20 + 1.5 = 21.5 mm
Diameter the pressure vessel, d = 6 m
Thickness of the plate, t = 16 mm
Type of the joint: Double riveted lap joint
Allowable stresses:
σ 1 = 145 MN / m2 ; τ = 120 MN / m2 ; σ c = 230 MN / m2
po
⎡ 72 − ( 2 × 21.5 ) ⎤ 16
Strength of plate in tearing/pitch, Rt = ⎢ ⎥× × 145
⎣⎢ 1000 ⎦⎥ 1000
= 0.06728 MN
2
π
⎛ 20 ⎞
gs
Strength of rivert in tearing/pitch,Rs = 2 × ×⎜
4 ⎝ 1000 ⎟⎠
× 120
= 0.0754 MN
⎛ 20 16 ⎞
Strength of plate in crushing/pitch,Rs = 2 × ⎜ × ⎟ × 230
blo
⎝ 1000 1000 ⎠
= 0.1472 MN
.
tas
lda
From the above three modes of failure it can be seen that the weakest element is the
plate as it will have tear failure at 0.06728 MN/pitch load itself.
Stresses acting on the plate for an inside pressure of pN/m2 is shown in figure.
pd p×6
Hoop stress = = = 187.5 p
2 × ( 0.016 )
vi
2t
pd p×6
Longitudinal stress = = = 93.75 p
4t 4 × ( 0.016 )
Ci
pd
Maximum principal stress acting on the plate =
2t
only ( i, e.187.5 p ) as there is no shear stress.
0.06728
or 187.5 p ≤ ≤ 145
⎡ 72 − ( 2 × 21.5 ) ⎤
( 0.016 ) × ⎢ 1000 ⎥
⎣ ⎦
or p ≤ 0.7733 MN / m2 or 0.7733 MPa
Page 428 of 429
Rt 0.06728
η jo int = = = 0.4028 = 40.28%
p.t.σ t ( 0.072 ) × ( 0.016 ) × 145

Question: Determine the shaft diameter and bolt size for a marine flange-coupling
transmitting 3.75 MW at 150 r.p.m. The allowable shear stress in the shaft and
bolts may be taken as 50 MPa. The number of bolts may be taken as 10 and
bolt pitch circle diameter as 1.6 times the shaft diameter.
Answer: Given, P = 3.75MW; N = 150 r.p.m.;
τ s = τ b = 50 MPa; n = 10, Db = 1.6 D
Shaft diameter, D :
2π NT
P=
60
2π × 150 × T
3.78 × 106 =
t.in
E
60
3.75 × 106 × 60
or T = = 238732 Nm
2π × 150
π
Also, T = τs × × D3
16
π
po
or 238732 = 50 × 106 × D3
16
⎛ 238732 × 16 ⎞
∴ D=⎜ ⎟ = 0.28 m or 290 mm
⎝ 50 × 10 × π ⎠
6
Bolt size,db : gs
Bolt pitch circle diameter, Db = 1.6 D = 1.6 × 0.29 = 0.464 m
π ⎛D ⎞
Now, T = n× db2 × τ b × ⎜ b ⎟
4 ⎝ 2 ⎠
blo
π ⎛ 0.464 ⎞
or 238732 = 10 × db2 × 50 × 106 × ⎜ ⎟
4 ⎝ 2 ⎠
or db = 0.0512 m or 51.2 mm
.
tas
vi lda
Ci
Page 429 of 429

Strength of Materials by S.K.mondal

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Chapter-10 : Thin Cylinder

Chapter-11 : Thick Cylinder

Chapter-14 : Strain Energy Method

Copyright © 2007 S K Mondal

following e-mail address: [email protected]

1. Stress and Strain

Theory at a Glance (for IES, GATE, PSU)

x The resultant of the internal forces for an axially loaded member is

x Tensile stress (ıt)

tend to elongate due to the external force. A member

distribution due to the force is shown in the given figure.

1.2 Strain (İ)

It is engineering strain or conventional strain.

x Shear Strain ( H ): When a

force P is applied tangentially to

E is the lateral displacement of

1.3 True stress and True Strain

or engineering strain ( F ) = eFT -1

The volume of the specimen is assumed to be constant during plastic deformation.

x Comparison of engineering and the true stress-strain curves shown below

Where Pmax = maximum force and Ao = Original cross section area

= 50 mm2 and Lo = 100 mm. After the application of

length and area.

1.4 Hook’s law

strain (ǆ) and shearing stress ( U ) B shearing strain ( H ).

efficient G is called the shear modulus of elasticity or modulus of rigidity.

1.5 Volumetric strain Fv

x Dilation: The hydrostatic component of the total stress contributes to deformation by

Where K = Bulk Modulus, N = Poisson’s Ratio, E= Young’s modulus, G= Modulus of rigidity

normal stresses for an anisotropic material.

1.11 Poisson’s Ratio (μ)

x Poisson's ratio in various materials Page 8 of 429

1.12 For bi-axial stretching of sheet

2.55 u 103 m 2.55 mm

x Elongation of composite body

Answer: Consider the following figure

than the ultimate strength of the material.

1.16 Thermal or Temperature stress and strain

experience any stress despite the fact that it undergoes a strain.

Vt D E 'T Where, E = Modulus of elasticity

But according to diagram only free expansion is 0.4 mm.

Therefore, compressive stress on steel rod

(a) Original bar before heating.

= AB in the above figure.

= AC in the above figure.

V B = Compressive stress developed in the brass rod.

AB = Cross section area of the brass rod.

A typical creep curve shows three distinct stages

1) Primary creep is a period of transient creep.

due to material deformation.

2) Secondary creep provides a nearly constant

rate. A stage of balance between competing.

cracking and/or formation of voids and cavities occur.

deformation. The offset yield strength can be determined by the stress

by the original cross-sectional area Ao of the specimen.

x RA is the most structure-sensitive ductility parameter and is useful in detecting quality

viii) Stress-strain response

1.24 Elastic strain and Plastic strain

Equation of the straight line CB is given by

2.55 u 103 m 2.55 mm

IES-33. Ans. (d) E 2G 1 P 3K 1 2 P

IES-48. Ans. (b)