Engineering Mechanics - KL - Ramachandran S

As per Leading Universities’
nd
2 Feb 2016
978-93-84893-68-2
Contents C.1
Contents
1. Statics
1.1 Introduction . ..................................................................... 1.1
1.2 Classification of Engineering Mechanics....................... 1.2
1.3 Fundamental Concepts of Mechanics ............................ 1.4
1.4 Scalar and Vector Quantities ......................................... 1.5
1.5 Units and Dimensions ..................................................... 1.6
1.6 Laws of Mechanics........................................................... 1.14
1.6.1 Newton’s Three Fundamental Laws............... 1.14
1.6.2 Newton’s Law of Gravitation .......................... 1.16
1.6.3 The Parallelogram Law of Forces................ 1.17
1.6.4 Triangular Law of Forces ............................... 1.17
1.6.5 Polygon Law of Forces .................................... 1.19
1.6.6 Law (or) Principle of Transmissibility of
Forces ..... ..................................................................... 1.20
1.6.7 Law of conservation of energy ........................ 1.21
1.6.8 Principle of work and energy ......................... 1.22
1.7 Force and Force System ................................................. 1.22
1.7.2 Types of force system ....................................... 1.23
(I) Coplanar force system........................................ 1.24
(a) Concurrent forces .......................................... 1.24
(b) Coplanar - concurrent force system ........... 1.24
(c) Non concurrent and non-parallel forces.... 1.25
(d) Coplanar - Non concurrent forces ............. 1.25
(e) Collinear forces.............................................. 1.25
(f) Parallel forces ................................................ 1.26
II Non coplanar force system................................. 1.26
(a) Non coplanar concurrent forces.................. 1.26
(b) Non coplanar Non concurrent forces......... 1.27
(c) Non coplanar parallel forces....................... 1.27
C.2 Engineering Mechanics
(d) Non coplanar Non concurrent and

Non parallel forces (skew forces) ................ 1.27
1.8 Moment of a Force .......................................................... 1.28
Units of Moment ...................................................... 1.29
Clockwise Moment.................................................... 1.29
Anticlockwise Moment.............................................. 1.29
1.8.1 Principle of Moments (or Varignon’s
Principle) ..................................................................... 1.30
1.9 Resultant of Force System.............................................. 1.31
1.9.1 Resultant of two coplanar concurrent forces 1.31
I. Analytical method - parallelogram law of
forces .......................................................................... 1.32
II Analytical Method – Triangle Law of Forces . 1.34
III Graphical method - parallelogram law of
forces .......................................................................... 1.35
IV Graphical method - Triangle law of forces ... 1.35
1.9.2 Rectangular components of force system
(Resolution).................................................................. 1.37
1.9.3 Resultant of several concurrent forces ........... 1.38
1.10 Parallel Force System.................................................... 1.58
(a) Like parallel forces ............................................ 1.58
(b) Unlike parallel forces ........................................ 1.59
1.11 Couple ........ ..................................................................... 1.63
Arm of a Couple ...................................................... 1.63
1.11.1 Moment of a Couple ...................................... 1.63
Clockwise Couple and Anticlockwise Couple ....... 1.64
1.11.2 Equivalent couples.......................................... 1.64
1.11.3 Resolution of a given Force into a Force
and a Couple : Force - Couple system ................... 1.65
1.12 Equivalent Force System .............................................. 1.66
1.13 Resultant of Force and Couple System ...................... 1.67
1.14 Equilibrium of Particle .................................................. 1.91
Contents C.3
1.14.1 Equilibrant ...................................................... 1.92

1.15 Equilibrium of Rigid Body............................................ 1.94
1.16 Free Body Diagram........................................................ 1.94
1.17 Types of Forces on Rigid Bodies ................................. 1.98
1.19 Conditions of Equilibrium in two Dimensions...........1.101
1.20 Equilibrium of Two Force Body...................................1.104
1.21 Equilibrium of a Three Force Body ............................1.105
1.22 Condition for Three Forces in Equilibrium................1.105
1.22.1 Lami’s Theorem ............................................1.106
1.23 Graphical Method ...........................................................1.142
2. Types of Supports - Force Systems in Space
2.1 Introduction . ..................................................................... 2.1
2.2 Types of Supports ........................................................... 2.2
1. Frictionless (Simple) Support .......................... 2.2
2. Roller and Knife Edge Supports....................... 2.2
3. Hinged (Pin) Support ......................................... 2.3
4. Built-in Support or Fixed support.................... 2.3
2.2.1 Types of Beams................................................. 2.5
2.3 Various Types of Loadings ............................................. 2.6
1. Concentrated or Point Load .............................. 2.6
2. Uniformly Distributed Load (UDL) .................. 2.6
3. Uniformly Varying Load .................................... 2.7
2.4 Problems Involving Point Loads and Uniformly
Distributed Loads.... ............................................................... 2.8
2.5 Review of Vectors. ........................................................... 2.26
2.6 Force Systems in Space .................................................. 2.32
2.6.1 Forces in three dimensional space
(Component of force in space) .................................. 2.33
2.6.2 Resultant of several concurrent forces ........... 2.35
2.6.3 Equilibrium of particle in space .................... 2.36
2.6.4 Equivalent system of forces............................. 2.36

2.7 Degrees of Freedom ......................................................... 2.46
2.8 Free Body Diagram.......................................................... 2.62
2.9 Equilibrium of Rigid Body in Three Dimensions........ 2.64
2.10 Moment of Force About a Point.................................. 2.77
Moment of force about any other point................ 2.78
Varignon’s Theorem ................................................. 2.78
Vectorial treatment................................................... 2.79
2.11 Moment of a Force about an axis............................... 2.84
2.12 Equilibrium of Non-concurrent and Non-parallel
Spatial Forces .... ..................................................................... 2.98
3. Properties of Planar Surfaces and Solids
3.1 Centre of Gravity or Centroid ....................................... 3.1
3.1.1 First Moment of Area ...................................... 3.2
3.1.2 Centroid of a Uniform Lamina...................... 3.2
3.1.3 Centre of Gravity.............................................. 3.4
3.1.4 Solved problems on centroids ....................... 3.8
3.2 Moment of Inertia (or) Second Moment of Area ........ 3.31
3.3 Parallel Axis Theorem..................................................... 3.32
3.4 Perpendicular Axis Theorem .......................................... 3.34
3.4.1 Polar Moment of Inertia ................................. 3.34
3.5 Centroid and Moment of Inertia of Composite Area . 3.36
3.6 Polar Moment of Inertia ................................................. 3.69
3.7 Radius of Gyration of an Area ...................................... 3.69
3.8 Mass Moment of Inertia of Cylinder and Thin Disc . 3.73
3.8.1 Parallel Axis Theorem ..................................... 3.73
3.9 Solved Problems on Mass Moment of Inertia ........... 3.76
3.10 Product of Inertia........................................................... 3.81
3.11 Principal Moment of Inertia......................................... 3.82
Contents C.5
3.12 Solved Problems on Product of Inertia and

Principal Moment of Inertia.................................................. 3.83
3.13 Theorems of Pappus and Guldinus ............................. 3.91
3.13.1 Surface of Revolution ................................... 3.91
3.13.2 Volume of Revolution ..................................... 3.91
3.13.3 Pappus-Guldinus Theorem I ......................... 3.92
3.13.4 Pappus-Guldinus Theorem II........................ 3.92
....................................................................................
4. Friction
4.1 Introduction . ..................................................................... 4.1
4.2 Limiting Friction .. ........................................................... 4.1
4.3 Characteritics of Dry Friction (Coloumb’s Law of
Dry Friction) ...... ..................................................................... 4.2
4.4 Angle of Friction .. ........................................................... 4.3
4.5 Inclined Plane and Angle of Repose ............................. 4.16
4.6 Problem Related to Inclined Plane................................ 4.17
4.7 Friction on Ladder ........................................................... 4.31
4.8 Belt Drives .. ..................................................................... 4.40
4.8.1 Open Belt Drive................................................ 4.40
4.8.2 Cross belt drive................................................. 4.41
4.8.3 Ratio of Tensions for Flat Belts .................... 4.42
4.9 Wedge Friction.. ............................................................... 4.56
4.10 Virtual Work ... ............................................................... 4.68
4.10.1 Principle of virtual work............................... 4.71
4.10.2 Applications of virtual work ......................... 4.72
4.10.3 Procedure for analysis using principle of
virtual work ................................................................ 4.72
4.10.4 Sign convention............................................... 4.73
4.11 Degree of Freedom......................................................... 4.73
4.12 Application of Principle of Virtual Work to Beams . 4.84
5. Dynamics
5.1 Introduction . ..................................................................... 5.1
5.1.1 Kinematics ......................................................... 5.1
5.1.2 Kinetics .............................................................. 5.1
5.2 Rectangular Co-ordinate System .................................... 5.1
5.2.1 Position .............................................................. 5.2
5.2.2 Displacement ..................................................... 5.2
5.2.3 Average velocity ................................................ 5.3
5.2.4 Average acceleration ......................................... 5.4
5.2.5 Instantaneous acceleration (or) Simply
acceleration .................................................................. 5.4
5.2.6 Motion Under Variable Acceleration.............. 5.5
5.3 Velocity - Time Diagram................................................. 5.18
5.4 Freely Falling Body ......................................................... 5.20
5.5 Relative Motion ............................................................... 5.23
5.6 Motion of a Projectile ...................................................... 5.28
(i) Time of flight ...................................................... 5.33
(ii) Horizontal range .............................................. 5.33
(iii) Maximum height .............................................. 5.33
5.7 Cylindrical Co-ordinate System...................................... 5.37
5.7.1 Rotation Motion ................................................ 5.38
5.7.2 Equations of rotational motion:...................... 5.39
5.8 Summary of Translation and Rotational Motion ........ 5.42
5.9 Combined Motion of Rotation and Translation
[General Plane Motion] ................................................... 5.47
5.10 Concept of Instantaneous Center................................. 5.61
5.10.1 Motion of connecting rod of piston and
crank of a reciprocating pump................................. 5.62
5.11 Rectilinear Translation - Newton’s Second Law ....... 5.76
5.12 D’Alemberts Principle .................................................... 5.80
Contents C.7
5.13 Application to Connected Bodies.................................. 5.83

5.14 Lift Motion ..................................................................... 5.85
5.16.1 Problems on motion of lift............................ 5.86
6. Mechanical Vibrations
6.1 Introduction . ..................................................................... 6.1
6.2 Commonly used Definitions in Vibratory Motions
(or) Basic Features of Vibrating System............................. 6.2
1. Period of Vibration ............................................. 6.2
2. Cycle ...................................................................... 6.2
3. Frequency .............................................................. 6.2
4. Amplitude ............................................................. 6.2
5. Natural frequency................................................ 6.3
6. Fundamental (or principal) mode of
vibration .................................................................... 6.3
7. Degree of freedom................................................ 6.3
8. Damping ............................................................... 6.3
9. Phase difference ................................................... 6.3
10. Resonance ........................................................... 6.3
11. Mechanical system............................................. 6.3
12. Discrete (or lumped) system............................. 6.3
6.3 Types of Vibratory Motion.............................................. 6.4
1. Free (or) Natural Vibrations ............................. 6.4
2. Forced Vibrations ................................................ 6.4
3. Damped Vibrations ............................................. 6.4
6.3.1 Types of Free Vibrations ................................. 6.5
1. Longitudinal Vibrations ..................................... 6.5
2. Transverse Vibrations: ........................................ 6.6
3. Torsional Vibrations ........................................... 6.6
6.4 Basic Elements of Vibrating System ............................ 6.7
(i) Inertia elements................................................... 6.7
(ii) Restoring elements ............................................. 6.7
(iii) Damping elements ............................................ 6.7

6.5 Degrees of Freedom ......................................................... 6.8
(a) Single degree of freedom .................................. 6.8
(b) Two degree of freedom ...................................... 6.8
(c) Discrete or lumped system
(Finite degree of freedom) ................................ 6.9
(d) Infinite degree of freedom................................. 6.9
6.6 Simple Harmonic Motion ................................................ 6.9
6.6.1 Introduction ....................................................... 6.9
6.6.2 Velocity and Acceleration of a Particle
Moving with Simple Harmonic Motion .................. 6.10
6.6.3 Differential Equation of Simple Harmonic
Motion .... ..................................................................... 6.12
6.6.4 Terms Used in Simple Harmonic Motion..... 6.12
6.7 Spring - Mass Model ....................................................... 6.24
6.7.1 Equivalent Stiffness of Spring........................ 6.29
(i) Spring in series................................................... 6.29
(ii) Springs in parallel............................................ 6.29
6.8 Simple Pendulum . ........................................................... 6.44
6.9 Compound Pendulum....................................................... 6.48
Module 1
STATICS
Statics: Fundamental concepts and laws of mechanics -

Rigid body - Principle of transmissibility of forces - Coplanar
force systems - Moment of a force - Principle of moments -
Resultant of force and couple system - Equilibrium of rigid
body - Free body diagram - Conditions of equilibrium in two
dimensions - Two force and three force members.
1.1 INTRODUCTION
The different motions that we notice, everyday, like

balls bouncing or wheels rolling, are interaction of different
bodies and effect of forces acting on them - the study is
called mechanics, which can be defined as that science
which describes and predicts the condition of rest or motion
of bodies under the action of forces. Mechanics is divided
into three major parts.
1. Mechanics of rigid bodies
2. Mechanics of deformable bodies
3. Mechanics of fluids
Mechanics, when applied in engineering is called

Engineering mechanics which concerns itself mainly with
the application of the principles of mechanics to the solution
of problems commonly encountered in the field of
engineering practice. Thus, Engineering mechanics is the
study of forces and motion of bodies in mechanisms.
1.2 Engineering Mechanics
1.2 CLASSIFICATION OF ENGINEERING MECHANICS

Engineering mechanics may be classified based upon
the type or nature of the body involved and is shown in
Fig. 1.1.
E ngineering M echanics
M echanics M echanics
of solids of fluid
Rig id Deform able Ideal Viscous Com pressible

bod ies bod ies fluid fluid flu id
S ta tics Dynam ics

S trength of Theory of Theory of
M aterials E lasticity P lasticity
K inetics K inem atics

Fig. 1.1 Classification of Engineering M echanics
A particle is defined as an idealized model of actual

physical body of real world, as an entity having only mass
and location in space. Its dimensions are negligible when
compared with the distances involved in the discussion of
its motion.
Rigid body
Rigid body is one which can retain its shape, size
or one which does not undergo any deformation under the
loads. It is a combination of a large number of particles
which occupy fixed positions with respect to each other both
before and after applying a load.
Statics 1.3
A rigid body is one which does not deform under load.

However, actual bodies are not absolutely rigid and deform
slightly. Since such slight deformations do not affect the
conditions of equilibrium or motion, they are neglected in
the study of rigid bodies.
Rigid body mechanisms found a suitable basis for the
analysis and design of structural, mechanical or electrical
engineering devices and are divided into two areas - Statics
and Dynamics. Dynamics is further divided into Kinetics
and Kinematics.
Statics is branch of mechanics which deals with the
force and its effects on bodies at rest. The configuration of
different forces is such that the resultant force on the
system is zero.
Dynamics is branch of mechanics which deals with
the force and its effects on bodies in motion.
Kinetics is the branch of mechanics which deals with
the body in motion when the forces which cause the motion
are considered.
Kinematics is the branch of mechanics which deals
with the body in motion, when the forces causing the
motion are not considered.
Deformable bodies are one which undergoes
deformation under application of forces. The branch of
mechanics which deals with the study of internal force
distribution, stress and strain developed in the bodies is
called mechanics of deformable bodies or mechanics of
materials.
Fluid mechanics is branch of mechanics which deals

with study of fluids both liquids and gases at rest or in
motion.
1.3 FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS OF MECHANICS

The basic concepts used in everyday mechanics are
based on newtonian mechanics. The basic concepts used in
newtonian mechanics are space, time, mass and force.
These are absolute concepts because they are independent
of each other.
Space is a geometric region in which events involving

bodies occur. Space is associated with the position of a point
P. The position of P can be defined by three lengths
measured from a certain reference point or origin in three
given directions. These lengths are known as coordinates of
P.
Time is a measure of the succession of events. The

standard unit used for its measurement is the second s,
which is based on duration.
Mass is used to characterize and compare bodies on

the basis of certain fundamental mechanical experiments.
Two bodies of the same mass, will be attracted by the earth
in the same manner and, they will also offer same
resistance to a change in translation motion. Mass is
quantitative measure of inertia. Mass of a body is constant
regardless of its location.
Force is the action of one body on another. Each body

tends to move in the direction of external force acting on
it. A force is characterized by its point of application, its
magnitude and its direction. A force is represented by
Statics 1.5
a vector. Simply force is push or pull, which by acting on

a body changes or tends to change its state of rest or
motion.
Weight is the force with which a body is attracted
towards the centre of earth by the gravitational pull. The
relation between the mass and weight of a body is given
in the equation 1.1.
Weight (W)  mass (m)  gravity (g) ... (1.1)
where
W  weight in Newton
m  mass of body in kg
g  acceleration due to gravity i.e 9.81 m /s2
1.4 SCALAR AND VECTOR QUANTITIES

Scalar quantities are
n
those physical quantities c t io
o fA
that have only magnitude ne
S ense Li
but no direction. eg. mass, (arrow )
H ead of
time, volume, etc. M ag nitu de
Vector
(len gth )
Vector quantities
D irectio n
are those physical quantities R efere n ce a xis
that have both magnitude Tail o f Vecto r

and direction. eg. Fig.1.2 G ra ph ical repre se ntation
o f a ve ctor
Displacement, velocity,
acceleration, momentum, force, etc.
A vector is represented graphically as shown in Fig.
1.2.
For mathematical operations involving vectors, the
rules of vector algebra should be applied.
1.5 UNITS AND DIMENSIONS

Unit is defined as the numerical standard used to
express the definite magnitude of a physical quantity.
The four basic concepts in mechanics namely, space, time,

mass and force are related to each other by equation 1.2.
Force (F)  mass (m)  Acceleration (a) ...(1.2)

Le ngth
F  ma or F  m ass 
Time 2
The different system of units are
(i) SI units – International System of units

(ii) F.P.S units – Foot - Pound - Second system
(iii) C.G.S units – Centimeter - Gram - Second
system
(iv) M.K.S units – Metre - Kilogram - Second system
The units of three basic concepts can be defined
arbitrarily and are referred as base units. The fourth unit
must be selected as per the equation 1.2 and is referred as
derived unit. In SI system, the base units are length, mass
and time expressed in Metre (m), Kilogram (kg) and Second
(s) respectively. The unit of force is a derived unit and is
expressed in Newton (N).
1.5.1 SI units
 SI units are absolute system of units which are
independent of the location where the
measurements are made.
 International System of Units is abbreviated as SI
units (syste’rne International d’ unit’es).
Statics 1.7
 SI units have 7 base units, 2 supplementary units

and many number of derived units.
 The various SI units are shown in the Table 1.1.
Table 1.1 SI units
Parameter Symbol Unit

Base unit
Length l m
Mass m kg
Time t sec
Derived units
Force F N 2
(i.e., 1 N = 1 kg m/s 
Pressure P N/m 2 or Pascal
Density  kg/m 3
Sp. wt w N/m 3
Energy E Nm o r Jo ule
Area A m2
Velocity v, u m/s
Moment or couple M Nm
Angle  rad
Angular velocity  rad/s
Acceleration a m/s 2
Angular acceleration  rad/s2
Torque T N-m
Power P Watts or J/S
Frequency f Hz
Volume V m3
Work W1-2 N-m
Impulse – kg - m/s
Moment of force – N-m
Stress – N/m 2
Multiples and sub multiples of SI units are obtained

using prefixes given in the Table 1.2. In the problems of
mechanics, magnitude of physical quantities involved may
be very large or very small. Hence the prefixes are found
to be useful.
Table 1.2 Prefixes in SI units
Multiplication factor Prefix Symbol
10 12 tera T
10 9 giga G
10 6 mega M
10 3 kilo k
10 2 hecto h
10 1 deca da 
10  1 deci d
10  2 centi c
10  3 milli m
10  6 micro 
10  9 nano n
10  12 pico p
*
should be avoided if possible
1.5.2 Dimensional Analysis

 Any physical variable can be described by using
qualitative and quantitative approach.
 The qualitative description of physical variable is
known as dimension.
Statics 1.9
 The quantitative description of physical variable

is known as unit.
 Dimensional analysis is a branch of mathematics
which deals with dimensions of quantities. The
fundamental basic dimensions are length, mass,
force & time. Combinations of these determine the
secondary dimensions in which all other quantities
can be expressed.
Dimensions are classified as Absolute system (MLT
system) and Grativational system (FLT system).
Absolute system (MLT system) is one in which
system of units are defined on basis of length, time and
mass. SI system is an absolute system.
Gravitational system (FLT system) is one in which
system of units are defined on basis of length, time and
force. Force is based on gravitational acceleration which
depends upon the location.
In MLT system
ML
F
T2
In FLT system
FT 2
M
L
The basic and derived dimensions of various quantities

in MLT system are shown in Table 1.3
Table 1.3 Dimensions of physical quantities in

MLT system
Sl. MLT
Physical quantity Unit
No. system
1. Length (l) metre L
2. Mass (m) kg M
3. Time (T) sec T
4. Force (F) m MLT  2
N  kg 2
s
5. Acceleration (a) m LT  2
s2
6. Angular acceleration  rad T 2
2
s
7. Angular velocity  rad T 1
s
8. Area (A) m2 L2
9. Density  kg ML  3
3
m
10. Energy (E) Nm
kgm
m ML 2T  2
2
s
11. Impulse m MLT  1

kg 
s
12. Moment of force (M) N-m ML 2T  2
13. Moment of inertia (Area) m4 L4
14. Moment of inertia (Mass) kg  m 2 ML 2
15. Momentum m MLT  1
kg 
s
Statics 1.11
Sl. MLT
Physical quantity Unit
No. system
16. Modulus of Elasticity (E)  N   m 1 
 2    kg  2  2  ML 1 T 2
m   s m 
17. Modulus of rigidity (K) N ML 1T  2

2
m
18. Power (P) N  m ML 2 T  3
Watts 
s
19. Pressure (p) N ML  1 T  2
m2
20. Specific height (w) N ML  2T  2
m3
21. Stress  N ML  1T  2
2
m
22. Velocity (v, u) m LT  1
s
23. Volume (V) m3 L3
24. Weight (w) N MLT  2
1.5.3 Dimensional Homogeneity

An equation is said to be dimensionally homogeneous,
if the dimensions of various terms on the left and right
side of the equation are identical. For example, consider an
equation X  V  W.
In the above equation Dimension of X  Dimension of

V  Dimension of W.
Consider an equation y  K   X
where K is constant and  is dimensionless quantity

and therefore
Dimension of y  Dimension of X
Problem 1.1: Verify whether the following equations are
dimensionally homogeneous (a) v2  u2  2as (b) v   2gh

1
(c) s  ut  10 t2
2
Solution:
(a) v2  u 2  2as
Substituting dimensions of the various terms
LT  12  LT  12  [LT 2]  [L]
 [L 2 T  2]  [L 2 T 2]  [L 2 T  2]
 Equation is dimensionally homogenous.
(b) V  
2gh
Substituting the dimensions of various terms
[LT  1]  [LT  2  L]1/2
[LT  1]  [L 2 T 2]1/2
[LT  1]  [LT  1]
 Equation is dimensionally homogeneous.
1
(c) S  ut  10 t2
2
Substituting the dimensions of various terms
[L]  [LT  1]  [T]  [T2]
[L]  [L]  [T 2]
Statics 1.13
[L]  [L]  [T 2]
 The equation is not dimensionally homogeneous.
Problem 1.2: A physical phenomenon is given by relation

x  P  c.v2  y    g  z where p - pressure, c - constant, v -
velocity, - mass density, g - acceleration due to gravity. Find
the dimensions of x, y, z using MLT system.
Solution:
Refer table 1.3 for the dimensions of
P  ML  1 T  2, v  LT  1,   ML  3, g  LT 2
Dimension of x  Dimension of P  Dimension of

2
v y  Dimension of  gz
x  ML  1 T 2  y LT 12  ML  3 LT  2  z
 Dimension of x  ML  1 T 2
ML  1 T 2
Dimension of y  ML  3
L2 T 2
ML  1 T  2
Dimension of z L
ML  3  LT  2
Problem 1.3: What is the dimension of Newton’s law of

gravitational attraction G.
Solution:
G  M1 M2
F
R2
F  R2
G
M1  M2
Substituting the various dimensions of the above

equation (Table 1.3)
[MLT  2] [L 2]
G  [M 1  L 3  T  2]
[M ]  [M]
1.6 LAWS OF MECHANICS

The study of mechanics rests on the following
fundamental principles based on the experimental
evidences.
(i) Newton’s three fundamental laws (First law,

Second law, and Third law)
(ii) Newton’s Law of Gravitation
(iii) The principle of transmissibility of forces
(iv) The parallelogram law of addition of forces
(v) The triangular law of forces
(vi) The law of conservation of Energy
(vii) The principle of work and Energy
1.6.1 Newton’s Three Fundamental Laws
(a) Newton’s First Law

Newton’s first law states that — If the net force or
the resultant force acting on a particle is zero, the
particle will remain at rest (if originally at rest) or
will move with constant speed in a straight line (if
originally in motion).
Or in other words, Every particle continues in its

state of rest or of motion in a straight line unless it
Statics 1.15
is compelled to change that state by an external force

imposed on the body.
So the first law is used to define the forces.
(b) Newton’s Second Law

Newton’s second law states that — If the resultant
force acting on a particle is not zero, the particle will
have an acceleration proportional to the magnitude of
the resultant force and will move in the direction of this
resultant force.
F  Resultant force or Net force
F  ma
where m  Mass of the body
a  Acceleration of the body
This law is used to measure a force.
Newton’s Second Law in other words:
The rate of change of momentum of a body is

directly proportional to the imposed force and it takes
place in the direction in which the force acts.
i.e., Force  R ate of change of momentum
Now,
Momentum  Mass  Velocity
Rate of change of momentum
 mass  rate of change of velocity
 Mass  Acceleration
Force  mass  acceleration

d dv
i.e., F  mv  m  ma
dt dt
F  K ma
K  C onstant of proportionality  1 in S.I. units
(c) Newton’s Third Law

Each and every action (FORCE) has equal and
opposite reaction.
This means that the forces of action and reaction
between two bodies are equal in magnitude but opposite in
direction and have the same line of action.
1.6.2 Newton’s Law of Gravitation

This states that two particles of mass M and m are
mutually attracted with equal and opposite forces
F and  F. This force F is defined as follows:
Mm
FG
r2
where r  Distance between the two particles.
G  Universal constant,
M
also called the Constant of -F
Gravitation. Refer Fig
1.3(a).
Example F
r m
The attraction of the
earth on a particle located
on its surface. The force F Fig.1.3
exerted by the earth on the
particle is known as weight W. By the law of gravitation
Statics 1.17
GMm GM
we have, W  , Introducing the constant g  2 , we
2 r
have
W  mg
where W  weight o f the body in Newton N
m  mass of the body in kg
g  9.81 m/sec 2 acceleration due to gravity.
1.6.3 The Parallelogram Law of Forces

Construct a parallelogram using a force P and a force
Q as two sides of the
parallelogram. Now the
P
diagonal passing through A
represents the resultant
force. This is called as Q

parallelogram law for
Fig.1.3(b)
addition of two forces. Refer A
Fig 1.3 (b).
Or in other words
If two forces P and Q acting at a point A are

represented by the adjacent sides of a parallelogram, then
the diagonal of the parallelogram passing through that
point of intersection represents the resultant.
Resultant R   P2  Q2  2PQ cos


1.6.4 Triangular Law of Forces
If two forces acting simultaneously on a body are

represented by the sides of a triangle taken in order, then
their resultant is represented by the closing side of the

triangle taken in the opposite order.
Refer the Fig. 1.4 (a). The sum of two forces
P and Q may be obtained by arranging P and Q in tip to
tail fashion and then connecting the tail of P with tip of
Q.
Addition of Two Vectors (Forces) P and Q [Refer Fig.

1.4 (a) and (b)]
Q
P
Even if we P
cha nge the orde r
+P
we get sam e resultant
Q
Q
P+
nt
l ta
nt
su
l ta
Re
su
Re
(a) Fig.1.4. (b)

Q
Now P  Q  Q  P. So addition of two forces is

commutative.
The subtraction of a force is obtained by the addition
of corresponding negative force. The force P  Q is obtained
P P
P-
Q -Q subtraction
Q
(a) (b)
P-
Fig.1.5. R esultant Q
Statics 1.19
by adding to P with the negative force  Q as shown in

Fig. 1.5 (a) & (b).
So, P  Q  P   Q
1.6.5 Polygon Law of Forces

If a number of concurrent forces acting simultaneously
on a body, are represented in magnitude and direction by
the sides of a polygon taken in order, then the resultant is
represented in magnitude and direction by the closing side
of the polygon, taken in the opposite order.
Graphically arrange all the given forces in the tip-to-tail
fashion in any order. Join the tail of the second force
with the tip of the first force and so on. To obtain the
resultant, draw vector joining tail of first force and tip of
last force as shown in Fig. 1.6(b).
Concurrent Forces acting on a body. Refer Fig.1.6 (a)
F5
F2
F5
F3
F4 Fig.1.6.(a)
By using Polygon Law of Forces

Vectorial Addition of
F 1, F 2, F 3, F 4, and F 5  Resultant
This means: We can add the forces as in Fig 1.6 (b)

o
C han ge the orde r :
5
o
3 + F4 + F
B y using
F1 + F + F nt =
5
P olygon law
3 + F4 + F
R e s u lt a
F1 + F + F n t =
of forces
F2
R e s u lt a
2
F1
2
B oth R esultan t
are equa l F4
F2
F5 F4
F5 F3
F1
F3 Fig .1.6.(b) Fig .1.6.( c )
We can also add the forces as in Fig. 1.6 (c).

F 2  F 1  F 4  F 3  F5  Resultant.
Consider Fig. 1.6 (b) and 1.6 (c).
Here order is changed. Even then, we get the same

resultant.
Hence, the resultant R does not depend upon the order
in which the forces are chosen to draw the polygon.
1.6.6 Law (or) Principle of Transmissibility of Forces

The condition of equilibrium or motion of a rigid body
will remain unchanged if the point of application of a force
acting on the rigid body is transferred to any other point
along its line of action. Refer Fig. 1.7 and 1.8
Lin e o f action
F A B b A B F
= a
a S am e Effect b
(P ush) Fig.1.7. (P ull)
Statics 1.21
A force F acting on a body at point A is transferred

to point B along the same line of action without changing
its net effect on the rigid body.
Principle of Transmissibility in other words (Refer Fig.
1.8)
F ·
=
n
ti o
ac
of
n
B
e
ti o
li n
ac
of
Fig.1.8.
e
l in
Alternatively, the principle of transmissibility states

that the conditions of equilibrium or the motion of a rigid
body will remain unchanged if a force F acting at a given
point ‘A ’ of the rigid body is replaced by a force F  of the
same magnitude and same direction, but acting at a
different point ‘B ’, provided that the two forces have the
same line of action. The two forces F and F  have the same
effect on the rigid body and are said to be equivalent.
1.6.7 Law of conservation of energy

It states that the energy can neither can be created
nor be destroyed, it can only be transformed from one form
to another. In other words, the total energy possessed by
a body remains constant provided no energy is added to or
taken from it.
1.6.8 Principle of work and energy

The work done by a system of forces on a particle is
equal to the change in the kinetic energy of the particle.
This is called principle of work and energy. Mathematically,
K  E1  W 1  2  K  E2
where K  E1  Kinetic energy of particle before

application of force
K  E2  Kinetic energy of particle after
application of force
W1  2  Work done in movement of particle from
position 1 to 2
1.7 FORCE AND FORCE SYSTEM

Force
Force is an action that changes or tends to change the
state of the body on which it acts. Simply, force is a push
or pull on a body. Force cannot be seen and only its effect
on the object upon which it
acts can be seen. A force can
on
also change or tend to

cti
fa
change the size and shape of

eo
li n
a deformable bodies.
)
(F
de
The characteristics of
tu
F
ni
ag
forces are
M
(i) Magnitude (ii) Direction = in clin atio n o f

for ce w ith
(slope) (iii) Sense (iv) Point h orizo n ta l
O
of application.
p oint of a ctio n
These characteristics
distinguish one force from
Fig. 1.9 Force
Statics 1.23
another. Representation of a force is shown in the Fig. 1.9.

Space diagram is the diagram in which the forces
are represented and their magnitudes are written along
their lines of action. (Fig. 1.10).
B
C B =30 N B
C =2 0N
B
C
A =40 N C A
A A
(a) Sp ace diagram (b) Force diagra m
Fig 1.10
Force diagram is the diagram in which the forces

are drawn to scale, parallel to their respective line of action.
1.7.2 Types of force system

When several forces are acting upon a body
simultaneously, they constitute a system of forces. Force
system is classified based upon the two dimensional or
three dimensional space of forces and the orientation of line
of action of forces. The classification is given below.
C oncurrent
P arallel
C oplana r N on-conc urrent, N on-parallel
C olline ar
F orce sys tem
C oncurrent
N on-coplana r P arallel
N on-conc urrent, N on-parallel
Fig. 1.11
I. Coplanar force system

(a) Concurrent (b) Parallel (c) Non-concurrent
(d) Collinear
II. Non coplanar force system
(a) Concurrent (b) Parallel Plane
(c) Non-concurrent F2
Forces
(I) Coplanar force system F1
A system of forces that are

F3
contained in a single plane or
system of forces having their line Fig 1.12 Coplanar fo rces
of actions in the single

F1 F2
plane is called coplanar
force system. (Fig. 1.12)
Forces F 1, F 2, F 3 are
coplanar forces.
O
(a) Concurrent forces
When the lines of
action of all the forces of a
system intersect at a
F3
common point, the system of Fig. 1.13 C oncurrent F orces
forces are said to be
P lan e
concurrent.
(b) Coplanar - concurrent force F3 F2
system
2
When the system of forces lie in
the same plane and the line of action 1
of forces pass through the common O
F1
point, then the system of forces is
called coplanar - concurrent force
Fig 1.14 C o planar-
system (Fig. 1.14) Forces F 1, F 2, F 3 concurrent fo rces
Statics 1.25
are in same plane and pass through common point O.
(c) Non concurrent and

non-parallel forces
When the system of forces whose
line of action does not pass through a
common point and move of the forces
are parallel is called non concurrent
Fig: 1.15 N on-Co ncurrent
and non-parallel system. Non-Parallel
(d) Coplanar - Non

Plane
concurrent forces
When the system of
F1 F3
forces is acting in a single forces
plane and does not have
their line of action passing
through a common point are F2
called coplanar non
concurrent forces. Fig. 1.16 Fig 1.16 Coplanar
is an example of coplanar - un like p arallel forces
non concurrent forces.
(e) Collinear forces

When the system Plane
of forces acting in a
single plane with a
common line of action C om m on
are called collinear line of
O action
forces. Fig. 1.17 shows
F2 F1 F3 F 4 F5 Forces
collinear force system.
Fig 1.17 Co llinear fo rces

(f) Parallel forces Plane

When the lines of action of all
F1 F2 F3 F4
the forces of the system are
parallel, then the system is called
parallel force system. When the
lines of action of all the forces are
parallel and all of them act in the Fig 1.18 Coplan ar
same direction, then the force like parallel fo rces
system is called like
parallel forces. P lane
When the line of action

F1 F3
of all the forces are parallel forces
and some forces act in one
direction while others in
F2
opposite direction, then the
force system is called unlike
Fig 1.16 Coplanar
parallel force system. Fig. un like parallel forces
1.18 shows an example of
coplanar like parallel force system and Fig. 1.19 shows an
example of coplanar unlike parallel force system.
II Non coplanar force system
A system of forces in which the forces lie in different

planes or in a three dimensional space is called a Non
coplanar force system.
(a) Non coplanar concurrent forces
A system of forces lying in different planes with their

line of action intersecting at a common point are called Non
Statics 1.27
P lan es Planes
Z Z
F1
F1
F3
O X O X
O’
F2 F2
Y Fig 1.21 Non Coplanar
Y Fig 1.20 N o n C o pla ner
C on cu rrent forces non concurrent forces
coplanar concurrent force system. Fig. 1.20 shows such an

example.
(b) Non coplanar Non concurrent forces

A system of forces lying in different planes with
different lines of actions are called non coplanar non
concurrent forces (Fig. 1.21)
(c) Non coplanar parallel forces

A system of forces lying in different plane but their
line of action parallel to each other are called non coplanar
parallel forces. In Fig. 1.22 forces F 1 and F 2 are non
coplanar like parallel force and F 3 and F 4 are non coplanar
unlike parallel forces.
(d) Non coplanar Non concurrent and Non parallel

forces (skew forces)
A system of forces that are not lying in same plane
with different line of action and not passing through same
common point and are not parallel to each other are called
Z Z
F1 F2
F1
F3
F4 F3
O O X
X
F2
Y Fig 1.22 N on C o planar Y
pa rallel fo rces Fig 1.23 Skew forces
Non coplanar Non concurrent and non parallel forces. These

forces are also called as skew forces.
1.8 MOMENT OF A FORCE

Let P  Force acting on a body.
l  Perpendicular distance between the point O and

line of action of the force P .
M  The moment of the force P about O  P  l
Moment of a force is the turning effect produced by a

force, on the body, on which it acts. The moment of a force
B ody
Lin e o f
P A ction
O l of force
P erpend icular
Lin e of Action
distance
l
o f force
O
(a) (b)
P Fig.1.24. M om ent of Force.
Statics 1.29
is equal to the product of the force and the perpendicular

distance between the point and the line of action of the
force. The point O is called moment centre, l is the
moment arm and the line perpendicular to the plane
containing the force, P and the point, O and passing
through O is called axis of moment.
Units of Moment
Since the moment of a force, is the product of force
and distance, therefore the units of the moment will be
Newton metre (briefly written as N-m). Similarly the units
of moment may be kN-m and N-mm.
Clockwise Moment
It is the moment of a P
force, whose effect is to turn O
or rotate the body, in the
clockwise sense Fig. l
1.25(a). Fig.(a)
O
Anticlockwise Moment
It is the moment of a l
force, whose effect is to turn Fig.(b) P
or rotate the body, in the
Fig.1.25
anticlockwise sense Fig.
1.25 (b).
Note: The general convention is to take clockwise moment
as negative and anticlockwise moment as positive.
1.8.1 Principle of Moments (or Varignon’s Principle)

Principle of moments
states that the moment of R co s
the resultant of a r 
number of forces about r2
any point is equal to the
algebraic sum of the O R sin R
moments of all the forces r1
of the system about the Fig.1.26.Varign on ’s P rinciple.
same point.
In otherwords the moment of a force about any
point is equal to the algebraic sum of the moments
of its components about that point.
According to Varignon’s principle: Refer 1.26
Moment of R about O must be equal to algebraic sum
of moments of its components R sin  & R cos  about O .
M o  R  r  R sin   r1  R cos   r2
This principle of moments is very important in solving

the problems of rigid bodies since it is often easier to
determine the moments of force components rather than
the moment of the applied force itself.
If we want to find moments of several coplanar
concurrent forces about a point, then the formula used is
 M   Fx  ry   F y  rx
where
F x is component of each force in x direction
F y is component of each force in y direction
ry is the perpendicular distance of F x from the point
rx is the perpendicular distance of F y from the point
Statics 1.31
1.9 RESULTANT OF FORCE SYSTEM

Composition of a force
system is a process of F3
F 2 R (R esultant )
finding a single force, known

as resultant, that can

produce the same effect on F1
=
the particle as that of the
system of forces. For Fig 1.27 R esu ltan t
P article
example Fig. 1.27 shows a fo rce
system of three forces acting
on a particle with the resultant R which can produce the
same effect.
A particle means that the size and shape of body does
not significantly affect the solution of problems and all the
forces are assumed to act at the same point.
Thus, the resultant is a representative force which has

the same effect on the particle as the group of forces it
replaces.
1.9.1 Resultant of two coplanar concurrent forces
Resultant of two coplanar concurrent forces can be

obtained by the following methods.
1. Analytical method
(a) Parallelogram law of forces
(b) Triangular law of force
2. Graphical method
(a) Parallelogram law of forces
(b) Triangular law of forces
I. Analytical method - parallelogram law of forces

When two forces F 1, F 2 acting on a particle are
represented by two adjacent sides of a parallelogram, the
diagonal connecting the two sides represents the Resultant
force ‘R’ in magnitude and direction Fig. 1.28 (a)
F2 F2
R R
A F1 A F1 A
Fig 1.28(a ) Parallelog ram la w
Hence, the relationship B C

between F 1, F 2 and R can be F2
R
derived as follows [Fig. 1.28

(b)].  
O F1 A D
Consider the
Fig. 1.28(b) Resu ltant of tw o forces
parallelogram OACB . Let OA
 
and OB represent the forces F 1 and F 2 acting at a point

O. The diagonal OC represents the resultant R which can
be expressed as,
OC2  OA  AD2  CD 2
 OA2  2 OA  AD  AD2  CD 2
 OA2  2 OA  AD  AC2
. .
[ . AC2  AD2  CD2]
. .
R 2  F12  2 F 1 F 2 cos   F 22 [ . AC  OB  F 2]
..
[ . AD  AC cos   F 2 c o s ]
Statics 1.33
Hence R  F 21  F 22  2 F1 F2 cos

CD F 2 sin 
Also tan   
OA  AD F 1  F 2 c o s 
Consider the following special cases.
Note (1): If F 1, F 2 are at right angles, then   90,

cos 90  0
, R  

F 21  
F 22
F2
tan  
F1
Note (2): If F 1, F 2 are collinear and are in the same

direction, then   0, cos   1
R 2  F 21  F 22  2F 1 F 2
 Resultant R  F 1  F 2, tan   0 or   0
Case (3): If F 1 F 2 are collinear and are in opposite

directions F 1  F 2, then   180
R 2  F 21  F 22  2F 1 F 2, R  F 1  F2
tan   0:   0
Problem 1.1: The maximum and minimum resultant of two

forces acting on a particle are 50 kN and 10 kN respectively.
If 50 kN is the magnitude of the resultant for the given system
of forces F1 and F2, find the angle between F1 & F2.
Solution:
We know that Resultant of two coplanar concurrent
forces is
R 2  F 21  F 22  2F 1 R 2 cos 
When R is maximum   0 i.e., 50  F 1  F 2
When R is minimum,   180 i.e., 10  F 1  F 2
Solving the above two equations, we get F 1  30 kN

and F 2  20 kN
If the resultant of forces F 1, F2 acting at an angle ‘’

is 50 kN,
50 2  302  202  2 30 20 c o s 
 cos   1 or   0
Thus F 1 and F 2 are collinear to each other when the

resultant is 50 kN.
II Analytical Method – Triangle Law of Forces

If two forces F 1, F 2 acting simultaneously on a
particle can be represented by the two sides of a triangle
(in magnitude and direction) taken in order, then, the third
F2
C 
F2 B
R
 
 
A
F1 F1
Fig. 1.29(a):
Fig. 1.29 Triangle law of forces R epresentatio n o f forces
Statics 1.35
side (closing side) represents the resultant in the opposite

order. (Fig. 1.29)
Thus by applying trigonometric relations can be
applied. From Fig. 1.29 (a), we have
A B C
 
sin  sin  sin 
III Graphical method - parallelogram law of forces

Consider two forces F 1 & F 2 acting at a point O as
shown in Fig. 1.30 (a). Draw two sides of parallelogram
representing the forces F 1 & F 2 to some scale. Fig. 1.30
(b) as OA and OB. Complete the parallelogram by drawing
AC, BC equal to OB and OA to the same scale. Draw the
diagonal OC representing the resultant of the two force
system.
F2 B C
F2
 
F1 
F1 x a xis
O O A
(a) (b)
Fig 1.30 G raph ical metho d- p arallelo gram law o f fo rces
The length of diagonal measured to the chosen scale

represents the magnitude of the resultant acting at an
angle  from the x axis.
IV Graphical method - Triangle law of forces

Consider two forces F 1 and F 2 as shown in Fig. 1.31
(a). Draw OA to some scale as shown in the Fig. 1.31 (b).
B
F2
)
lt a n t(R
R esu F2
 
O F1 O F1 A x axis
(a) (b)
From the end A, draw AB to same scale. Join OB as the

closing side of triangle. The length OB to the same scale
represents the magnitude of the resultant of the two forces
F 1 & F 2. The angle  represents the angle of resultant
taken from x axis.
Problem 1.2: If two forces F1  20 kN and F2  15kN act on
a particle as shown in Fig., find their resultant by (1)
Parallelogram law and (2) Triangle law.
(Anna GE 1151, Nov 2009)
Given 1 5 kN
F 1  20 kN, F 2  15 kN
  70 
Using parallelogram law

o
70
2 0 kN
O
R 
F 21
 F 22
 2 F 1 F 2 cos 
Fig (a)
R 
202  152  2  20  15 cos 
70
R  28.813
Using Triangle law
[Take scale 1 cm = 1 kN]

Statics 1.37
Draw horizontal OA of B
length 20 cm . From A , t
N
an
ult
15 k
draw a line AB of length 15 Re
s
at an angle of 70.
o
Now join OB . The 70
length of OB measures O 20kN A

Fig (b)
28.813 cm. This is the
resultant.
ie R  28.813 kN
1.9.2 Rectangular components of force system

(Resolution)
The process of
Y
replacing a single force F
acting on a particle by two
F
or more forces which Fy
together have the same
effect of a single force is  X
called resolution of force O Fx
into components. Fig 1.32 R eso lu tion o f fo rces
Theoretically a force can be
resolved into an infinite number of component sets, however
in practice a force is resolved into two components.
Consider a force F acting at an angle  from x axis
as shown in Fig. 1.32.
The two rectangular components of forces are resolved
along x and y axis and are given as
F x  F cos ; Fy  F sin 
In the vector form

  
Force F  F x i  Fy j
[Vectors will be
explained in detail later]
Considering resolution
of force on an inclined plane

as shown in Fig. 1.33. The
n
F
force F is resolved into two Ft
F
components F n and F t

Normal component, x
F n  F cos  Fig 1.33 Resolution o f forces
on inclined plane
Tangential component,
F t  F sin 
  
Writing in vector form F  F t  F nsub
In simple words,
Resolution of Forces into components
A single force can be
resolved into two
components which give the
= F sin
same effect on the particle.

F
Refer Fig. 1.34 (a).

Now a force F is H o riz on ta l
resolved as - Horizontal c om p o n en t o f F
component of ‘F’ i.e. = F cos  Fig.1.34.(a)
“F cos  ” and Vertical
component of ‘F’ i.e. “F sin ”.
1.9.3 Resultant of several concurrent forces
Consider a particle shown in Fig. 1.35 (a) subjected

to four forces F 1, F 2, F 3, F4. The resolution of each force is
shown in Fig. 1.35 (b).
Statics 1.39
Y Y
F2
F2 F 2y
F1 F1
F 1y
2 1
X F 2x F 1x
o X
3
o
F 3x F4x
F3 4 F 3y
F3 F4
F 4y
F4
P article
(a) (b)
Fig 1.35 Several Concurrent forces
The Resultant
  
R   F 1x  F 2x  F 3x  F4x i  F 1y  F 2y  F 3y  F4y j
    
R  R x i  Ry j   Fx i   Fy j
Y
[Vectors will be explained in
detail later) Ry
R
The Resultant of the above forces
is shown in Fig. 1.35 (c). 
X
The Angle made by Resultant O Rx
R is given by Fig 1.35 (c) Resu ltan t
Ry  Fy
tan   
Rx  Fx
The magnitude of the Resultant F  

  F x2   F y2
For n number of forces acting on the particle, then the

Resultant is given as
   
R   F  F 1x  F 2x    F nx  i  F1y  F 2y    F ny  j
    
R  R x i  R y j   F x i   Fy j
 Fy
and tan  
 Fx Y
F2 F1
Note:
If angle of the various 2 4
3
forces are taken from 1
positive x axis, then the X
(Fig. 1.36)
Resultant
n
R x   Fx   Fi cos  i F4
i1
F3
n Fig 1.36 Fo rce system
R y   Fy   Fi sin i
i1
 
R  R x i  Ry j
Magnitude R  R2x  

 R 2y
 Ry 
Angle of inclination of Resultant   tan 1  
R
 x
1.9.4 Summary
P 2
Resultant Force Q
2 +
Two or more forces on a P
=
particle may be replaced by a R
single force called resultant force
which gives a same effect.
Q
Fig.1.37.
Statics 1.41
The resultant force, of a given system of forces, is

found out by the method of resolution as followed:
1. Resolve all the forces vertically and add all the
vertical components (i.e., Find F y)
2. Resolve all the forces horizontally and add all the
horizontal components (i.e., Find F x)
3. The resultant R of the given forces is given by the
equation:
R Fy2  Fx2

4. The resultant force will be inclined at an angle
, with the horizontal.
 F y 
 tan   
 F x 
Note: The value of the o

90
angle  will vary depending
(+) y axis
upon the values of

III Q uadrant I Q uadrant
F y and Fx as discussed
o o o
below: (Refer Fig. 1.38) 180 0 ,360
(-) x axis (+) x axis
(-) y axis
(a) When F y is  ve,

II Quad ra nt IV Qua drant
resultant will be
in 1st Quadrant or 270
o Fig.1.38.
2nd Quadrant. (i.e.
in between 0 to 180).
(b) When F y is  ve , resultant will be in IIIrd
Quadrant or IVth Quadrant. (i.e. in between
180 to 360 ).
(c) When F x is  ve, the resultant will be in Ist

Quadrant or IVth Quadrant (i.e. in between
0 to 90  o r 270 to 360).
(d) When F x is  ve, the resultant will be in IInd
Quadrant or IIIrd Quadrant. (i.e. in between
90 to 180  or 180 to 270).
The following sign conventions are followed for solving
statics problems.
Sign conventions for the direction of force:
‘x ’ axis Right side ‘’ ve.
‘x ’ axis Left side ‘’ ve
‘y ’ axis Upside ‘’ ve
‘y ’ axis Do w nw ard ‘’ ve
SOLVED PROBLEMS
Problem 1.3: Four forces act on a bolt A as shown in Fig

(a). Determine the resultant of the forces on the bolt.
Given diagram
F 2 =8 0N
y
F 1 =1 50N
F1
F 1 sin 
o
70 30
o
=3 0 o
o o x
15 F 1 cos 
F 4 =1 00N
Fig.(a) Fig.(b)
F 3 =11 0N
Statics 1.43
Sl.
Force in N Fx in N Fy in N
No.
1. 150 cos 30  129.9 150 sin 30  75
150 sin 3 0
N
1 50
F 1=
o
30
150 cos 30
2.  80 c o s 70   27.36 80 sin 70 = 75.18
F 2= 8
80 sin 70
0N
o
(– sign indicates
70 that force acts left
-80 cos 70 side)
3. 0 Here, there is no – 110

[N o F x ] horizontal (– sign indicates
component and force acts
hence Fx3 = 0 downward)
F 3 = -110N
4. 100 cos 15 = 96.593 – 100 sin 15

= –25.882
100 cos 15 ( sign
-1 00 sin 15
15
o
indicates force
acts downward)
Total  Fx = 199.133  Fy = 14.298 N

Solution:
The force F 1 can be resolved into F 1 sin  and
F 1 cos  as shown in Fig. (b). Similarly we can resolve all
the forces F 2, F 3 and F 4. Add all the x components and find
 Fx. Similarly add all the y components and find  Fy.
Refer Table.
F x  150 cos 30   80 c o s 70   0  100 cos 15  199.1
F y  150 sin 30  80 sin 70  0  100 sin 15  14.3
The resultant R  

  2y  
F2x  F 199.12  14.3 2
 199.6 N
R  199.6 N
Resolution of forces in F y =14.3N 9 .6 N
R = 19
x components and y
components are given in 4.1
o
detail in the next page. Fig.(c) F x =199.1N

F y 14.3
tan     0.07164
F x 199.1
  4.1 
Problem 1.4: The following

y
forces act as shown in figure.
Determine the resultant of
25N
this force system. 50N
o
Solution: 30
o
45
Let F x  Algebraic x
60
o
40N
sum of the resolved
Fig.
30N
Statics 1.45
Sl.
Force in N Fx in N Fy in N
No.
1. 40 0
40N
2. 50 cos 45 50 sin 45
 35.36  35.36
50 sin45
N
50
o
45
50 cos45
3.  25 cos 60 25 sin 60
25
  12.5  21.65
N
25 sin60
o
(– sign
30 indicates that
o
60 force acts left
25 cos 60 side)
4. -30 co s60  30 cos 60  30 sin 60

o   15   25.98
60
(– sign (– sign
indicates that indicates
-30 sin60
force acts left that force

side) acts
N
downward)
30
Total  Fx  47.86 Fy  31.03

components of the forces along ‘x’ axis

F y  Algebraic sum of the resolved components of the
forces along the ‘y’ axis.
Then Fx  40 c o s 0  50 cos 45  25 cos 60  30 cos 60  47.855 N
F y  40 sin 0  50 sin 45  25 sin 60  30 sin 60  31.025 N
Resultant  

 Fx2  Fy2
 
47.855 2  31.0252
 57.032 N
Since F x and Fy are

 Fy=31.03
both positive, the resultant 32

N
.0
will be in the first quadrant 57
R=
as shown in Fig.
o
=3 2.95
Fy 31.025
tan     0.6483 Fx=47.86
F x 47.855
  32.95
Problem 1.5: The truck shown is to be towed using two ropes.

Determine the magnitudes of forces FA and FB acting on each
rope in order to develop a resultant force of 950 N directed
along the positive X-axis. (Anna Univ, May 2012, ME 205)
Given
Resultant force, R  950 N
To Find
Magnitude of forces F A & F B
Statics 1.47
o
20
T ru ck x
o
50
B
FB
Solution
Resolving the forces horizontally,
 Fx   H  FA cos 20  F B cos 50 ...(1)
Resolving the forces vertically,
 Fy   V  FA sin 20  F B sin 50 ...(2)
Given: Resultant forces of 950 N directed along the
positive x-axis.
So  H  950 N and  V  0 apply on equation (1) & (2)

(1)  950  F A cos 20  F B cos 50 ...(3)
(2)  0  F A sin 20  F B sin 50
 F A sin 20  F B sin 50
F B sin 50
FA 
sin 20
F A  2.2397 F B ...(4)
Subtitute equation (4), in equation (3)

(3)  950  [2.2397 FB  cos 20]  F B cos 50
950  2.104 F B  0.642 F B
950  2.746 F B
 F B  345.86 N
(4) F A  2.2397  345.86
F A  774.62 N
Result
F A  774.62 N, F B  345.86 N
Problem 1.6: An automobile is pulled by means of trucks as

shown in Figure 1. If the resultant of the two forces acting on
the automobile is 25 kN being directed along the positive
direction of X - axis, determine the angle  of the cable attached
to the truck at B such that the force FB in this cable is
minimum. What is the magnitude of force in each cable when
this occurs? (Calicut University, May 2011)
Given data
Tru ck
Using triangle law of FC C
o
forces, we will find . A 20
A u to m obile 
Resultant force FB
R  25 kN along positive X -
Tru ck
axis. Fig. (1) B
To find
FC
, F B minimum and F C
o
A 20
R = 25kN
The free body diagram Au tom obile 
is shown in fig. (a)
Fig. (a) FB
Statics 1.49
The force in the cable R = 2 5 kN

x z
AB i.e. F B is minimum, for  20
o
FC
this the angle between F B FB
and F C should be equal to 20

o
Fig. (b)
y
90, because the length of
 x yz will be minimum only if the side xy and yz are
perpendicular to each other.
From the right angle triangle xyz.
90    20  180
  180  110
  70
By using Lami’s theorem (Law of sine)
25 FC FB
 
sin 90 sin 70 sin 20
25  sin 70
FC   23.49 kN
sin 90 
Similarly
25  sin 20
FB   8.56 kN
sin 90 
Problem 1.7: Determine the resultant of the concurrent force

system shown in Figure (a). (Anna Univ, ME 205, May 2010)
 Fx   H
 150 cos 30  200 cos 30  80 c o s 60  180 cos 45 
 43.98 N
y
150 N
200 N
o
30
o
30
x
o
60 45
o
80N
180 N
Fig (a)
 Fy   V
 150 sin 30  200 sin 30  80 sin 60  180 sin 45 
  21.56 N
R 
 2
H 2  V
 
 43.982  21.562 o
26.12
R  48.98 N
48.98 N
 V  Fig. (b)
  tan  1  
H
  21.56 
 tan  1  
 43.98 
 26.12 
Problem 1.8: A system of forces are acting at the corners of

a rectangular block as shown in Fig. Determine the magnitude
and direction of the resultant force.
Statics 1.51
50N
Solution:
25N
Magnitude of the
resultant force
Algebraic sum of horizontal
3m
forces
F x  25  20  5 N 20N
Algebraic sum of vertical
4m
forces Fig.
35N
F y   50   35   85 N
R 
 Fx2  Fy2  

52   852  85 .15
 Magnitude of the resultant force
R  85.15 N
Direction of the resultant forces

Let   Angle which the Fy
resultant force makes with
the horizontal
o
22
F y  85 5
3.
tan      17
27
F x 5 -F x o
Fx
86 38
o r    8638 -85
85
.1
We know that since

5N
Fig.(a)
F x is positive and F y is -F y
negative, resultant lies

between 270 and 360. Therefore actual angle of the
resultant force  360  8638  27322 
Problem 1.9: A right angle triangle ABC has its sides

AB  40 mm and sides BC  30 mm. Three forces of 40 N, 50
N and 30 N act along the sides AB, BC and CA respectively.
Determine the resultant of such a system of forces. Assume it is a
right angle triangle of base AB and height BC.
Solution: 50N
The triangle ABC is a C
right angle triangle in which
the side AC  50 mm (ie
30m m

 30 2  40 2  50 )
A  B
1  30 
  tan  40   36.86 30N
40N
  40m m
Fig.
Resolving all the forces
horizontally (i.e, along AB ).
F x  40  0  30 c o s 36.86  16 N  i
And now resolving all the forces vertically (i.e., along
BC ),
F y  0  50  30 sin 36.86  32 N  ii
The magnitude of the resultant force,
R 
 Fy2  F2x  

322  162
 35.8 N
R  35.8 N
Problem 1.10: Two forces are acting at a point O as shown

in Fig.(a). Determine the resultant in magnitude and direction
(Nov/Dec 2009 - AU)
Statics 1.53
Q100 N Q nt
0 N e s u lta
1o0 R
P 50N 0
o 3
30  0N P
=o o
5
15 15 x
O Fig.(a) O Fig.(b)
Solution:
Force P  50 N , Force Q  100 N
Angle between the two forces,   30 
The magnitude of the resultant R is given by formula.
R 
P2  Q2  2 PQ cos 
 
 50 2  100 2  2  50  100 cos 30
 
 2500  10000  8660
 
 
21160  145 .46 N
The resultant R is shown in Fig.(b).
The angle made by the resultant with the direction of

P is given by equation.
Q sin 
tan   or
P  Q cos 
 Q sin    1  100  sin 30 
  tan  1    tan  50  100 c o s 30 
 P  Q cos    
  tan  1 0.366  20.10 
 Angle made by resultant with x-axis.
   15   20.10  15
 35.10 
Problem 1.11: Find the magnitude and direction of the

resultant R of four concurrent forces acting as shown in
Fig.(a) (Apr/May 2006 - AU)
y
P
5P 1.17P
4.78 o
30 o R 1.174P
60
x
o
O 3P
o
60
-0.098 P Fig b
Fig a
4P
Solution:
F x  P cos 60  3P  4P cos 60  5P c o s 30
 0.5 P  3P  2P  4.33 P  1.17 P
F x  1.17 P
F y  P sin 60  4P sin 60  5P sin 30
 0.866 P  3.464 P  2.5 P   0.098 P
F y   0.098 P
Resultant 
  2y  
F2x  F 2
1.17 P2   0.098 P
 1.174 P
Statics 1.55
F y
tan  
Fx
 0.098
   0.0837    4.78 
1.17
Result
  4.78 
Resultant  1.174 P
Problem 1.12: Five forces are acting on a particle. The

magnitude of the forces are 300 N, 600 N, 700 N, 900 N and
P and their respective angles with the horizontal are
0, 60, 135, 210 and 270. If the vertical component of all
these forces is –1000 N, find the value of P. Also calculate the
magnitude and direction of the resultant, assuming that the
first force acts towards the point while all the remaining forces
act away from the point. (Oct. 2008 - AU)
Solution:
600 N
F y   1000 N
700 N
F y  600 sin 60  700 sin 45
o
 900 sin 30  P 45
60
 1000  564.589  P
o
300 N
30o
P  1564.589 N
900 N
F x   300  600 cos 60
 700 cos 45  900 c o s 30 F ig

P
  1274.4 N
F y   1000 N
Resultant
Resultant  
  2y
F2x  F
 
  1274.4 2   10002
Resultant  1620 N
F y  1000
tan     0.785 ;   tan 1 0.785  38.1 
F x  1274.4
Problem 1.13: Determine the magnitude and direction of the

resultant of the forces acting at ‘O’ (Nov/Dec 2003 - AU)
Solution:
F y   26 sin 22.62  20  10 cos 30   21.34 N
F x   26 c o s 22.62  15  10 sin 30   34 N
Resultant  

Fy2  Fx2
 
 2
 21.34 2   34
R  40.14 N
20N 5
=tan
-1 o
=2 2.6 2
12 -34 O
26N =32.11
o
5
15N  12
O n t
lt a
e su N
30
o R .1 4
40 -21.34
10N Fig a Fig b
Statics 1.57
Fy  21.34
tan     0.628
F x  34
  32.11 
Problem 1.14: In a regular hexagon ABCDEF, the forces

4, F1, F2, 9 and 8 kN act along AB, CA, AD, AE and FA
respectively and the point A is in equilibrium. Determine the
values of F1 and F2. (KTU, May/June 2012)
Solution: E D
Given point A is in
equilibrium therefore  Fx  0
and  Fy  0 at A.
F F2
9 kN C
Since ABCDEF are in
F1
regular hexagon, the angles 8 kN o o
30 30
between them is 30
o
o 30
60 30
o
Resolving all the forces A 4 kN B
horizontally
 Fx  0  4  F 1 c o s 30  F 2 cos 60  0  8 cos 60  0
4  0.866 F 1  0.5 F 2  8  0.5  0
8  0.866 F 1  0.5 F 2  0
...(1)
Resolving all forces vertically
 F y  0   F 1 sin 30  F 2 sin 60  9  8 sin 60  0
 0.5 F 1  0.866 F 2  9  6.928  0
 0.5 F 1  0.866 F 2  2.07  0

...(2)
From equation (2), we get
0.866 F 2  2.07
F1 
0.5
Substituting the value of F 1 in equation (1), we get
 0.866 F2  2.07 
8  0.866    0.5 F 2  0
 0.5 
0.749 F2  1.7926
8  0.5 F2  0
0.5
0.5  8  0.749 F 2  1.7926  0.5  0.5 F 2  0
4  0.749 F 2  1.7926  0.25 F 2  0
5.7926  0.4949 F 2  0
5.7926
F2 
0.4949
F 2  11.70 kN
Substituting F 2 value in equation (2)
 0.5 F 1  0.866  11.70  2.07  0
 0.5 F 1  10.1322  2.07  0
12.2022
F1 
0.5
F 1  24.40 kN
1.10 PARALLEL FORCE SYSTEM

(a) Like parallel forces (Fig. 1.39 a & b)
The parallel forces which are acting in the same
direction, are known as like parallel forces.
Statics 1.59
F1 F2 R =F 1 + F 2
F1
F2
A O C B
Like P arallel fo rces
Fig.1.39.(a) Fig.1.39.(b)
(b) Unlike parallel forces: (Fig 1.39 c)

The parallel forces
F1
which are acting in the
opposite direction are known R =F 1 - F 2
as unlike parallel forces. C A O B
(c) Resultant of two like
parallel forces. For the F2
Fig.1.39.( c )
two parallel forces which
are acting in the same direction, obviously the resultant R
is given by, R  F 1  F2
In order to find the point at which the resultant is

acting, Varignon’s principle (principle of moments) is used.
According to this, the algebraic sum of moments of
F 1 and F 2 about any point should be equal to the moment
of the resultant (R) about that point.
(d) Resultant of Two Unlike Parallel Forces (Unequal

in magnitude). For the two parallel forces, which are acting
in opposite direction, obviously the resultant is given by,
R  F 1  F2
Let the resultant R is acting at C as shown in Fig. 1.39

(c)
In order to locate the point C , at which the resultant

is acting, principle of moments is used.
(e) Resultant of two unlike parallel forces which are
equal in magnitude. When two equal and opposite
parallel forces act on a body,
at some distance apart, the F
two forces form a couple
which has a tendency to
rotate the body. The a
perpendicular distance
between the parallel forces is C oup le F
known as an arm of the Fig.1.39.(d)
couple.
Problem 1.15: Three like parallel forces 100 N, 200 N and
300 N are acting at points A, B and C respectively on a
straight line ABC as shown in Fig (a). The distance
AB  30 cm and BC  40 cm. Find the resultant and also the
distance of the resultant from point A on line ABC.
R
200 N 300 N 200 N 300 N
100 N 100 N
D
A B C A B C
x
30cm 40cm 30cm 40cm
Fig .(a) Fig .(b)
Solution:
Since all the forces are parallel and acting in the same
direction, their resultant R is given by
R  100  200  300  600 N
Statics 1.61
Let the resultant is acting at a distance of x cm from

the point A as shown in Fig. (b)
Now take the moments of all forces about point A. The

force F A  100 N is passing through A , hence its moment
about A will be zero.
 Moment of 100 N force about A  0
Moment of 200 N force about A
 200  30  600 N cm (anticlockwise)
 300  70  21000 N cm (anticlockwise)
Algebraic sum of moments of all forces about A
 0  600  21000  27000 N c m antic loc kwise
Moment of resultant R about A  R  x
 600  x N cm  R  600 
According to Varignon’s theorem,

algebraic sum of moments
  moment of resultant about A
of all forces about A 
or 27000  600  x
27000
or x  45 cm Ans.
600
Problem 1.16: The three like parallel forces of magnitude 50

N , F, and 100 N are shown in Fig. If the resultant
R  250 N and is acting at a distance of 4 m from A, then
find (i) Magnitude of force F (ii) Distance of F from A
Solution: R=250N 100N

50N F
Forces at
A  50 N, at B  F and
D  100 N A B C D
x
R  250 N, 4m 3m
Fig.
Distance AC  4 m, CD  3 m
(i) Magnitude of Force F
The resultant R and three like forces is given by
R  50  F  100
o r 250  50  F  100  R  250

 F  250  50  100  100 N Ans.
(ii) Distance of F from A
Take the moments of all forces about point A.

Moment of force 50 N about A  0
. .
( . force 50 N is passing through A)
Moment of force F about A  100 x (anticlockwise)
Moment of force 100 N about A
 100  AD  100  7  700 Nm (anticlockwise)
 Algebraic sum of moments of all forces about A
 0  100 x  700 Nm
 100 x  700 N m anticlockwise
Moment of resultant R about A
 R  4  250  4  1000 N m anticlockwise

Statics 1.63
But algebraic sum of moments of all forces about A

must be equal to the moment of resultant R about A
according to Varignon’s principle
 100 x  700  1000
100 x  1000  700  300
300
x  3m
100
1.11 COUPLE
If two equal and opposite parallel forces are acting on
a body, they don’t have any resultant force. Such a set of
two equal and opposite forces, whose lines of action are
different, form a couple.
Refer Fig 1.40
A couple, is, thus,
unable to produce any
translatory motion (i.e.,
motion in a straight line).
But a couple produces
Fig.1.40. Couple.
rotation in the body on
which it acts.
Arm of a Couple
The perpendicular distance a , between the lines of
action of the two equal and opposite parallel forces, is
known as arm of the couple as shown in Fig. 1.40
1.11.1 Moment of a Couple

The moment of a couple is the product of the force
(i.e. one of the forces of the two equal and opposite parallel
forces) and the arm of the couple. Mathematically:
Moment of a couple  P  a
Where P  Force , and
a  Arm of the c o uple
Mo ment o f a c o uple is a vec to r that is no rmal to the

plane o f the c o uple.(direc tio n determined by the righthand
rule)
[Note: Moment of a couple is always the same about

any point].
Clockwise Couple and Anticlockwise Couple
P P
A B A B
a a
a)C lockw ise couple b)An tic lo ck w ise cou ple P
P
Fig .1.41.
A couple, whose tendency is to rotate the body on

which it acts, in a clockwise direction, is known as a
clockwise couple.
A couple whose tendency is to rotate the body on which

it acts, in an anticlockwise direction, is known as an
anticlockwise couple.
1.11.2 Equivalent couples

A couple that creates a moment is not unique, ie there
are other couples in parallel planes that may create the
same moment. Thus couples having the same effect on a
given rigid body are called equivalent couples.
Statics 1.65
a
a P
P P
Fig.1.42 E quivalent Couples
1.11.3 Resolution of a given Force into a Force and

a Couple : Force - Couple system
A given force F applied to a body at any point A can
always be replaced by an equal force applied at another
point B together with a couple which will be equivalent to
the original force. This can be proved by the following
example.
Let the given force F is acting at point A as shown in
following Fig 1.43.
This force at A is to be replaced at the point B .
Introduce two equal and opposite forces at B , each of
F F F F
x
= = B
A B A B A
M =F x
a) b) c)
-F
Fig.1.43. R esolution o f Force into Force and C ouple.
magnitude F and acting parallel to the force at A as shown

in Fig (b). The force system of Fig (b) is equivalent to
the single force acting at A of Fig (a). In Fig (b) three
equal forces are acting. The two forces i.e., force F at A
and the oppositely directed force  F at B (i.e., downward
force at B ) form a couple. The moment of this couple is
F  x clockwise where x is the perpendicular distance
between the lines of action of forces at A and B . The third
force is acting at B in the same direction in which the force
at A is acting. In Fig 1.43 (c), the couple is shown by
curved arrow. The force system of Fig 1.43 (c), is
equivalent to Fig 1.43 (b). Or in otherwards the Fig. 1.43
(c) is equivalent to Fig. 1.43 (a). Hence the given force
F acting at A has been replaced by an equal and parallel
force applied at point B in the same direction together with
a couple of moment F  x.
Thus a force acting at a point in a rigid body can be
replaced by an equal and parallel force and a couple at any
other point in the body. This combination of force and
couple is referred to as a force-couple system.
Extending this principle, a system of force can be
reduced to a single equivalent force and couple.
Note: An equivalent system with a single force and no
couple can be obtained for a force-couple system, if the
resultant force and resultant couple are perpendicular. So,
simplfication to a single force is possible only for
concurrent, coplanar and parallel force systems.
1.12 EQUIVALENT FORCE SYSTEM

Two force systems are equivalent if they result in the
same resultant force and the same resultant moment.
Statics 1.67
1.13 RESULTANT OF FORCE AND COUPLE SYSTEM

The system of forces which can be reduced to a single
force or a resultant are one in which the force R and the
couple vector M are mutually perpendicular. This condition
is not satisfied by the system of forces in space. It is
satisfied by the system consisting of
(i) Concurrent forces
(ii) Coplanar forces
(iii) Parallel forces
(ii) Coplanar system
y F2 y y
R
R
M
F1
o x = o x = o d x
A
F3 M
(a ) d=
(b) (c ) R
Fig 1.44 E qu ivalent F orce fo r C op lan er Force System .
For a coplanar system, the equivalent force R lies in

the same plane as shown in Fig. 1.44. The moment of each
force about O and thus the moment M will be perpendicular
to that plane. In the force couple system at O it consists
of a force R and couple vector M mutually perpendicular.
They can be reduced to a single force R by moving R in
the plane of the Fig until its moment about O becomes
M
equal to M and hence distance d  .
R
Problem 1.17: A horizontal line PQRS is 12 m long, where
PQ  QR  RS  4m. Forces of 1000, 1500, 1000 and 500 N act
at P, Q, R and S respectively and action of these forces make
angles of 90, 60, 45 and 30 respectively with PS. Find the
magnitude, direction and position of the resultant force.
Solution:
1000N 1500N 1000N

500N
90
o
60 o 45 o
30
o
P Q R S
Fig.(a)
4m 4m 4m
The system of the given forces is shown in Fig.(a))
Magnitude of the resultant force
Resolving all the forces horizontally.
F x  0  1500 cos 60  1000 cos 45  500 c o s 30
 0  1500  0.5  1000  0.707   500  0.866
  1890 N i
Resolving all the forces vertically,
F y   1000  1500 sin 60  1000 sin 45   500 sin 30
  1000  1500  0.866   1000  0.707   500  0.5
  3256 N ii
R 
 F x2  F 
y  
2
2
 1890 2   3256
The magnitude of the resultant force  3760 N .
Direction of the resultant force

Let   Angle, which the resultant force makes with
P.S.
Statics 1.69
Fy 3256
 tan     1.723 or   59.86 
Fx 1890
Position of the resultant force

Let x  Distance
R =3760N
between P and the line
=59 .86
action of the resultant force. P S
Now taking moments of
x Fig.(b).
the vertical components of
the forces and the resultant
force about P , and equating the same,
3256 x  1000  0  1500  0.866  4  1000  0.707 8

 500  0.5 12
 13,852
13,852
x  4.25 m
3256
Problem 1.18: ABCD is weightless rod under the action of
four forces P, Q, S and T as shown in Fig., If
P  10 N, Q  4 N, S  8 N and T  12 N, calculate the resultant
in magnitude and direction. Also locate its point of application
with respect to the end A of the rod.
(Calicut University, May 2010)
T
P
Q S
o
45 o
3 0 3 0o 6 0o
A B C D
1m 1m 1m
Solution:
Force P  10 N
Force Q  4 N
Force S  8 N
Force T  12 N
ABCD is weightless
Distance between AB  1 m
Distance between BC  1 m
Distance between CD  1 m
Horizontal and vertical components of all the forces
are drawn.
N
o 1 2 sin 6 0
12
1 0 sin 4 5
T=
P=
10 o
N o 8 sin 30
4 sin 30
S=8
4N N
Q = 3 0o
o o
45 B 30
o
C D 60
o o o o
1 0 co s 45 A 4 cos 30 8 cos 30 1 2 cos 60
1m 1m 1m
Resolving the components of forces in horizontal axis,
 F H   H   10 cos 45  4cos 30  8c o s 30   12 cos 60
  7.071  3.464  6.928  6
 2.393 N
Resolving the components of forces in vertical axis.
 F y   V  10 sin 45  4 sin 30   8 sin 30   12 sin 60

Statics 1.71
 7.071  2  4  10.392
 11.463 N
Resultant R
R 
  F x2   F y2
R 
 2.393 2  11.4632


137.126
R  11.71 N
Direction of the resultant force

w.k.t
 Fy
tan  
 Fx
11.463
tan  
2.393
tan   4.79
  tan 1 4.79
  78.2
Location of Resultant force with respect to end A of

the rod.
Using varignon’s theorem
 MA  R  x
where
 M A is algebric sum of moments of forces about A
R is resultant
x is perpendicular distance of R from A
Momement = Force  Perpendicular distance
  M A   4 sin 30  1  8sin 30  2  12 sin 60  3
  2  8  31.176
 M A   21.176 Nm
(Moments of all horizontal components of forces about

A is zero, as they are passing through it).
  M A  Ry  x F y R y 11 .4 63 N R
21.176  11.463  x
21.176 = 78 .2
x
11.463 A D
x = 1.8 47 m
 1.847 m
The resultant force on the rod with respect to end A

is shown here.
R y = 11 .4 6 3 N R = 11 .7 1 N
12 N
10 N
8N
o
4N 7 8.2
o
45 60
o
A B C D
1m 1m 1m
x = 1 .8 4 7m
Statics 1.73
Problem 1.19: A 300 N force is applied at A as shown in fig.

Determine (a) moment of the 300-N force about D. (b) the
smallest force applied at B which creates the same moment
about D.
Solution:
100 m m 200 m m 100 m m 200 m m
D
D
200 m m
200 m m
d
300 cos 25
25
o
A B 25 o A B
0N
30 Fig.
300 sin 25
0N
ce t
30
f o r l le s
F
a
Fig.(a) Sm
Case (a): Take moment about ‘D’

 300 sin 25  0.100  300 cos 25  0.2  41.7 Nm.
Case (b): Take moment about ‘D’ through B

F  d  41.7
‘d’ should be maximum, then only F will be minimum.

To make ‘d’ maximum, the F should be acing perpendicular
to line DB.
d 
200 2  200 2  282.8 mm  0.2828 m
F  0.2828  41.7
41.7
F  147.5 N
0.282
Statics 1.119
500 RC RD RC
  RD
sin 90 sin 120 sin 150 o
90
RC o o
500   RC  433.01 N 60 30
sin 120 
RD Fig. (d)
500   RD  250 N
sin 150 B all 2 500N
Refer Fig.(c) Ball 1
Substitute RD  250 N in Ball 1; so lving at equilibrium
c o nditio n,
 Fx   H  R A  R B c o s 60  250 cos 30  0 ...(1)
 Fy   V  R B sin 60   250 sin 30   500  0 ...(2)
(1)  R A  0.5 RB  216.51
(2)  R B 0.866   125  500
625
RB   727.71 N
0.866
Substitute RB in (1)  R A  580.37 N
R A  580.37 N RB
R B  727.71 N o
60
o
RA
R C  433.01 N 30
RD
R D  250 N Fig. (c) 500N Ball 1
Problem 1.43: A string of length 24 cm is attached to a point

A on a smooth vertical wall and to a point c on the surface
of a sphere of radius 12 cm. The sphere whose weight is 100
N hangs in equilibrium against the wall as shown. Find the
tension in the string and the reaction of the wall.
(KTU, May 2014)
A
Solution:
First we draw the free
24c
body diagram
m
Let RB  Reaction of
c
the vertical wall AB at B
on the sphere r=12 cm
1 2c
m
T Tension of the B 
string AC O
The three forces
T, R B and 100 N form the
system of equilibrium forces.
To find  (angle made
Fig.(a)
by AO with OB
OB 12 12
cos    
AO AC  CO 24  12
cos   0.333    c o s 1 0.333
  70.53
A T
A
24
T
C 12 o
o 109 .47 1
=7 0.5 3
RB
B  O B
RB O
12
E
100 N E
Fig .(b) 100 N Fig .(c)
Statics 1.121
By using Lamis theorem
T RB 100
 
sin BOE sin AOE sin AOB
T RB 100
 
sin 90 sin 90  70.53  sin 109.471 
100  sin 90

T  106.06 N
sin 109.47
100 sin 160.53 

RB   35.35 N
sin 109.47 
Problem 1.44: A ball of weight Q  12 kN rests in a right

angled trough as shown in Fig (a). Determine the forces exerted
on the sides of the trough at D and E, if all faces are perfectly
smooth. (MGU, Jan 2007)
Solution:
Refer Fig. (c)
Using Lamis theorem

RD RE W
 
sin 120 sin 150 sin 90
O
Q =12 kN
o
r
45
r
o E 60
o
D E 30
o D 30
o o
30 60
o 30
o
60 RE
RD
Fig a Q =12 kN
Fig.(b).Free bod y diagram
Q sin 120 RE RD
RD 
sin 90
12  sin 120  o
  10.392 N 90
sin 90 30
o
60
o
Q sin 150
RE 
sin 90
12  sin 150 
  6 kN Fig.( c )
Q =12k N
sin 90
Problem 1.45: Two cylinders of diameters 100 mm, and 50

mm, weighing 200 N and 50 N, respectively are placed in a
trough as shown in Fig. Neglecting friction, find the reactions
at contact surfaces 1,2,3 and 4. (M.G University, Dec 2005)
Solution: 120mm
Given data
W 1  50 N 1
50N
4
W 2  200 N
200N 3
d1  50 mm
r1  25 mm
2 o
d2  100 mm = 45
r2  50 mm
1 2
R1
Distance between the R4
5 0N R4
R3
walls 120 mm   45
2 00 N
(inclined wall)
R2
Fig.(a)
Statics 1.123
Draw the free body diagram for both the cylinders

individually.
Find the inclination of both the cylinders let it be
inclined at .
1 20
r1  r2  25  50  75 25 45 50
O 1 to O 2  75 mm
45 P
O1
O 1 to P  45 m r1 
x
r2
O2
Let O 2 to P  x mm
x 
 75 2  452 Fig.(b )
x  60 mm
C ylind er 1 C ylind er 2 R2
R4
o
1 26 .87
o 4 5+ 53 .13 = 9 8.1 3
 R1 o
1 35 o
O1 R3 45
o O2 
9 0+ = 14 3.13
o
R4
9 0-= 36 .8 7
W 1 = 5 0N Fig.(d )
Fig.(c) W 2 = 2 00 N
O2 P 60
tan     1.33
O1 P 45
  53.13
For 1st cylinder For 2nd cylinder

(Refer Fig. (c)) (Refer Fig. (d))
 R 1 O1 W 1  90  R 3 O2 W 2  90
 R 4 O1 W 1  90    R 4 O2 W 2  90  
 90  53.13   90  53.13
 143.13  36.87
 R 1 O 1 R 4  180    180  53.13  R 4 O 2 R 2  45   
= 126.87  45  53.13 
 98.13
 R 2 O 2 R 3  180  45
 135
Now applying lami’s theorem on the 1st cylinder Refer

Fig. (c)
W1 R1 R4
 
sin 126.87  sin 143.13  sin 90
Given W 1  50 N
50 R1 R4
  
sin 126.87 sin 143.13  sin 90
50  sin 143.13 
R1 
sin 126.87 
R1  37.5 N
Similarly
50 R4
 
sin 126.87  sin 90 
Statics 1.125
50  sin 90
R4 
sin 126.87 
R4  62.5 N
Substitute R4  62.5 N in 2nd cylinder, solving at (Refer

Fig.(d)) equilibrium condition
 Fx   H  R 2 c o s 45  R 3  O  R4 cos 53.13   0
 0.707 R 2  R3  62.5  0.6  0
 0.707 R 2  R 3  37.5  0 ...(1)
 F y   V  R 2 sin 45  0  W 2  R 4 sin 53.13   0
 0.707 R 2  200  62.5  0.8  0
 0.707 R 2  200  49.99  0
 0.707 R 2  249.99
249.99
R2 
0.707
R2  353.59 N ...(2)
Substituting R 2  353.59 N in equation (1), we get
0.707  353.59  R 3  37.5  0
 R3  287.5 N
Result
R 1  375 N ; R 2  353 .59 N
R 3  287 .5 N ; R 4  62.5 N
Problem 1.46: Two homogeneous spherical balls rest between

two vertical walls as shown in Fig. 2. The radius of smaller
ball is 16 cm and weight is 1.15 kN. The radius of the larger
ball is 24 cm and its weight is 3.45 kN. The distance between
the walls is 72 cm. Assuming the contact surfaces to be smooth,
determine the reactions at A, B and C.
(M.G University, May/June 2006)
Solution: 72 cm
Given data
r1  16 cm A
W 1  1.15 kN C 2
1
r2  24 cm
B
W 2  3.45 kN
r2
r1 RA
RD RD
O2
RC
O1 D
2
1 W1
W1
RB
Distance between the walls = 72 cm

Let the point of contact of both the spheres be denoted
by D.
Statics 1.127
Now, we will draw the free body diagram for both the
spheres individually.
Find the inclination of both spheres, let it be inclined
at .
Distance O 1 to O 2
r1  r2  16  24  40 cm
r2 O2
r1
O 1 to P  32 cm O1  P
32
cos  
40 16 32 24
72
  36.86
Now in  O 1 O2 P
 O 1 O 2 P  90   36.86 
 53.13
Now applying lami’s theorem in sphere 2
RB
RD
o
1 26 .85
o
o 1 43 .14
90 RC = 36 .8 6
o
o
90 RA 2 o
1 90
RD 5 3.1 3
o
W2
W1
S p he re 2
S p he re 1
W2 RD RA
 
sin 143.14  sin 90 sin 126.86 
3.45 RD RA
 
sin 143.14 sin 90 sin 126.86
3.45  sin 90

RD 
sin 143.14 
RD  5.75 kN
Similarly
3.45  sin 126.86

RA 
sin 143.14 
RA  4.601 kN
Substitute R D  5.75 kN in sphere 1, solving at

equilibrium condition.
 Fx   H  Rc  0  0  RD sin 53.13   0
 R C  5.75  0.8  0
R C  4.6 kN
 Fy   V  0  RB  R D cos 53.13  W 1  0
 0  RB  5.75  0.6  1.15  0
R B  3.45  1.15  0
RB  4.6 kN
Result
R A  4.601 kN ; R B  4.6 kN
R C  4.6 kN ; R D  5.75 N
Statics 1.129
Problem 1.47: Two smooth circular cylinders, each of weight

W  100 N and radius r  60 mm, are connected at their centres
by a string AB of length l  160 mm and rest upon a horizontal
plane, supporting above them a third cylinder of weight
Q  200 N and radius r  60 mm as shown the Fig. Find the
force in the string AB and the pressures produced on the floor
at the points of contact D and E.
(Calicut University, May 2011)
Q =2 0 0N
W = 1 00 N W = 1 00 N
A l B
D E
Solution:
The free body diagram is shown in the Fig. (b)
Given
l  AB  160 mm
l
AF  FB   80 mm
2
2r  AC  BC  60  60  120 mm
RD RE
R CA R CB
  r
R AC
R BC
r
A F
l l B
2 2
l
2 00 N
Fig. (b)
1 00 N 1 00 N
l/2 80
sin    R BC R AC
AC 120
 8 
  sin  1 
o
8 3.62

 12  4 8.19
4 8.19
  41.81 1 38 .19 1 38 .19
Similarly
e/2 80
sin     41.81 
CB 120
2 00 N Cylinder C
Force on cylinder C can
be shown by,
According to lami’s theorem
200 RBC R AC
 
sin 83.62 sin 138.9 sin 138.9
200  sin 138.9
R BC 
sin 83.62
Statics 1.131
R BC  132.3 N RD
200  sin 138.9

R AC 
o
4 1.81
sin 83.62 =90 -41.81
o
=48.19 4 8.19
R AC  132.3 N =48 .19 A TAB
From the fig, w.k.t

RCA
R CA  R AC  132.3 N
Cylinder A
1 00 N
(equal in magnitude, T A B = Tensio n in string A B (F orce)
but opposite in direction)
and R BC  R CB  132.3 N
RE
(equal in
magnitude but opposite in
direction) T AB
o
B 4 8.19
Now considering cylinder
A. By using equation of
equilibrium we have RCB
Cylind er B
1 00 N
 Fy  0
 R D  R CA sin 48.19   100
 RD  132.3  sin 48.19   100  0
 RD  198.61 N
 Fx  0
TAB  R CA cos 48.19  132.3 c o s 48.19  88.2 N
Force in the string AB  T AB  88.2 N

Now considering cylinder B

By using equation of equilibrium
We have
 Fy  0
 R E  100  RCB sin 48.19  0
 R E  100  132.3  sin 48.19   0
 RE  198.61 N
Problem 1.48: A roller of weight 500 N rests on a smooth

inclined plane and is kept free from rolling down by a string
as shown in figure. Work out tension in the string and reaction
at the point of contact ‘B’. (Cochin University, June 2014)
A
o
15
R o lle r
C
W
B
o
W = 5 00 N
45
Solution:
First we draw the free body diagram
Let RB  Reaction of the inclined wall at B on sphere.
T  Tension of the string

Statics 1.133
To find A
 (angle made by AO
with OB ) o
15
The right angled T
triangle OAB
But  OAB  15, and

 O
 ABO  90
B
o
45
    BOA  90  15
RB
  75
Similarly the angle W = 50 0N
between W and R B  45 o
45
To apply lami’s
theorem at O, the fig is
modified.
Here the Reaction R B is

taken as outward force.
T
The angle between
RB
Tension T and weight W
   45 o 1 05
o
30 45
o
 120  O o
o 1 35
1 20
The angle between
Tension T and Reaction R B
 180  
 180  75 W
 105
 The angle between Reaction R B and weight W
 90  45
 135
Using Lami’s theorem at O, we get
T RB W
 
sin 135 sin 120 sin 105 
(W  500 N Given)
T 500
 
sin 135 sin 105 
500
T  sin 135 
sin 105 
T  366.02 N ~
 366 N
Similarly
500  sin 120 
RB 
sin 105
RB  448.28 N ~
 448.3 N
Problem 1.49: In a shop-unloading operation, a 1600 kg -

automobile is supported by a cable. A rope is tied to the cable
at A and pulled in order to centre the automobile over its
intended position. The angle between the cable AB and the
vertical is 2, while the angle between the rope and the
horizontal is 30, what is the tension in the rope AC?
Solution:
F x  0
F x  T AC cos 30  TAB sin 2  0

Statics 1.135
i.e., 0.866 TAC  0.0349 T AB  0 B
c a b le
TAC  0.0403 T AB ... (i) T AB o
2
Fy  0
o
TAB cos 2  TAC sin 30  15.7  0 88
o
A 30
 0.5 TAC  1 T AB  15.7  0. ... (ii) Ro
pe
T AC
C
Substitute TAC in equation (ii)
 0.5 0.0403 T AB   T AB  15.7 W =16 00x9.81

Fig = 15696 N
0.9798 T AB  15.7 = 15 .7kN
TAB  16.0232 kN
TAC  0.0403 T AB  0.646 kN
Problem 1.50: A cable V is

subjected to a force of 8 kN
and is directed as shown in T
the Fig.(a). Determine the
force in the cable S when
  45 if the resultant of the = 4 5 o 60o
two forces is directed S V
vertically downward along
the cable T. Also calculate
the magnitude of resultant. Fig (a) F V = 8 kN
Given:
F v  8 kN, to find F s and Resultant R
Solution:
(i) By law of sines to Fig. (a)
Fs Fv 8sin 150
 ; Fs   5.66 N
sin 150 sin 135 sin 135
(ii) Resultant (R)
R 2  F2s  F 2v  2 F s F v cos  [  180  60  45  75]
R 2  5.66 2  8 2  2  5.66  8 cos 75  119.5
Resultant R  10.93 N
Problem 1.51: Two rollers of weights 50 N and 100 N are
connected by a flexible string as shown below. The rollers rest
on two mutually perpendicular planes. Find the tension in the
string and the angle  that it makes with horizontal, when the
system is in equilibrium. Take   30
(Cochin University, June 2011)
Solution:
E
C
B o
90
A

50N 100N  B

D F T BA
A  T AB 
60 o RB
RA o
5 0N 3 0
9 0- =6 0 o
1 00 N
F ig (a ) F B D
Let us draw the free body diagram of the two rollers.

TAB and T BA be the tension on the string
R A  Reaction at roller A
R B  Reaction at roller B
Statics 1.137
Step I RA
TAB
Using Lami’s theorem, o
30 
A
TAB 50

sin 120 sin 150  
50N
50  sin 120
T AB  Fig. (b) Equilib rium of A
sin 150  
43.3
TAB 
sin 150  
43.3
TAB 
sin [90  60  ]
43.3 RB
TAB 
cos 60  
o
60
Step II  B
TBA
Using Lami’s theorem
TBA 100 100N

sin 150 sin 120  
Fig. (c) Equilibrium of B
50
T BA 
sin 120   ...(ii)
50

sin 180  60  
50
TBA 
sin 60   ...(ii)
Step III
Equation (i) & (ii)
43.3 50

cos 60   sin 60  
sin 60   50

c o s 60   43.3
tan 60    1.1547
60     49.1
  10.89
[Note: TAB and T BA are the tension of the string AB which

are equal in magnitude but opposite in direction.
 T AB  T BA  T ]
From equation (ii), we get
50
TAB 
sin 60  10.89 
TAB  TBA  T  66.14 N
Result:
Tension on the string AB  66.14 N
  10.893 
Problem 1.52: An automobile is pulled by means of two

trucks as shown in Fig.(a). If the resultant of the two forces
acting on the automobile is 40 kN along the positive x axis.
Determine the angle  of the cable attached to the truck at
B such that the force FB in this cable is minimum. What is
the magnitude of force in each cable when this occurs?
Statics 1.139
Solution:
Truck
C R =4 0
o
 30
o
A uto- 30 o
m obile FB 90 FC

A
Truck
B Fig (b)
Fig (a)
For F B to be minimum, the angle between the F B and

F C should be 90
   90  30  60
By law of sine
40 FB FC
 
sin 90 sin 30 sin 60
40sin 30
 FB   20 kN
sin 90
40 sin 60
FC   34.64 N
sin 90
Problem 1.53: A 75 kg man stands on the middle rung of a

25 kg ladder as shown in Fig. Assuming a smooth wall at
B and a stop at A to prevent slipping. Find reactions at A
and B. (MGU, July/August 2007)
Solution:
Considering the free body diagram of the ladder, the
various forces on ladder are.
(i) Weight of the man 75 kg  W 1.

(ii) Weight of the ladder 25 kg  W 2.
(iii) Reaction of the ground

at A, having B
components R AX and
R AY .
C
(iv) Reaction RB of the 3 .6m m
wall on the ladder W

acting normal to the
wall.
A
W  75  25  100 kg 1 .8m m
 1000 N
w.k.t
 3.6 
  tan 1  
 1.8 
  63.43 
  BAD  63.43 
and  ABD  26.57 
Writing equation of equilibrium
 Fx  0; R AX  R B  0 ...(1)
 Fy  0; R AY  W; R AY  W  1000 N
Taking moments about A
 MA  0  R B AB sin 63.43  W  AD  0
3.6
AB 
sin 63.43
AB  4.03 m
  MA  R B 4.03  sin 63.43  1000 0.9  0

Statics 1.141
B
RB
26.57 o
3.6 m
26.57 o
W = W 1 +W 2
R AX 63.43 o
A D O
1.8m
R AY
R B  250 N
From equation (1)
R AX  R B  250 N
R AX  250 N
R AY  1000 N
R B  250 N
1.23 GRAPHICAL METHOD
Steps for Graphical Method

1. Space diagram (position diagram): It means the
construction of a diagram showing the various
forces (or loads) along with their magnitude and
lines of action.
2. Bow’s notations: Every force (or load) is named
by two capital letters, placed on its either sides
of the force. This method is called Bow’s Notation
method.
3. If each force is named already by a capital letter,
this Bow’s notation method need not be applied.
4. Vector diagram (force diagram) or Maxwell’s
diagram: It means the construction of a diagram
starting from a convenient point and then go on
adding all the forces vectorially one by one. Join
forces in a tip-to-tail fashion to some suitable
scale.
The closing side of the polygon, taken in same order
will give the magnitude of the equilibrant force (to scale)
and its direction
The closing side of the polygon, taken in opposite order,

will give the magnitude of the resultant force (to scale) and
its direction.
The graphical method is explained in detail in the

following example problems with step by step procedure.
Problem 1.54: Determine the resultant of the following force

system graphically.
Statics 1.143
Solution:
C
160
Space diagram
A diagram or a sketch
showing only the forces involved
in the problem is known as a
B
space diagram. 0
4
O 45 o A
With the given angles,
60 o 80
draw space diagram and mark
the arrows to indicate their 30 o
direction. (Fig. (a)) 140
Vector Diagram: All the forces 120
should be joined in a tip to tail E
D Fig
fashion. (Fig. (b))
1. Take scale 1 cm = 20 N C
1 60
2. Draw ‘oa’ parallel to OA to
represent 80 N (length of oa =
4 cm) B
40
3. Draw ‘ab’ parallel to OB to O 45o 80 A
60
o 
represent 40 N (length of ab = R =1
05 N
2 cm)
o
30
1 40
4. Draw ‘bc’ parallel to OC to
1 20
represent 160 N (length of bc
E
= 8 cm) D
Fig. (a) S pace Diag ram
5. Draw ‘cd’ parallel to OD to
represent 140 N (length of cd = 7 cm)
6. Draw ‘de’ parallel to OE to represent 120 N (length of
de = 6 cm)
Now join ‘oe’, Now ‘oe’ c

o
160
60
represents the required
resultant R .
By measurement,
7cm
oe = 5.25 cm
Hence R  5.25  20  105 N
8 cm
Through the point O in
the space diagram, the line
140
OR is drawn parallel to oe d
making an angle  with
OA . By measurement 30 o
  20.6  7cm
b
40
m
2c
o 4cm a 45
o
20.6
o
80
5 .2 5
cm R=1
05 N 120
R e
Fig (b) Vector diagram
Problem 1.55: A particle is acted upon by three forces equal

to 5 N, 10 N , and 13 N, along the three sides of an equilateral
triangle, taken in order. Find graphically the magnitude and
direction of the resultant forces. (Apr/May 2001 - AU)
Solution:
Draw the space diagram for the given system of forces
(acting along the sides of an equilateral triangle) and name
the forces. The 5 N force is named as AB , 10 N force as
BC and 13 N force as CD .
Now draw the vector diagram for the given system of
forces as follows:
Statics 1.145
c
10 N
o 13N 10N
60
C B 200o
a b
o 5N
60 60 o
5N
A d 7N
Space diagram Vector diagram
13 N Fig.(a) Fig.(b)
1. Select some suitable point a and draw ab equal
to 5 N to some suitable scale and parallel to the
force AB 5N of the space diagram.
2. Through b, draw bc equal to 10 N to the scale
and parallel to the force BC (10 N) of the space
diagram.
3. Similarly, through c, draw cd equal to 13 N to
the scale and parallel to the force CD 13 N of
the space diagram.
4. Join ad, which gives the magnitude as well as
direction of the resultant force.
5. By measurement, we find the magnitude of the
resultant force is equal to 7 N and acting at an
angle of 200 with ab.
Resultant  7 N; Angle   200 with ab
Problem 1.56: The following forces act at a point O
(i) 20 N (ii) 25 N (iii) 30 N (iv) 35 N
Find the magnitude and direction of the resultant force using
Graphical method.
d
70N 7 . 5 N 72 o
=5 P1
60N P1 60N
o
C 72
o
B
72 o e c
7 2 50N o
D 72
o 72
o
72
o
72 P2 50N
A
E P 2 =72.5
P1 72
o
72
o
P2 a 50N b
Fig.(a) Space D iagram Fig.(b) Vector diagram
Solution:
1. Draw the space diagram and name the forces
according to Bow’s notations.
i.e. The 20 N force is named as PQ, the 25 N force
as QR, 30 N force as RS and 35 N force as ST.
2. Draw the vector diagram for the given system of
forces as follows:
(a)Select some suitable point p and draw pq
equal to 20 N to some suitable scale and
parallel to the force PQ. (20 N)
(b)Through q, draw qr equal to 25 N to the
scale and parallel to the force QR (25 N) of
the space diagram.
(c)Now through ‘r’, draw ‘rs’ equal to 30 N to
the scale and parallel to the force RS ( 30 N)
of the space diagram.
(d)Similarly, through ‘s’, draw ‘st’ equal to 35 N
to the scale and parallel to the force ST (35
N) of the space diagram.
Statics 1.147
(e)Join pt, which gives the magnitude as well

as direction of the resultant force.
(f)By measurement, we find that the magnitude
of the resultant force is equal to 45.6 N and
acting at an angle of 132 with the horizontal.
Problem 1.57: Five strings are tied at a point and are pulled
in all directions, equally spaced, from one another. If the
magnitude of the pulls on three consecutive strings is 50 N,
70 N and 60 N respectively, find graphically the magnitude of
the pulls on two other strings, if the system is in equilibrium.
(Nov/Dec 2002 - AU)
Solution:
Pulls = 50 N; 70 N and 60 N; Angle between all the
forces  360/5  72.
Let P 1 and P 2  Pulls in the two strings.
1. Draw the space diagram for the given system of
forces and name them according to Bow’s
notations as shown in Fig. (a)
s
40 o
25N 3 5N 30
N
30N 20N o
R Q 45
t r
P
W est S o o
30 E ast
45 o
25N
40 O
90 o
R=
T
N q
45
S outh  2 0 o
.6
35N 30
N
Vector
Space diagram p
diagram
Fig.(a) Fig.(b)
Draw the vector diagram for the given forces as shown

in Fig.(b) as follows:
[Note: Since the system is in equilibrium, the (force
polygon) vector diagram should close].
(a) Select some suitable point a and draw a
horizontal line ab equal to 50 N to some
suitable scale representing the force AB . (5
cm) (Here 1 cm = 10 N)
(b) Through b, draw a line bc equal to 70 N to
the scale and parallel to BC . (7 cm)
(c) Through c, draw cd equal to 60 N to the scale
and parallel to CD.
(d) Through d draw a line parallel to the force
P1 of the space diagram. (length not known)
(e) Similarly through a draw a line parallel to
the force P2 meeting the first line at e, thus
closing the polygon abcdea, which means that
the point is in equilibrium.
(f) By measurement, we find that the forces
P1  57.5 N and P2  72.5 N
Problem 1.20: Four forces of magnitude 10N, 20N, 30N and

40 N are acting respectively along the four sides of a square
ABCD as shown in Fig. Determine the resultant moment about
the point A. Each side of the square is given as 2 m.
Solution:
Length AB  BC  CD  DA  2m
F orce at B  10 N 20N
F orce at C  20 N 30N D C
F orce at D  30 N
F orce at A   40 N
2m
The resultant moment
about point A is to be
determined. A B
10N
The forces at A and B 2m
passes through point A. Fig.
40N
Hence perpendicular
distance from A will be zero.
Hence their moments about A will be zero.
The moment of the force at C about point A.
Force at C  perpendicular distance from A to the line

of action of force at C.
 20 N  Length AB  20  2  40 Nm anticlockwise
The moment of force at D about point A.
Force at D  perpendicular distance from A to the line of

action of force at D.
Statics 1.75
 30 N  Length AD  30  2  60 Nm anticlockwise.
 Resultant moment of all forces about A
 40  60  100 Nm anticlockwise Ans.

Problem 1.21: Forces shown act at the four corners of a
square ABCD of 60 cm side. Calculate the magnitude, direction
and position (relative to corner B) of their equilibrant.
(KTU, April 2014)
Solution: 2 00 N
The forces at A, B 60
o
D C
1 50 N
and D are resolved into
vertical and horizontal
component as shown in
Fig.
o
o A B 30
Algebric sum of all 45
1 00 N
horizontal forces 6 0N
 F x  150  100 cos 30  60 cos 45  200 c o s 60
 150  86.6  42.42  100
 94.18 N
Algebric sum of all the vertical forces
 F y  200 sin 60  100 sin 30  60 sin 45
 173.2  50  42.42  80.78
Magnitude of Resultant R
R 

 F2x   F 2y
R  94.18 2  80.782

o
2 00 N sin 60
1 50 N
D C
o
2 00 N cos 6 0
6 0 c m = 0.6m
o
6 0N co s 45
A B 1 00 N cos 3 0 o
0 .6m
o
6 0N sin 4 5 o
1 00 N sin 3 0
R  124.07 R
Equibrant   R   124.07 N
Direction of Resultant R,
 Fy
tan  
 Fx
 80.78 
  tan  1  
 94.18 
  40.62
Location of Resultant with respect to point B, and let

x be the perpendicular distance of resultant force from B.
Algebric sum of moment of forces

Statics 1.77
 M B   200 sin 60  0.6  150  0.6  200 cos 60  0.6

 60 sin 45  0.6
  108.47 Nm clockwise
 MB  R  x
 M B 108.47
x   0.87 m
R 124.07
x  0.87 m
 The magnitude of equilibrant E   124.07 N
  40.62 
Position = above pt B (anticlockwise) at a distance of

0.87 m.
Problem 1.22: A system of four forces P, Q, R and S of

magnitude 5 kN, 8 kN, 6 kN and 4 kN respectively acting on
a body are shown in rectangular coordinates as shown in Fig.
Find the moments of the forces about the origin O. Also find
the resultant moment of the forces about O. The distances are
in metres. (Anna Univ, May 2008)(May/June 2013 - AU)
Moment of P
Moment of force P about the origin,
M p  Force  r distance
 5  0
0
Moment of Q
Moment of force Q about the origin, M QO
 sum of the moments of components of the force Q

about the origin
   8 cos 45  10  8 sin 45  6
  22.62 kN  m  "
[CW  negative; Anticlockwise  positive]
Moment of R
M R    6 cos 60  8  6 sin 60 10
M R   75.96 kN  m   "
Moment of S

M S    4 cos 70  7  4 sin 70  9
M S   43.40 kN  m   !
Resultant moment of forces
 M P  M Q  M R  MS
 0 22.2   75.96  43.4 kN  m
  55.18 kN  m
Problem 1.23: A rigid bar is subjected to a system of parallel

forces as shown in Fig.(a). Reduce this system to (a) Resultant
(b) Resultant - couple system at A. (c) a single force-moment
system at B.
15N 60N 10N 25N
C D
A B
40cm 30cm
50cm
Fig .(a)
1.2m
Statics 1.79
Solution:
(a) A single force or resultant.
Let the resultant be R
R   15  60  10  25   60 N
Let the resultant R acts at a distance x from A. Taking

moment about A,
Moment of the resultant R
 Sum of the moments of its comp onents
R  x   60 0.4   10 0.7   25 1.2
 60 x   24  7  30 60N
 60 x   47 A B
x=0.783m E
x  0.783 m from A
1.2m
Refer Fig. (b) Fig.(b)
(b) Resultant - couple system at A.
Fig . (c)
If the force of 60 N acting at E is moved to the point

A , it is accompanied by a couple M A.
M A   60  0.783
M A   47.0 Nm Ans. clockw is e so ‘’ sign

(c) Resultant - couple system at B
60N 60N 60N 60N

0.78 3m
A B
A B = A E B=
E 25N m
x=0 .783m 0.41 7m
60N Fig.(d )
If the force of 60 N acting at E is moved to point B ,

it is accompanied by a moment M B
M B  60  0.417
M B  25 Nm Ans. [anticlockwise so  sign]
Problem 1.24: A system of

parallel forces are acting on a 32.5N 150N 67.5N 10N
rigid bar as shown in Fig. (a)

Reduce this system to:
(i) a single force (or) A B C D
Resultant
1m 1m 1.5m
(ii) a single force (Resultant)
3.5m
and a couple at A
Fig a
(iii) a single force (Resultant)
and a couple at D
Solution:
R=60N
(i) Single force
(Resultant) system: The
A E D
single force system will
consist only resultant force
0 .8 3 3 m
in magnitude and location.
All the forces are acting in 3 .5
the vertical direction and F ig (b)
Statics 1.81
hence their resultant (R) in magnitude is given by

R  32.5  150  67.5  10
  60 N.
Negative sign shows that resultant is acting vertically

downwards.
Let x  Distance of resultant from A.
According to Varignon’s theorem,
Moment of resultant about A  Algebraic sum of

moments of all forces about A (Taking clockwise moment
as -ve and anticlockwise moment as +ve)
 60 x   150  1  67.5  2  10  3.5
or  60 x   150  135  35   50
 50
x
 60
 0.833 m. Ans.
Hence the given system of parallel force is equivalent

to a single force 60 N acting vertically downwards at point
E at a distance of 0.833 m from A as shown in Fig. (b).
(ii) A single force (Resultant) and a couple at A. The

resultant force R acting at point E as shown in Fig. (b)
60N R =6 0N 60N
A E D
= A
0.833
M A = 6 0x0.8 33N m
3.5m = 50N m
60 Fig . (c)
can be replaced by an equal force applied at point A in the

same direction together with a couple. This is shown in
Fig. (c)
The moment of the couple
  60  0.833 Nm clockwise
  50 Nm Ans.  ve sign is due to clockwise

(iii) A single force (Resultant) and a couple at D . First
of all, find distance DE. But from Fig. (d),
R=60N 60N 60N
A E D A E D
=
0.833 2.667m
60N M B = 60x2.667
3.5 = 160N m
Fig.(d)
The distance DE  AD  AE  3.5  0.833  2.667 m

Now if the force R  60 N is moved to the point D , it
will be accompanied by a couple of moment 60  DE ie
60  2.667 Nm . This is shown in Fig. (d).
The moment of the couple
 60  2.667 Nm anticlockwise
 160 Nm Ans.
Problem 1.25: A rigid bar

9 kN 1 8k N
AB is acted by forces as shown
C 4m D
in Fig. Reduce the system into 3m 5m
(i) a single force, (ii) force A B
moment system at A (iii) force

moment system at D. (KTU, Model Question Paper)
Statics 1.83
Solution:
(i) Let resultant single force R
Resolving all forces vertically
 F y   9  18   27 kN 
No horizontal forces in the system

  Fx  0
 R   F y  27 kN  downwards
To find position of R, use varignon’s principle
27  x  9  3  18  7  x  5.67 m
(ii) Force moment system at A
R = 2 7kN
9 kN 1 8kN
3m 4m 5m
A C D B = A E B
3m 4m 5m 5 .67 m
12 m
2 7kN 2 7kN
2 7kN
= A E B = A B
5 .67 m
12 m 2 7x5.67 =1 53 .1 k N -m
2 7kN
System of forces are reduced to single force Resultant

at E
Add 27 kN and  27 kN at point A. Now we have 27
kN force and a couple 153.1 kN-m at A.
Couple  27  5.67  153.1
 153.1 kNm clockwise
(iii) Force moment system at D
R = 2 7kN
9 kN 1 8kN
3m 4m 5m
A C D B = A E D B
3m 4m 5m 5 .67 m
12 m
2 7kN 2 7kN
2 7kN
= A E D B = A D B
7m
2 7kN 2 7x1.33 =3 5.91 k N -m

12 m
Couple M D  27  1.33  35.91 kN  m (anticlockwise)
Problem 1.26: The rigid bar

1 5N 3 0N 1 0N 2 0N
is subjected to a system of
parallel forces as shown. A C D
B
Reduce this system to 0 .2m 0 .15 m 0 .25 m
(i) a single force
(ii) a single force - moment system at - A
(iii) a single force - moment system at - B
Solution:
(i) a single force (or) Resultant

Resultant   F y  15  30  10  20
  25 N
 25 N  dow nwa rds
To find position of Resultant

Applying varignon’s principle,
Statics 1.85
R =25
1 5N 3 0N 1 0N 2 0N
A C D A
B = B
0 .2m 0 .15 m 0 .25 m x = 0.5 8 m
0 .6m
25 N 25 N 25 N
A B =A B
=
x = 0.5 8 m 2 5x0.58 m= 14 .5 N m
25 N 0 .6m
Moment about A
  30  0.2  10  0.35  20  0.60  R  x   25  x
 14.5
 x  0.58 m
 25
 The resultant acts downwards at a distance of 0.58

m from A.
(ii) A single force moment system at A

Add  25 N and  25 N at point A. Now we have 1
single force and moment system (couple) at A.
Moment about A, M A   25  0.58
 14.5 Nm clockwise
(iii) A single force moment system at B

Add  25 N and  25 N at point B. Now we have
single force and moment system (couple) at B.
R = 25
1 5N 3 0N 1 0N 2 0N
A C D A
B = B
0 .2m 0 .15 m 0 .25 m x = 0.5 8 m
0 .6m
25 N 25 N 25 N
A A
= B = B
x = 0.0 2 m
2 5x0.02 =0 .5 N m
0 .6m 25 N
Problem 1.27: A system of forces acts as shown in Fig.(a).

Find the magnitude of P and Q, so that the resultant of the
force system passes through A and B.
(ME 2151, Anna Univ, May 2009)
Fig.(a)
Statics 1.87
Since the resultant force passes through A and B (may

be from A to B or B to A), the angle of inclination of the
resultant force  with the horizontal is same
 2 
Resultant angle,   tan 1    38.65
 2.5 
There are two unknown forces ‘P ’ and ‘Q ’. Hence
two equations are required to solve them.
As the resultant passes through ‘A’ and ‘B ’, the

moment about ‘A’ and ‘B ’ are zero.
i.e.,  M A  0 &  M B  0
Taking moments about A, [Refer Fig.(b)]
 M A  0   CW. moments   CCW moments
Q cos 40 [2]  300 cos 45 [2]  350  P sin 30 [5]  P cos 30 [2]
1.532 Q  424.26  350  P [4.23]

o
Q sin 4 0
o
Q cos 40
2m
A
2m P sin 3 0
o
350 N m
o o
300 cos 45  B
o
P co s 30
o
300 sin 4 5
Lin e o f action of
Fig.(b) R esultan t fo rce
4.23 P  1.532 Q  424.26  350
1.532 Q  774.26
P  0.36 Q  183.04
4.23 ...(1)
Taking moments about ‘B’
 M B  0   CW moments   CCW moments
Q cos 40 [4]  350  Q sin 40 [2.5]
 300 sin 45 [2.5]  P sin 30 [2.5]
Q [4 cos 40  2.5 sin 40 ]  350  530.33  1.25 P
Q 1.457   530.33  350

P
1.25
P  1.1656 Q  144.264 ...(2)

Equate (1) and (2)
0.36 Q  183.04  1.1656 Q  144.264
Q  406.285 N,
P  406.285  0.36  183.04
P  329.3 N
Problem 1.28: Replace the given system of forces acting on a

body by a single force (Resultant) and couple acting at the
point A. (Jan - 2004 - AU)
F y   10  15 sin 33.7  20 sin 30  25 c o s 20  31.81
F x  15 cos 33.7  20 c o s 30  25 sin 20  3.71
R  31.81 2  3.71 2
  32.03
Statics 1.89
F y 31.81
tan    15
N
F x 3.71 1 .75

  83.35 3
 1.75 
  tan 1    33.7
Single force (Resultant)  3 
and couple:
10N 15N
Assume ‘R ’ is acting thro’ 2
A 50m m B 3
‘E ’ along ‘AB ’ at a distance
‘x’ from A. 4 0m m
D C o
60m m 30
o
20 Fig.(a) 20N
Moment about A 25N
15 sin 33.7  0.05  20 sin 30  0.06  20 cos 30  0.04
 25 sin 20  0.04
 Ry  x
0.665  31.81 x
0.665
x  0.021 m
31.81
R = 3 2 .0 3
32.0 3 32.0 3
o o
83.3 5 83.3 5
A E A B
0.67 N m
32.0 3
0.02 1m D C
Fig .(b) Fig .(c)

Couple  32.03  0.021  0.67 Nm

Problem 1.29: A plate is acted upon by 3 forces and 2 couples
as shown in fig. Determine the resultant of these force-couple
system and find co-ordinate x of the point on the x - axis
through which the resultant passes. (Apr/May - 2003 - AU)
y 10 0m m 20 00 N
40 0m m 40 0m m
10 0N .m 80 N .m
40 0m m
50 0m m
P late
15 00 N 30 00 N
30 0m m
20 0m m
x
O
Solution
Sum of forces in x direction  Fx
 F x  1500  3000   1500 N
Sum of forces in y direction Fy

 F y   2000 N
Resultant of forces
R 
  F x2   F y2  
 2
 1500 2   2000
 2500 N
A ngle of resultant  1
 Fy
  tan
force with horizontal   Fx
 2000 
 tan  1  53.13 
 1500 
The above force couple system can be reduced into a single
force system as shown in fig.
Statics 1.91
F y=2000N R =2500N
=53.13
o
O A F x =1500N x
x
Assume ‘R’ is acting at A on the x- axis (x m from O)
To find x
Take moment about O (Applying Varignon’s principle)
Clockwise negative; anticlockwise positive
“Varignon’s principle states that moment created by all
forces and couples is equal to the moment created by the
resultant.”
 1500  0.2  2000  0.5  3000  0.3  100  80   2000  x
 580   2000  x
580
x  0.29 m
2000
x  0.29 m
Resultant 2500 N passes through a point A on x axis

at a distance of 0.29 m from O.
1.14 EQUILIBRIUM OF PARTICLE

Rigid body consists of several particles. If all the
particles are in equilibrium then the rigid body will be in
equilibrium. A particle is said to be in equilibrium when
its state either in rest or in motion along a straight line
is not influenced by the external forces acting on it. In such
a case, the resultant will be zero and the net effect of all
the forces acting on a particle will be zero and the particle

is said to be in equilibrium.
Consider a particle as shown in the Fig. 1.45
P artcile
R
F2
=
F1
Fig 1.45
For Equilibrium F 1  F 2 or R  0
RF0
 
R   F xi  F y j  0
 F x  0,  Fy  0
1.14.1 Equilibrant
Y Y
R
F2 Y
nt
nt
F1 R
ta
ta
ul
ul
es
es
R
2 1  
X X X

3 t
r an
i li b
n qu
E
F3 Fn
E
(a ) (b ) (c )
Fig 1.46 E qu ilib rant
Equilibrant is a force which is equal in magnitude of

the resultant of force system but opposite in direction, when
applied, the body comes to rest. Hence equilibrant of a
Statics 1.93
system of forces is a single force which acts along with the

other forces to keep the body in equilibrium.
Equilibrant in simple words
The force equal to resultant and opposite in direction
is called equilibrant. When a body is subjected to a number
of concurrent forces, it can be replaced by a single force
called resultant force.
Due to this resultant force, the body will move in the
direction of resultant force. To make the body in
equilibrium (i.e to stop the body moving) a force equal to
resultant force and opposite in direction is applied. This
force is called equilibrant.
F3 t
an
F2 s ult
Re
nt
u l ta
R es
F1
A A ia nt
A
il ib r
E qu
Concu rrent force (b)
(a)
Fig.1.47
F4
1.14.2 Equations of Equilibrium of a particle

The resultant of a force system is given as
n
   
Resultant R   F i   F x i   F y j
i1
When the particle is in equilibrium, the resultant force
is zero

R  0,   F x  0,  F y  0
1.15 EQUILIBRIUM OF RIGID BODY

A body is treated as a combination of a large number
of particles. When the size of body is large and forces are
acting at different points, then in these cases we cannot
idealise it as a single particle. In other words, when a body
is subjected to coplanar non concurrent force system, then
it may be considered as a rigid body. A rigid body is one
which does not undergo deformation. In practical, no body
is perfectly rigid. Actual structure and machines deform to
some extent due to loads acting on them. If the deformation
are very small, then they do not affect the condition of
equilibrium or motion.
1.16 FREE BODY DIAGRAM

In solving problems concerning the equilibrium of rigid
body, all the known and unknown forces acting on the body
must be taken into account and it is equally important to
exclude any force which is not directly applied to the body.
Omitting or adding a force on the body would destroy the
conditions of equilibrium. Therefore the first step in
solution of the problem is to draw a free body diagram.
A free body diagram is nothing but a sketch of body
B lock W
S u rfa ce P
P W
(sm oo th P
o r ro ug h)
 
a ) B o dy re s tin g RN RN
o n su rfa ce C ) F ree b od y
(b ) Free bo d y
d ia gra m d ia gra m
Fig 1 .48 F ree (R o ug h su rfa ce )
B od y D ia gram (F.B .D ) (S m o oth su rface )
Statics 1.95
isolated from its surroundings. All the forces that acts on

it are represented on this sketch as shown in Fig 1.48.
Here
P  pull force
W  Weight of body
R N  Normal reaction
F  Frictional force
1.5.4 Free body diagram in simple words

Thus to study the forces clearly, we draw a free body
diagram. Free body diagram is drawn by removing all the
supports i.e., wall, floor, hinge or any other supports and
replacing them by reactions and external forces.
All the external forces acting on the body are shown

in this free body diagram. The self weight (acting downward
always) is also considered in this diagram. The self weight
(W  mg ) is assumed to act at the centre of gravity of the
body.
Steps which must be followed in drawing a free body

diagram
1. Correctly select the rigid body for which free body
diagram is to be drawn. This body is then isolated
or cut from its ground and from all other bodies
and supports. Contour of the body is isolated in
sketch.
2. Indicate all the forces that act on the body,
namely active forces which cause motion and
reactive forces arising from the constraints or
Actual diagram Free body diagram

Suppo rt T(Ten sion force)
(Totally tw o forces are

acting on the body)
rope
=
Suspend ed
Body
Actua l diagram w
(wt of body a ctin g
dow nwa rd alw ays)
w
(wt of body a ctin g
dow nwa rd alw ays)
Body
=
(Totally tw o forces
Floor actin g on the body)
Actua l diagram
R (Reaction force)
Side Side Fre ebody diagra m

Suppo rt A Suppo rt C
2 R C (Reaction
RA w 2 Fo rce at C )
1 = w1
R eaction
Fo rce at A (Totally 5 forces
acting on the body)
Floor B
(Reaction
RB Fo rce at B )
w2
RC
w1 RD
RD
RA
=
RB
Fig.1.49. Free Body Diagram .
Statics 1.97
R
P P P
MA
P B R AH A
A B
R =
= F= L
 R AV
 (F BD )
W
(g ) (F BD ) (h )
Fig. 1.49
supports. The weight of the free body should be

included among the external forces.
3. The magnitude and directions of the known
external forces should be marked on the free body
diagram.
4. Unknown external forces usually consists of
reactions, through which the ground and other
supports oppose a possible motion of the free
body. The reactions of constraints make the body
retain in same position and hence for that these
are called constraining forces. Reactions are
exerted at points where the free body is supported
by or connected to other bodies.
5. Free body diagram should also indicate the
necessary dimensions which helps in computation
of moments of forces.
Some of the FBD of force systems are shown in
Fig. 1.48 & 1.49.
The free-body diagram of a body is drawn by removing
all the supports (i.e wall, floor, hinge or any other body) and
replacing them by the reactions and external forces.
1.7 TYPES OF FORCES ON RIGID BODIES

Forces acting on rigid body are classified into two
groups
(i) External forces - Applied forces and Reactive forces
(ii) Internal forces
External forces are forces which represent the action of
the other bodies on the rigid body considered and which
are fully responsible for the external behaviour of the rigid
body considered. Example: consider a simply supported
beam carrying a concentrated load P as shown in Fig. 1.50.
P E xtern al P
force
A B
RA (FB D ) RB
Fig . 1.50 External Force.
Internal forces are the forces which hold together the

particles forming the rigid body or holding the component
parts together.
For Example:
If we try to pull a bar by applying two equal and
opposite forces F then an internal forces F 1 comes to play
to hold the body together [Fig 1.51].
F F1 F1 F
A B
Fig. 1.51. Internal Force.
Statics 1.99
Problem 1.30: Draw a free-body diagram of a sphere of

weight 50 N resting on a frictionless plane surface as shown
in Fig (i).
The sphere exerts a

downward force W50N on
C C
the surface.
W W
When the sphere is A
resting on the surface, a A
(I) (ii)
reaction RA which is equal Fig. RA
and opposite to the force

50N is exerted on the sphere by the surface at the point
of contact A .
The sphere is in equilibrium under the action of two
equal and opposite forces W and RA which are passing
through the centre of the sphere.
Problem 1.31: A bar PQ of weight 100N is hinged at P to
the wall and is supported in a vertical plane by the string
QD as shown in Fig. Draw the free-body diagram of the bar.
O
D T
Q C
C
W = 100N
P
W RP Free Body Diagram

P (i) (ii)
G iven Fig Fig.
(i) Weight W (100 N) acting vertically downward

(ii) The tension T of the string along QD, and
(iii) The reaction R p at the hinge in an unknown
direction. Since the bar PQ is in equilibrium
under the action of three non-parallel forces, so
they must pass through the common point O .
Problem 1.32: Two spheres P and Q (Fig.(a)) each of weight
W1 and W2 respectively rest inside a hollow cylinder which is
resting on a horizontal plane. Draw the free-body diagrams of:
(a) Both the spheres taken together
(b) The sphere P separately.
(c) The sphere Q separately.
Solution:
Q
Refer Fig. (b)
RA  Reaction at the point C
P
A offered by cylinder wall D w2
RB  Reaction at the point A

B offered by cylinder bottom
w1
RC  Reaction offered by B
cylinder wall at C Fig.(a)
Fig. (b) Free-body diagram of spheres P and Q .

The reaction at the point of contact D will not appear
in the free-body diagram, since it is an internal force
between the two spheres
Statics 1.101
Q R D by Q
C2 RC P D Q
P D W2 C RA
C2 RC
C1
RA A W1 W2 C
C1 D
A W1 B
R D by P
B RB
R B (b) Fig. FBD . (c) (d)
Fig. (c) Free-body diagram of sphere P

R DbyQ is the reaction of the sphere Q on the sphere
P acting at the point of contact D . It is acting in the
direction normal to the surface. i.e along C 1C 2
Fig.(d) Free-body diagram of sphere Q

R DbyP is the reaction of the sphere P on the sphere
Q acting at the point of contact D
R DbyQ and R DbyP are equal in magnitude, opposite in

direction and are acting along common points C 1 and C 2.
They do not appear in the combined free-body diagram

of the two spheres since they cancel each other.
1.19 CONDITIONS OF EQUILIBRIUM IN

TWO DIMENSIONS
A rigid body requires both the balance of forces and
moments to be in equilibrium while the balance of forces
prevents the body from translating and balance of moments
prevent it from rotating. As such, the conditions of
equilibrium of a rigid body in two dimensions will be as
follows
Note: Conditions for a system to be in equilibrium

When the resultant of all the forces acting on a
particle is zero, the particle is in equilibrium
For a system to be in equilibrium, the following
conditions should be satisfied.
1. Algebraic sum of all horizontal components of
forces should be equal to zero, i.e
F x  0
2. Algebraic sum of all vertical components of forces
should be equal to zero, i.e.
F y  0
3. Sum of all moments about any point in a system
should be equal to zero, i.e
M  0
Equations of Equilibrium
1. F x  0; 2. F y  0; 3.  M  0
Note:
Conditions for Equilibrium of a system of coplanar
concurrent forces
Resultant should be equal to zero
i.e., F x  0 and F y  0 individually.
Resultant  

 Fx2   Fy2  0
Problem 1.33: Determine the magnitude and angle  of F so

that particle P, shown in figure, is in equilibrium.
(Anna Univ, May 2012, ME 205)
Statics 1.103
y
F
4.5 K N P 
x
o o
60 60
o
30
2.25 K N
7.5 K N
Given
To Find
Magnitude F  & Angle 
Solution
 Fx   H  0
F cos   2.25 cos 60  7.5 cos 60  4.5  0
 F cos   7.125 ...(1)
 Fy   V  0
F sin   2.25 sin 60  7.5 sin 60  0
 F sin   8.443 ...(2)
F sin  8.443
21  
F c o s  7.125
 tan   1.184
   4983
 1  F cos 49 83  7.125
 F  11.04 kN
1.20 EQUILIBRIUM OF TWO FORCE BODY

When a body subjected to two forces and in
equilibrium it is known as two force body. The resultant
force of the body is zero. Hence the two force must be
collinear and must have same magnitude but in opposite
direction. If the line of action of two forces are different
then they cannot be in equilibrium even if their magnitudes
are same.
A two-force member: A body which has forces applied
onto it at only two points, and no couples applied onto it
at all, is called a two-force member. A two-force member
can only be in equilibrium if the line of action of the
resultant of the forces at each point passes through the
other point, and each resultant force is equal in magnitude
but opposite in direction to the resultant of the forces
applied to the other point.
P a rticle
P a rticle F2 w itho ut
e qu ilibrium
F2 F1
F 1 =F 2 F1
F 1 =F 2
(a ) (b )
Fig 1.52 Tw o force body
Fig. 1.52 (a) shows two force body in equilibrium

Fig. 1.52 (b) Two force body without equilibrium
Statics 1.105
1.21 EQUILIBRIUM OF A THREE FORCE BODY

When a particle is
F2
subjected to three forces and
F1
is in equilibrium, they must
form a closed triangle when
2 1 F2
polygon law of forces is
applied to the force system.
A three-force member: A
body which has forces W F1
applied onto it at only three W

points, and no couples
applied onto it at all, is
called a three-force member.
A three-force member can only be in equilibrium if the lines
of action for the resultants of the forces at each point
intersect at a single point.
1.22 CONDITION FOR THREE FORCES IN

EQUILIBRIUM
P P
C
A B
(c) Q (d) S
S Fig.1.54.
If three coplanar forces are in equilibrium, either all

of them will be parallel to one another or all of them will
meet at a point as shown in Fig. 1.54 (c) and (d).
1.22.1 Lami’s Theorem

F1
If three forces acting on a F2
particle are in equilibrium, then


each force is proportional to the
sine of the included angle between  
the two other forces.
F1 F2 F3
Then  
sin  sin  sin  F3
Fig 1.55 Lam i’s theorem
Problem 1.34: A spherical ball of weight 100 N is suspended

by a string. Find the tension in the string if a horizontal force
‘P’ is applied to the ball. Determine the angle the string makes
with the vertical and also tension in the string if P  200 N.
Solution: T

W  100 N; P  200 N
 P
From Fig. (b) P
(2 00 N )
Free Body Diagram,

S pace D iagram
Using Equations of (a)
W = 10 0 N
equilibrium, (b) FB D
 F x  0 ;  T sin   200  0
 F y  0 ; T cos   100  0
T sin   200
T cos   100
Statics 1.107
tan   2
  tan  1 2  63.43 
T sin 63.43  200
200
T  223.6 N
sin 63.43
Using Lami’s Theorem (Fig. (c))

T W P
 
sin 90 sin 90   sin 180  
T 100 200
 
sin 90 sin 90   sin 180  
Tsin 90    100 sin 90  100
T c o s   100 ...(i)
T sin 180    200 sin 90  200
T sin   200 ...(ii)

Dividing (ii) by (i)
T sin  200
  2; tan   2
T cos  100
  tan 1 2  63.43 
T sin   200
T sin 63.43  200
T  223.6 N
Problem 1.35: Two cables AB and CB are tied together at

B. It is loaded by a weight of 100 N as shown in the Fig.(a).
Determine the Tensions in the cable AB and CB
Solution:
C
A T AB T BC
200 m m
50m m B 1 B 2
50m m 25m m 90 o 90 o
W = 100 N W = 10 0 N
(a) Sp ace D iagram Fig (b) FB D
(i) Find 1 & 2
From space diagram

50
tan 1 
50
 1  tan  1 1  45
200
tan  2 
25
 200 
 2  tan  1    82.87
 25 
(ii) From FBD
Using Lami’s theroem
W TBC TAB
 
sin 180   1  2 sin  1  90  sin 2  90 
100 T BC TAB
  
sin 180  45  82.87 sin 45  90 sin 82.87  90
Statics 1.109
100 TBC TAB

 
0.7894 sin 135 sin 172.87
TAB
126.92 
sin 172.89
Tension in T AB  126.67  sin 172.87   15.72 N
TBC
126.67 
sin 135
Tension in TBC  126.67  sin 135  89.56 N
Problem 1.36: Three links AB, BC, CD are carrying two loads
100 N and W at B and C respectively as shown in Fig.(a).
The string AD is attached to ceiling. Calculate the tension in
the strings AB, BC, CD and W.
Solution:
A D
1m 1m
B C
0.5m 0.6m
100 N W
Fig.(a) Space d iagram
TAB TCD
1 B TBC 2
TBC
C
Fig.(b) Fig. (c)
100 N W
From space diagram (a)
1
tan  1  or 1  63.44 
0.5
1
tan  2  or 2  59.04 
0.6
Refer Fig. B
Applying Lami’s Theorem to equilibrium at B
TAB T BC 100
 
sin 90 sin 90  1 sin 180  1
TAB 100

sin 90 sin 116.56 
100  1
TAB   111.8 N
sin 116.56 
TBC 100

sin 90  63.44 sin 116.56 
100 sin 153.44 

T BC   50 N
sin 116.56 
Refer Fig. (c)
Applying Lami’s Theorem at C

T BC W TCD
 
sin 90  2 sin 180  2 sin 90 
W T BC

sin 120.96 sin 149.04
50  sin 120.96 
W  83.35 N
sin 149.04 
Statics 1.111
50  sin 90
TCD   97.19 N
sin 90  59.04 
 Tensions in the links AB  111.8 N, BC  50 N,

CD  97.19 N and load W  83.35 N
Problem 1.37: A fine light

D
string ABCDE whose extremity A
A is fixed, has weights W1 and E
o
1 50 1 20
o
W2 attached to at B and C. It B C
4 0N
passes round small smooth peg
at D carrying a weight of 40 N W1 W2
at the free end E as shown in

Figure. If in the position of equilibrium, BC is horizontal and
AB and CD makes 150 and 120 with BC. With BC, find (i)
tension in the portion AB, BC and CD of the string; and (ii)
magnitudes of W1 and W2. (Calicut University, May 2010)
Solution:
All the force acting on the string ABCDE are shown.
D
A
T AB
T DE
T DC
o
T BA 1 50 T BC T CB 1 20
o
T CD T ED
E
o B C
1 20 o
4 0N
1 50
W1 W2
Given:
A smooth peg is used at D carrying weight 40 N
therefore tension at T DE , TED, TDC and T CD  40 N
where
T C B = 40 N
TDE  TED are tension on
string DE 1 20
o
T CB
TDC  TCD are tension on C o
o
1 50
90
string CD
Similarly
TBC  TCB are tension on
W2
string BC
FB D fo r e qu ilib riu m at C
TAB  TBA are tension on
string AB
Note: Tensions on a string are equal in magnitude but

opposite in direction.
Now applying Lami’s theorem on joint C
T CD TCB W2
 
sin 90  sin 150 sin 120
40 TCB W2
 
sin 90  sin 150 sin 120
40  sin 150
T CB 
sin 90
TCB  TBC  20 N
40  sin 120
W2 
sin 90
W 2  34.64 N
Statics 1.113
Now applying Lami’s TBA

theorem in joint B
o
150
TBC TBA W1 T B C = 20N
  B
sin 120 sin 90  sin 150 120
o
90
o
20 TBA W1
  
sin 120 sin 90 sin 150 
20  sin 90 W1
 T BA 
sin 120  FB D for equilib rium at B
TBA  23.09 N
TBA  TAB  23.09 N
Similarly
20  sin 150
W1 
sin 120
W 1  11.54 N
Result
Tension on string AB  23.09 N
Tension on string BC  20 N
Tension on string CD  40 N
Tension on string DE  40 N
Magnitude of W 1  11.54 N
Magnitude of W 2  34.64 N
Problem 1.38: A block of weight 105 N hangs from a point

C. AC is inclined at 60 to the horizontal and BC at 45 to
the vertical as shown in Fig. (a). Determine the forces in the
strings AC and BC.
A A
o
60 B
60
B
o
o 45 o T B C TAC
45 75 o
45 o 60 o
o
C
o 60
45
C E
E W = 105
Fre e bo dy diagram
Fig.(a) Fig.(b)
Solution:
Let us draw Free body diagram.
TAC  Tension in the string AC
TBC  Tension in the string BC
The point ‘C’ is in equilibrium under the action of the

three forces TAC , TBC and W
Using Lamis theorem,

TAC TBC 105
 
sin 90  45  sin 90  60 sin75
105 sin 135

T AC   76.865 N
sin 75
Statics 1.115
105 sin 150

T BC   54.352 N
sin 75
TAC  76.865 N
TBC  54.352 N
Problem 1.39: Fig. (a) shows a 10 kg lamp supported by two

cables AB and AC. Find the tension in each cable.
(Anna Univ, ME 205, May 2010)
1.5m 2m
B C
0.75m
A
Fig (a)
From Fig. (b)

B 1.5
 0.75  1
1  tan  1  
0.75
 1.5 
Fig. (b) A
1  26.56 
From Fig. (c) 2 C

2
0.75
 0.75 
2  tan  1   Fig. (c)
 2  A
 20.55 
Free body diagram is shown in Fig.(d).

Applying Lami’s Theorem TAB T AC
98.1 TAC TAB

  1 32 .89
o
sin 132.89 sin 116.56  sin 110.55 

o
2 6.5 6 o
2 0.5 5
o
TAC 11 6.5 6 11 0.5 5
o
133.9   TAC  119.77 N

sin 116.56 
W=
TAB Fig.(d)
1 0 X 9.81 =9 8.1 N
133.9   TAB  125.38 N
sin 110.55 
Problem 1.40: A weight of 1000 N is supported by two chains

as shown in Fig. (a). Determine the tension in each chain
. (Apr/May 2007 AU)
Solution: A D B
o
30 60 o
Weight at C  1000 N
 BAC 30 o
60 30
o
 CBA 60 C
 ACB 90
in given diagram. E
Fig (a) 1000 N
In right-angle triangle ADC
 ACD 90   30  60
In right-angle triangle BDC
 BCD  90  60  30
 ACE  180  60  120
BCE  180  30  150
Draw free body diagram as shown in Fig. (b)

Statics 1.117
TAC  Tension of chain AC A

Give n dia gram
B
TBC  T ension of chain BC
o
90
Applying Lami’s theorem at

C
point C .
o
0
15
12
0
o
T AC T BC 1000
 
sin 150 sin 120  sin 90
1000 N
T AC T BC
E
or   1000 Fig b Free bo dy diagram
sin 150 sin 120 
 TAC  1000 sin 150  1000  0.5  500 N
And T BC  1000 sin 120  1000  0.866  866 N
Problem 1.41: Determine the reactions at A and B (Fig. (a))
O
100N
o r
45 B 45 o
r
o
A B 30
o A 30
o
o o 45
30 45 o RB
60
RA
W =100N
Fig (a) Fig.(b).Free body diagram
Solution:
Using Lamis theorem [Refer Fig (b) and Fig (c)]
RA RB W
 
sin 135 sin 150 sin 75
W sin 135 RB RA
RA 
sin 75
100  sin 135 o

  73.21 N 75
sin 75 45
o
60
o
W sin 150
RB 
sin 75
100  sin 150

  51.76 N Fig.(c)
sin 75 W = 100N
Problem 1.42: Two identical

5 00 N
rollers, each of weight 500 N,
are supported by an inclined 5 00 N
plane making an angle of 30 to
D
the horizontal and a vertical A C
wall as shown in the Fig. (a).
(i) Assuming smooth surfaces, B
o
30
find the reactions at the support
points. Fig.(a )
(KTU, May 2011)
Applying Lami’s theorem on Ball 2 (Refer Fig. (d))
B a ll 2 B a ll 2
B a ll 1
B a ll 1
(b )
Statics E1.1
1. STATICS
Extra Problem
Problem 1.1: Determine the magnitudes of F1 and F2 for the

following system of forces which are in equilibrium.
Solution:
For a system to be in equilibrium, Fx  0 and Fy  0
individually.
Resolve all the forces along ‘x’ axis and ‘y’ axis.
Fx  8  F1 cos 30  F2 cos 60  0  12 c o s 60  0
Fy  0  F1 sin 30  F2 sin 60  16  12 sin 60  0
14  0.866 F1  0.5 F2  0 ... (i)

‘y’axis
and  0.5 F1  0.866 F2  5.608  0 E D
.... (ii) 16
F2
From Eqn (i), we get F
0.866 F1  14 12 C
F2  30 o
0.5
F1
o
30
30
60 o
F2  1.732 F1  28 30
o
8 B ‘x’a xis
Fig.
Substitute F2 value in equation (ii),
we get
 0.5 F1  [1.732 F1  28 0.866]  5.608  0
F1  18.64 N and F2  1.732  18.64  28  4.28 N
F2  4.28 N
Problem 1.2: If five forces act on a particle as shown in Fig. (a)
and the algebraic sum of horizontal components of all these forces is
 324.904 kN, calculate the magnitude of ‘P’ and the resultant of all
the forces.
E1.2 Engineering Mechanics
y
2 82 .84 3 y
1 00 R = 34 0 kN y
P 1 65 1 65
3 P 1 00
45 4
o
30
o o
30
o
3 6.8 7
o 1 7.11
75 x x x
O 75 45
o
Fig (a) 2 82 .84 3 Fig (b ) Fig (c)
Solution:
The inclination of 100 kN force with x - axis is
tan   3/4;   36.87
All the forces are represented in such a way that they act away
from the particle as shown in Fig. (b).
 Fx   75  P c o s30  282.843 cos 45  100 c o s 36.87
But  Fx   324.904 (Given)
  Fx   195  P c o s 30   324.904
324.904  195
Then P 
cos 30
 150 kN
 Fy  P sin 30  165  100 sin 36.87  282.843 sin 45
 100 kN [Substitute P  150]

Thus for the particle,
 Fx   324.904 kN;  Fy  100 kN,
Resultant  

324.9042  1002  340 kN
 Fy 100
tan   
 Fx 324.904
  17.11
Problem 1.3: Determine the magnitude and angle  of F so that
particle P, shown in figure, is in equilibrium.
(Anna Univ, May 2012, ME 205)
Statics E1.3
y
F
4.5 K N P 
x
o o
60 60
o
30
2.25 K N
7.5 K N
Given
To Find
Magnitude F & Angle 
Solution
 Fx   H  0
F cos   2.25 cos 60  7.5 c o s 60  4.5  0
 F cos   7.125 ...(1)
 Fy   V  0
F sin   2.25 sin 60  7.5 sin 60  0
 F sin   8.443 ...(2)
F sin  8.443
21  
F cos  7.125
 tan   1.184
   4983
 1  F cos 4983  7.125

 F  11.04 kN
Problem 1.4: Three forces of magnitude 40 kN, 15 kN and 20 kN

are acting at a point O as shown in Fig. The angles made by 40 kN,
15 kN and 20 kN forces with X-axis are 60, 120 and 240
respectively. Determine the magnitude and direction of the resultant
force. (Oct 2007 - AU)
Solution: y
1 5kN 4 0kN
F1  40 kN, 1  60
F2  15 kN, 2  120
F3  20 kN, 3  240
o
1 20
The sum of components of all
24 0 o
60
o
forces along x-axis is given by O
x
Fx  F1 cos 1  F2 cos 2  F3 cos 3
 40 cos 60  15 cos 120  20 cos 240 Fig

2 0kN
 20  7.5  10  2.5 kN
The resultant component along y axis is given by

Fy  F1 sin 1  F2 sin 2  F3 sin 3
 40 sin60  15 sin 120  20 sin 240

 34.64  12.99   17.321
 30.31 kN
The magnitude of the resultant force is given by
R 
Fx2  F
y  
2
 2
2.52  30.31
 30.41 kN
The direction of the resultant force is given by.
Fy 30.31
tan     12.124 ;   tan 1 12.124
Fx 2.5
   85.28
Statics E1.5
Problem 1.5: Four forces of magnitude 10 kN, 15 kN, 20 kN and

40 kN are acting at a point O as shown in the Fig (a). The angles
made by the above forces with X axis are 30, 60, 90 and 120 degrees
respectively. Find the magnitude and direction of the resultant force.
(Apr/May 2008 - AU)
Solution: y
2 0kN
F1  10kN, 1  30 4 0kN 15 k
N
10
F2  15kN, 2  60 kN
F3  20kN, 3  90
o
1 20 9 0 o
F4  40kN, 4  120
60
G iven
o
30
The sum of horizontal
o
x
O
components is given by Fig. (a)
Fx  F1 cos 1  F2 cos 2  F3 cos 3  F4 c os 4
 10 c o s 30  15 cos 60  20 c o s90  40 c o s 120
 8.66  7.5  20   3.84 kN
Negative sign indicates that Fx is acting along the negative
side of OX as showin in Fig. (b)
The sum of vertical components along y axis is given by
Fy  F1 sin 1  F2 sin 2  F3 sin 3  F4 sin 4
 10 sin 30  15 sin60  20 sin 90  40 sin 120
y
 72.63 kN
Positive sign means that Fy is
acting along Oy as shown in Fig. (b)
The magnitude of the resultant
R
force is given by formula
F y =72 .63

R  F2x  F2y
 
 
  3.842  72.632
F x =-3.84 O
x
Fig. (b)
  
14.745  5275.117
 72.73 kN
Fy V 72.63
tan1     18.94
Fx H 3.84
1  86.98
From Fig. (b), it is clear that  lies between 90 and 180
   180  86.97  93.03
Problem 1.6: Four forces of magnitudes 10 N, 20 N, 30 N and 40
N are acting respectively along the four sides of a square ABCD as
shown in Fig.(a). Determine the magnitude and direction of the
resultant force. (Apr.95 - M.K.U) (May 2006 - AU)
Solution:
20N
The net force in the
horizontal direction is given as, D C
Fx  10  30   20 N 30N
The net force in the

vertical direction is given as,
Fy  20  40   20 N
The resultant force is B

A
given by equation as 10N
40N Fig a
R 
Fx  F
2
y
2
y
 
  202   202 F x = - 20N x

 
 400  400
F y = - 20N
 
 
2  400
 28.28 N
Fig b
Statics E1.7
The direction of the resultant force

Fy  20
tan    1
Fx  20
   45
Since Fx and Fy are negative,  lies between 180 and 270
Hence from Fig.(b). it is clear that actual

  180  45  225
Problem 1.7: A coplanar parallel force system consisting of three
forces acts on a rigid bar AB as shown in Fig.(a) Determine the
simplest equivalent action for the force system.
40kN 30kN
20kN
A B
3m 2m
Fig.(a)
Solution: To find Resultant

Resultant   20  40  30   10 kN
R   10 kN 
To find x x  Distance at which Resultant is acting
Moment about A (By using Varignon’s principe)
40  3  30  5   R  x   10 x
 30
x 3m
 10
Simplest equivalent system
R = 10kN
A B
x=3m 2m
Fig.(b)
Problem 1.8: Four parallel forces of magnitudes 100 N, 150 N, 25

N and 200 N are shown in Fig. Determine the magnitude of the
resultant and also the distance of the resultant from point A.
100 N 150 N 25N 200 N
A B C D
0.9m 1.2m 0.75m
Fig .(a)
Solution:
Force are 100 N, 150 N, 25 N and 200 N
As all the forces are acting vertically, hence their resultant R
is given by
R  100  150  25  200 (Taking upward force +ve and
downward as -ve)
 300  175  125 N
+ve sign shows that R is acting vertically upwards.
Statics E1.9
To find the distance of R from point A,

Take the moments of all forces about point A.
Let x  Distance of R from A in metre.
As the force 100 N is passing through A, its moment about A
will be zero.
Moment of 150 N force aboutA
 150  0.9 clockwise hence 
  135 Nm
 25  2.1 (clockwise) Hence (-)
  52.5 Nm

 200  2.85 anticlockwise 
 570 Nm
Algebraic sum of moments of all forces about A

  13552.5  570  382.5Nm  i
+ve sign shows that this

moment is anticlockwise. Hence R =125N
the moment of resultant R about 2.85
A must be 382.5 Nm. i.e.,
moment of R should be A D
x
anticlockwise about A. Fig.(b)
Now moment of R about
A  R x [Refer Fig. (b)]
 125 x anticlockwise   ii
Equating (i) and (ii)
382.5  125 x
382.5
or x  3.06 m . Ans.
125
 Resultant R will be 125 N upwards and is acting at a

distance of 3.06 m to the right of point A. (right of Beam AD)
Problem 1.9: A 200 N vertical force is applied to the end of a lever
which is attached to shaft at O. Determine (a) the moment of 200 N
force about O; (b) the horizontal force applied at A which creates the
same moment about O; (c) the smallest force applied at A which
creates the same moment about O; (d) how far from the shaft a 480
N vertical force must act to create the same moment about O.
Solution:
(a) Moment about O (Fig.(b))
The perpendicular distance from O to the line of action of the
200 - N force is
d  25 c o s 45  17.68 m
The magnitude of the moment about O of the 200 - N force is
MO  Fd  200 N 17.68 m  3536 N.m
MO  3536 Nm !
A F
A A
d 25m
25m 200 N 25 m
200 N
o
o 45
45 45
o
o
o (a) Mo o (b) Mo (c)
d
A A
F B
25m 480 N
o
45
o
45
MO
o o
MO (d) Fig. d (e)
Statics E1.11
(b) Horizontal force (Fig.(c))

In this case, we have
d  25 sin 45  17.68 m
Since the moment about O must be 3536 N.m, we write

MO  Fd
3536 N.m  F 17.68

F  200 N
(c) Smallest force (Fig.(d))

Since MO  Fd, the smallest value of F occurs when d is
maximum. We choose the force perpendicular to OA and note that
d  25 m; thus
MO  Fd
3536 N.m  F 25

F  141.4 N
(d) 480 N Vertical Force (Fig.(e))

In this case MO  Fd yields
3536 N.m  480 d  7.37 m

but OB cos 45  d  7.37; OB  10.42 m
Problem 1.10: A force of 100 N is acting at a point A as shown in
Fig. Determine the moments of this force about O.
Solution:
Force at A  100 N
The moment of force 100 N about O, can be determined by
using Varignon’s principle. The force 100 N is replaced by its two
components. The horizontal and vertical components of force 100 N
acting at A are shown in Fig. (b)
(i) The horizontal component  100  cos 60  50 N
But this force is passing through O and hence has no moment
about O.
y y
3m 3m
100 co s 60 o
O A x O A x
60 o 60 o
0N
0N
o
100sin 60
10
10
Fig.(a) Fig.(b)
The versicle component  100  sin 60  100  0.866

 86.6 N
This force is acting vertically downwards at A. Moments of this
force about O.
 86.6  OA
 86.6  3  OA  3 m
 259.8 N clockwise Ans.
Problem 1.11: Four forces equal to P, 2P, 3P and 4P are acting along
the four sides of a square ABCD respectively taken in order. Side =
40 mm. Find the magnitude, direction and position of the resultant
force.
Solution:
The system of the given
2P
forces is shown in Fig. (a). D
3P C
Algebraic sum of horizontal forces
Fx  P  3P   2P  i
0.04
Algebraic sum of vertical forces
Fy  2P  4P   2P  ii P
Resultant force, A B
4P Fig.(a)
Statics E1.13
o
R

Fx2  Fy2 225
-x -2P


o
 2P2   2P2 45
 2.83 P Ans.
R -2P
Direction of the resultant force, Fig.(b) -y
Let   Angle, which the resultant
makes with the horizontal.
Fy  2P
 tan    1
Fx  2P
  45
Since Fx as well as Fy are negative,  lies in between
180 and 270.
 Actual   180  45  225 Ans.
Position of the resultant force,
Let X = Perpendicular
distance between A and the line
R
of action the resultant force, and 2P

of
io n
a = side of the square ABCD = D

a ct
C
0.04 m 3P
of
l in e
Apply Varignon’s 2 25 o x P
theorem K A B
R h a
Taking moments of Resultant
and other forces about A and 4P
Fig.(c)
equating the same,
2.83P  X  2P  a  3P  a
2P  a  3P  a 5a 5  0.04
X     0.071 m
2.83 P 2.83 2.83
If the position of the resultant force is required to be found out on
the line B A produced, then take moments about the point K where
the resultant cuts the line BA produced. Let h be the distance

between K and A.
h sin 45  X  0.071 m
0.71
h  0.1m
sin 45
Problem 1.12: Four forces act tangentially to a circle of radius 2 m
as shown in Fig. Find the magnitude, inclination and distance of the
resultant from the centre of the circle.
(Anna Univ, May 2008, GE 1151)
Given:
Radius  2 m
 Fx  80  120 cos 45
 Fx  164.85 N
 Fy  50  30  120 sin 45
 Fy   64.85 N
R
 2
164.852    64.85
R  177.149 N
 64.85 
  tan 1  
 164.85 
  21.47
 Mo  80  2  30  2  50  2  120  2  80 N  m
 Mo  80 N  m
 Mo  R  D
80
D  0.4515 m O 
177.149
D  0.4515 m
0.4515
x  1,234 m
sin 21.47
x  1.234 m
Statics E1.15
0.4515
y  0.4852 m
cos 21.47
y  0.4852 m
Problem 1.13: For the force system shown in Fig. (a) determine the
direction and magnitude of the resultant from ‘O’.
(Anna Univ, ME 1206, Nov 2008)
 Fx  100 cos 45  70  0.710

7 0 kN
 Fx  0.710 kN
 Fy  40  100 sin 45

1 .8 m
 Fy  110.710 kN 4 0 kN
O
R

 Fx2   Fy2
o
45 3 .6 m
R  110.71 kN
Fig.(a)
1 0 0 kN
 Fy 110.71
tan   
 Fx 0.71
  89.63
 M0  70  1.8  40  3.6
71
0.
"
11
 M0  270 kN  m  
R=
 M0  R  d 2.4m 89.63 o
270 O
d
110.71 2 .4
38 Fig.(b)
d  2.438 m
Problem 1.14: A plate ABCD in the shape of a parallelogram is
acted upon by two couples, as shown in the Fig. (a). Determine the
angle  if the resultant couple is 1.8 N.m clockwise.
(Anna Univ, ME 2151, ME 205, May 2012)
Given
Resultant couple
  1.8 N.m (clockwise)
To Find 21 N C
D
Angle,  12N
d = 0 .8
0.4 m
Solution: 5m
Resultant couple is 1.8 N.m  12N
in clockwise but distance A
21N B
between 12 N forces is 1.05 m Fig.(b).
considered “d”.
 12  d  21  0.4   1.8
12  d  1.8  21  0.4
 d  0.85 m
0.85 21 N C
sin   D
1.05
12N
 0.85 
0.4 m
1
   sin  1.05 
   12N
  54.04 A
21N B
1.05 m Fig.(a).
Result
Angle,   54.04
Problem 1.15: Two cylinders of diameters 80 mm and 40 mm
weighing 150 N and 50 N respectively are placed as shown in the
Fig.(a), Assume all the contacts are smooth. Find the reactions at the
three walls of A, B, C.
Solution:
50 N F
m
0m 150
10
D F C RC
F
m
RA
m
60
A E E

30
o E
B RB (100-4 0-20)=40 m m
(a) Fig . (b) (c)
Statics E1.17
From the Fig. (c), we get

40  RC
cos   or   48.19
60
RD Ball 2
From FBD of the ball 2
 Fx  0; RD W =50 N
RA 
RD cos 48.19  RC
0 Ball 1 o
30 R B
 Fy  0; RD sin   50  0 W =150 N
Fig. (d) Free body dia gram
50
 RD   67.08 N
sin 48.19
RC  67.08 cos 48.19
 44.72 N
From the FBD of ball 1

 Fy  0; RB cos 30  150  RD sin   0
150  67.08 sin 48.19
RB   231 N
c o s 30
 Fx  0; RA  RD cos   RB sin 30  0
 RA  67.08 cos 48.19  0.5 RB  0
 RA  0.5  231  44.72  160.22N
RA  160.22 N; RB  231 N RC  44.72 N
Problem 1.16: Find the magnitude of 2 forces such that if they act
at right angles, their resultant is 10 N , but if they act at 60, their

resultant is 
13 N. [Apr 2008 - AU]
Solution
Let the 2 forces be F1 and F2
(i) Case: F21  F22  10 ... (1)

(ii) Case: F21 2
 F2  2 F1 F2 cos 60  13 ... (2)
Solving (i) and (ii), 2 F1 F2 cos 60  3 ... (3)
F1 F1
R = 10N
3N
R=1
o
60
F2 F2
Fig .(a) C ase (i) Fig .(b) C ase (ii)
Also F21  10  F22 (from equation (1))
F1   
 10 F22 (Substitute this F1 in equation (2))
  1
10  F22  F22  2 



10 F22  F2  13
 2
 



10 F22 F2  3

Squaring on both sides, we get
10  F22 F22  9
F42  10 F22  9  0
Let F22  x
x2  10 x  9  0
x
 10  
100  4  1 
9
21
10  8

2
18
x 9
2
10  8
or x 1
2
i.e., F22  9; F2  3 N, F22  1 or F2  1
or F21  10  1  9 or F1  3, when F2  3
Statics E1.19
F21  10  9  1 or F1  1 when F2  3
We have the magnitudes to be 3 N and 1 N

Problem 1.17: The resultant of two forces P and Q acting at a point
is ‘R’. If Q is doubled R is also doubled and if the direction of Q is
reversed R is again doubled. Prove that P : Q : R  
2 : 
3 : 
2
(Anna Univ, Dec 2008, ME 1206)
R2  P2  Q2  2PQ cos 
...(1)
when Q is doubled, R is doubled.
2R2  P2  2Q2  2P  2Q cos 
4R2  P2  4Q2  4PQ cos  ...(2)

when Q is reversed in direction, R is doubled
2R2  P2   Q2  2P   Q cos 
4R2  P2  Q2  2PQ cos  ...(3)

Adding (1) and (3)
5R2  2P2  2Q2
Multiplying (3) by (2) and adding with (2)
12R2  3P2  6Q2
4R2  P2  2Q2 ...(4)

5R2  2P2  4R2  P2
R2  P2
RP
4P2  P2  2Q2
3P2  2Q2
2

3
Q P
2

3
P:Q:RP: P:P 3 : 
2 :  2
Problem 1.18: Three forces act along the sides of an equilateral

triangle as shown in Fig. Determine the additional single force to
make it an equilibrium system and locate it with respect to A.
(Nov/Dec 2004 - AU)
Solution:
Let F  New force to make the system in equilibrium acting at
angle  at A
Fy  0
Fy  2 sin 60  0  F sin   1 sin 60  0
F sin    sin 60   0.866 .... (1)

Fx  0
Fx  2 cos 60  3  F cos   1 c o s 60  0
F cos   3  3 c o s60
F cos   1.5 ...... 2 2KN
Squaring and adding (1) B

o
and (2) 60
F2 sin2   cos2 
  0.8662  1.52  3 A 
F
60
o
3KN
F2  1  3 Fig
1KN
3 kN
F 2 sin 6 0
2KN
 1.732 kN B 2 co s 60
o
Substituting back in 60
equation (1) we have
Fsin 
F sin    0.866 F o
A  60 1 co s 60
1.732 sin    0.866; 3 K N Fco s 
1 sin 6 0
Fig 1KN
sin    0.5
Statics E1.21
   30
The force is in the downward direction away from AB
Problem 1.19: Two cylinder P and Q rest in a channel as shown in
the fig.
The cylinder P has a diameter of 100 mm and weighs 200 N whereas
the cylinder Q has diameter of 180 mm diameter and weighs 500
Newtons.
If the bottom width of the box is 180 mm, with one side vertical and
the other inclined at 60, determine the reactions at all the four points
of contact.
Solution:
Diameter of P  100 mm; P
Weight of P  200 N; +
A
Diameter of Q  180 mm;
Weight of Q  500 N; Q
Width of channel  180 mm. +

B
First of all, consider the
equilibrium of the cylinder P. It is 60
o
in equilibrium under the action of M O

the following three forces which Fig a 180mm
must pass through A, i.e., the
centre of the cylinder P as shown
in Fig (b)
1. Weight of cylinder P, P
A RP
200 N acting
RQ
downwards.
RQ
2. Reaction RP of the Q

cylinder P at the B  U
vertical side acting 500 N
L 30 o
horizontally.
30 o 30 o
3. Reaction RQ of the o
O
R L 60 M N T
cylinder P at the point R N 180 m m
Fig b
of contact with cylinder Q.
To find the angle of RQ
From the geometry of the figure we find that

AB  90  50  140 mm
BU  NT  MO  MN  TO
 180  MN  50
MN  BN tan 30
 90 tan 30  51.96 mm  52 mm
BU  180  52  50 RQ
 78 mm  NT Fo r cylinder P
AB  50  90  140 mm o
A 56.14
BU 78
cos     0.56 RP
AB 140
o
90
  56.14
The system of forces at A is
shown in Fig (c). Applying Lami’s Space Diagram
Fig. (c)
equation at A, 200 N
RP RQ 200
 
sin 90  56.14 sin 90 sin 180  56.14
RP RQ 200
 
cos 56.14 1 sin 56.14
200 cos 56.14 200  0.5572
 Rp    134.2 N
sin 56.14 0.8304
200 200
and RQ    240.8 N
sin 56.14 0.8304
Now consider the equilibrium of the cylinder Q. It is in
equilibrium under the action of the following four forces, which must
pass through B the centre of the cylinder as shown in Fig (d).
1. Weight of the cylinder 500 N acting downwards.
Statics E1.23
P (R N -500)N
A
Fo r cylin der Q
RQ
RL
RQ
Q
o
 30
B o
 =5 6.14 B
500N
L
o
30
o
60 M N O R Q =240.8N
RL
RN Fig.(d) Fig.(e)
2. Reaction RQ equal to 240.8 N of cylinder P on the cylinder

Q.
3. Reaction RL of the cylinder Q on the inclined surface
4. Reaction RN of the cylinder Q on the base of the channel.
We can see that the weight of the cylinder Q is acting

downwards and the reaction RN is acting upwards. Moreover, their
lines of action also coincide with each other.
Net vertical downward force  RN  500
The system of force is shown in Fig (e).

Applying Lami’s equation at point B,
RL RQ RN  500
 
sin 90  56.14 sin 60 sin 180  56.14  30
RL 240.8 RN  500
 
cos 56.14 sin 60 sin 26.14
240.8  cos 56.14 240.8  0.5571

RL  
sin 60 0.866
 154.9 N
240.8  sin 26.14 240.8  0.4407

and RN  500  
sin 60 0.866
 125.5 N
RN  125.5  500  622.5 N
Result
RP  134.2 N; RQ  240.8 N
RL  154.9 N; RN  622.5 N
Problem 1.20: Determine the magnitude and direction of resultant

of two forces F1 & F2 acting on a bolt as shown in Fig.(a).
Given F 2 =6 00 N
F1  300 N, F2  600 N,
Solution: F 1 =3 00 N
o
Applying cosines law [Fig. (b)] 80
  80  15  65 15 o
R2  F21  F22  2F1 F2 cos 
 3002  6002  2
 300  600 cos 65 Fig (a)
R2  602143 or R  776 N
The angle made by the resultant
with F1 is given by
F2 sin 
tan  
F1  F2 cos 
  tan 1
 600 sin 65 
 300  600 cos 65 
 
 44.5
The direction of resultant with
respect to the Horizontal
  15  44.5  15  59.5
 Resultant R  776 and 59.5

Statics E1.25
Problem 1.21: A uniform wheel of 60 cm diameter and weighing

2000 N rests against a rectangular block 15 cm high lying on a
horizontal plane as shown in the Fig. It is to be pulled by horizontal
force P by a string wound round the circumference of the wheel. Find
the force P when the wheel is just about to roll over the block. Refer
Fig (a).
G P G P
r=
30 r= 
cm 30
C cm
C
r-h=15
A r-h=15
D A
h D
=15
B 200 0N
B RA
Fig.(a) Fig.(b)
Solution:
When the wheel is about to roll over the block, it just lifts off
the horizontal plane and therefore, reaction at B becomes zero.
As the forces W and P pass through the point G the third force
(reaction RA) must also pass through G.
From the geometry of the Fig.(b)

CD  r  h  30  15  15c m
CA  r  30cm
DA  
 2
CA2  CD
DA  
  2  25.981 cm
302  15
GD  GC  CD  30  15  45
DA 25.981
tan     0.577
GD 45
  30
RA
G P =3 0
o
200 0N RA
Fig .( c ) 200 0N
Draw space diagram and vector diagram

RA P 2000
 
2000
RA   1  2309 N
sin 120
2000
P   sin 150  1155 N
sin 120
Problem 1.22: A uniform wheel of 600 mm diameter, weighing 5 kN
rests against a rigid rectangular block of 150 mm height as shown
in Fig. (a). Find the least pull, through the centre of the wheel,
required just to turn the wheel over the corner A of the block. Also
find the reaction of the block. Take all the surfaces to be smooth.
Solution:
Diameter of wheel  600 mm;
Weight of wheel  5 kN; Height of block  150 mm
Least pull required to the turn the wheel over the corner
Let P  Least pull required just to turn the wheel.

The least pull, must be applied normal to AO. The system of
forces is shown in Fig. (b). From the geometry of the figure, we find
that
150
sin    0.5 or   30
300
Statics E1.27
P
P
O m O
0m
30
150 m m
A  150
B 150 300
R 
A B
5kN R
(a) (b) 5K N
Fig.
and AB  

3002  1502  260 mm
Now taking moments about A and equating the same,
P  300  5  260  1300
 P  1300/300  4.33 kN
[Reaction R is passing through A. So there is no moment by
R]
Reaction of the block
Let R  Reaction of the block.

Resolving the forces horizontally and equating to zero,
Fx  0
R cos 30  P cos 60  0
P cos 60 4.33 cos 60

R   2.5
c os 30 cos 30
 2.5 kN Ans.
Problem 1.23: A 300 N vertical force is applied at the end of a lever
which is attached to shaft at O. Determine (a) the moment of the 300
N force about O. (b) the magnitude of the horizontal force applied
at A which creates the same moment about O (c) the smallest force
applied at A which creates the same moment about O.
(a) Moment about O.
A A
F
5m
5
0.
0.
y= 0.433
300N
o o
60 60
O x=0.25m O
Fig.(a) Fig.(b).
The perpendicular distance from O to the line of action of

300N force is x  0.5 c o s 60  0.25 m
The Moment about O

M0  F  x  300 N 0.25 m  75 Nm
M0  75 Nm
F
(b) Horizontal force:
y  0.5 sin 60  0.433 m A
Since the moment about O

5m
0.
must be 75 Nm, we write

d=
M0  F  y; 75  F0.433
F  173.21 N
Fig. (c)
(c) Smallest force O
The smallest value of F

occurs when F acts perpendicular
to OA.
Thus M0  Fd; 75  F 0.5
F  150 N
Module 2
TYPES OF SUPPORTS - FORCE

SYSTEM IN SPACE
Types of supports - Problems involving point loads and

uniformly distributed loads only - Force systems in space -
Degrees of freedom - Free body diagram - Equations of
equilibrium - Simple resultant and Equilibrium problems.
2.1 INTRODUCTION
A structural member designed to support loads applied
at various points along the member is known as a beam.
Load, perpendicular to the axis of the beam will cause
shear and bending moment in the beam. When loads are
not at right angles, axial forces are also produced in the
beam.
Different types of supports are employed to hold
structural members and components in motion. The purpose
of a support is to provide a desirable reaction (resisting
force) to a beam or any body.
Whenever a body’s motion is restricted (or) stopped, a
reaction is developed. When a body is resting on a floor, a
normal reaction is offered by floor on the body. This normal
reaction cancels the weight of the body. In other words, the
weight of the body will make the body to move downwards,
but the floor stops the motion by offering reaction forces.
Hence, the floor is called support or constraint.
When considering support reactions in two dimensions,
a maximum of three different types of reactions can occur
to any given support (these include vertical forces,
horizontal forces and moment) and can be solved using the

equations of equilibrium. If the number of support reactions
is greater than the number of equation of equilibrium, then
the problem should be solved using a method of analysis
for indeterminate structures.
2.2 Types of Supports
1. Frictionless (Simple) Support
The reaction acts normal to the surface at the point of
contact as shown in Fig. 2.1
c c
W W
A
R A (N orm al Reaction)
Fig .2.1. Sp here Resting on a H orizo ntal P lane.
2. Roller and Knife Edge Supports

The roller and the knife edge restrict the motion
normal to the surface of the beam AB . So reaction
R A and R B will act normal to the surface at the points of
contact A and B as shown in the Fig. 2.2
P P
A B eam B A B eam B
R oller K nife RA RB
edg e R eaction R eaction
(a) (b)
at A at B
Fig .2.2. R o ller an d K nife E d ge S up po rt.
Types of Supports - Force systems in space 2.3
3. Hinged (Pin) Support

The hinge stops the motion of the end A of the beam
AB both in the horizontal and vertical directions. So there
are two independent reactions. R AX and R AY acting on the
beam at A .
P P
RAX A
A B B
H in ged
S uppo rt RA
(a) R oller R AY (b) RB
S uppo rt
Fig.2.3. Hinged Support.
These two reactions can be combined into a single force

or reaction RA . Therefore, the reaction at the hinge can be
represented by a single force R A in an inclined position or
by the components RAX and RAY. The reaction at a hinge
can be vertical, horizontal or inclined but the reaction at
the roller support should be vertical only.
4. Built-in Support or Fixed support
If the end A of a beam AB is inserted into the wall,
it stops the motion of the end A in the horizontal and the
vertical directions. It also stops the rotation of the beam
AB about the point A . So the reaction R x and R y, will be
exerted along with a reaction couple M A as shown in
Fig. 2.4.
P2 P2
MA
A
=
P1 Rx B P1
Fig.2.4. Fixed Support. RY
The various types of supports and their reactions are

further given in the table 2.1
Table 2.1 Supports and reactions
No. of
Type of support Reaction offered
unknowns
(a) Roller or Rocker Reaction = R
support
R =N 1
R oller R ocker
(b) Link support Force acting along the axis

of link
Lin k
F 1
(c) Cable support Tension T in axial direction

of cable
1
C able
(d) Smooth pin or Reactions are two

hinge components Rxü“ç“Rço2:xé
and Ry
R 2
P in join t Ry


Rx
No. of
Type of support Reaction offered
unknowns
(e) Fixed support Two reactions and one
moment
M
RX 3
Ry
(f) Bearing support A reaction R and Moment M
R M
2
R otation
2.2.1 Types of Beams

Beams are classified according to the way in which
they are supported. Several types of beams frequently used
B eam B eam
L L
(a) Sim ply Supported beam (b) O ve rhanging beam

B eam
B eam
L1 L2
( c ) C ontin uous beam (d) C antilever beam
B eam B eam
L L
(e) Fixed beam (f) B eam w ith fixed at one end

an d sim ply s upport
at the other end
Fig.2.5. Types of B eam s.
are shown in the Fig. 2.5. Length L is called the span of

beam.
2.3 VARIOUS TYPES OF LOADINGS

1. Concentrated or Point Load
A load acting at a point on a beam, as shown in Fig.
2.6 is known as a concentrated or a point load.
w w
Fig .2.6. P o in t Lo ad .
In actual practice, it is not possible to apply a load at

a point. It must have some contact area. But this area,
being very small, as compared to the length of the beam,
is negligible.
2. Uniformly Distributed Load (UDL)
W /m
A load which is distributed uniformly over a beam in

such a manner that each unit length is loaded at the same
extent, as shown in Fig. 2.7 is known as uniformly
distributed load, briefly written as (U.D.L). For all
calculations, the total uniformly distributed load is assumed
to act at the centre of gravity of the load.
3. Uniformly Varying Load

A load which is distributed over a beam, in such
manner that its extent varies uniformly on each unit
length, as shown in Fig. 2.8, is known as a uniformly
varying load. Sometimes the load is zero at one end and
increases uniformly to the other. Such a load is known as
a triangular load.
W 2 /m
W 2 /m
Fig .2.8 U niform ly Vary in g Lo ad.
A beam may carry any one of the above load systems

or a combination of two or more systems at a time.
Some of the types of loads and their equivalent

concentrated load with point of applications are shown in
the table 2.2.
Table 2.2 load and equivalent with point of

application
Equivalent with point of

Load Remarks
application with reactions
HA 
Horizontal
W W reaction at A
HA
A B VA 
x x Vertical
VA VB
reaction at A
P oint Load
HA  RAx
VA  RAy
Equivalent with point of

Load Remarks
application with reactions
MA  W  L
W MA W
A HA A
L B B
P oint L oad
VA
Wwx
w /m
W XA  L1  x/2
A B
L1 x XA
VA VB
U .D.L
W W  wL/2
W XA  2L/3
A B
XA
L VA VB
U niform ly varying load
2.4 PROBLEMS INVOLVING POINT LOADS AND

UNIFORMLY DISTRIBUTED LOADS
Problem 2.1: A beam of span 10 m is carrying a point load
of 200 N at a distance 4m from A. Determine the beam
reactions.
Solution:
Span AB  10 m
Load at C  200 N
Distance, AC  4 m
200N
A C B
4m 6m
RA Fig . RB
Distance, BC  10  4  6m
Let R A  Reaction at A and
R B  Re action at B
Note: For a system to be in equilibrium, F y  0, F x  0

and Algebraic sum of all the moments about any point
should be equal to zero.  M A  0
Taking moments about A,
 200  4  R B  10  0 [– sign for clockwise moment)
200  4
RB   80 N. Ans.
10
F y  0
R A  R B  200 N  0
R A  80  200 ; So R A  120 N
Problem 2.2: Uniformly Distributed Load: (UDL). Find the

reactions RA and RB shown in Fig. (a)
In the Fig.(a), 20 kN/m (UDL) is replaced by 80 kN

(point load) which is acting at the midpoint of the UDL
20 x 4 = 80kN
20kN /m
A C B A C B
=
3m 4m 3m 4m
RA RB RA RB
(a) Fig. (b)
span length (CB) i.e., 80 kN is acting at 5 m from A. Now

we can find RA and R B by usual method.
Take moment about A :  M A  0
 20  4  5  RB  7  0
400
RB   57.143 kN
7
 Fy  0
R A  R B  80  0
R A  80  57.143
 22.857 kN
R A  22.857 kN
R B  57.143 kN
Problem 2.3: Determine the reactions of the beam shown in

Fig (a).
Solution:
Moment about A, M A  0
 60 sin 60  3  25  5  9.5  R B  12  40  0
1383.4
RB   115.28 kN
12
60kN 20kN
25kN /m
60
o 2m
A C D B
H in ge E
R oller
3m 4m 5m
(a) G iven Fig
25kN /m
60sin 60
R AX A 60cos60 B 20kN
E
3m 4m 5m 20x2
R AY R =4 0kN m
Fig. (b) FB D B
Fy  0 ;  60 sin 60  25  5  RAY  R B  0

[Substitute RB  115.28 ]
R AY  61.68 kN
Fx  0 ;  60 cos 60  20  R AX  0
 10  R AX  0
R AX  10 kN
 RAY  61.68 kN 
At hinged support (at A ) 
 RAX  10 kN
At Roller support (at B) RB  115.28 kN 
Problem 2.4: Find the reactions at the supports of the

overhanging beam shown in Fig (a).
Take moment about A: M A  0
 20  2  1  60  2  60  R B  5  150 sin 60  7  0
R B  225.86 N
1m 60N
G iven :
20N /m 150
o
A B 60
hin ge C R oller D
2m 2m
5m
(a)
FB D 60N 150 sin60
20N /m 60x1= 60N m 150
o
R AX A B D 60
150 co s6 0
2m 2m
5m
R AY (b) RB Fig.
Fy  0;
R AY  RB  20  2  60  150 sin 60  0

R AY  4.04 N
Fx  0;
R AX  150 cos 60  0
R AX  150 cos 60  75
At point A
R AY  4.04 N 
R AX  75 N 
At point B
R B  225.86 N 
Problem 2.5: Find the reaction at the supports A, B of the

beam shown in Fig (a).
20N 25N 30N

o o
30 70 B
20 o
1m 1m 1m 2m
Given
(a)
20N 25N 30N
RAX o o
B
30 70
o
20
1m 1m 1m 2m o
70
R AY (b) FBD Fig. RB
Solution:
Moment about A : M A  0
 20 sin 30  1  25  2  30 sin 70  3  R B sin 70  5  0
 10  50  84.57
RB   30.8 N
sin 70  5
R B  30.8 N
Fy  0 :
 20 sin 30  25  30 sin 70  R B sin 70  R AY  0
 10  25  28.19  30.8 sin 70  R AY  0
R AY  34.3 N 
Fx  0 : First of all, we assume R AX is right side

R AX  20 cos 30  30 c o s 70  30.8 cos 70  0
R AX   20 cos 30  30 cos 70  30.8 c o s70
R AX  3.474 N  [Since we get  3.474 , our

assumption is correct].
Problem 2.6: Find the reactions of supports A & B for the
beam loaded as shown in Fig (a).
20 2 kN
1 0 kN /m
2 0 kN m
o
45
B
1m
A
2m 2m 2m
Fig.(a)
20 2 kN
1 0 kN /m
2 0 kN m
4 5o B R BX
1m
A
2m 2m
2m
R BY
Fig.(b) FBD
RA
There will be a horizontal and vertical reactions at the

hinged support and only vertical reaction at the roller
support.
For horizontal equilibrium

 
20 
2 c o s45  R BX
R BX  20 N
For Vertical equilibrium
R A  R B Y  10  2  20 
2 sin 45  20  20  40 N
So R A  R B Y  40 N
Taking moment about A : M A  0
 20  10  2  3  20 
2 sin 45  4  20 
2 cos 45  1
 R BY  6  20  1  0 Resultant R B =33.4N
. .
[ . Distance of A from
horizontal is 1 m] o
R B X =20N 53.164
R BY  6  160
160 R B Y =26.7N
R BY   26.7 N 
6
R A  R BY  40
R A  13.333 N vertically upwards  
RB  
 R 2B X  R2B Y  

20 2  26.7 2  33.4 N
RBY 26.7
tan     1.335
R BX 20
Angle   53.164
Problem 2.6(a): Determine the support reactions at A and

B in fig. (KTU - Model Qn Paper, Jan 2015)
5 kN
4 kN 8 kN
2m
o
C D 45 E
A B
2m 2m 2m 2m
G iven Fig
5 kN
4 kN
o
A C D 45 E
1 6kN .m
2m 2m 2m 2m
VA
VA RB
Fig(a)
 M A  0: Take moment about A

 5  2  4 sin 45  4  16  RB  8  0
R B  1.84 kN
V A  R B   5  4 sin 45   2.17
V A   1.84  2.17   4 kN
Since V A is negative, the direction of V A is reversed

in Fig.
 Fx  0
H A  4cos 45  8
 10.83 kN
Problem 2.7: Determine the reactions at support of a beam

shown in figure. (M.G University, 2014]
5 kN 4 kN 4 kN
1m
A B
1m
4 kN
2m 2m 2m 2m
Given Fig
5 kN 4 kN
A B
8 kN -m
2m 2m 2m 2m
RA RB
Fig(a)
 MA  0: Take moment about A

 5  2  4  4  8  RB  8  0
R B  0.25 kN
 Fy  0
RA  RB   5  4   1
R A   1  0.25   1.25 kN
R A   1.25 kN
Problem 2.8: For the beam with a loading as shown in

Fig.(a), determine the reactions at the supports.
(Kannur University, April 2013)
100kN
o 50kN /m 1
A 45
D 2
B C
1m 1m
3m
G iven Fig.
100kN
o 50kN /m 1
HA A 45
D 2
B C R D sin 26.57
o
1m 1m 26.57
3m
o
VA 26.57
RD
Fig.(a) R D cos 26.57
1
  tan  1    26.57 
2
 MA  0: Take mo ment abo ut A
100sin 45  1  50  3 3.5  RD cos 26.57  5
R D  133.21 kN
 Fy  0
R D cos 26.57  V A  100 sin 45  50  3
V A  101.57 kN
 Fx  0; H A  100 cos 45  RD sin 26.57
H A  133.21 sin 26.57  100 cos 45
  11.13 kN
So H A direction is left side
H A  11.13 kN (towards leftside)

Problem 2.9: Determine the reactions at supports A and B of

the beam shown in Fig. (M.G University, Jan 2007)
2 0kN R e fer Fig(a) and (b)

A t F, 20 k N force is re so lv ed
o
in to 20 s in 20 a nd 20 cos 20 .
20
1m Th en 20 s in 20 fo rce is
1 0kN 4 0kN F tra nsfe rre d to E a s fo rce 20
1 .5 m sin 20 a nd a cou ple 2 0 s in 20
x 1.
A 4 0o B
C D E S im ila rly, 20 c os20 fo rc e is
tra nsfe rre d to E a s force 20
cos20 a n d a c ou ple 20
1m 2m 3m 4m cos20 x 1 .5.
G iven Fig.
 MA  0 : Take moment about A

10  1  40 sin 40  3  20 sin 20  6  20 sin 20  1
 RB  10  20 c o s 20  1.5
R B  10.68 kN
 Fy  0  VA  RB  10  40 sin 40  20 sin 20
V A  31.87 kN
 Fx  0  HA  40 cos 40  20 cos 20  0
H A  49.44 kN
RA  
 H2A  V2A  

49.44 2  31.87 2  58.82 kN
 31.87 
  tan  1  
 49.44 
 32.81 
Problem 2.10 Find the support reactions analytically.
(KTU - 1799 - Apr 2014)
2kN /m 4kN
3kN 2kN 2kN 3kN /m
A 60
o 45 o 30 o
B
C D E F G H I o
30
1m 1m 1m 1m 1m 2m 1m 3m
4kN 1 x3x3 = 4.5kN

2kN/m 2
3kN 2kN 2kN 3kN/m
HA A 60
o 45 o 30 o B
C D E F G H I o
R B sin 30
30
1m 1m 1m 1m 1m 2m 1m 3m o
30
VA RB
R B cos 3 0
 M A  0: Take moment about A

3sin 60  1  2  2  2  2  4  4 sin 45  5  2 sin 30  7
 2 
 4.5   8   3   RB cos 30  11
 3 
R B  9.315 kN
 Fy  0
V A  R B c o s 30  3 sin 60  2  2  2  4 sin 45  2 sin 30  4.5
 16.97
V A  16.97  9.315  cos 30  8.86 kN; V A  8.86 kN
 Fx  0
H A  3cos 60  4cos 45  2cos 30  R B sin 30  0
H A  7.25 kN
Problem 2.11: Two beams AB and CD are shown in Fig.(a)

A and D are hinged supports. B and C are roller supports.
(i) Sketch the free body diagram of the beam AB and
determine the reactions at the supports A and B.
(ii) Sketch the free body diagram of the beam CD and
determine the reactions at the supports C and D.
(Anna Univ, May 2015)
30 kN 1 0 k N /m
C D
6 0o
A B
2m 3m 3m 2m 2m
Fig.(a).
Solution:
F.B.D of CD
1 0 k N /m
C D HD
3m 2m 2m
RC RD
Fig.(b).
 Fx   H  0
HD  0
V0
R C  R D  10  2  0
R C  R D  20
...(1)
 Mc  0
 2 
 R D  7   10  2    3    0
  2 
 R D  11.43 kN
R C  20  11.43  8.57 kN
 R C  8.57 kN
F.B.D of AB
R C = 8 .5 7 k N
30 kN
HA 60o
A
B
C
2m 3m 3m
RA
RB
Fig.(c).
 Fx   H  0
 H A  30 cos 60  0
 H A  30 cos 60
 H A  15 kN
 Fy   V  0
R A  R B  30 sin 60  8.57  0
 R A  R B  34.55 ...(2)
 MA  0
 R B  8  30 sin 60  2  8.57  5  0
 R B  11.85 kN
R A  34.55  11.85  22.69 kN
R A  22.69 kN
 R A  22.69 kN ; R B  11.85 kN ;
R C  8.57 kN ; R D  11.43 kN ...(3)

Problem 2.12: Find the reactions at the supports of the L
bend shown in Fig. (a). (Anna Univ, ME 1206, Nov 2007)
o
100 N
30
70N
0.4m
o
45
0 .4m
250N /m
B
A o
20
Fig.(a) 0.6m 0.6m 0.6m
To Find:
RA  ?
RB  ?
Solution:
Free Body Diagram (FBD):

Support “A” is hinged  Two reactions )
Support “B” is Roller  one reaction )
The forces acting on the beam are non concurrent

coplanar forces.
 The equilibrium equations are
 Fx  0 ;  Fy  0 ;  M  0
 Fx  0
R AX  R B sin 20  70 cos 45  100 cos 30  0
RAX  R B sin 20  37.1050  0 ...(1)

o
100 sin30
o
100 co s3 0
0.4 m
o
70sin 45
o
70cos45 250 N/m X0 .6m = 150N
0.4m
o
A B R B sin 20
RAX 0.6 0.3 0.3 0.6
m m m m o
R AY 20 RB
Fig. (b) R B cos 20
o
 Fy  0
R AY  R B cos 20   150  70sin 45  100 sin 30  0
RAY  R B cos 20   50.5025  0
R AY  R B cos 20   50.5025 ...(2)
Taking moment about “A”

 MA  0
 R B cos 20  1.8  70 cos 45  0.4  150  0.9
 100 cos 30  0.8  0
 1.6914 R B  135  19.8  69.2820  0
1.6914 R B  184.483
R B  109.07 N ...(3)
(3) in (2)
R AY  R B cos 20  50.5025
R AY  109.07 cos 20  50.5025
R AY   51.99 N
(  sign indic ates R Ay acts downwards)
(3) in (1)
R AX  109.07 sin 20  37.1050  0
R AX  0.199 N
RA  R 2AX  R

 
AY  
2
0.199 2   51.992
R A  51.99 N
 RAY  1 51.99 

  tan 1   tan  0.199   89.8
R  
 AX 
Result:
R A  51.99 N;   89.8 
R B  109.07 N
2.5 REVIEW OF VECTORS

Force is a vector quantity. The resolution of a vector
into its components is defined as the reverse action of
addition of the component vectors to get the given vector.
Thus if F A  F B  F C , i.e. if additio n o f F A and F B is F C ,
then F C can be resolved to give F A and F B , i.e.,
F C  F A  F B . In general, a force can be resolved into an
infinite pair of component vectors. ( sign above letter
represents vector quantity).

A force A can be z
Az
resolved into three mutually
perpendicular components.

Here force A is resolved into
three components along the A p
  k
three axes; i.e. Ax, Ay and Ay
 O y
A z along the x, y and z axes j
i
respectively asshown in

Fig. 2.9 The vector A is
 Ax
resolved into A z and OQ . Q
Now OQ is further resolved x Fig.2.9. Com ponents of
a Vector.
 
into A x and A y. So we get
  
A x, Ay and A z as the three perpendicular (Orthogonal)
  
components. In terms of the unit vectors, i, j and k, we
can write as follows.
 
A x  Ax i
 
Ay  A y j
 
Az  Az k

So the scalar components of a vector A are Ax, A y and
A z along the x, y and z directions respectively.
 
Magnitude of force A  | A |  
 A2x  A2y  A2z

A force A can be expressed in terms of its scalar
components as
   
A  A xi  A y j  Az k

and force B as
      
B  B x i  By j  Bz k ; If A  B  C , then
   
C  Ax  B x i  A y  B y j  A z  B z k
Because the scalar components can be added

numerically.
Cx  Ax  Bx
Cy  Ay  By
Cz  Az  Bz
  
If D  A  B
   
then D  A x  B x i  Ay  By j  Az  Bz k
   
D  Dx i  Dy j  Dz k
i.e D x  A x  Bx
Dy  Ay  By
Dz  Az  Bz
 
Problem 2.13: Two forces A and B are added to get force
 
C and are subtracted to get force D. Determine these forces
     
and the unit vectors along them. A  3i  4j ; B  4i  3j
  
Determine also the magnitude of force E  5C  2D
Solution:
 A x  3; Ay  4
For A ,
 B x  4; By   3
For B ,
 C x  A x  B x  7; Cy  Ay  By  1
For C
 Dx  Ax  Bx   1 Dy  Ay  By  7
For D
Hence,
  
C  7i  1j
  
D   1i  7j

The magnitude of C is given by

|C| 

72  1 2  7.07 units

Henc e the unit vec to r  along C must be given by

C 7  1   
C    i j  0.99 i  0.141 j
|C| 7.07 7.07
Checking Magnitude of the unit vector C

 
2
0.99  0.141 2
1

Similarly, the unit vector D along D is given by
  
D1i7j

 2 2
|D|  1  7   7.07
1  7   
D  i j  0.141 i  0.99 j
7.07 7.07
Magnitude of unit vector D  

 0.141 2  0.99 2 1
To Find E
  
E  5C  2 D
    
E  5 7i  1j  2  1i  7j
 
 33i  19 j
 
Magnitude of E  | E |  
33 2  192  38.08 units

The unit vector E along E is given by
33  19 
E  i j
38.08 38.08
 
 0.867 i  0.499 j
Checking | unit vector |  

0.867 2  0.499 2 1
 
Problem 2.14: Three forces A, B and C are given as
         
A  5 i  3 j  4 k; B  3 i  4 j  8 k ; C  2 i  5 k

Determine (a) The resultant force R, (b) The Equilibrant force
    
E to make the sum of A, B, C and E zero and (c) The force
   
D  A  3 B  2 C)
Solution:
  
(a) Writing i, j and k components column wise,
   
A5i3j4k
   
B3i4j8k
   
C2i0j5k
      
R  A  B  C  10 i  1 j  1 k
 
(b) Equilibrant E is equal to  R
     
Hence A  B  C  E  0; R  E  0
       
i.e E   R   10 i  1 j  1 k   10i  1 j  1 k
     
(c) Writing i, j and k components of A , 3B and  2C
columnwise, we get
   
A5i3j4k
   
3 B  9 i  12 j  24 k
   
 2 C   4 i  0 j  10k
 
     
A  3 B  2 C  10 i  9 j  30 k
 
   
So D  10 i  9 j  30 k
Problem 2.15: A force of 1000 N forms angles of 60, 45

and 120 respectively with the x, y and z axes. Find the
components Fx, Fy and Fz of the force.
Solution: y
 N
F  1000 N; x  60 ;  y  45 00
10
o
45
and  z  120 o 60
o
120
F x  1000  cos 60  500 N x
F y  1000  cos 45  707.1 N z Fig.

F z  1000  cos 120   500 N
   
F  F x i  Fy j  F z k
  
 500 i  707.1 j  500 k
  
Problem 2.16: Three forces F1 , F2 and F3 are acting on a
    
point O. F1  100 i ; F2   50 i  25j ;
   
F3   40i  20j  10 k
Determine the resultant of these forces at O.
Solution:

Resultant of these concurrent forces  R
    O
R  F 1  F 2  F3
F1
   F2
100 i  0j  0 k
   F3
 50 i  25 j  0 k
  
 40 i  20 j  10 k
 
    Fig.
Add R  10 i  45 j  10 k

   
R  10 i  45 j  10 k
2.6 FORCE SYSTEMS IN SPACE

In this section we are going to study about the
resultant, equilibrium and effect of force system in space,
i.e the forces are lying in different planes.
The vector notation of a force (also called rectangular

representation of a force)
  
F  F , where  is a unit vector.
The unit vector can be determined by direction cosines

or by the coordinates of any two points on the line of action
of the force.
2.6.1 Forces in three dimensional space (Component

of force in space)

A force F is considered in three dimensional space. The
force is passing through points M and N . Refer Fig. 2.11.
y a xis (x 2 ,y 2 ,z 2 )
N
e
rc
Fo
d y =(y 2 -y 1 )
F=
r
c to
ve
u n it
 = -z 1
=z
2
d z
(x 1 ,y 1 ,z 1 ) x a xis
M
d x =(x 2 -x 1 ) Fig.2.11. Force in
is
ax
Space
z
Unit vector  
   
Components of vector MN  dxi  dyj  dzk
and displacement d  

d2x  d2y  
d2z
 1   
Now unit vector   dxi  dyj  dzk
d
  F   
Force F  F   dxi  dyj  dzk
d
where F  F 2x  F2y  F 2z


Scalar components of F are F x, F y and F z
Fd x Fd y Fdz
Fx  ; Fy  ; Fz 
d d d
   
Force F  F x i  F yj  F2k
   
Unit vector   cos  x i  cos  y j  cos z k
The scalar components cos  x, cos  y, cos  z of the unit

vector are called the direction cosines.
Direction cosines
Fx Fy Fz
cos  x  ; cos  y  ; cos  z 
F F F
dx dy dz
Also cos x  ; cos y  ; cos z 
d d d
The direction cosines l, m, n of a vector are the

cosines of the angles between the vector and the three
coordinate axes.
l  cos  x ; m  cos y ; n  cos z
where  x, y and z are the direction angles
F x  F cos  x; F y  F c o s  y; F z  F cos z
   
 F  F c o s x i  F c o s y j  F c o s  z k
The rectangular components of force vector are

 
Fx  Fx i  F c o s x i
 
F y  F y j  F cos y j
 
F z  F z k  F cos  z k
2.6.2 Resultant of several concurrent forces

The procedure of determining the resultant of several
concurrent forces is same as that of the plane forces. Let
the particle be subjected to n concurrent space forces
F 1, F 2  Fn. The resultant is obtained by using polygon law
of forces.
   
R  F 1  F 2    Fn
   
where, R  R x i  Ry j  R z k
   
F 1  F 1x i  F 1y j  F 1z k
   
F 2  F 2x i  F 2y j  F 2z k
   
F n  F nx i  F ny j  Fnz k
   
 R   F  F 1x  F2x    F nx  i  F 1y  F 2y    F ny j

 F 1z  F 2z    F nz  k
    
R   F   Fx i   Fy j   Fz k
 R x   F x; R y   F y; R z   F z

The magnitude of the resultant R

|R |   R2x  R2y  R 2z  
 
 F x2   F y2   F
z
2

In terms of unit vector 
    
R  R   R cos x i  R c o s  y j  R c o s  z k
  
 R x i  R y j  Rz k
Rx Ry Rz
where cos x  ; cos  y  ; cos z 
R R R
2.6.3 Equilibrium of particle in space

If a particle subjected to a number of concurrent space
forces is said to be in equilibrium, then the resultant of
such a force system is zero. Mathematically
   
R  R x i  Ry j  Rz k  0
ie. R x  0; Ry  0; R z  0
 The equations of equilibrium for a particle subjected

to a number of concurrent space forces are
R x   Fx  0;
R y   F y  0;
R z   F z  0;
2.6.4 Equivalent system of forces

The above three equations  Fx  0,  Fy  0,  Fz  0
can be used to solve for three unknown quantities. All the
three forces may be meeting at a joint or it may be used
to determine the equilibrant of the system which is equal
and opposite in direction of the resultant of the force
system.
 
|R |  |E |
Problem 2.17: A force of magnitude 100 N makes an angle

of 30 with the z  axis and its projection on the x  y plane
makes an angle of 40 with the x  axis. Determine (a) the
components of the force and (b) the angles of the force with
the axes. (May/June 2005 - AU)
Solution:

The force A has the components OX along the x  axis,
OY along the y  axis and OZ along the z axis.

The projection of A on the x  y plane is OQ . But
OQ can be resolved into OX and OY .
OZ  A cos 30  100  cos 30  86.6 N
OQ  ZP  A sin 30  100  sin 30  50.0 N
and further
OX  OQ cos 40  50  0.766  38.3 N
OY  OQ sin 40  50  0.643  32.14 N
Z z
The components of
force along x axis  38.3 N
The components of
A P
force along y axis  32.14 N z =30 o N
1 00
The components of x y Y
force along z axis  86.6 N O y
40 o
   
A  38.3 i  32.14 j  86.6 k
o
Checking 40
X
 Q
 A2x  A 2y  A2z  |A|
 x Fig .
 38.32  32.14 2  86.62

  100 N
The direction cosines are determined as follows:

OX A x 38.3
l  c o s x     0.383
OP A 100
OY A y 32.14
m  cos  y     0.3214
OP A 100
OZ A z 86.6
n  cos  z     0.866
OP A 100
So, the angles in the respective axes are
 x  67.50 , y  71.25,  z  30
Checking

l2  m 2  
n2 1
 0.383 2  0.3242  0.866 2

 1

Problem 2.18: A force F has the components Fx  300 N,

Fy   400 N and Fz  800 N. Determine the magnitude of F
and the angle x, y and z it forms with the axes of
coordinates.

Magnitude of F  
 F 2x  F 2y  F 2z
 3002   4002  800

  2  943.4 N
Fx 300
cos  x    0.318; x  71.46 
F 943.4
Fy  400
cos  y     0.424; y  115.1 
F 943.4
Fz 800
cos z    0.848;  z  32
F 943.4
Problem 2.19: A force acts at the origin in a direction defined

by angles x  ?, y  70, z  50. The x component of force is
 100 kN. Determine the other components, magnitude of force,
value of x.
Given:
x  ?, y  70,  z  50 , Fcos x   100 kN.
Solution:
We know that cos 2  x  cos 2 y  cos 2  z  1
cos 2  x  1  cos 2 70  cos 2 50  1  0.117  0.413  0.47
cos 2  x  0.47 or  x  46.72  or 133.28 
cos  x  
 
0.47
Also we know that F c o s x   100
 100  100
F   145.98 or  145.98

 
0.47  0.685
Magnitude | F|  145.98 kN
(ii) Fy, Fz
F y  F c o s y  145.98  cos 70  50 kN
F z  F cos  z  145.98  cos 50  96.4 kN
Problem 2.20: A post is anchored by means of a bolt at A.

The tension in the wire is 3500 N. Determine (a) Components
of Fx, Fy and Fz of the force acting on the bolt (b) the angles
of x, y and z defining the direction of the force.
Solution:
The tension in the wire, (the force) is acting in
between A and B . The force is directed from A to B .
Distance in x direction dx   40 m between A and B .
similarly dz  30 m , dy  80 m;
T otal distance from A to B d   d2z

d2x  d2y  
  402  80 2  30 2
  94.3 m
To find scalar components:

dx  40
Fx  F  3500    1484 N
d 94.3
dy 80
Fy  F  3500   2969.4 N
d 94.3
dz 30
Fz  F  3500   1113.42 N
d 94.3
y
(0,80,0)
B
T= 3500 N
40m
80m
(40,0,-3 0)
A
j
m
30
x
i
O (0,0,0 )
k Fig
z
To find angles defining the direction of force

Fx  1484
cos  x     0.424; x  115.09 
F 3500
Fy  2969.4
cos  y    0.8484 ; y  31.96 
F 3500
F z 1113.42
cos  z    0.31812; z  71.45 
F 3500
Problem 2.21: A force of magnitude 100 N is acting from
A 2, 3, 4 to C  3, 5, 2, Express the force in terms of its
components. (Apr. 2007 - AU)
Solution:
       
AC  dxi  dy j  dz k ; F  Fx i  Fy j  Fz k
d 

d 2x  d2y  d 2z
d   52  22   22

  
 25  4  4  5.745
C(-3,5,2)
y
0N
10 d y =y 2 -y 1
r ce
Fo = 5-3
F= =2
d z =z 2 -z 1 =unit vector
F =Force 100N
= 2-4
= -2
A(2,3,4)
x
d x =x 2 -x 1 Fig.
=(-3-2)
z =(-5)
Fdx 100   5
Fx     87.03 N
d 5.745
Fd y 100  2
Fy    34.812 N
d 5.745
Fd z
100   2
Fz     34.812 N
d 5.745
   
Resultant F   87.03 i  34.812 j  34.812 k
Extra: Direction cosines x,  y and  z
dx 5
cos  x     0.87   x  150.5
d 5.745
dy 2
cos  y    0.348  y  69.63
d 5.745
dz 2
cos z     0.348   z  110.4 
d 5.745
Problem 2.22: The coordinates of the initial and final points

of a force A are 4, 1,  2 and 5,  7, 10 respectively.
Determine the components of the force and its angles with the
axes. Specify the force. (Apr. 2006 - AU)
Solution:
y
The components of the force are
(5,-7,10 )
5  4  1 along the x  axis
eA
 7  1   8 along the y  axis

rc
Fo
10   2  12 along the
x
z  a xis

The magnitude of the force A

|A| 
 2
1 2   82  12 (4,1 ,-2)
Fig.
z
 14.46 N
The direction cosines of the force are as follows:
1
l  cos  x   0.069 x  86.04 
14.46
8
m  cos y   0.553  y  123.57 
14.46
12
n  cos z   0.830 z  33.9
14.46
   
The force (vector) is specified as A  1 i  8 j  12 k or
we can specify as follows. A force of magnitude 14.46 N
makes angles of 86.04  with x axis,  56.43  with y axis
and 33.9  with z axis.
Problem 2.23: The tension in the supporting cable AB is 10
kN. Write the force which the cable exerts on the beam BC as
 
a vector T. Determine the angles of T with the positive
x, y and z axes. (Bharathiar University, April ’98)
Solution: Here, the co-ordinate axes are given.
(Note that ‘y’ axis is horizontal)
Co-ordinates of A 2, 0, 5 , and
Co-ordinates of B 0, 7.5, 0

The Tension in cable AB , exerts a force on the beam
BC as shown,
TBA  10 kN (given).
writing TBA in vector form,

 
T BA  T BA BA
The force is directed from B to A.

4m D
z
A
T=
2m 10
5m KN
x
5m
B
y
2 .5
m
 Co ordinates of
B x1, y 1, z1  0, 7.5, 0
and Co ordinates of A x2, y2, z2  2, 0, 5

  
 x 2  x1 i  y 2  y1 j  z2  z 1 k
BA 
 x 2  x12  y 2  y12  z2  z12

  
2  0 i  0  7.5 j  5  0 k

22   7.5 2  5 2


  
2 i  7.5 j  5 k

9.233

T BA  TBA  BA
2  
i  7.5 j  5 k    
 10    2.17 i  8.123 j  5.42 k
 9.233 
   
T  2.17 i  8.123 j  5.42 k

Angle of T BA with x, y and z axes
Tx  2.17 
l  c o s x  ; x  c o s 1    77.47 
|T|  10 
Ty   8.123 
m  c o s y  ; y  c o s 1    144.32
|T|  10 
 Tz   1  5.412 
n  c o s z    ; z  c o s    57.18 
 | T |   10 
To check
cos 2  x  cos 2  y  cos 2  z  1
cos 2 77.47  cos 2 144.32  cos 2 57.18
0.047  0.6598  0.2937  1
Problem 2.24: A transmission tower is held by three guy

wires AB, AC and AD anchored by bolts at B, C and D,
respectively. If the tension in AB is 2100 N, determine the
components of the force exerted by the wire on the bolt B.
Solution:
The coordinate of A  0, 20, 0 and B   4 , 0, 5
Position vector
      
BA  0   4 i  20  0 j  0  5 k  4 i  20 j  5 k
Unit vector along BA,

A
  
 4 i  20 j  5 k
BA 
D

 4 2  20 2   52
4m
20 m
5m
1   
 4 i  20 j  5 k B
21 m
4m .8
14
So, the force vector
z 12m
 2100    C
F BA  4 i  20 j  5 k x
21 3.6 m
Fig
  
 400 i  2000 j  500 k
Hence, the components along x, y and z directions are

400 N, 2000 N and  500 N respectively.
2.7 DEGREES OF FREEDOM

The degree of freedom describes in what way a body
or system can move in space. It is one of the most
important concept in mechanics and is widely used in
robotics and kinematics.
Degree of freedom can be defined in a generic way

as the minimum number of independent variables required
to completely describe a body. For a rigid body, it is the
number of independent co-ordinates needed to define the
position of the body.
In 2D space (say, xy plane), an unrestrained body can

translate along x axis, or y axis or it can rotate about the
z - axis. Hence to completely define the position of the body,
the x - coordinate, the y co-ordinate and the magnitude by
which the body is inclined to either x or y axis have to be
specified. So, we have three y
independent variables, hence

three degrees of freedom. O x
Fig.2.12
Consider a bar as shown in Th ree Degrees of Freedo m
of a rigid bo dy in a plane.
Fig. 2.12. It can be translated
along the x - axis, y - axis and y
rotated about its centroid.

In 3D space, an
unrestrained rigid body would x
have six degrees of freedom ie z
translation along the three axes Fig.2.13 Six D egrees of freedom
of a rigid body in space
and the rotation about them.
Consider the right body as shown in Fig. 2.13. It can
have three translating motions along the x, y and z axes
and three rotary motions around the x, y and z axes
respectively. Hence, six degrees of freedom.
Note: Two or more rigid bodies in space are collectively
called a rigid body system. In a mechanism, the bodies are
no longer independent as they are joined to each other in
a particular fashion. Since, the mechanism will no longer
have as many degrees of freedom as an independent body,
it is called a constrained body.
Problem 2.25: Three forces of magnitude 200 N, 500 N and
400 N are acting at the origin O 0, 0, 0 and are directed from
the points A 2, 1, 6, B 4,  2,  5 and C  6,  4,  4
respectively to the origin. Determine the magnitude of the
resultant. (Apr. 2001, Madras University)
Solution:
To find components of force 200 N
dx  0  2   2
0 N A (2,1,6)
20
dy  0  1   1
O
N (0,0 ,0) B (4,-2,-5)
dz  0  6   6 4 00
C(-6,-4 ,-4) Fig.
d 
 d2x  d2y  
d2z
d 
 4  1  36  6.403
dx 200   2
Fx  F    62.47 N
d 6.403
dy 200   1
Fy  F    31.24 N
d 6.403
dz 200   6
Fz  F    187.41 N
d 6.403
Components of Force 200 N,

   
F A   62.47 i  31.24 j  187.41 k
To find Components of force 500 N

dx   4; dy  2; dz  5
d 
 d2x  d2y  
d2z
d 
 16  4  
25  6.708
dx 500   4
Fx  F    298.14 N
d 6.708
dy 500  2
Fy  F   149.1 N
d 6.708
dz 500  5
Fz  F   372.7 N
d 6.708
Components of Force 500 N,

   
F B   298.14 i  149.1 j  372.7 k
To find components of force 400 N

dx  x2  x 1  0   6  6
dy  y2  y 1  0   4  4
dz  z2  z 1  0   4  4
dx  6; dy  4; dz  4
d  d2x  d2y  
 d2z
d 
 36  16  16  8.25
Fdx 400  6
Fx    291.04 N
d 8.25
Fd y 400  4
Fy    194 N
d 8.25
Fd z 400  4
Fz    194 N
d 8.25
Components of force 400 N,

   
F C  291.04 i  194 j  194 k
    
R  Resultant  F  F A  F B  F C
  
  62.47 i  31.24 j  187.41 k 
  
 298.14 i  149.1 j  372.7 k 
  
291.04 i  194 j  194 k
  
  69.57 i  311.89 j  379.32 k
Components of Resultant
   
R   69.57 i  311.89 j  379.32 k
Magnitude of Resultant

R   69.57 2  311.89 2  379.322

 496 N
Problem 2.26: Forces 35 N, 25 N, 25 N, 125 N which are

concurrent at origin are respectively directed through the points
whose coordinates P 2, 2, 6 , Q 5,  3, 5, R  4,  3, 2 and
S 6, 2,  3. Determine the resultant.
Solution:
OP 2  22  2 2  62  44 or OP  

44  6.633
OQ 2  52   32  52  59 or OQ  

59  7.681
OR 2   42   32  22  29 or OR  


29  5.385
OS 2  62  22   32  49 or OS   49  7.0


1   
Unit vector along OP  1  [2 i  2 j  6 k]
6.633
   
1  0.302 i  0.302 j  0.905 k
   
Similarly vector along OQ  2  0.651i  0.391 j  0.651 k
  
Vector along OR  3   0.743 i  0.557j  0.371k
  
Vector along OS  4  0.857 i  0.288 j  0.429 k
     
Forces F 1  F 1  1  35  1  10.57 i  10.57 j  31.68 k
     
F 2  F 2  2  25  2  16.28 i  9.78 j  16.28 k
     
F 3  F 3  3  25  3   18.58 i  13.93j  9.28k
     
F 4  F 4  4  125  4  107.13 i  35.75 j  53.63 k
       
Resultant R  F 1  F 2  F 3  F 4  115.4 i  22.61 j  3.61 k

Magnitude |R |  115.4 2  22.61 2  3.61 2
  117.65 N

 R   
Unit vector    0.981i  0.192 j  0.031k

|R |
x  cos 1 0.981  11.186 
y  cos  1 0.192   78.93 
 z  cos  1 0.031   88.22 
Problem 2.27: A vertical pole is guyed by three cables

PA, PB and PC tied at a common point P 10 m above ground.
The base points of the cables are A  4,  3, 0, B 5, 1,  1 and
C  1, 5, 0. If the tensile force in the cables are adjusted to
be 15, 18 and 20 kN, find the resultant force on the pole at
P.
Solution
Here the
coordinates of point P  0, 0, 10. The

position vector of A ,
      
rA   4  0 i   3  0 j  0  10 k   4 i  3 j  10 k
Unit vector along PA,

  
  4 i  3 j  10 k 1   
PA    4 i  3 j  10 k 
2 11.18

 2

 4   3  10 2
Force vector along PA is
P
(0 ,0,10 )
x
A
(-4 ,-3 ,0 ) B
(5 ,1,-1)
C
y
(-1 ,5 ,0)
 15   
F PA   4 i  3 j  10 k
11.18
In the similar fashion, we can write the force vectors

along PB and PC as
 18   
F PB  [5  0 i  1  0 j   1  10 k]
2

 
52  1 2   11
18   
 5 i  j  11 k
12.124
and
 20   
F PC  [1  0 i  5  0 j  0  10 k]

 2 2
1  5   10 2
20   
  i  5 j  10 k 
11.224
Now, the resultant of F PA , FPB and F PC is
  15  4 18  5 20  
R   i
 11.18 12.124 11.224 
 15  3 18 20  5  
   j
 11.18 12.124 11.224 
 15  10 18  11 20  10  
   k
 11.18 12.124 11.224 
  
 0.2747 i  6.369 j  47.567 k
Magnitude of resultant
 
 0.2747 2  6.369 2   47.567 2  47.99 kN
Problem 2.28: If the tension in wire ‘AB’ is 75 kN, determine

the required values of tensions in ‘AC’, ‘AD’, so that the
resultant of the three forces applied at ‘A’ is vertical as shown
in Fig. Find also the resultant.(Calicut University, May 2011)
  
8i  24j  12k   
AC   0.286 i  0.86j  0.43k

 8 2  24 2  12 2
   
F AC  FAC 0.286 i  0.86 j  0.43 k ...(i)
y R
(0,24,0) A (0,24,0) A y
(8,0,-12 )
24m C 24m C
12m 12m
x x
D D
(-7 ,0,0)
7m 6m 7m 6m
B (8,0,-6) B
8m 8m
Z Fig. Z Fig.(a)
  
 8i  24 j  6k   
AB   0.308 i  0.923 j  0.23k
2 2

 8  24  6 2
 F
  
F AB AB 0.308i  0.923 j  0.23k
  
 75 0.308i  0.923 j  0.23k 
  
  23.1 i  69.23 j  17.25 k
F AB ...(ii)
  
  7i  24j  0 k  
AD    0.28 i  0.96j

 2
7  24 2
  
F  FAD   0.28 i  0.96 j ...(iii)

Since R  Resultant is in vertical direction,

R contains only j components
Add all i components and equate to zero, we get
0.286 F AC  23.1  0.28 F AD  0 ...(iv)
Add all k components and equate to zero, we get
 0.43F AC  17.25  0
F AC   40.11 kN
F AC acts from C to A. So
F CA  40.11 kN
Substitute F AC in eqn (iv), we get
0.286   40.11   23.1  0.28 FAD
F AD  41.53 kN

To find R
   
R  F AC  F AB  F AD
   
F AC   11.47 i  34.5 j  17.25 k
   
F AB  23.1 i  69.23j  17.25 k
   
F AD   11.63 i  39.87 j  0k
   
R  0i  74.6j  0k
 
Resultant R   74.6 j acting vertically down
Problem 2.29: A post is held vertical in position by three

cables AB, AC, AD as shown in Fig. If tension in cable AB is
40 N, calculate the required tension in AC and AD so that the
resultant of three forces applied at A is vertical. (Using Vector
Approach) (Cochin University, June 2014)
  
16i  48j  24k   
AC   0.286 i  0.857 j  0.43k
162   482   242


   
F AC  F AC 0.286 i  0.857 j  0.43 k  ...(i)
Y Y
A A (0,48,0)
48m
48m
(-1 4,0,0 )
D 16 D 16
40 N
40 N
m m
14 m 14m
(0,0,0) C (0,0,0) (16,0,-2 4) C
O O
16
16 24m m 2 4m
m
Z Z
1 2m X 12m X
B B
(16,0,12 )
Fig Fig(a )
  
 16i  48 j  12k   
AB   0.308 i  0.923 j  0.231 k

 2
16   48  12 2 2
   
F AB  40 0.308 i  0.923j  0.231k
[F AB  40 N]
   
F AB  12.32i  36.92 j  9.24k
...(ii)
  14i  48j
AD    0.28i  0.96j

  14 2   482
  
F AD  F AD   0.28 i  0.96 j
...(iii)

Since Resultant R is vertical, it contains only j
components.
Hence, Add all i components and equate to zero.
0.286 F AC  12.32  0.28 FAD  0

...(iv)
No w , Add all k components and equate to zero.
 0.43 F AC  9.24  0
9.24
F AC   21.49 N
0.43
F AC  21.49 N
Substitute F AC in eqn (iv),
0.286 21.49  12.32  0.28 F AD
F AD  65.95 N

To find R
  
Add all forces, ie F AC  F AB  FAD
   
F AC  6.15 i  18.42 j  9.24k 
   
F AB  12.32 i  36.92 j  9.24k 
   63.31 j 
F AD   18.47 i  0k 
   
R  0i  118.65 j  0k
 
Resultant R   118.65 j
118.65 N resultant force is acting down ward
Problem 2.30. Three forces 200 N, 500 N and 600 N are

acting along the three diagonals of adjacent faces of a cube of
side 2 m as shown in fig. Determine the resultant of the forces.
(KTU - 1244 - May-June 2012)
  
 2i  2 j  0k
OB 


2 2  22
  
F OB  600 0.707 i  0.707 j
Y Y
(2,2,0)
B 2 B
0N 0N
60 60
2
C C
200N X (0,2,2) 2 0 0 X
N
O O
(0,0,0)
2
50
50
0N
0N
Z A A (2,0,2)
Given Fig. Z Fig.(a)
  
 2i  0j  2k  
   0.707 i  0.707 k
2
OA

 2
2 2
  
F OA  500 0.707i  0.707 k 
  
 0i  2j  2k  
OC   0.707 j  0.707 k

 2
2 2 2
  
F OC  200 0.707j  0.707 k
   
R  Resultant  FOB  F OA  F OC
  
424.2i  424.2j  Ok 
  
353.5i  0j  353.5 k 
  
i  141.4 j  141.4 k
   
R  777.7i  565.6 j  494.9 k
Problem 2.31: The forces F1, F2 and F3 act on the box as

shown in Fig. Determine the resultant of the forces. The
magnitude of the given forces are 19 N, 23 N and 46 N,
respectively. (Anna University - Nov 2011)
y y
A B B (3,2,0)
A
F2 F2
F3 x F3 x
G G
O O D (3,0,0)
D C (0,2,3) C
3m F1 2m 3m F1 2m
E 1m H 2m F (0,0,3) E 1m H 2m F
(1,0,3)
Fig z Fig (a) z
Solution:
The points of interest are D 0, 2, 3, E 0, 0, 3 ,
H 1, 0, 3 , B 3, 2, 0, G 3, 0, 0 
Position vectors of
     
F 1  1  0 i  0  2 j  3  3 k  i  2 j
      
F 2  3  0 i  2  0 j  0  3 k  3 i  2 j  3 k
    
F 3  3  3 i  0  2 j  0  0 k   2 j
So, the force vectors,

 
 i2j  
F 1  19   8.497 i  16.994 j

 
1   2 2
  
 3i2j3k   
F 2  23   14.71 i  9.807 j  14.71 k
2

 2
2
3  2   3

2j 
F 3  46    46 j
 22


Therefore,
Resultant
   
R  8.497  14.71  i   16.994  9.807  46  j  14.71 k
  
 23.207 i  52.187 j  14.71 k
Magnitude of resultant
R 
 23.207 2    53.1872    14.712
 59.865 N
Problem 2.32: Four forces 32 kN, 24 kN, 24 kN and 120 kN

are concurrent at origin and are respectively directed through
the points whose coordinates are A 2, 1, 6, B 4,  2, 5,
C   3,  2, 1 and D 5, 1,  2.
Determine the resultant of the system.
(M.G University, Dec 2009)
A (2,1,6)
kN
32
12 0k N D (5,1,-2 )
O
N (0,0,0) 24k
24 k N
B (4,-2 ,5)
C (-3 ,-2,1)
Fig.
  
   2 i  j  6 k
F A  FA
 22   12   62


  
  2i  j  6 k
 32
6.4
  
 32  0.312 i  0.16j  0.94 k
   
FA   9.98i  5.12j  30.1k ...(i)
  
   4i  2j  5k 
FB  FB


 42  22   52
  
  4i  2j  5k 
 24
6.71
   
FB   14.31i  7.16j  17.88k ...(ii)
  
   3i  2 j  k 
F C  24

 32  2 2   12
24   
 3 i  2j  k
3.74
   
FC  19.24i  12.83j  6.414k ...(iii)
  
   5i  j  2k
F D  120

 25  1  4
   
F D  21.91   5i  j  2k 
   
FD   109i  21.91j  43.82k ...(iv)
    
Resultant R  F A  F B  F C  F D
  
   9.98i  5.12 j  30.1 k 
  
  14.31 i  7.16j  17.88k 
  
19.24i  12.83j  6.414k  
  
  109.5i  21.91j  43.82k 
   
Resultant force R    114.6 i  32 j  10.574k
Magnitude of Resultant R  115.13 kN
2.8 FREE BODY DIAGRAM

The diagram of a body (or a part of it) which shows
all the forces and couples applied on it and has them
labeled for use in the solution of the problem is called a
free-body diagram. It represents the body of interest, the
external forces on it and the reactions that keep the body
in equilibrium.
In three dimensional problems, the equilibrium

equations result in six independent equations ie three
components of force and three components of moment.
Therefore, we can solve for upto six scalar unknowns per
free-body diagram. The possible supports and their
reactions, in three dimensions, are shown in Table 2.2,
which should be considered while drawing the free body
diagram of a rigid body.
Table: 2.2 Reactions at supports and connections

in Three dimensions
Types of support No of
Reactions
connection unknowns
1
Reactions acts
perpendicular
to the surface
Ba ll Frictionless (Sm oo th) at the point
Su pported Su rface R
of contact.
2
One reaction
is in the y
direction and
R o ller o n
ro ugh su rfa ce W h e el on rail Rz
Ry the other in
the z direction.
3
The reactions
are thre three
Rx
rectangular
R o ug h su rfa ce B a ll an d S o cket Rz Ry
force
components.
4
Mz Two force
components
Ry
and two
Rz couple -
My
S ing le jo urn al be a rin g moment
components.
Types of support No of
Reactions
connection unknowns
MY 5
Three force
FY
FX components
FZ
and two
Single th rust b earing
MZ couples.
MY 6
FY
Three force
FX components
F ixe d su pp ort FZ and three
MZ MX
couples.
2.9 EQUILIBRIUM OF RIGID BODY IN

THREE DIMENSIONS
 
If the resultant force R and resultant couple M R
O due
to the force system acting on the rigid body is zero, then
the body is said to be in equilibrium
   
R  R x i  Ry j  Rz k  0
   
R   Fx i   Fy j   Fz k  0 ... (1)
  
MR
O  Mx i  My j  Mz k  0
  
MR
O   Mx i   M y j   M z k  0 ... (2)
Thus the equations of equilibrium are
 Fx  0,  F y  0 ,  F z  0
 Mx  0,  M y  0,  M z  0
The above equations are used to determine unknown
forces applied to the rigid body in space or unknown
reactions exerted by its support.
Problem 2.33: Determine the magnitude and direction of

force F4 shown in Fig (i). So that the particle A is in
equilibrium.

Solution: For the particle A to be in equilibrium, F  0
must be satisfied.
   
i.e. F 1  F 2  F 3  F 4  0 ... (1)
      
F 1  500 i N ; F 2   900 j N ; F 3  F3 A B  800 AB
   
and F 4  F x i  F y j  Fz k
 
where AB is the unit vector along the direction of F 3 and
is given by,

 AB
AB  , from Fig. (ii).
| AB |
      
AB  xi  yj  zk   4i  8j  2k
B
y
8m F 3= 0 N
80 F4
2m
F 1 = 500N
A x
4m
F 2 = 900N
z Fig (i)
B (-4, 8, 2)
(+)
y
=
8m F 3 0N
80
2m
A (0,0,0) (+) x
4m
X=-4m
y= 8m
z=-2m
Fig (ii) Analysis of F 3 alone

(+) z
| AB |    4 2  82   22
  9.17 m
 4  8  2    
 AB  i j k   0.436 i  0.872j  0.218k
9.17 9.17 9.17
   
F 3  800  0.436i  0.872 j  0.218 k
7 5N
0 6. y
=3
F 4
6 y= o
5
4 8 .8
6x =
119.5 o
x
6z = 55.3 o A
z Fig. (iii)
       
F 3   348.96 i  697.92 j  174.48 k and F4  Fxi  Fyj  F zk
   
Substituting in eqn. F 1  F 2  F 3  F 4  0, we get
    
500i  900 j   348.96 i  697.92 j  174.48 k 
  
 F 4xi  F 4yj  F 4zk  0
Equating the respective i, j, k components to zero,
F x  0  151.04  F 4x  0  F 4x   151.04 N
F y  0   202.08  F 4y  0  F 4y  202.08 N
F z  0   174.48  F 4z  0  F 4z  174.48 N
   
F 4   151.04 i  202.08j  174.48 k
| F4 |  
 2
151.04 2  202.08 2  174.48  306.75 N

If the directions of the force F 4 w.r.t x, y and z axes
are denoted by x,  y and  z respectively, then
F 4x F 4y F 4z
cos  x  ; cos y  and cos z 
| F4 | | F4 | | F4 |
So,
  151.04 
x  cos  1    119.5 
 306.75 
 202.08 
y  cos  1    48.8
 306.75 
 174.48 
z  cos  1    55.3
 306.75 

The directions of F 4 are shown in Fig. (iii)
Problem 2.34: Three cables are used to support the 20 kg

cylinder shown in Fig. Determine the force developed in each
cable for equilibrium.
Solution: The forces acting on point A will be shown in

Fig.(a)
Let the tension in the cables be F 1, F 3 and F 4 as shown
in Fig. (a)
B
F4 y

6m
x
3m
F1
A D x
6m
A (0,0,0)
F3
z
F 2 = 20x9.81
C z
= 196.2N
20
kg Fig. (a) Free body diagram
       
F 1  F1 i ; F2   196.2 j ; F 3  F3 k ; F4  F4AB

AB
A B 
| AB |
      
AB  x i  y j  z k   6 i  6 j  3 k
| AB |  
 62  6 2   32 9m
 6 6 3
AB  i j k
9 9 9
   
 F 4  [  0.67 i  0.67 j  0.33 k ] F 4
Now, for equilibrium of particle A,

   
F 1  F 2  F3  F 4  0 ... (1)
     
So F 1 i  196.2 j  F 3 k   0.67 i  0.67 j  0.33 k  F4  0
Equating the respective i, j, k components to zero,
i   F1  0.67F 4  0  F 1  0.67 F 4
j   196.2  0.67F 4  0  0.67F 4  196.2 ; F4  292.84 N
k  F 3  0.33 F 4  0  F3  0.33 F 4  0.33  292.84  96.64 N
Now F 1  0.67 F 4  0.67  292.84  196.2 N
So F1  196.2 N ; F3  96.64 N and F4  292.84 N
Problem 2.35: Three cables DA, DC and DB are used to

tether a balloon as shown in Fig. Determine the vertical force
P exerted by the balloon at D when tension in cable DC is
270 N. (Apr/May 2011 - AU)
Solution:
Here the points of interest are A  4, 0, 0,
B 0, 0,  3, C 2, 0, 4, D 0, 5 , 0 and O 0, 0, 0. So, the unit
vector along lines of actions of forces are
  
   4  0 i  0  5 j  0  0 k 1  
DA     4 i  5 j
 42   5 6.403

 2
  
 0  0 i  0  5 j   3  0  k 1  
DB    5 j  3 k
5.831

 2
 52   3
  
 2  0 i  0  5 j  4  0 k 1   
DC   2 i  5 j  4 k
2 2 6.708

 2   5  4 2
Now, the force vectors are y
F DA  
F DA    4 i  5 j P
6.403
F DB  
F DB   5 j  3 k D
5.831
270    A
F DC  2 i  5 j  4 k 5m B
6.708
4m
   O 3m
 80.5 i  201.25 j  161 k -P
2m
z 4m x
Equations of equilibrium are C
Fig
 0.6247 F DA  80.5  0
F DA   128.86 N [i component]
 0.78 F DA  0.8575 F DB  201.25   P [j component]

...(i)
 0.514 F DB  161  0 [k component]
F DB  313.23 N
Substitute F DA & F DB in eqn (i), we obtain,
 0.78    128.86   0.8575 313.23   201.25   P
P  369.34 N (upward)
Problem 2.36: A rectangular plate is supported by three

cables as shown in Fig. If the tension in the cable AD is 540 N,
determine the weight of the plate. (May/June 2009 - AU)
Solution:
The coordinates of the points of choice are
A 0, 1.2 , 0, B 0.65, 0,  0.9, C 1.15 , 0, 0.9 and
D  0.8, 0, 0.9. So, the position vectors are
   
AD   0.8  0 i  0  1.2 j  0.9  0 k
  
  0.8 i  1.2 j  0.9 k
   
AC  1.15  0 i  0  1.2 j  0.9  0  k
  
 1.15 i  1.2 j  0.9 k
   
AB  0.65  0 i  0  1.2 j    0.9  0  k
  
 0.65 i  1.2 j  0.9 k
Force vectors along the direction of these position

vectors are
 540   
F AD   0.8 i  1.2 j  0.9 k
 0.82    1.22  0.9 2


  
  254.11 i  381.18 j  285.88 k
 F AC   
F AC  1.15 i  1.2 j  0.9 k

 2
1.15    1.2   0.9 2 2
  
 FAC 0.608 i  0.635 j  0.476 k 
A 0 .65 m (0 ,1.2,0) A 0 .65 m
B B (0 .65 ,0 ,-0 .9 )
1.2 m
1 .2 m
0 .9 m 0 .9 m
x O x
O
0 .9 m D 0 .9 m
D C (-0 .8 ,0,0.9) C
1 .15 m 1 .15 m (1 .15 ,0 ,0 .9)
0 .35 m 0 .35 m
z z W
Fig Fig
 F AB   
F AB  0.65 i  1.2 j  0.9 k

 2 2

0.65   1.2   0.9 2
  
 FAB 0.398 i  0.73j  0.551 k
Equations of equilibrium along x and z directions:

 254.11  0.608 F AC  0.398 FAB  0
[Adding i component]
285.88  0.476 F AC  0.551 F AB  0

[Adding k components]
Solving these two equations, we get
F AB  562.05 N, FAC  50.02 N.
Equations of equilibrium along y direction
So, the weight of the plate will be
  381.18  0.635 FAC  0.73 FAB 

[Adding jcomponents]
  381.18  0.635  50.02  0.73  562.05   W
W  823.24 N downward
Problem 2.37: In the figure shown, three wires are joined at

D. Two ends A and B are on the wall and the other end C is
on the ground. The wire CD is vertical. A force of 60 kN is
applied at ‘D’ and it passes through a point E on the ground
as shown in figure. Find the forces in all the three wires.
(Anna Univ, May 2012, May 2010 - ME 205)
Given
To Find
Forces in all the three wires
B
3m
3m
A
D
60 kN 2m
x
3m C
1.5m 6m
5m
1.
E
z Fig
y
C oordin ates:
(0,3,-3) A (0,3,3), B (0,3,-3),
B
C (1.5, 0,0), D (1 .5,2,0),
3m
E (7.5,0,1.5)
3m
(0,3,3) A (1.5,2,0)
D
60 kN 2m
3m x
C (1.5, 0,0)
1.5m 6m 1.5m
E
Fig.(a)
(7.5,0,1.5)
z
Solution

TDB : B 0, 3,  3 ; D 1.5 , 2, 0
  0  1.5   
i  3  2 j   3  0 k 
TDB  TDB  

0  1.52  3  2 2   3  02 
   
TDB  TDB   0.43 i  0.29 j  0.86 k 
 

TDA : A 0, 3, 3, D 1.5, 2, 0
  0  1.5   
i  3  2 j  3  0 k 
TDA  TDA  
 
 1.52  12  32 
   
TDA  TDA   0.43 i  0.29 j  0.86 k 
 

TDC : C 1.5, 0 , 0 ; D 1.5, 2, 0
 1.5  1.5   
 i  0  2 j  0  0 k 
TDC  TDC  
  02   22  0
 2 
 
TDC  TDC   j 
 

TDE : E 7.5, 0 , 1.5 ; D 1.5 , 2, 0 
  7.5  1.5   
i  0  2 j  1.5  0 k 
TDE  60  
  62   22  1.5 2
 
   
TDE  55.38 i  18.46 j  13.84 k
We know that, Condition for equilibrium


 Fx  0 [Equate all i components to zero]
 0.43 T DB  0.43 TDA  55.38  0
 0.43 T DB  0.43 TDA   55.38 ...(1)


 Fy  0 [Add all j components and equate to 0]
 0.29 TDB  0.29 TDA  T DC  18.46  0


 0.29 T DB  0.29 T DA  T DC  18.46 [Add all k
components and equate to 0] ...(2)
 Fz  0
 0.86 T DB  0.86 T DA  13.84  0
 0.86 T DB  0.86 T DA   13.84 ...(3)

1  0.86   0.37 T DB  0.37 T DA   47.62
3  0.43 
 0.37 TDB  0.37 T DA   5.95

 0.74 TDB   53.57
 TDB  72.39 N ...(4)
Substitute TDB in  TDA  56.4 N
Substitute TDB and TDA  TDC  18.88 N
Hence all 3 forces are tensile.
Result
TDA  56.4 N ; T DB  72.39 N ; TDC  18.88 N
Problem 2.38: A metal guy rope tied to a peg at P as shown

in Fig. keeps an electric post in equilibrium. The force in the
guy rope is 1.25 kN. Find the components of the force at P and
the angles of inclination of the force with the three rectangular
axes. (Anna Univ, GE 1151, May 2008)
(0 ,10 ,0 )
(6 ,0,-2)
O O
Fig. Fig. (a)
The co-ordinates of points P (6, 0, –2) and Q (0, 10, 0)


| F |  1.25 kN
   
PQ  0  6 i  10  0 j  0    2k
   
PQ   6i  10j  2k
  
F  | F |  PQ
     
  6 i  10 j  2 k  6 i  10 j  2 k
PQ  
11.832

 36  100  4
  
  6 i  10 j  2 k
F  1.25 
11.832
   
F  0.1056   6 i  10 j  2 k
   
F   0.633 i  1.05 j  0.2112 k
 F x  20.633 kN
F y  1.056 kN
F z  0.2112 kN

| F |  1.25 kN
Fx
F x  F cos  x  cos  x 
F
 0.633
cos  x 
1.25
x  120.42
Fy
F y  F cos  y  cos  y 
F
1.056
cos  y 
1.25
cos  y  0.8448
y  32.34
Fz
cos  z 
F
0.2112
cos  z 
1.25
z  80.27
2.10 MOMENT OF FORCE ABOUT A POINT


The moment of a force F passing through a point
A x, y, z  about origin ‘O’ is expressed as (Fig. 2.24 (a)).
  
MrF
  y
Where F is the force, r, the F
position vector of any point on the line

of action of the force with respect to r A
the origin, (the point where the O
x
moment is desired).
z Fig .2.14 (a)
   
If r  x i  y j  zk, and
   
F  Fx i  Fy j  Fz k
then
      
M  x i  y j  z k   F x i  F y j  Fz k
 i
 
j k
 
 x y z
 
 Fx Fy Fz 
Moment of force about any other point

Similarly, moment of the force F passing through
A x A, y A, z A about another point B x B, yB , z B  can be
expressed as (Fig. 2.14 (b)).
  
M B  rAB  F
    
i j k
  
M B   xA  x B  yA  yB z A  z B  
 
 Fx Fy Fz 
Varignon’s Theorem
When a number of (y A -y B )J Fyj
forces act at point ‘A’, the y
Fxi
sum of moments of all forces
r A /B A
about ‘O’ is equal to the
B
moment of the resultant F zk (x A -x B )i
about ‘O’. Thus Varignon’s (z A -z B )k
theorem for space forces is x
o
same as the distributive law
of vector algebra. Fig.2.14(b)
z
   
If R  F 1  F2    F n
       
then r  R  r  F 1  r  F 2    r  F n
In other words, the

y
moment about a given point
O of the resultant of several F4 F3
concurrent forces is equal to A
the sum of the moment of
F2
the various forces about the r
same point O. F1
o
x
Fig 2.15. Varignon’s
z Theorem .
Problem 2.39: Find the moment about A of the force 50 kN

shown in Fig.
Vectorial treatment
kN
50
   
r  8i  0j  0k
  o
F  50 cos 30 i A B 30 C
 
 50 sin 30 j  0 k
   8m 2m
 43.3 i  25 j  0 k
Fig.
  
MA  r  F cross product
   
i j k
    
 8 0 0   0i  0j  200  0 k
 
 43.3 25 0 

 200 k kN  m
Magnitude of M A  200 kNm

Since it is two dimensional problem, we can solve this

in simple way,
M A  50  sin 30  8
 200 kNm
   
Problem 2.40: A force F  9i  3j  6k passes through a point
  
A whose position vector is 4i  2j  9k. Find the moment of force
  
about a point B whose position vector is 6i  3j  7k.
Solution:
   
k
rOA  4i  2 j  9 k
-6
3j
+
  
9i
  6 i  3 j  7 k;
rOB
=
F
B A
   (6i - 3j - 7k) (4i - 2j + 9k)
rAB  rOA  rOB Fig.
   
rAB   2i  1j  16k
        
Moment M B  rAB  F   2i  1j  16k  9i  3j  6k 
 i j k
    
2 1 16    6  48 i  12  144 j   6  9 k
 9 3 6   
    54i  132j  15 k

So moment of F about point B ,
   
M B   54i  132j  15k
   
Problem 2.41: A force F  6i  2j  3k acts at A of
coordinates (1,2,3). Find the moment of this force about B of
coordinates  2, 3, 4.
Solution:
   
F  6i  2j  3 k
Coordinates of A  1, 2, 3
Coordinates of B   2, 3, 4
xA  xB  3; yA  yB   1
k
zA  zB   1
-3
2j
+
   
6i
So rAB  3 i  1 j  1 k
=
F
  
M  rAB  F A
B Fig.
(-2,3,4) (1,2,3 )
 i j k
    
3 1 1  3  2 i   9  6 j  6  6 k
6 2 3   
   5i  3j  12k
   
M B  5 i  3 j  12 k
   
Problem 2.42: A forceF  2i  4j  3k is applied at a

point P 1, 1,  2. Find the moment of force F, about the point
B 2,  1, 2
Solution
 
Moment of a force about a point  r  F
y
F = 2i + 4j - 3k
  
 M B  rPB  F
P (1,1 ,-2)
   
F  2 i  4j  3k Given
r B (2,-1,2)
   
rPB   1i  2j  4k o x
Fig.
. .    z
[ . rPB  rP  rB ]
  
 M B  rPB  F
 i j k
    
1 2  4   i  6  16  j 3  8  k  4  4
 2 4 3
 
  
 10 i  11 j  8 k
Magnitude of this moment,
|M|  
 2
10 2   11 2   8  16.88 units
Problem 2.43. Represent a force of 200 N passing through

the points (3,4) and (6.7) in the vector form. What is the
moment of this force about the point (4,6)?
(Cochin University, May 2015)
(6 ,7)
(4 ,6) C
A
B
(3 ,4)
  
 6  3 i  7  4 j  0k
Unit vector BC 
6  32  7  42


   
3i  3j 3i  3j
 

32  3 2 18

    
Force vector, F BC  |F | BC  200 0.707 i  0.707 j
 141.4 i  141.4 j

Position vector rBA  3  4 i  4  6  j   1 i  2j
  
M  rBA  F BC
A
 i j k 
 
 1 2 0   k  1  141.4  2  141.4 
 141.4 141.4 0 
 

M  141.4k
A
Moment about A  141.4 Nm
Problem 2.44: Determine the moment of the force acting at

B about A (as shown in Fig. (i)).
y
A
5m
8m
B
z 13m
Fig (i) F= (9i - 5j + 1 3k) N
(+)y
(0,5,0) A
5m
r B/A
O
(0,0,0) (+)x
8m
13m B (13,0,8)
(+)z
Fig (ii) F=(9i-5j+13 k)N
Solution:
The moment of the force F acting at B about A is,
      
M A  rB/A  F (Fig. (ii)); rB/A  x i  y j  z k
   
rB/A  13 i  5 j  8 k
 i
 
j k
  
 M A   13  5 8
 
 9  5 13 
 
= i  5  13  8  5  j 13  13  8  9

 k  13  5  5  9
  
  25 i  97 j  20 k
   
M A   25 i  97 j  20 k N.m
2.11 Moment of a Force

about an axis
y
Consider a force acting
on a rigid body at A, of MO N

position vector r, as shown
in Fig. 2.16 Now, the O
 F
r
moment of force F about a
 A
point ‘O’ (ie M O ) can be
determined as discussed Fig.2.16.
earlier.
     
ie, M 0  r  F [ r  rA/O  rO/A ]
Knowing this moment, the moment about any axis, but

passing through ‘O’ can be determined.
Consider an axis ON, passing through ‘O’.


The moment of the force F , about the axis ON, (ie,

M ON ) is the Dot product of the unit vector along the axis
and the moment of force about O.
 
ie, M ON  ON  M O
  
or M ON  ON  rOA  F 
Note:
1. To find the moment of a force about an axis, the
moment of the force about any point, lying on the
particular axis should be known.
2. Moment of force about a point is a vector
quantity, where as, the moment of the force about
the axis passing through that point is a scalar
quantity.

M ON can also be written in determinant form, as
below.
 x y z 
  
M ON   x y z
F Fy Fz 
 x 
where,
x, y, z  Direction cosines of ON.

x, y, z  Co-ordinates of point of application of F

and F x, F y, F z  Scalar quantities of F in x, y and z
directions.
   
Problem 2.45: A force F  3i  5j  7k acts at A of coordinates

(1, 3, 4) as shown in Fig. Determine the moment of force F,
(i) about the origin ‘O’
(ii) about the co-ordinate axes OX, OY and OZ
Solution:
   
Given, Force vector F  3 i  5 j  7 k
Co-ordinates of A  (1, 3, 4)
(i) Moment of force about the origin ‘O’

Position vector,
   
rOA  x2  x 1 i  y2  y 1 j  z 2  z1 k
  
 1  0  i  3  0 j  4  0 k
  
 1i  3j  4k y F = 3i - 5j + 7 k
  
 M O  rOA  F
A(1,3,4)
 i j k O x
  (0,0,0 )
1 3 4 z
3 5  Fig.
7
 
  
 i 21  20  j 7  12   k  5  9
  
 41 i  5j  14k
(ii) Moment about the Co-ordinate axes

Moment about OX axis
  
 unit vector along OX axis  M O  i  MO
. .
 . ii1
     
 i  41i  5j  14k   41 units ij0 
ik0 
 
Moment about OY axis

  
 unit vector along OY axis  M O  j  MO
   
 j  41 i  5 j  14 k  5 units
Moment about OZ axis


 Unit vector along OZ axis  M O
   
 k  41i  5j  14k   14 units
Problem 2.46: The rectangular plate shown in Fig. (a). A is

held in the position shown against a vertical wall by a rope
passed over a frictionless hook at C. Determine the moment
about each of the co-ordinate axes of the force exerted by the
rope at A, if the tension in the rope is 3000 N.
Solution:
Before finding the moment of the force exerted by the
rope at A about the co-ordinate axes, the same about the
point O should be determined.
  
From Fig. (b) M O  rA/O  F
      
rA/O  x i  y i  2 k  4.3 i  0 j  3 k
 
FF
   
 AC  3.10 i  2.0 j  3.0 k
 
|AC |

  3.10 2  2.02   3.02
1   
 [ 3.10 i  2.0 j  3.0 k ]
4.75
y1
.2 m
3 .1 m
C
2m
O
B x
z
3m
y A Fig.(a)
1 .2 m
3 .1 m
C
(1.2,2,0)
2m
O (0,0,0 ) F
rA
B /O x
z
3m
A Fig.(b)
(4.3,0,3)
3000   
F [ 3.10 i  2.0 j  3.0 k]
4.75
  
  1957.9 i  1263.16 j  18.94.74 k
 
M O  rA/O  F
     
 4.3 i  0 j  3 k   1957.9i  1263.16 j  1894.74 k
   
i j k
  
MO   4.3 0 3
 
  1957.9 1263.16  1894.74 
  
 i  3789.48   j  8147.38  5873.7   k 5431.59 
   
M O   3789.48 i  2273.68 j  5431.59 k
Now, to find the moment of the force about any

co-ordinate axis, the scalar product (dot product) of
the unit vector along the concerned co-ordinate axis
and M O should be found out.
Moment of the force about OX axis

   
M OX  i  [ 3789.48 i  2273.68 j  5431.59 k]
. . 
  3789.48 N  m [ . i  i  1]
Moment of the force about OY axis

   
M OY  j  [ 3789.48 i  2273.68 j  5431.59 k ]
 2273.68 N  m . . 
[ . j  j  1]
Moment of the force about OZ axis
   
M OZ  k  [ 3789.48 i  2273.68 j  5431.59 k]
 5431.59 N  m . . 
[ . k  k  1]
Problem 2.47: A pipe AC, 6 m long is fixed at C and streched
by a cable from A to a point B on the vertical wall, as shown
in Fig. (i). If the tension in the cable is 400 N, determine
(i) the moment of the force exerted at A, about C, and

(ii) the moment of the force exerted at B, about C.
Solution:
The tension in cable Y (+)
2m B
AB and the pipe AC are
shown in Fig. (ii). 1m
Tension T AB , of 400N C A
acts from A to B; and X (+)
Z(+ ) 6m
Tension TBA of same Fig.(i)
magnitude acts from B to
A, are the collinear forces and the cable is in equilibrium.
TBA produces clockwise moment about C, and
TAB produces anticlockwise moment about C
But, the magnitude of these two moments will be

equal.
To find
(i) Moment of Force, exerted at A, about C
In this case, the force is directed from A to B.
Co-ordinates of
A (6,0,0), and B
T B A (400N )
Co-ordinates of
B 0, 1,  2
T A B (400N )
Co-ordinates of C 0, 0, 0
writing TAB in vector form,

A
C Fig.(ii)

TAB  TAB  AB .
Unit vector
  
0  6 i  1  0 j   2  0  k
AB 

 62  1 2  22 B(0,1 ,-2)
  
 6i  1j  2k

6.403
T A B (400N)

 T AB  TAB  AB
  6i  
j  2k  A
 400  
 6.403  C r A /C (6,0,0 )
(0,0,0 )
   Fig (iii)
  375i  62.5j  125k
    
And rAC  6  0 i  0j  0k  6i
 Moment about C
  
M c  rAC  TAB
   
 6i   375i  62.5 j  125k
 i j k 
   
 6 0 0    750j  375k
  375  62.5  125 
 
(ii) Moment of Force, exerted at B about C

This moment is opposite to the moment of force
exerted at A.
  
M C   750j  375k
Checking
  
6  0 i  0  1 j  0  2 k
BA 

  62    1 2  22
   B (0,1,-2)
 6i  1j  2k
BA 
6.403

rB /C
T BA  TBA  BA T B A (400 N)
 6i 1j 2
k A
 400   C
 6.403  (0,0,0) (6,0,0)
Fig.(iv)
   
 T BA   375 i  62.5j  125 k
       
and rBC  rB  rC  0  0 i  1  0 j   2  0 k  1j  2k
  
M C  rBC  TBA
    
 1j  2k    375i  62.5j  125k 
 i j k 
 
 0 1 2 
  375  62.5  125 
 
  
   125  125  i  0  750  j  0  375 k
  
M C   750j  375 k
Problem 2.48: A rectangular plate 1 m  0.8m is supported

by two pins and by a wire BD as shown in Fig.(a) If the
tension in the wire is 140 N, determine the moment about A,
and about E, of the force exerted by the wire on point B.
The moment of force exerted by the wire at B (i.e.,

TBD ) about A,
2m
0.
1m
D
(0,1,0.2)
C x
O (0,0,0)
F
E 1m
m
0 .2 5
z A (0,0,1) B (0.8,0,1)
0.8m
G iven Fig.(a)
  
M A  rB/A  T BD
   
rB/A  0.8  0 i  0  0 j  1  1 k

 0.8 i
  0  0.8   
i  1  0 j  0.2  1 k 
TBD  TBD BD  140  
  0.8 2  1 2   0.82
 
140   
 [ 0.81 i  1j  0.8k]
1.51
   D (0,1,0 .2)
  74.17 i  92.71j  74.17 k
  
M A  rB/A  T BD
T B D = 140N
  
 0.8 i   74.17 i  92.17 j

 74.17 k B
A r B /A
(0,0,1 ) (0,8,0 ,1)
M om en t abou t A
Fig.(b).
 i j k
 
 0.8 0 0
  74.17 92.71  74.17 
 
  
 i 0  0  j  59.34  0  k 74.17  0
  
M A  59.34j  74.17 k D (0,1,0.2)
(ii) Moment about E (Fig.(c)) T B D =1 40N

Co ordinates of D (0,0,0.75)
(0,0,0.75)
   rB /E
M E  rB/E  TBD E
B
F ig .(c ) (0,8,0,1)
  
rB/E  rB  rE
     
rB/E  0.8  0 i  0  0 j  1  0.75 k  0.8 i  0.25 k
  
 M E  rB/E  TBD
    
 0.8 i  0.25k    74.17 i  92.71 j  74.17 k 
 i j k
 
 0.8 0 0.25 
  74.17 92.71  74.17 
 
  
 23.18 i  40.8 j  74.17 k
Problem 2.49: The concrete pole is held in position by a rope

which exerts a force of 560 N on it. Determine the moment of
this force about A.
    
Solution: M A  rB/A  F ; rB/A  3j
 
F  F

where   Unit vector along the direction of F
(+)y C oncrete (+)y

pole C oncrete
pole
B
(+)x B (0,3 ,0)
0N
56
0N
3m
56
pe
ro
3m
C (-1.5, 0, 1)
A (0,0 ,0)
1 .5 C
m 1 m (+)x A (0,0 ,0)
1 .5 (+)x
m
1m
(+)z Fig.(a). Fig.(b). (+)z

 CB

| CB|
      
CB  xi  yj  zk   1.5 i  3j  1k
|CB |  
  1.5 2   32  1 2  3.5 m
 1   
 [  1.5 i  3 j  1 k]
3.5
 560      
F [ 1.5 i  3 j  k ]   240 i  480 j  160 k
3.5
   
i j k
    
MA   0 3 0   i 480  j 0  k 720 
 
  240  480 160 
 
M A  480 i  720 k N  m
Problem 2.50: A tension T of magnitude 10 kN is applied to

the cable attached to the top A of rigid mast and secured to
the ground at B as shown in fig. Determine moment of the
tension T about the z  axis passing through the

base O. (Anna University Apr / May - 2013)
y y
A A (0,1 5,0 )
m ast m ast
15m 15m
10K N 10K N
O O (0,0,0)
x x
z 12 m 9m z 12 m 9m
Fig. B Fig. (a) B (12,0,9 )


Tension T  T 
Coordinates of B  12, 0, 9
dx  12  0  12
dy  0  15   15
dz  9  0  9
d 
 12 2   152  92
 21.21 m
Unit vector along

  
 12 i  15j  9k
AB 
21.21
  
 0.566 i  0.707 j  0.424 k
 
Then tension T  10 AB
  
 10 0.566 i  0.707 j  0.424 k 
   
T  5.66 i  7.07 j  4.24 k

Position vector rAO
Coordinates of O  0, 0, 0
   
rAO  0  0 i  15  0 j  0  0 k
 
rAO  15 j

Moment of tension T about O  M 0
  
M 0  rAO  T
 i j k 
 
 0 15 0 
 5.66  7.07 4.24 
 
  
  15  4.24  i  0j  15  5.66 k
 
  63.6 i  84.9 k
Moment of tension T about the z  axis


 Unit vector along z  axis. M 0
 ... i  i  1 
    
 k.   63.6 i  84.9 k   ij0 
 ik0 
  84.9 kN  m  
2.12 EQUILIBRIUM OF NON-CONCURRENT AND

NON-PARALLEL SPATIAL FORCES
The necessary and sufficient conditions for equilibrium
of Non-concurrent and Non-parallel spatial forces are
 F  0 and  M  0
i.e.
 Fx  0 ... (i) and  Mx  0 ... (iv)
 Fy  0 ... (ii)  My  0 ... (v)
 Fz  0 ... (iii)  Mz  0 ... (vi)
Problem 2.51: (i) A force 10i  20j  5k N acts at a point

P 4, 3, 2 m. Determine the moment of this force about the
point Q 2, 3, 4 m in vector form. Also find the magnitude of
the moment and its angles with respect to x, y, z axes.
(Anna Univ, May 2012)
Given
  
Force, F  10 i  20 j  5 k N
Point, P  4, 3, 2 m
Q  2, 3, 4 m
To Find
Magnitude and angles in x, y & z axes.
Solution:
P  Q  [4  2, 3  3, 2  4] F = (10 i+ 20 j-5 k)N
 P  Q  2, 0,  2
   Q P
rPQ  P  Q  2 i  0 j  2 k (2 , 3, 4) (4 , 3, 2)
  
M  rPQ  F
 i

j

k
    
 2 0  2   0  40  i   10  20 j  40  0 k
 
 10 20  5 
   
M  40 i  10 j  40 k

Magnitude | M |  
 40 2   102  402  57.45 Nm
M x  40 Nm ; M y   10 Nm ; M z  40 Nm
Angles with respect to x, y, z axes,

 40 
x  cos  1    45.87 
 57.45 
  10 
y  cos  1    100
 57.45 
 40 
 z  cos  1    45.87 
 57.45 
2. TYPES OF SUPPORTS - FORCE

SYSTEMS IN SPACE
Review of vector algebra
1. Commutative law :    
ABBA
2. Associative law :      
A  B  C  A  B  C
3. Scalar multiplication :
(a) Commutative :  
mAAm
(b) Associative :  
m  n A  m  n A
(c) Distributive :   
n  m A  n A  m A
   
n A  B  n A  n B
where n, m are scalars
Dot product or Scalar product

 
Consider the vectors A and B
as shown in Fig. The scalar or dot

product is the magnitude of A B
multiplied by the component

B cos  of B multiplied by the 
 O
component A cos  of A in the B cos
 A
direction of B. Fig.
 
i.e A  B  |A|  |B| cos 
 
A  B  AB cos 
The commutative law holds good for the dot product of vectors
i.e
   
ABBA
Note
1. From the definition of dot product
   
iijjkk1 (since cos 0  1)
          
ijjiikkijkkj0
(since cos 90  0)
      
2. Let A  Ax i  Ay j  Az k; B  Bx i  By j  Bz k
 
then A  B  Ax Bx  Ay By  Az Bz
  2
A  A  Ax  A2y  A2z
 
3. Considering three vectors A, B, C the distributive law holds good.
      
A  B  C  A  B  A  C
In simple words,
 
Scalar or dot product of two coplanar forces A and B is denoted
 
by A  B and read as ‘A dot B’ and it is a scalar quantity.
 
A  B  AB cos 
 
The rectangular components of A and B are given below
   
A  Axi  Ayj  Az k
   
B  Bx i  By j  Bz k
   
A  B  Ax Bx  Ay By  Az Bz  B  A
   
Because i  i  j  j  k  k  1
 
The angle between two forces A and B is given by
 
AB
cos  
AB
The scalar product is both commutative and distributive.

   
ABBA
      
A  B  C  A  B  A  C
     
n A  B  n A  B  A  nB
Cross or vector product

 
The cross or vector product of two vectors A and B is defined
as a vector with a magnitude.
   
A  B  |A| |B| sin   AB sin 
Note:
   
1. A  B   B  A
2. Distributive law is applicable

      
A  B  C  A  B  A  C
3. By definition of cross product
        
i  j  k , j  k  i, k  i  j
        
j  i   k, k  j   i, i  k   j
     
iijjkk0
       
4. If A  Ax i  Ay j  Az k ; B  Bx i  By j  Bz k
 i j

k
   
   AB
then A  B   Ax Ay Az 
 and sin    
  |A|  |B|
 Bx By Bz 
 
5. Scalar triple product
        
P  Q  R  Q  R  P  R  P  Q
      
6. Vector triple product P  Q  R  Q P  R  R P  Q
       
P  Q  R  Q P  R  P Q  R
In simple words,
 
Vector or cross product of two coplanar forces A and B is a
    
vector C. It is denoted by A  B and read as ‘A cross B ’.
  
C  A  B  AB sin 
The cross products of the unit vectors are:

     
i  i  0; j  j  0; k  k  0
    
i  j  k; j  i   k
     
j  k  i; k  j   i
    
k  i  j; i  k   j
 
The rectangular components of A and B are as follows.
   
A  Axi  Ay j  Az k
   
B  Bx i  By j  Bzk
   
i j k 
 
  
A  B   Ax Ay Az 

 
 Bx By Bz 
 
  
 Ay Bz  AzBy i  AzBx  Ax Bz j  Axby  AyBx k
 
AA0
The vector or cross product is not commutative but obeys the
distributive law:
   
ABBA
   
AB BA
      
A  B  C  A  B  A  C
     
n A  B  nA  B  A  nB
   
If A  B  0, then either A  0 or B  0 or both are zero (trivial
   
case), or A is parallel to B or A and B are collinear.
 
The angle between two vectors A and B is given by
 
|AB|
sin  
AB
Triple products of forces can be defined as follows:

 
Scalar triple product of three vectors A, B and C is defined as
 Ax Ay Az 
    
A  B  C   Bx By Bz 
C C C 
 x y z
   
where A  Axi  Ayj  Az k
   
B  Bx i  By j  Bz k
   
C  Cxi  Cyj  Cz k
EXTRA PROBLEMS
Problem 2.1: A boy weighing 100 N stands on the middle rung of

a ladder [The ladder weight can be neglected]. The end A rests on
the ground against a stop and the end B rests on the corner of a wall
as shown. Find the reactions at A and B. Neglect friction between the
ladder and the ground and the ladder and the wall.
B B
RB
100 N
o o
30 30
C
C 4m
30 o
o W = 100N
60 R AX 60
o
A O A O
(a) Fig. R AY (b)
Solution:
Considering the free-body diagram of the ladder, the various
forces acting on the ladder are,
(i) Weight of the man acting at C  100 N
(ii) Reaction of the ground at A, having components
RAX and RAY.
(iii) Reaction RB by the wall on the ladder acting normal to

the wall (just like a knife edge support).
Writing the equations of equilibrium,
RAX  RB
Fx  0 : RAX  RB  0;  i
Fy  0 : RAY  W  0;  ii
RAY  W  100 N
Taking moments about A.

MA  0 : RB  4  100AC cos 60  0
AB sin 60  4 ; So AB  4.619 m

4.619
AC   2.309
2
ACcos 60  2.309 cos 60  1.155 c m
MA  0 ; RB  1001.155  0
RB  28.88N  RAX from eqn (i)
RAX  28.88 N Ans.
From (ii) RAY  W  100 N
RAY  100 N Ans.
Problem 2.2: L plate ABC is placed on a hinged support at A and

rests on a roller support at C. If self wt of W  2000 N is acting as
shown in Fig. (a), find the reactions at the supports.
Solution:
Consider the free-body diagram of the plate, the forces acting on
the plate are,
1. Force W  2000 N, acting vertically downwards
2. Reaction RC acting normal to the surface of contact C,
that is, acting horizontally
3. Reaction at the hinge RA.
O C RC
0.3m 0.3m
0.4m
RA W = 2000N
 D
A B
Fig.(a)
As the plate is in equilibrium under the action of three forces,

the forces must pass through a common point O as shown in Fig.
(b).
Forces W and RC intersect at point O therefore, the reaction
RA at the hinge must pass through O.
By using three forces, draw space diagram. (Fig.c)
O C RC
RA
o
RC 126 .9 53.1
o
o
o 143 .1
RA W = 2000N 90
D
A 200 0N
B
Fig.(b) Fig.( c )
0.4
tan  
0.3
0.4
  tan 1  53.1
0.3
By using Lamis theorem,
RA RC 2000
 
sin 90 sin 143.1 sin 180  53.1
2000
RA   1  2500 N
0.8
2000
RC   sin 143.1  1500 N
0.8
Problem 2.3: A horizontal beam AB is hinged to a vertical wall at

A and supported at point C by a tie rod CD as shown in Fig. (a)
Find the tension ‘T’ in the tie rod and reaction at A due to a vertical
load 50 N at B. (Apr/May 2007 - AU)
Solution:
Moment about A
MA  0
 T sin 30  2  50  3  0
T sin 30  2  150
150
T  150 N
sin 30  2
Tension in the tie rod = 150 N
By drawing vector diagram, we can find RA. For the system to
be in equilibrium, the polygon vector diagram should close.
Analytically,
Fx  0;  150 c o s 30  RA c os   0
150 cos 30  RA cos   i
Fy  0;  50  150 sin 30  RA sin   0
 50  150 sin 30  RA sin   ii

w all
50N
D
o
30 C
A B
2m 1m
Fig.(a)
50N
T
RA o
30 C
A
2
Fig.(b) 3
 50  150 sin 30 25
(ii)/(i) tan     0.1924
150 cos 30 130
tan   0.1924    10.9
Substitute   10.90 in equation (i)
150 c o s 30  RA cos 
  RA cos 10.9
RA = 1 3 5
N
T= O
15 =10.9
0 N
50N
o
Fig. (c) Vector diagram 30
 150 cos 30
RA 
cos 10.9
 129.9
  132.28
0.9818
RA   132.28
Problem 2.4: A uniform bar AB shown in the fig. has a mass of 50
kg and supports a mass of 200 kg at A. A supporting cable is tied
to the bar at C and the other end is fixed to the vertical wall at D.
Calculate the tension in the supporting cable and the magnitude of
the reaction force at the pin B.
D
2 .5
2.5m
 1.25
2.17
m
2 .5 B
m
2 .5
o
60
200 kg G iven fig ure
Solution
Since the given system is two-dimensional system, we can solve
this problem without using vectors.
3.75
tan      60
2.17
For a body to be in equilibrium,
Fx  0; Fy  0 and M  0
D
(A s sum e
R y is up w ard)
Ry 2.5m
Tsin  T
2 .5 m B Rx
2 .5 cos6 0
m
2 .5
o
= 1.25
60
 Tco s
5 cos 6 0
=2 .5
C
2.5s in 60
=2 .1 7
A
50 x9 .81 N
5s in 60
= 4.33
20 0 kg
Fig. (a): FBD
Fx  0
Refer FBD Fig.(a)
 
T cos   Rx  0
Rx  T cos 60 ... (i)
 Fy  0
 200  9.81  50  9.81  T sin 60  Ry  0
Ry   T sin 60  2452.5 ... (ii)
Moment about B : MB  0
200  9.81 4.33  50  9.81  2.17

 T sin 60  2.17  T cos 60  1.25  0
8495.46  1064.39  1.88 T  0.625 T  0
9559.9  1.255 T  0
9559.9
T  7617.4 N
1.255
Tension in supporting cable T  7617.4 N  7.617 kN
Substitute T equation (i), and (ii)

Rx  T c o s 60  7617.4 c o s 60  3808.71 N
Ry   T sin 60  2452.5
  7617.4 sin 60  2452.5   4144.36

( sign indicates that Ry direction is downward)
Ry   4144.36 N [acting downward]
Problem 2.5: A force F with a magnitude of 100 N is applied at

the origin O of the axes x, y, z as shown in fig. The line of action of
F passes through a point A whose coordinates are 3m, 4m and 5m.
Determine (i) the x, y, z scalar components of F (ii) the projection of
F on  i.e., Fxy  x  y planes, (iii) the projection of F along the line
 
OB. (Jan - 2003 - AU)
Solution z
4m F= 100 N
To find x, y, z components of F M A (3,4,5)
5m
Coordinates of O  0, 0, 0
y
Unit vector along OA AO z
   B
3  0 i  4  0 j  5  0 k O3 6m
AO  m Q 2m

32  42  52
6m
   G iven fig
 0.424 i  0.566 j  0.707 k x
   
F  F AO  100 0.424 i  0.566 j  0.707 k
   
F  42.4 i  56.6 j  70.7 k

x scalar component of F  Fx  46.4 N

y scalar component of F  Fy  56.6 N

z scalar component of F  Fz  70.7 N
Projection of F on x  y planes (i.e.,) Fx  y
The projection of F on x  y plane is OQ  MA  Fxy
z F=100 N
4m
M A (3,4,5 )
5m
z y
B (6,6,2 )
O
(0,0,0 ) 3 m Q 6m 2m
6m
Fxy  OQ  MA  100 sin z

We know,
Fz 70.7
cos z    0.707
F 100
z  45
So Fxy  100 sin z  100 sin 45  70.7 N
The projection of F along the line OB

The coordinates of B  6, 6, 2
  
6  0 i  6  0 j  2  0 k
BO 

62  62  22
  
 0.688 i  0.688 j  0.23 k
Projection of F along
  
OB  F BO  100 0.688 i  0.688 j  0.23 k
  
 68.8 i  68.8 j  23 k
Problem 2.6: The 8 m pipe AB shown in Fig (i) has a fixed end at
A. A steel cable is stretched from B to a point C on the vertical wall.
If the tension in the cable is 2400 N, determine the moment about
A of the force exerted by the cable at B.
Solution:
  
MA  rB/A  F
   
rB/A  xB  xA i  yB  yA j  zB  zA k
Since A is the reference point,

(+) y
xA, yA, zA are zero.
5 .3 m
    C
So, rB/A  xB i  yB j  zB k 3.2m
  
 8i  0j  0k
N
A (0,0,0 ,) 00

 8i 24
 ( + z
) rB /A

Now, F  F  BC (unit
8m B
vector along the line of action of
the force)
Fig.(a) (+)x

Let BC be the unit vector

along the direction of force F.
  (+ )y
F  F BC (0 ,3.2,-5.3 )
5 .3 m C
 1 0,0 56 j
 BC 3 .2 m
where BC 
|BC|
    2 40 0
BC  x i  yj  2k A
2k
6 07
  
  8i  3.2j  5.3k
(+ ) z
8m
B (8 ,0,0)
x, y, z are the distances
(+ )x
of C from B. Fig .(b)
   
BC   8i  3.2j  5.3k
|BC|  

 82  3.22   5.32
 10.12 m
  
  8i  3.2j  5.3k
So BC 
10.12
 
 F  BC
2400   
  8 i  3.2 j  5.3 k
10.12
   
  1897.2 i  759 i  759 j  1257 k
  
Now, MA  rB/A  F
   
 8i   1897.2 i  759 j  1257 k
   
i j k
 
 8 0 0
 
  1897.2 759  1257 
 
  j  8  1257  k 8  759
  
MA  10056j  6072k N  m
Problem 2.7: Determine the moments of the force F shown in Fig.

(i) about the x, y and z axes.
y F = -400i - 1200 j + 80 0k
B
6m
3m
O x
8m
z
Given Fig.(i)
   
F   400 i  1200 j  800 k
Solution:

First of all, the moment of the force F about O should be
determined.
  
MO  rA/O  F (Refer Fig.(ii));
F = -400i - 1200 j + 800k
A (8,6,-3)
6m
B
r O /A
m
3
O x
8m
z
Fig.(ii)
  
rA/O  8 i  6 j  3 k
   
F  [ 400 i  1200 j  800 k]
   
i j k
 
 MO   8 6 3
 
  400  1200 800 
  
 i [4800  3600]  j [6400  1200]  k [ 9600  2400]
  
 1200 i  5200 j  7200 k N  m

Moment of F about OX axis,
 
MOX  i  MO  1200 N  m

Moment of F about OY axis,

MOY  j  MO   5200 N  m

Moment of F about OZ axis,
 
MOZ  k  MO   7200 N  m

Problem 2.8: Determine the moment of F shown in Figure A about
   
an axis connecting O and B. F   400 i  1200 j  800 k
F=-4 00 i - 1200j + 800k
(8,6,0 )
6m
B
m
3
O x
(0,0,0 )
8m
z Fig.
Solution:
     
MO  rAO  F  8i  6j  3k   400i  1200 j  800 k
  
 1200 i  5200 j  7200 k N  m
(Refer previous problem)
    
 MOB  8 i  6 j  1200i  5200 j  7200 k
 9600  31200   21600

MOB   21,600 N  m
Let the unit vector along the axis OB be . Then, the moment

of force F about OB is,

MOB    MO;
  
8i6j0k
    
 MOB  8 i  6 j  1200i  5200 j  7200 k
 9600  31200   21600

MOB   21,600 N  m
Module 3
PROPERTIES OF PLANAR
SURFACES AND SOLIDS
Properties of planar surfaces - Centroid and second
moment of area (Derivations not required) - Parallel and
perpendicular axis theorem - Centroid and Moment of Inertia
of composite area - Polar Moment of Inertia - Radius of
gyration - Mass moment of inertia of cylinder and thin disc
(No derivations required) - Product of inertia - Principal
Moment of Inertia (conceptual level) - Theorems of Pappus and
Guldinus.
3.1 CENTRE OF GRAVITY OR CENTROID

Fig. 3.1 shows a lamina of some area. The lamina is
consisting of an infinite number of particles. Suppose the
masses of the various particles be m 1, m 2, m3 ..... etc.
The weights of these particles form a system of

parallel forces like m 1g, m 2g, m 3g, m 4g ..... etc. Let the
coordinates of the various
particles be x1, y1, x2, y2,
y
x3, y3, x4, y4 etc. Let the m
mass of the whole lamina be m1 m2

M so that the weight of the
m 1g G m 2 g
whole lamina is Mg. Here G
m3 M m4
is the centre of gravity or
centroid of the lamina. m 3g m 4g
Let
 the coordinates of Mg
G be x, y . x
O
Fig.3.1
Mg is the resultant of force of m 1g, m 2,g, m 3g, m 4g,

etc. Since the sum of the moments of a system of coplanar
forces are equal to the moment of the resultant, we can
write the equation as follows. (Apply Varignon’s principle).
Take moment about O .


m 1gx 1  m 2gx2  m 3g x 3  m 4g x4  ........  Mg x
 m 1 x1  m 2x2  m 3x3  m4x4  .....

x
M
where M  m 1  m 2  m 3 ....
In a similar way, we can find
 m 1y1  m 2y2  m3y3  m4y4  .....

y
M
If an uniform lamina has symmetrical shape, the

centroid of the lamina will be geometric centre of the
lamina.
3.1.1 First Moment of Area

Moments of an area about a point is the product of area
and its centroidal distance from the point.
The moment of area divided by area is known as

centroid of area. It is called first moment of area.
3.1.2 Centroid of a Uniform Lamina

Fig. 3.2 shows an uniform lamina of surface density
 per unit area. Let the total area of the lamina be A . Let
G be the centroid of the lamina. Hence the weight of the
lamina Ag acts through G .
Properties of Planar Surfaces and Solids 3.3
da A
x G
(dag )
x
A g
x
O Fig.3.2
Consider an elemental area da of the lamina at a

distance x from the axis OY . The weight of the elemental
part is  da g. The moment of this force about the axis
OY  da gx.
 Total moment of the weight of lamina  da g x
 g  da x

Moment of Resultant Area  Agx

Ag x  g da x
 da x
 x
A
Hence if a lamina be split up into smaller area

a1, a2, a3 ..... etc .,
 Moment of the indivi dual areas about OY
x
Total area
 ax
or x
a

ay
Similarly,y 
a
where, x1, x2, x3  are the centroidal distance of the areas

a1, a2, a3 ..... from the axis OY , and y1, y 2, y3 ..... are the
centroidal distance of the areas a1, a2, a3 .... from the axis
OX .
3.1.3 Centre of Gravity

Centre of gravity of a body is a point through which
the entire weight of the body acts. Refer Table 3.1.
Centroids of various shapes of area are given.
For triangle, according

  to its position with respect to
x and y axes, its x and y will be different as given in
following table.
Table 3.1 Centroids of Various shapes of Area (or)

Centre of gravity
 
Shape Figure Area x y
y a
a b
1. Rectangle ab
c 2 2
b
y
x
x
h 1 1 1
2. Triangle bh b h
x 2 3 3
y =1/3 h
x =1/3 b
b
 
y
y =1/3 h
c
1 2 h
3. Triangle bh b
2 3 3
x
x=2/3 b
b
y b
h 1 2 2
4. Triangle
y = 23 h 2
bh
3
b
3
h
x
x= 2 b
3
y b
1 1 2
5. Triangle h bh b h
y=2 /3 h 2 3 3
x
x=1 /3 b

y
(x ,y ) 3 3 s x
Triangle
6. b a  b  c x1  x2  x3
(General) c
2 3
a (x ,y )
2 2

(x ,y )
1 1
y
A
x y1  y2  y3
O ssasbsc


3
y

r x  0
7. Circle A  r2
y0
x
O
 
y
Quarter r r2 4r 4r
8. c
Circle 4 3 3
y
x
O x
Semi- r2 d 4r
9. C
Circle 4r 2 2 3
y= 3
x
O d
x=d/2
y
r
2r sin 
Circular-
10. C x r2 3 0
sector O
y
11. Parabola 
3b
1 x
h A    bh 4
3 
x  3 
O y h
b  10 
y

3b
2 x ;
12. Parabola A    bh 8
h 3 
3
y h
x 5
O
b
 

y
x  b  2
13. Parabola 2 

A    bh 3
h 3 y h
x 5
O
b/2 b/2
y

x0
14. Ellipse
b O x A  ab 
y0
a
y 
a/2 a/2 x  b2
Trapezium a  b
15. A h
h 2
 2a  b h
y
O x a  b 3
b/2 b/2
Table 3.2 Centroid of Common Volumes
 
Shape Figure Volume x y
y
2 3 3
Hemisphere r 0 r
1. 3 8
C
y
x
O
y
Right
1 3 h
2. Circular h r h 0
3 4
Cone c
y x
O r
 
Shape Figure Volume x y
y
h
3. Cylinder
h r2h 0
2
y= h
2
x
h
1 h
4. Pyramid ab h 0
y=h/4 3 4
a b
3.1.4 Solved problems on centroids

Problem 3.1: Find the centroid of the area shown in Fig.
(M.G. University - Model Qn.Paper EME 102/202)
Solution:
 Since the given area is symmetrical about y  y axis,


x  0 . So we can find only y. The area will be split up into
two rectangular areas ABCD and EFGH as shown in Fig.
(a)
a1  Area ABCD  2  10  20 cm 2
and a2  Area EFGH  15  2  30 cm 2
y1  Centroidal distance of ABCD from the axis 1  1  7
y2  Ce ntro idal distanc e of E FGH from the axis 1  1  1.


Let y be the height of the centroid of the total area
from the axis 1-1

a y a1 y1  a2y2 20  7  30  1
y  
a a1  a2 20  30
 3.4 c m above the axis 1  1
This type of calculations may be conveniently worked

out in a tabular column as shown below:
Centroidal
2
Segment Area a cm distance y a y cm3
from 1  1 [cm]
ABCD 10  2  20 7 140
EFGH 15  2  30 1 30
Total a  50 ay  170

 ay 170
y   3.4 cm
a 50
Problem 3.2: Find the centroid of the area in Fig.

(M.G. University, Model Qn. Paper EME 102/202)
Solution:
 Since the given area is symmetrical about y  y axis,


x  0 . So find only y .
10cm
A B
2cm
D C
E F
2cm
10cm
H G
J K
M L
20cm
Fig.
y
10cm
A B
(1) 2cm
D C
E F
2cm 10cm
x x
(2)
y
H G
J K
(3) 2cm
1 L 1
M
20cm
y
Fig.a
The given area will be split up into three segments.

The areas of the various segments and their centrodial
distances from axis 1  1 and the moments of the individual
area about the axis 1  1 are shown in the following table.
Centroidal distance y
Segment Area a cm 2 ay cm 3
from 1  1 (cm)
ABCD 10  2  20 2  10  1  13 260
10
EFGH 2  10  20 2 7 140
2
2
JKLM 20  2  40 1 40
2
Total a  80 ay  440

 ay 440
y 
a 80
 5.5 cm above the axis 1  1
Problem 3.3: Find the centroid of the area shown in Fig. All
dimensions are in cm. (M.G. University, May 2005)
Solution:
Since
 the
 given area is not symmetrical, we have to
find x and y. The given area may be split up into two
rectangles ABCD and EFGC as shown in Fig. (a) The
position of the centroid of the area with respect to the axis
1  1 and 2  2 w ill no w be w o rked o ut. The c o mputatio ns
are sho w n in the fo llo w ing table.
Centroidal Centroidal
Area a distance distance ay ax
Segment 2 3
cm y from x from cm cm 3
11 22
10 2
ABCD 2  10  20 5 1 100 20
2 2
2 6
EFGC 6  2  12 1 2 5 12 60
2 2
Total 32 112 80
 
ay 112 ax 80
y   3.5 cm ; x    2.5 cm
a 32 a 32
Problem 3.4: In a rectangular plate 10 cm  12 cm , a

rectangular opening PQRS 3 c m  4 cm is made as shown in
Fig. Find the centroid of the plate after the opening is made.
Solution:
Since
 given
 area is not symmetrical, we have to find
both x and y
10cm
A B
12cm
P Q
1 1cm
4cm
S R
2cm 3cm
D Fig. C
Centroidal
Centroidal
Distance y
Area a distance x ay ax
Segment 2
from 3
cm from left cm cm 3
bottom
edge (cm)
edge (cm)
12 10
Area ABCD 10  12  120 6 5 720 600
2 2
Deduct for
4 3
opening 3  4  12 2 4 51  7.5 48 90
2 2
PQRS
Total 108 672 510

ay 672
y   6.22 cm
a 108

ax 510
x   4.72 cm
a 108
Problem 3.5: Find the height of the centroid above the axis
1  1 for the shape shown in the Fig. All dimensions are in cm.
Solution:
B R4
The shape can be split
up into a number of (1)
segments. The areas of the A C
various segments, their
centroidal distance from the (2) 16
axis 1  1 , and the moments
of the various segments H
about the axis 1  1 are (4)
6
tabulated. G I 10
(3)
Consider triangle HGF
8
F
6
sin    0.6
10 10
  36.87
1 1
E D
Consider triangle IGF 8 Fig.
GI  8 sin 36.87  4.8 c m
IF  8 cos   8 cos 36.87
 6.4 cm
HI  10  6.4  3.6 cm
Area a Centroidal distance ay

Component
cm2 y from 1  1 cm cm3
1. Semicircle ABC 44
42 10  10  16 
 25.133 3 947.5
2
 37.7
2. Rectangle ACDE 10  10  16
36  8  288  18 5184
2
3. Triangle FGI 1
 GI  IF 2 
2 10    6.4 
 12  4.8  6.4 3  219.14
 14.27
 15.36
4. Triangle GHI 1 1
 4.8  3.6 10  6.4   3.6
2 3 152.1
 8.64  17.6
Total  a  337.13 ay  6502.74
 Distance of the centroid from the axis 1  1


ay 6502.74
y   19.29 cm
a 337.13
Problem 3.6: Determine the centroid of the lamina shown in
Fig.
Solution:
The position of the centroid with respect to axes
1  1 and 2  2 will be determined. The lamina is
conveniently split into separate segments ABCD , JDKE and
EFGH as shown in Fig. (a)
The areas of these segments, their centroidal distance

from the axes 1  1 and 2  2 and the moments of the areas
of the individual segments about the axes 1  1 and 2  2
are tabulated.
10cm
2cm
2
cm
14cm
2cm
12cm
Fig.
(2)
10cm
A B
2cm
C J 2 D
cm
14cm
E K F
2cm
(1) G H (1)
12cm
Fig.a
(2)
Area a ay ax
Segment distance y distance x
cm 2 cm 3 cm 3
from 1  1 (cm) from 2  2 (cm)
2 10
ABCD 20 2  14   17 10   15 340 300
2 2
14 2
JDEK 28 2 9 10   11 252 308
2 2
2 12
EFGH 24 1 6 24 144
2 2
Total 72 616 752
 ay 616
y   8.56 cm from the a xis 1  1
a 72
1  1 is the botto m most edge

 ax 752
x   10.44 cm from the axis 2  2
a 72
 2  2 is in the right extreme edge.)
or x  9.56 cm from left extreme edge .
Problem 3.7 Locate the centroid of the area shown in figure
below. The dimensions are in mm.
(Anna University May/June 2010)
Solution:
Area (a) distance distance  
Sec ax mm 3 ay mm 3
mm2 from y  y

from x  x

axis x mm axis y mm
120  160 120 160
1  60  80 1152000 1536000
 19200 2 2
1 2
1
2 50 40 40 110  50
2 3 3 13330 143330
 1000
 13.33  143.33
 4 50 100
2
1  1002 70  50  30 
3 4 3 2 387905.48 314159.2
 3926.99  98.779  80
14273.01 750764.52 1078510.8
 a1 x 1  a2 x2  a3 x 3 750764.52
x 
a1  a2  a3 14273.01

x  52.6 mm
 a1 y 1  a2 y2  a3 y 3 1078510.8
y 
a1  a2  a3 14273.01

y  75.56 mm
80
y
2
30
0
R5
1
11 0
30
O 120
1 2 3
70
160 100
30
120
1 2
3
Problem 3.8: Determine the centroid of the dam section

shown in Fig.
Solution:
The section can be conveniently divided into three
parts as shown in Fig. (a).
The areas of the various components, their centroidal

distance from the axes 1  1 and 2  2 and the moments of
the areas of the various parts about the axes 1  1 and
2  2 are tabulated:
Centroidal
Centroidal
Area a distance ay ax
Parts 2
distance x
m  y from m3 m3
from 2  2 m
1  1 m
1.5
ABCD 1.5  10  15 5  0.75 75 11.25
2
1 6 2.5
EFG  2.5  6  7.5 1 3 1.5   2.33 22.5 17.5
2 3 3
4.5
HGDK 4.5  1  4.5 0.5 1.5   3.75 2.25 16.88
2
Total 27 99.75 45.63
Height of centroid above the axis 1  1 (ie from bottom

edge)

ay 99.75
y   3.694 m
a 27
Distance of centroid from the axis 2  2 (ie. from right

extreme edge)

ax 45.63
x   1.69 m
a 27
Problem 3.9: For the section shown in Fig. below, locate the
horizontal centroidal axis xx and the vertical centroidal axis yy.
2 All dim ensions a re in cm .

6
1 1
3.5
x
Ref line
2
4 4 6
0.5
y
5.5 2
1 1
3
1
Ref
2 8cm line
Fig.
Section Area y x ay ax
1 6
1 616 14  5.5 3.5   6.5 33 39
2 2
4 0.5
2 0.5  4  2 1 3 5.5   5.75 6 11.5
2 2
1 8
3 818  0.5 4 4 32
2 2
a  16 43 82.5

ay 43
y   2.69 cm
a 16

ax 82.5
x   5.16 cm
a 16
Problem 3.11: Locate the centroid of the area shown in Fig.

All dimensions are in cm.
Section Area a x y ax ay
1 7 6
7  6  42  3.5 3 147 126
Rectangle 2 2
2
r2   2.52 5 4r
Semi  1 3
2 2 2 3 34.361 39.879
circle
 9.82  3.5  4.061
(Subtract)
1 2 1
3 73 7 6 3
2 3 3 49 73.5
Triangle
 10.5  4.67 7
 42.68 161.639 159.621
 a1x 1  a3x3  a2x 2 147  49  34.361 161.64

x     3.787
a1  a 3  a2 42  10.5  9.82 42.68

x  3.787 cm
 a1y1  a3y3  a2y 2 126  73.5  39.879 159.621

y    3.74
a 1  a3  a 2 42  10.5  9.82 42.68

y  3.74 cm
Problem 3.10: Find the centroid of the shaded area shown

in fig. All dimensions are in cm.
1. Rectangle 30  20
2. Quadrant r  10
10 4r/3
4r/3
c
r=10
30
20
20 Fig .
r=10
x x
y =1 3.3 8
x= 9.132 Fig .a
Section Area a x y ax ay
1 30  20 20 30
 10  15 6000 9000
Rectangle  600 2 2
2 r2 102 4  10 4  10
 20  30 
Quadrant 4 4 3 3 1237.8 2023.19
(Subtract)  78.54  15.76  25.76
a  ax  ay
 521.46  4762.2  6976.81
 a x a x
1 1 2 2 6000  1237.8  4762.2
x    9.132
a1  a2 600  78.54 521.46

x  9.132 cm
 a y a y
1 1 2 2 9000  2023.19  6976.81
y    13.38
a1  a2 600  78.54 521.46

y  13.38 cm
Problem 3.12: A hemisphere of diameter 30 cm is

symmetrically placed on top of a circular cylinder of diameter
20 cm and height 30 cm. Locate the centre of gravity of the
composite volume.
Solution:
Since the composite volumes of hemisphere

 and
cylinder are symmetrical
 about y  y axis, x  0 and so we
can find only y.
30 1
3r
20 8
3
= x15
8
c =5 .625
x x
h= h=
30 30 2
h
2
Fig.
G IV EN FIG Fig.a
Section V = Volume y Vy
Volume of Hemisphere
3
2 30  r
 r3 8
1 3 251818.9
30  5.625
2
   153  7068.6  35.625
3
Volume of Cylinder

  d2  h 30
2 4  15 141371.7
2

  202  30  9424.78
4
V  16493.38 Vy  393190.6

Vy 393190.6
y   23.84 cm
V 16493.4
Problem 3.13: Find the centroid of the area shown in the fig.
(Oct. 2001, Madras University)
6cm x
2
6cm
D ia =4cm A E D
D ia =4cm
(3)
12 cm
12cm
(1)
(2) y
10 cm 6cm 1 (1)
16cm B F 6cm C
10
Fig . 2 16cm
Fig .a
x from y from
Section Area A Ax Ay
2 – 2 1 – 1
12  10 10 12
5 6 600 720
 120 2 2
1 1
 6  12 10  6 1
2 3  12  4 432 144
3
 36  12
1 2
D 
2  4  42
4 12 
  42 6 8 3 50.264 70.06
 2
42  11.15
 6.283
 ax 
A   ay 
981.736
149.717 793.94

To find x
 A1 x1  A2 x2  A3 x3 600  432  50.624 981.736
x    6.557 cm
A1  A2  A3 120  36  6.283 149.717

x  6.557 cm

To find y
 A1y1  A2 y2  A3 y3 720  144  70.06 793.94
y    5.303 cm
A1  A2  A3 120  36  6.283 149.717

y  5.303 cm
 
x , y  6.557 , 5.303 
Problem 3.14: Locate the centroid of the area of the figure
shown. (Apr. 2000 Madras University)
Solution:
The given diagram can be redrawn as follows making
all dimension in cm.
x from y from
Area a ax ay
22 11
1 (+) 15  10 15 10
 7.5 5 1125 750
Rectangle  150 2 2
1 1 1
2 (+)  5  10 15  5  10
2 3 3 416.75 83.33
Triangle
 25  16.67  3.333
3 (–)
1.5  1.5 2  0.75
Small 0.75 1.69 6.19
 2.25  2.75
Rectangle
4r
10  
4 (–)   1.52 3 3
10 
Semi 2 2 4  1.5 40.641 33.09
10 
circle  3.534  11.5 3
 9.363
a  ax   ay 
 169.22 1499.419 794.05
150m m
D ia=30m m
65m m 20m m
100m m
(3 ) 1.5cm
15m m 2cm
Fig. 200m m
2 15 cm
y
D ia = 3 c m
(4)
10cm
6.5cm 2cm
x x
10cm
1
(3) 1.5cm
(2) y
1 .5
2cm
cm
1 1
5cm
20cm
x Fig.a
2 y
 a 1 x 1  a 2x2  a 3x 3  a 4x4
x
a1  a2  a3  a4
1125  416.75  1.69  40.641 1499.419

   8.86 cm
150  25  2.25  3.534 169.22

x  8.86 cm
 a1y1  a2y2  a3y 3  a4y4

y
a1  a2  a3  a4
750  83.33  6.19  33.09 794.05

   4.69 cm
150  25  2.25  3.534 169.22

y  4.69 cm
Problem 3.15: Determine the centroid of the unhatched area

shown in figure. (MG University, May 2005)
90 cm
60 cm
m
50c
R=
7 5c m
Solution:
B
2
A
C
9 0cm
60 c m
1 3
m
50c
R=
1 1
F E D
7 5cm
2
x from y from
Section Area A Ax Ay
(2) - (2) (1) - (1)
A1  l  b 175 60
x1  y1 
 60  175 2 2 918750 315000
 10,500  87.5  30
1
A2  b
2 h
y2  60 
h 175 3
x2 
1 3 30 153116.25 183750
  175  60 
2  58.33 3
 30  70
 2625
 r2 4r
A3  y3 
2 3
–83328.82
  50 x3  50 4  50  196350
 
2 3
  3926.9  21.22
 A  9198.1  Ax   Ay 
875516.25 415421.2

To find x
 A 1 x1  A 2 x2  A 3 x3 918750  153116.25  196350
x 
A 1  A2  A 3 10500  2625  3926.9
875516.25
  95.184 cm
9198.1

x  95.184 c m

To find y
 A 1 y1  A 2 y2  A 3 y3 315000  183750  83328.82
y 
A 1  A2  A 3 10500  2625  3926.9
415421.2
  45.16 cm
9198.1

y  45.16 cm
Result:
 
x, y   95.184 , 45.16 
Problem 3.16: Determine the centroid of the plane uniform

lamina shown in figure. (Kannur University, April 2013)
Solution: Refer Fig. (a)
Seg-
Area a cm2 distance y distance x ay ax
ments
from (1) - (1) from 2 - 2
4r
r =
 r2   22 3
 D 4
1 2 1  2 42 12.566 7.22
2 2 2
 6.283 3
 1.15
5  10 5 10
2  2.5 2 7 125 350
 50 2 2
1
bh h
2 5 5
3 25
3 1 2 83.33 118.75
 55 5
2 5  6.667  9.5
3
 12.5
 ay 
 ax 
 a  68.782 220.896
475.97
To find x
 a1 x 1  a2 x2  a3 x 3 475.97
x   6.92 cm
a1  a2  a3 68.783

To find y
 a1 y 1  a2 y2  a3 y 3 220.896
y   3.21 cm
a1  a2  a3 68.783
All dim ensio ns are in m m
50
50
25 25
r= 2 0
50
1 00
Fig.
A ll dim ens ion s are in cm

2 5
3
5
2 .5 2 .5
1
r=2
5
1 1
10
2 Fig. (a)
3.2 MOMENT OF INERTIA (or)

SECOND MOMENT OF AREA
The role played by the moment of inertia in the rotary
motion is similar to the role played by the mass in the
translatory motion.
The moment of inertia of an area is called as the area

moment of inertia or the second moment of area.
The moment of inertia
of the mass of a body is
called as the mass moment
of inertia.
3.2.1 Moment of Inertia
of an Area of a Plane Fig.3.3 
Figure
Consider a plane figure of area A in the x  y plane
as shown in Fig.3.4
Divide this area A into infinitesimal areas.
Let dA be any element of the area situated at a
distance x, y from the axes.
y
of the area A with respect dA
x
to the x  axis  Ix   y dA2
A
The moment of inertia r
of the area A with respect
x
O
to the y  axis  Iy   x2 dA Fig.3.6
z
3.3 PARALLEL AXIS THEOREM

Let x, y be the rectangular coordinate axes through a
point O in the plane figure of area A as shown in Fig 3.5.
x, ybe the corresponding parallel axes through the
centroid C of the area.

of the area A about the
x-axis
Ix   y2 dA
where, dA is an element of
area at a distance y from
the x  axis.
But y  dy  y
dy is the perpendicular
distance between the axes x and x
Ix  y  dy2 dA
 y2  dy2  2ydy dA
 y2 dA  dy2 dA  2dy  ydA

Ix   y2dA  Ady2  0
The terms  y dA represents the first moment of the
area A about its own centroidal axis x, and is therefore,
equal to zero. The term y2 dA represents the moment of
inertia of the area A about the axis x.
Ix  Ix  A dy2 This is parallel axis theorem
S imilarly, Iy  Iy   A dx2
where dx is the perpendicular distance between the axes

y and y.
So the moment of inertia of an area with respect to

any axis in its plane is equal to the moment of inertia of
the area with respect to a parallel centroidal axis plus the
product of the area and the square of the distance between
the two axes according to parallel axis theorem.
3.4 PERPENDICULAR AXIS THEOREM

Moment of inertia of a y
plane lamina about an axis
perpendicular to the lamina dA
x
and passing through its
A
centroid is equal to the sum r
of the moment of inertias of
the lamina about two x
O
mutually perpendicular axes z Fig.3.6
passing through the centroid
and in the plane of the lamina.
Simply Izz  Ixx  Iyy
This is perpendicular axis theorem
The unit of Moment of inertia of an area is m 4 or

cm 4 o r mm 4.
The moment of inertia of an area can be determined

with respect to any axis. One commonly used axis is the
centroidal axis. Any axis passing through the centroid of
an area is called centroidal axis. Three of them are
centroidal x-axis, centroidal y  axis and centroidal z-axis.
3.4.1 Polar Moment of Inertia

The moment of inertia of an area of a plane figure
with respect to an axis perpendicular to the x  y plane and
passing through a pole O (z  axis) is called as the polar

moment of inertia and is denoted by J (or Iz
Polar mom ent of inertia Iz  J   r2 dA

As x 2  y2  r2
Iz  J  r
2
dA   x2  y2 dA  Ix  Iy
So, J  Ix  Iy
i.e. Izz  Ixx  Iyy . This is called perpendicular axis

theorem.
Note: Ix and Ixx are same. Similarly Iy  Iyy and Iz  Izz .
3.4.2
Table 3.3 Moments of Inertia of Important Figures
Shape Area Figure

y bh3 hb3
Ix  ,I 
12 y 12
Rectangle bh h x
bh
J b2  h2
12
b
bh3
h Ix  ;
1 36
Triangle bh x
2 bh3
IAB 
A B 12
b
y
 r4
Ix  Iy  D4 
64 4
Circle D2 x
C
4  4 r4
Iz  J  D 
r 32 2
D
Shape Area Figure

y 1
Ix  Iy    r4
8
Semicircle D2
C
8 1
x Iz  J    r4
O 4
r
1
Ix  Iy    r4
16
Quarter- D2 C
circle 1
16 Iz  J    r4
x 8
O
r
1 1
y Ix   ab3; Iy   a3b
4 4
b
Ellipse  ab x
1
J  ab a2  b2
4
a
3.5 CENTROID AND MOMENT OF INERTIA OF

COMPOSITE AREA
Fig. 3.7 shows an I-section.
A RE A a1 1
A R EA a2
y1
2
x
y2
y
3 AREA a3 y3
1 1
Fig .3.7
To find the moment of inertia of the section about an axis

1  1 passing through the bottom edge, the section is split up
into parts like 1, 2 and 3 of areas a1, a2 and a3 respectively.
Let Iself 1, Iself 2, Iself 3 be the moments of inertia of the
individual parts about their respective individual centroidal axes
parallel to the axis 1-1
Iself  Moment of Inertia of any area about its own
centroidal axis parallel to the axis 1  1.
Now the Moment of Inertia of the section about the

axis 1-1  I1  1
 Moment of Inertia of area 1

 Moment of Inertia of area 2
 Mom ent of Inertia of a rea 3
 Iself 1  a1y21  Iself 2  a2y 22  Iself 3  a3y23
I1  1  Iself  ay2 [using parallel axis theorem]
The computations can be tabulated as shown below:
Area Centroidal Distance

Segment ay ay2 Ix self
a y from the axis 1  1
1. a1 y1 a1y1 a1y21 Ix self 1
Total a ay ay2 Ix self
I1  1  Moment of Inertia about the axis 1  1.
I1  1   Ix self  ay2
Distance of centroidal axis x  x from 1  1

 ay
y
a
The moment of inertia about the centroidal axis x  x

is given by the relation (Applying Parallel axis theorem).

I1  1  Ixx  a y2

Ixx  I1  1  a y2
Similar way, we can find Iyy also
Note: By using two important formulae, we can find

Ixx and Iyy easily.
To find Ixx To find Iyy

1. I1  1  Ix   ay 2 1. I2  2  Iy self  ax2
self
 
2. I1  1  Ixx  a y2 2. I2  2  Iyy  a x2
 
i.e. Ixx  I1  1  a y2 i.e. Iyy  I2  2  a x2
Problem 3.17: Find the moment of inertia of the area shown

in Fig. about the centroidal axis xx perpendicular to the web.
(M.G University - Model Qn.Paper)
Solution:
The section is split up into segments
ABCD , EFGH and JKL M. The areas of the individual
components, their centroidal distances from the axis 1  1
(from the bottom edge) and the moments of inertia of the
individual segments about their respective centroidal axes
parallel to the axis 1  1 are given in the following table:
Centroidal
Area distance y
Segment ay ay2 Ixself
a from the
axis 1  1
2 3
2  10  bh3 10  2
ABCD 10  2  20 2 260 3380 
12 12
 13
 6.667
3
10 bh3 2  10
EFGH 2  10  20 2 7 140 980 
2 12 12
 166.6667
3
2 bh3 20  2
JKLM 20  2  40 1 40 40 
2 12 12
 13.3333
To tal 80 440 4400 186.6667
Distance of the centroidal axis x  x from the axis


11y
 ay 440
y   5.5 cm
a 80
Moments of Inertia about the axis 1  1  I1  1
I1  1  Ixself  ay 2
 186.6667  4400  4586.6667 cm 4


But I1  1  Ixx   a . y2
 4586.6667  Ixx  80  5.5 2
 Ixx  2166.6667 cm 4
Problem 3.18: Find the moment of inertia about the

centroidal axes x  x and y  y of the section shown in Fig.
(M.G. University Dec 2007)
2 y
x
2cm 2cm
A B
10 10cm centroid
cm (center of gravity)
x x
6cm
2 E F y
cm 2cm
1 C 1
D G
8cm 8cm
Fig. 2 y Fig.a
Solution:
To find the moment of inertia about the axis
x  x Ixx 
The relevant computations are shown in the following
table:
Centroidal
Area ay ay2
Segment distance y 3 Ixself cm4
a cm  cm4
from 1  1 (cm)
bh3 2  103
10 
ABCD 2  10  20 5 100 500 12 12
2
 166.6667
bh3 6  23
2 
EFGC 6  2  12 1 12 12 12 12
2
4
Total 32 112 512 170.6667
 ay 112
y   3.5 cm
a 32
Moment of inertia about the axis
1  1  I1  1  Ixself  ay2
I1  1  170.6667  512  682.6667 cm 4


But I1  1  Ixx  a y2  682.6667  Ixx  32  3.52
 Ixx  290.6667 cm 4
To find the moment of inertia about the axis

y  y Iyy
The relevant computations are shown in the following
table:
Centroidal
Area ax ax2 Iy self
Component distance x 3
a cm cm 4 cm4
from 2  2
hb3 10  23

ABCD 20 1 20 20 12 12
 6.6667
hb3 2  63

EFGC 12 5 60 300 12 12
 36
Total 32 80 320 42.6667
 ax 80
x   2.5 cm
a 32
Moment of inertia about the axis 2  2 I2  2
I2  2  Iy self  ax2
 I2  2  42.6667  320  362.6667 cm 4


But I2  2  Iyy  a x2
362.6667  Iyy  32  2.5 2
 Iyy  162.7 cm 4
Problem 3.19: Calculate the moment of inertia about the

horizontal and vertical axes Ix  x and Iy  y of the section
shown in Fig. (M.G. University - (EME102/202) Model
Qn. Paper)(Apr/May 2008 - Anna University)
Solution: Refer Fig. (a)

The given section is split up into two parts. The
relevant computations are tabulated in the following table:
Centroidal
Area ay ay2 Ixself
Part distance y 3
a cm cm 4 cm4
from 1  1
3
bh3 15  5
Top 
15  5  75 2.5 187.5 468.75 12 12
Flange
 156.25
3
bh3 5  10

Web 5  10  50 10 500 5000 12 12
 416.6667
To tal 125 687.5 5468.75 572.9167

Distance of the centroidal axis x  x from 1  1 y
 ay 687.5
y   5.5 cm
a 125
I1  1  Ixself  ay 2  572.9  5468.75  6041.7 cm 4

But I1  1  Ixx  a y2
6041.7  Ixx  125  5.5 2
 Ixx  2260.4 cm 4
 Since the given Fig. is symmetrical about yy axis,

x  0. Then we can calculate the Iyy as follows
3
hb3 5  15 10  53
Iyy  Iy self      1510.4 cm 4
12 12 12
Problem 3.20: Locate the horizontal centroidal axis of the

trapezoidal section shown below and hence calculate Ixx.
Section Area A y Ay Ay2 Ix self

1 A1  6  1
y1 3 18 54 18
rectangle 6
A2  12 bh
2 y2  13 h
 12  2 6 12 24 12
Triangle  13  6  2
6
 A  12 Ay  30 Ay2  78 Ix self  30
 3
Ay 30 bh 3 1  6
y   2.5 m ; Ix  self    18;
A 12 1 12 12
3
bh 3 2  6
Ix  self    12
2 36 36
To find Ixx

I1  1   Ix self  Ay 2 and also I1  1  Ixx  A  y2
I1  1   Ix self   Ay2
I1  1  30  78  108

But I1  1  Ixx  A y 2
108  Ixx  12 2.5 2
Ixx  108  75  33 cm 4
Problem 3.21: Calculate the M.I. of the section about

XX and YY shown in Fig. All dimensions are in cm.
(May/June 2012 - Anna University)
Solution:
Here we find both IXX and Iyy.
Section Area y x Ix self ay2 ax2 Iy self
14 3.5  62

1. 6 0.5 181.5 253.5 18
12  5.5  6.5
1  42 5.5  0.52
2. 2 2.667 18 66.125 0.042
3  5.75
3. 8 12  0.5 82 4 0.667 2 128 42.67
 16 3.834 201.5 447.625 60.712
To Find Ixx

I1  1  Ixx  a y2 and also I1  1  Ix self  ay2
Now I1  1  Ix self  ay2
 3.834  201.5  205.334


But I1  1  Ixx  a y2
205.334  Ixx  16  2.692 . .


[ . y  2.69 cm given ]
Ixx  89.56 cm4
To Find Iyy

I2  2  Iyy  a x2 and also I2  2  Iy self  ax2
I2  2  Iy self  ax2
 60.712  447.625  508.337


But I2  2  Iyy  a x2

So Iyy  I2  2  a x2

. .
 508.337  [ 16  5.16 2 ] [ . x  5.16 cm given ]
 82.33 cm 4
Problem 3.32: Find the moment of inertia of the shaded area

shown in figure about vertical & horizontal centroidal axis.
The width of the hole is 200 mm (MG University Dec 2005)
y
200mm y
All
20
dim ensions
are in cm
y
y
Given Fig .
Solution:
y
Area ay ay2
Sec 2 Distance 3
Ix self Iy self
a cm cm  cm 4
(cm)
1 1 6 100 903 1003 90

100  90 90 3 4.05  10
1 2 3 135  10 36 48
 4500  30  2.025  106  1.875  106
30 20 303 203 30

20  30 30 
2 2 27  10 3
1.215  10 6 12 12
 600
 45  45  103  200  102
3900 108  103 2.835  106 1.98  106 1.855  106
Centroid

x  0 since figure is symmetrical about y axis
 a1 y1  a2 y2 108  10 3
y   27.692 c m
a1  a2 3900
To find Ixx
I1  1   Ix self   ay 2
 1.98  10 6  2.835  106  4.815  10 6

But I1  1  Ixx   a y 2
4.815  10 6  Ixx  3900 27.692 2
Ixx  1.824  10 6 cm 4
To find Iyy
Since figure is symmetrical about ‘y’ axis,
Iyy   Iy self  1.855  10 6 cm4
Problem 3.23: Calculate the moment of inertia of the section

shown in figure about its centroid axes.
(Calicut University Nov/Dec 2011)
6cm
4cm 8cm
G iven Fig.
6cm
1 3
2
1 1
4cm 8cm
2 Fig.
Solution:
Area ax ay ax 2 ay 2 Ix self Iy self

Seg x cm y cm
cm 2 cm 3 cm 3 cm 4
cm 4
cm 4
cm 4
8  63 3
8  144 8 6
86 4 6 12
1 2 3 384 144 3072 432 12
 48 2
 8 cm  256
2 1 4 63 43 6
2 4 6
1 4 6  2
2 3 3 32 24 85.33 48 36 36
 12
 2.667  24  10.67
2 4 3 4
 3  3
12  6  34
3 2 3 3 187.64 42.42 2490.67 127.23 8
2  8.91
 14.14  13.27  31.81
74.14 603.64 210.42 5678 607.23 199.81 275.5
  ax
x
a
603.64
  8.142
74.14
 8.142 cm
Moment of inertia
I1  1   Ix self   ay2
 199.81  607.23
 807.04
But

I1  1  Ixx   a y2
807.04  Ixx  74.14  2838 2
Ixx  209.89 cm 4
  ay 210.42
y 
a 74.14
 2.838 cm
I2  2   Iy self   a x2  275.5  5678
 5953.5 cm 4

But I2  2  Iyy   a x2
5953.5  Iyy  74.14 8.142 2
Iyy  1038.6 cm 4
Ixx  209.89 c m4
Iyy  1038.6 c m4
Problem 3.24: The section of a beam is shown in Fig. Find

the second moment of area for the following Fig.
(Apr. 2014, Calicut University)
Solution:
Sec Area x y ax ay ax2 ay2 Ix self Iy self
10  23 2  103
1. 10  2  20 5 1 100 20 500 20 12 12
 6.67  166.67
3
26 6  23
2. 6  2  12 1 5 12 60 12 300 12 12
 36 4
3
24 4  23
3. 248 9 4 72 32 648 128 12 12
 10.67  2.67
Total
40 184 112 1160 448 53.34 173.34

 ay 112 
y   2.8 ; y  2.8
a 40
 ax 184 
x   4.6 ; x  4.6
a 40
To Find Ixx
I1  1  Ix self  ay2
I1  1  53.34  448  501.34


But I1  1  Ixx  a y2
501.34  Ixx  40  2.82
Ixx  187.74 cm 4
To Find Iyy
I1  1  Iy self  ax2
I1  1  173.34  1160  1333.34


But I1  1  Iyy  a x2
1333.34  Iyy  40 4.62
Iyy  486.94 cm4
Problem 3.25: For the plane section shown in figure,

determine the moment of inertia about its horizontal & vertical
centroidal axes. (Similar type M.G. University January 2007)
Solution:
Centroid

Since the fig is symmetrical about y axis, x  0,
Iyy   Iy self
 a1 y1  a2 y2  a3 y3  a4 y4  ay
y 
a1  a2  a3  a4 a
38666.67
  25.07 mm
1542.08
o 3 o
90 90 10
10
10 10 10 10 20
20
2
1
30
30
4 +
+ 1 1
10 20 10 10 20 10
y
Fig. Fig. (a)
Area y ay ay2 Ix self Iy self

Seg 2 3
mm mm mm mm4 mm4 mm4
40  303 403  30
40  30 30 3
1  15 18000 270  10 12 12
 1200 2
 90,000  160  103
3
30  20 203  30
30  20 30 3 6
2 30   45 27  10 1.215  10 12 12
 600 2
 45000  20000
1
20 10 10 103  20 203  10
3 2 60 
3 5666.67 321111.11 36 36
  100
 56.667  555.56  2222.22
  204
4 102 4 10 0.11 104
2  4.24 666.67 2829.42 128
 3  1100
 157.92  3926.99
1542.08 38666.7 1161059 133344 173850
Moment of Inertia
I1  1   Ix self   ay2
 133344.44  1161059.47
 1294403.91 mm 4
But

I1  1  Ixx  a y2
1294403.91  Ixx  1542.08  25.07 2
Ixx  325.199  10 3 mm 4
Iyy   Iy self Since the figure is symmetrical about y

axis.
Iyy  173850.79 mm 4
Problem 3.26: Find moment of inertia of the following

section. All dimensions are in cm.
(Oct.2001, Madras University)
Solution:
Refer Table
 ax 235.5
x   4.443 cm
a 53
 ay 365.5
y   6.896 cm
a 53
To Find Ixx
I1  1  Ix self  ay2  78.42  3445.25  3523.67


But I1  1  Ixx  a y2

i.e.,Ixx  I1  1  a y2  3523.67  53  6.896 2
 1003.265 cm 4
x y
Area
Sec from from ax ay ax2 ay2 Ix self Iy self
a
22 11
7  33 3  73
73
1. 3.5 11.5 73.5 241.5 257.25 2777.25 12 12
 21
 15.75  85.75
2  63 6  23
26
2. 6 7 72 84 432 588 12 12
 12
 36 4
5  43 4  53
54
3. 4.5 2 90 40 405 80 12 12
 20
 26.67  41.67
ax2 ay2 Iy self

Total ax ay Ixself
a  53  1094.25  3445.25  131.42
  235.5  365.5  78.42
To Find Iyy
I2  2  Iy self  ax2  131.42  1094.25  1225.67


But I2  2  Iyy  a x2

i.e., Iyy  I2  2  a x2  1225.67  53  4.443 2
 179.44 cm 4
Result
Ixx  1003.265 cm 4 ; Iyy  179.44 cm 4
Problem 3.27: Find the moment of inertia of the section

shown in Fig. about the centroidal axes. (Dimensions in mm)
1. Fix the reference axes (1) - (1) and (2) - (2) as shown
in Fig. (a)
Refer the table
  ax 15649.5
x   19.9 cm
a 787.5
  ay 8298
y   10.54 cm
a 787.5
MI about base (1) - (1),

I1  1   Ixself  ay 2
 41023   79463.8 
 120486.8 cm 4
Also

I1  1  Ixx   ay2
120486.8  Ixx  [787.5  10.54 2
 Ixx  33002 cm 4
10 0 80
R 80
2 40
400
All dimensions are in mm G iven Fig.
2
3 10 8 8 8 3
4(8)
2 4 =3 .395cm
X 3
24
1 X
X X
3
1
1
3 34 3
2 All dim e nsions are in cm
MI about side base (2) - (2),

I2  2   Iyself   a x2
 [77036]  [334207.5 ]
 411243.5 c m4
Also

I2  2  Iyy   a x2
411243.5  Iyy  787.5  19.9 2
Iyy  99385.6 cm 4
Moment of Inertia about centroidal axes,
Ixx  33002 cm 4
Iyy  99385.6 cm 4
Problem 3.28: Calculate the moment of inertia of T section

about an axis parallel to the base of the T and passing through
its centre of gravity. (Model Question paper [EME 102/202])
y
2 cm 2 cm
1
15 c m
15 c m
2 cm 2 2 cm
1
1
15 c m 15 c m
Fig. y Fig. (a)
Solution:
The segements are divided as shown in Fig.(a).
 Since
the given figure is symmetrical about y  y axis x  0, and
Iyy   Iy self.
Seg- Area a y ay ay2

2
Ixself Iyself
ments cm 3
cm  cm cm4
bh3 hb3
 
15 12 12
2  15 2
1 2 285 2707.5 2  153 15  23
 30  
 9.5 12 12
 562.5  10
3
bh hb3

12 12
2  15 2
2
2
1 30 30 15  23 2  153
 30  
12 12
 10  562.5
 ay  ay2  Ix self  Iy self

  a  60
 315  2737.5  572.5  572.5

 ay 315
Y   5.25 cm
a 60
Moment of inertia about 1  1, I1  1  Ixself   a y2
 572.5  2737.5
I1  1  3310 c m4
Let Ixx be moment of inertia about centroidal axis
parallel to base.

Also I1  1  Ixx   a y 2
3310  Ixx  60 5.25 2
Ixx  1656.25 cm 2
Moment of inertia about y  y

Iyy   Iy self  572.5 cm 4
Iyy  572.5 cm 4
Problem 3.29: Find the moment of inertia about the

centroidal X  X and Y  Y axis of the given Z section.
(KTU, May 2011)
Solution
y x
Seg- Area
from from ay ax ay2 ax2 Ix self Iy self
ment a cm2
(1)-(1) (2)-(2)
2  12  10 10  23 2  103
ABCD 20 2 2 300 100 4500 500 12 12
 15
2 5  6.67  166.67
3
12 2  12 12  23
2
JDEK 24 2 9 192 216 1536 1944 12 12
8  288 8
2  203
20  23
2 12960 12
EFGH 40 1 18 40 720 40 12
2  1333.33
 13.33
a  ay  ax  ay2  ax2  Ix self  Iy self

Total = = = = = = =
84 532 1036 6076 15404 308 1508
  ax 1036
x   12.33 c m
a 84
  ay 532
y   6.33
a 84
To find Ixx
I1  1   Ix self   ay 2  308  6076  6384

But
I1  1  Ixx   a y 2
ie Ixx  I1  1   a y 2  6384  84  6.33 2
 3018.212 cm 4
10cm
2cm
2cm
12cm
2 cm
20 cm
Fig.
(2)
10cm
A B
2cm
C J D
12cm 2cm
E K F
2 cm
(1) (1)
G H
20 cm
(2) Fig .a
To find Iyy
I2  2   Iy self   ax2  1508  15404  16912


But I2  2  Iyy   a x2
i.e.,

Iyy  I2  2   a x2  16912  84  12.33 2  4141.57 c m4
 4141.57 cm 4
Result
Ixx  3018.212 cm 4; Iyy  4141.57 cm 4
Problem 3.30. Calculate M.I of shaded area as shown with

respect to centroidal axes.
(Kerala Technology University 2045, May 2014)
2
30 cm 30 cm 30 cm 30 cm
1
30 cm
30 cm
15 cm 15 cm 2
5 0 cm
5 0 cm
1 1
Fig.
2 Fig. a
Solution:
Segment Area a x y ax ay ax2 ay2 Ix self Iy self

2 cm cm 3 3 4 4 4
cm cm cm cm cm cm cm4
2
1 60  803 80  603
 60 2 3
1 2 60 3.84 6.83 36 36
3  80 96000 127992
  80  106  106 = 8.53 =48
=40 =53.33
 2400  105  104
  
154 154
2 7.5 2
 5301.3  8835.5  159039  441775 64 64
30 50
   176.7  2.485   2.485
103  103
 ay
a  ax  ax2   ay2  I self  I self
Total 
  3.68  6.38   850.5   477.5 
 119156.5
2223.29 90698.7  106 106 103 103
  ax 90968
x   40.92 c m
a 2223.29
  ay 119156.5
y   53.59 cm
a 2223.24
To Find Ixx
I1  1   Ix self   ay 2
 850.5  10 3  6.38  10 6
 7.23  10 6 cm 4
But

I1  1  Ixx   a y2
7.23  10 6  Ixx  2223.29 53.59 2
Ixx  8.45  10 5 cm 4
To find Iyy
I2  2   Iy self   ax2  477.5  10 3  3.68  10 6
 4.16  10 6
But

I2  2  Iyy   a x2
4.16  10 6  Iyy  2223.29 40.92 2
Iyy  4.37  10 5 cm 4
Result
Ixx  8.45  10 5 cm 4
Iyy  4.37  10 5 cm 4
Problem 3.31: Calculate the moment of inertia of the area

with respect to the centroidal axis parallel to the X - axis
shown in figure. (Cochin University, May 2014)
10 m m
10 m m
5mm 5mm 5mm 5mm
 
1 1
Fig. Fig. a
2
Solution:
Area y from 1  1
ay ay2 Ix self
Segments a axis 3 4
mm mm mm4
mm2 (mm)
1 1 10  103
 10  10 5   10
1 2 3 416.5 3469.45 36
(+)
 50  8.33  277.78
45 1 4
r
  52 5 8
3
2 1
2 113.1 325.64
5  2.12    54
(+)  39.26 8
 2.88  245.4

3 2 2
  44
5  62.8  314 64
  12.56
(-)   12.56
 ay2  Ix self
 a  76.7  ay  466.8
 3481.09  510.92

 ay 466.8
y   6.09 mm
a 76.7

y  6.09 mm
Moment of inertia about reference axis is given by

I1  1   Ix self   ay 2  510.92  3481.09
 3992.01 mm 4

I1  1  Ixx   a y2
3992.01  Ixx  76.7  6.09 2
 1147.4 mm 4
Ixx  1147.4 mm 4
Problem 3.32: Determine the moment of inertia of the shaded

area shown in figure with respect to its centroidal axis parallel
and perpendicular to the side AB.
Solution:

Since the figure is symmetrical about XX axis, y  0
and Ixx   Ix self
  ax 111.65
x   2.67 cm
a 41.717
Ixx   Ix self
Ixx  249.71 cm 4
2 A ll d im e nsio ns a re in cm
C D C D
20 mm
2
80 mm
R= R=
20m 2
8
m
20 m m
1
2
1
A B A B
60 mm 6
2
Fig. Fig. a
Area
x from
Segments a ax ax2 Ix self cm4 Iy self cm4
2  2
cm2
8  63
3 12
68
8cm
(+ )
6
8  6  48 3 144 432 12 8  63
2
6 cm  256 12
1
 144
1  2 4 2 1
 4 42   24 0.11 24
4 cm
4cm
(-)
2 4 3  32.35  166.64 8
2 cm
 6.283  1.76
2
  6.283  5.15
a  ax  ax2  Ix self  Iy self

 41.717  111.65  265.36 249.71 142.24
Moment of inertia
I2  2   Iy self   ax 2
 142.24  265.36
 407.6
But

I2  2 Iyy   a x2
407.6  Iyy  41.717  2.67 2
Iyy  110.2 cm 4
Result
Ixx  249.7 c m4; Iyy  110.2 c m4
Problem 3.33: Determine the Ixx and Iyy about the centroidal
axes of the plane area shown in figure. All dimensions are in
cm. (MG University May/June 2006)
Solution: Refer Fig.(a)


To find x

Since the figure is symmetrical about xx axis, y  0
and Ixx   Ix self
  ax 1716.381
x   10.577 cm
a 162.27
To find Iyy
I1  1   Iy self   ax 2
 2759.75  19707  22466.75 cm 4
I1  1  22466.75 cm 4
But

I1  1  Iyy   a x2
22466.75  Iyy  162.27 10.577 2

3
R5
9 6
Fig.
3
R5
x x
3 3
2
1
2
9 6
2
Fig.(a)
Seg- x from
Area a ax ax2 Ix self Iy self
ments 2  2
1 1
1 15 15  103 10  153
15  10  150  7.5 1125 8437.5 12 12
 2
 1250  2812.5
2 4 5 4
 5  5
2 15  0.11 54
2 3 672.381 11512.50 8
  68.75
 39.270  17.122  245.437
1  9 63  6 93
3  69 1
2 3
9  3  81  243 48 36

  27   40.5   121.5
a  ax  ax 2  Ix self  Iy self
 162.270  1716.381  19707  1454.937  2759.75
Iyy  4313.13 cm4
Result
Ixx   Ix self  1454.937 cm4

x  10.577 cm

y0
Iyy  4313.3 c m4
3.6 POLAR MOMENT OF INERTIA

The moment of inertia of an area of a plane figure
with respect to an axis perpendicular to the x  y plane and
passing thro ugh a po le O (z  axis) is c alled as the po lar
mo ment o f inertia and is deno ted by J (or Iz
Polar moment of inertia Iz  J   r2 dA
As x 2  y2  r2
Iz  J   r2 dA   x2  y2 dA  Ix  Iy
So, J  Ix  Iy
i.e. Izz  Ixx  Iyy . This is called perpendicular axis

theorem.
3.7 RADIUS OF GYRATION OF AN AREA

Consider an area A which has a moment of inertia
Ix with respect to the x  axis as sho w n in Fig. 3.8 (a)
Imagine the w ho le area A is concentrated into a thin

strip parallel to the x  axis so that this area A
y y y
A
A A
ky
kx
x x x
O O O
(b) (c.)
(a)
Fig .3.8
(concentrated strip), has the same moment of inertia Ix

with respect to the x axis,
Ix  k 2x A


Ix
Refer Fig. 3.8 (b) kx 
A
kx is known as the radius of gyration of the area with
respect to the x  axis
We can similarly define,
Radius of gyration with respect to the y  axis.


Iy
ky 
A
Radius of gyration with respect to the polar axis.


J
kz 
A
J  Ix  I y
Akz2  Akx2  A k y2
k 2z  k2x  k 2y
Problem 3.34: Find the polar moment of inertia of a T

section shown in Fig. about an axis passing through its
centroid. Also find the radius of gyration with respect to the
polar axis. (Dimensions in mm)
300
80
280
80
Given Fig.
Solution:
1. Fix reference axis (1) - (1) as shown in Fig. (a)
2. The segments are divided as shown (i.e. (1) & (2)).
Since the given figure is symmetrical about y  y axis,

x  0; and Iyy   Iy self
4. To form the table
Area ay ay 2
Seg y cm Ix self I yself
a  cm 2
cm 3 cm 4
8 283 28 83
1 8  28  224 14 3136 43904 12 12
 146.34  102  11.94  102
3
30 8 8 303
2 30  8  240 32 7680 245760 12 12
2
 12.8  10  180  102
 Ixself  Iyself
  a  464 10816 289664
2
 159.14  10  191.94  102
  ay 10816
y   23.31 cm
a 464
Centroid, G (0, 23.31) in cm
MI about (1) - (1), I1  1  Ixself   ay 2
 159.14  10 2  289664
 305578 cm 4
Also

I1  1  Ixx   a y2
305578  Ixx  464 23.31 2
Ixx  5.346  10 4 mm 4
MI about y  y
Iyy   Iy self  191.94  10 2
Iyy  191.94  10 2 cm 4
Let Izz  polar MI  Ixx  Iyy
 Izz  5.346  10 4  [191.94  10 2]
 72654 cm 4
Let radius of gyration with respect to polar axis  k z
As per definition, Izz   a k2z
72654  464 [kz]2;


72654
kz   12.51 cm
464
k z  12.51 cm
3.8 MASS MOMENT OF INERTIA OF CYLINDER

AND THIN DISC
A
A
Consider a body of
mass m. The moment of
m
inertia of the body with
respect the axis AA is
defined by integral. r
I  r d m
2
= m
dm
where, dm is the mass of an k
element of the body situated
at a distance r from the axis
AA and the integration is
extended over the entire
volume of the body. A’ Fig.3.9. A ’
The radius of gyration k of the body with respect to

the axis AA is given by the relation.
m

I
I  k 2m ; k
3.8.1 Parallel Axis Theorem

Consider a body of mass m. Let the moment of inertia
of the body with respect to an axis AA passing through the
centre of gravity G of the body be I. The moment of inertia
I of the body with respect to the axis BB which is parallel
to the centroidal axis AA and is at a distance d from it is
given by

I  I  md2
[See the similarities I  Ixx  Ad2]

Table 3.4 Mass Moment of Inertia of Important

Bodies
y
mr2
z Ix  Iy 
4
Thin Disc C
x
mr 2
Iz 
2
r
y
Circular m3r2  h2
Cylinder Ix  Iz 
12
h x
1
r Iy  mr2
z 2
y m
Ix  6r2  h2
r 12
Cylindrical
Iy  mr2
shell h x
(Hoop)
y
mb 2
Ix 
z 12
Thin
Rectangular x b ma2
Iy 
plate 12
ma2  b2
Iz 
a 12
y
ml2
I x  Iz 
12
Slender
N Iy  0
Rod x
C
z
y mb2  c2
Ix 
12
Rectangular
ma2  c2
Prism G x Iz 
c 12
b ma2  b2
a Iy 
z
12
r
Sphere x 2
Ix  Iy  Iz  mr2
5
z
3
y Ix  m4r2  h2
x 80
Cone 3  r2 2

z h Ix  Iz  m h 
5  4 
c x’
3
r
Iy  mr2
10
3.9 SOLVED PROBLEMS ON MASS MOMENT

OF INERTIA
Problem 3.35: A cylinder of length 600 mm and dia 100 mm
is standing on its base. Determine the mass moment of inertia
of the cylinder about
1. The longitudinal axis, 2. Its base.
Take the density of the material as 7830 kg/m3.
(Apr. May - 2014 Anna University)
Solution:
Given
Dia. D  10 cm; radius r = 5 cm

 0.1 m h = 60 cm
= 0.6 m
m3r2  h2
Ixx 
12
1
Iyy  mr2
2

m  Mass  Volume  D ensity   D2  h  
4

  0.1 2  0.6  7830  36.898 kg
4
m  36.898 kg
(i) Moment of Inertia About the Longitudinal Axis Iyy
1 1
Iyy  m r2   36.898  52  461.225 kg cm 2
2 2
Iyy  461.225 kg cm2

h= 60cm
x x
d= dista nce
between xx and
base =30cm
base base
y Fig
10cm
(ii) Moment of Inertia About its Base
Ibase  Ixx  md2 [Parallel axis theorem]
m3r2  h2 36.8983  52  60 2

Ixx    11,300 kg cm 2
12 12
Ibase  Ixx  md2  11,300  36.898  30 2
 44,508.2 kg cm 2
Ibase  44,508.213 kg cm2
Problem 3.36: Find the mass moment of inertia of the
rectangular block shown in Fig. about the vertical y axis. A
cuboid of 20  20  20 mm has been removed from the block as
shown in the figure. The mass density of the material of the
block is 7850 kg/m3 (April/May 2008 - Anna University)
Solution: Y
Given 100
Cuboid: 20  20  20 mm
60
X
b  20 mm, d  20 mm,
20
h  20 mm 20 D im ensions
20
20 are in mm
Rectangular section
100  60  20
b  100 mm, d  60 mm,
h  20 mm
  7850 kg/m 3 (or) 7850  10  9 kg/mm 3
To Find
 Mass moment of inertia about Y axis
Component 1: Rectangular plate
M 1    t  b  d  7850  10  9  20  100  60
M 1  0.942 kg
100
X1   50 mm
2
Component 2: Cuboid
M 2  7850  10  9  20  20  20
 0.0628 kg
20
X 2  60   70 mm
2
 M X  M X
1 1 2 2 0.942 50   0.0628 70
X 
M 1  M2 0.942  0.0628

47.1  4.396
X  48.57 mm
0.8792
Mass moment of inertia about Y axis
Imass  I1mass  I2m ass
M1 b2 M2 b2
 
12 12
0.942 1002 0.0628 202

 
12 12
 785  2.093
IYY m ass  782.91 kg mm2
Problem 3.37: Find the mass moment of inertia of the body

shown in Fig. 4. with respect to X and Y axis. The body is
made of aluminium with density 2800 kg/m3.
(Calicut University C14983 - May 2011)
3 0m m
A
1 0m m
2 0m m
X
B
2 0m m
2 0m m
Z 2 0m m Fig
1. 
 0.02 2  0.03  2800  0.0264 kg
4
2. 0.02  0.02  0.06  2800  0.0672 kg
3. 
 0.02 2  0.03  2800  0.0264 k g
4
S. m Ix self 
No
1 0.0264 1 1
mr 2   0.0264  0.01 2  1.32  10  6 kgm 2
2 2
m 3r2  h2 0.0264 3  0.01 2  0.03 2
Iy self  
12 12
 2.64  10  6 kg.m2
2 0.0672 m b2  c2 0.0672  0.02 2  0.06 2
Ix self  
12 12
 2.24  10  5
m a2  b2 0.0672  0.02 2  0.02 2

Iy self  
12 12
 4.48  10  6 kg m2
3 0.0264 I 6
kg.m 2
x self  1.32  10 [Same as S.No.1]
Iy self  2.64  10  6 kg.m 2
Moment of Inertia about x axis
Ix   Ix self   m d2
Since it is symmetrical about x axis and y axis, d  0
Ix   Ix self and
Iy   Iy self
Ix   Ix self  1.32  10 6  2.24  10  5  1.32  10  6
Ix  2.504  10  5 kg  m2
Iy   Iy self  2.64  10  6  4.48  10  6  2.64  10  6
Iy  9.76  10  6 kg.m2
3.10 PRODUCT OF INERTIA

Product of Inertia Ixy is y
y axis
calculated as follows y’
x’
Ixy   xy dA
Pr
x is
in c
a
al
ip
If the given area has ci p

al
in
ax
an axis of symmetry, this Pr  x a xis

is
x
product of inertia about o
centroidal axis is zero. For A = Are a
rectangle, isosceles triangle, Fig.3.10
circle, semicircle the product
of inertia is zero about the
centroidal ‘xy’ axes.
This concept is used for right-angle triangle.
Ixy  Product of inertia.
If we rotate the axes x and y simultaneously, the Ixy

will become zero at one particular position. (i.e. When x
become x and y become y). At that particular position, the

x axis and y axis are called principal axes. Ixy at this
position is zero.
The two principal axes are perpendicular to each other.
Refer the Fig. 3.10 The axes x and y are rotated

through  anticlockwise and reach x and y position.
Now Moment of inertia, about principal x axis
I x  Iy I x  Iy
Ix   c o s 2  Ixy sin 2
2 2
Moment of inertia, about principal y axis
I x  Iy I x  Iy
Iy   cos 2  Ixy sin 2
2 2
Ix  I y
Product of Inertia Ixy  sin 2  Ixy cos 2
2
when Ixy  0,   m
2Ixy
tan 2 m  
Iy  Ix
3.11 PRINCIPAL MOMENT OF INERTIA

Moment of inertia about principal axes is called
principal moment of inertia.
Principal axes represent two axes. So there are

maximum principal moment of inertia and minimum
principal moment of inertia and are given as follows.


2
I x  Iy  Ix  I y  2
Imax      Ixy
2  2 


2
I x  Iy  Ix  I y  2
Imin      Ixy
2  2 
3.12 SOLVED PROBLEMS ON PRODUCT OF

INERTIA AND PRINCIPAL MOMENT OF INERTIA
Problem 3.38: Determine the product of inertia of a rectangle
about x axis and y axis by direct integration method.
Solution:
y b
Refer the Figure. 2

Let xele  Distance of
centroid of the element from
y axis.

yele  Distance of dy
centroid of the element from h
x axis.
y
Product of inertia
 
Ixy   x eley ele dA
O x
Consider an elemental
b Fig.
area dA in the rectangle.
dA  b dy
 b
xele  from y axis
2

y ele  y from x axis
 
Ixy   xele yele dA
h
b
   2  y b dy
0  
h h
b2 b2  y 2  b2 h 2
  2
y dy  
2  2 
 
4
0 0
b2h2
So, Ixy 
4
Problem 3.39: Determine the product of inertia of a rectangle

about x axis and y axis using parallel axes theorem.
Solution: y
x= b
2
Parallel Axes Theorem

Ixy  Ixy  A x y
y’

where Ixy  (Product of
inertia about the centroid
x’ h
axes x and y  0
C
(Note: Since x and y are
axes of symmetry, Ix y  0) y= h
2
 b  h
x ;y x
2 2 O
b Fig.
Area  A  bh
  2 2
bh b h
Ixy  Ixy  Ax y  0  bh     
22  4
Problem 3.40: For the section shown in Fig., the moments of

inertia with respect to x and y axes have been computed and
given as Ix  405.5 cm4; Iy  272.3 cm4 Determine (i) Product of
inertia (ii) the principal axes of the section about O, (iii) the
values of the principal moment of inertia of the section about
O.
y
7.5
1.25
5
x
10 7.5
O
1.25
1.25
Fig.
7.5
y
7.5
x1
y’
1.25 1 x’
5
y1
y’
10 7.5 x
O x’
1.25
y’ y3
2
3 x’ 1.25
Fig.a x3
7.5
Solution:
To Find Product of Inertia Ixy
The areas can be divided into three rectangles as
shown in Fig. (a)
We know that the product of inertia about x and y

axes (centroidal axes) is equal to zero for each rectangle.
x and y axes are parallel to x and y axes respectively.
So using parallel axis theorem   1.25 

  x1    3.75 
 2 
Ixy  Ix y  x y A for each rectangle.
   3.125
Since Ix y  0,   1.25 
 x3   3.75 
Ixy  x y A for each rectangle.  2 
  3.125
So, Ixy  x yA for whole area   1.25 
y1   5 
  1.25   2 
y3    5 
 2   4.375

  4.375 y2  0

x cm from  
Section Area y cm x y A cm4
y axis
7.5  1.25  
1. x1   3.125 y1  4.375  128.174
 9.375
 
2. 9.375 x2  0 y2  0 0
 
3. 9.375 x3  3.125 y3   4.375  128.174

x y A   256.35 cm4

Ixy  x y A   256.35 cm 4
To Find Principal Axes

2 Ixy
tan 2m  
Ix  I y
 2 256.35

405.5  272.3
 3.849  3.85
2 m  tan  13.85
 75.44 and 255.44 
 m  37.72  and m  127.72 
To Find Principal Moments of Inertia


2
Ix  I y  I x  Iy  2
Imax      Ixy
2  2 


2
405.5  272.3  405.5  272.3  2
      256.35 
2  2 
 338.9  264.86  603.76 cm4


2
Ix  I y  I x  Iy  2
Imin      Ixy
2  2 
 338.9  264.86  74.04 c m4
Problem 3.41: Determine the product of inertia of the ‘L’

section about x and y axes.
Fig. Fig.a
Solution:
Split the ‘L’ section into two rectangles.
Here x and y axes are parallel to x and y axes

respectively. Refer Table
Using parallel axes theorem,

 
Ixy  Ixy  x y A for each rectangle.
 
Since Ixy  0 , Ixy  x y A for each rectangle .

Then Ixy for whole area  x y A

Ixy  Ax y  124 cm 4 from Table.
 
x from y from 
Rectangle 2 Axy
Area cm
y axis x axis
 
1. 2  8  16 cm 2 x1  1 y1  4 64
 
2. 6  2  12 cm 2 x2  5 y2  1 60

A x y  124
So product of inertia of whole ‘L’ section
4
Ixy  124 cm
Problem 3.42: Using parallel axis theorem, determine the

product of inertia of the area shown in Fig. with respect to
x and y axes.
1 1 A ll dim en sions are in cm .

y
All dim en sions are in cm . y’
4 c1 x’
5 5
1 y 1 =2.5
y’
1 2 1 c2 x
x’
y’ y 3 =-2.5
x 3 =4
5 5
x 1 =-4 c3 4
x’
8 1 8 1
3
Fig. Fig.a
Solution:
Ixy  0 for each rectangle, since each rectangle is
symmetric about its x and y axes.

Ixy  Ixy  A x y for each rectangle

0Axy

Ixy for whole area  A x y
 
Area x from y y from x 
Rectangle 2 A x y cm4
cm axis axis
 
1. 414 x1   4 y1  2.5  40
 
2. 919 x2  0 y2  0 0
 
3. 414 x3  4 y3   2.5  40
  80

A x y   80 cm 4
So Ixy   80 cm 4

. .
[ . Ixy  A x y ]
Problem 3.43: Refering to the figure find the necessary

relation between r and h so that X and Y axis will be principal
axis for the composite area. (Cochin University May
2014)
Solution:
X and Y axis are the principal axis.
For triangle (1):
Area y
1
A1   2r  h  rh
2 r
  1
1 1 2 2
X  h; Y  2r  r;
3 3 3 x
h
For semicircle (2):
1
Area A 2   r2
2

 4r 
x2  ;y r
3 2
Product of inertia, Ixy  0
But

Ixy    Ixy  A x y 

 
 h2 2r2  h 2r      r2   4 r  
0   rh    0   r
 72  3 3    2  3  
 4h2 r2 2 r2 h2    4 r4 
0   
 72 9   6 
5r2 h2 4r4
0 
18 6
5h2
 4r2
3


12
h r
5
3.13 THEOREMS OF PAPPUS AND GULDINUS

The Area of surfaces of revolution and the volume of
bodies of revolution can be found by the two theorem called
Pappus and Guldinus.
3.13.1 Surface of Revolution
 A surface of revolution is created by revolving
a plane curve namely a straight line, an arc, etc.,
about a fixed axis in the plane of the curve.
Example: If the line AB is rotated about a fixed axis,
it generates the surface area of a cone as shown in
Fig.3.11.
A Fixe d axis
Fig. 3.11 S urface area of a C one
3.13.2 Volume of Revolution

 A volume of revolution is created by revolving
a plane area namely a triangular area, circular
area, etc. about a fixed axis in the plane of the
area.
Example
If the triangular area ABC is rotated about the axis,
it generates the volume of a cone as shown in Fig.3.12
Fixed axis
A C
Fig. 3.12 Vo lu m e o f C on e
3.13.3 Pappus-Guldinus Theorem I

 Theorem I states that the area of any surface of
revolution is equal to the product of the length of
the generating curve and the distance travelled by
the centroid of the curve, while the surface is
being generated.
3.13.4 Pappus-Guldinus Theorem II
 Theorem II states that the volume of a body of
revolution is equal to the product of the
generating area and the distance travelled by the
centroid of the area.
Properties of Planar Surfaces and Solids E3.1
3. PROPERTIES OF PLANAR
SURFACES AND SOLIDS
Extra Problems
Problem 3.1: Determine the centroid of the Section shown in Fig.
Top F lange
plate
18cm x2 cm
Top flan ge
10cm x2 cm
w eb 2x12
B ottom
flange
24cm x2 cm
1 1
Fig.
Solution: Since the given area is symmetrical about y  y axis,

 
x  0; find y only. The computation is made in the following table.
Area a Centroidal Distance y ay

Segment
cm 2 from 1  1 cm cm3
Top flange 2
18  2  36 2  12  2   17 612
plate 2
2
Top flange 10  2  20 2  12   15 300
2
12
Web 2  12  24 2 8 192
2
2
Bottom flange 24  2  48 1 48
2
Total 128 1152

ay 1152
y   9 cm
a 128
Problem 3.2: An unequal I section has the following dimensions.

Top flange 3  6 cm width; Bottom flange 2  12 cm width; Web
2  7 cm deep. Locate the horizontal centroidal axis above the bottom
line of the bottom flange. (Apr. 99, Madras University)
3
(1)
2 y1
7
c
y (2) y2
(3) 2 y3
12 Fig.
Section Area a y ay
3
1 3  6  18 2  7   10.5 189
2
7
2 2  7  14 2   5.5 77
2
2
3 2  12  24 1 24
2
a  56 ay  290

ay 290
y   5.18 cm
a 56

y  5.18 cm
Problem 3.3: Find the moment of inertia of a rectangular

cross-section about its centroidal axes as shown in fig. Also, find its
moment of inertia about the base AB by using parallel axis theorem.
(May/June 2010 - AU)
Solution:
y
The centroid of rectangular dA =bd y
area is at C. Centroidal axes
x and y are shown and the area dy
is symmetrical about both these
axes.
y
Moment of Inertia about the h x

C
centroidal axes.
Consider an element of
h/2
thickness dy situated at a
distance y from the x  axis.
A B Fig.
Area of the element, b
dA  bdy
Moment of inertia of the elemental area about the x  axis,
Ix  y2dA  y2bdy
Therefore,
y   h2 y  h2  h2
 y3   h3 
Ix   2
by dy  2  2
by dy  2 b  
 3 0
 2b  
y  h2 0 83
bh3
Ix 
12
hb3
Similarly, we can get Iy 
12
Moment of Inertia about the base.
Using parallel axis theorem,
IAB  Ix  Ad2
where, d is the perpendicular distance between the centroidal x axis

h
and the base AB i.e d  .
2
2
bh3 h bh3  3bh3 bh3
IAB   bh    
12 2 12 3
bh3
IAB 
3
Problem 3.4: Calculate the centroidal polar moment of inertia of a
rectangular section with breadth of 100 mm and height of 200 mm.
(May/June 2012 - AU)
Solution:
Polar moment of inertia, Ip  Ixx  Iyy
3
bh3 100  200
Ixx    66.67  106 mm4
200m m
12 12
3
hb3 200 100
Iyy    16.67  106 mm4
12 12 100 mm
 Ip  66.67  106  16.67  106
Ip  83.337  106 mm4
Problem 3.5: Determine the radius of gyration about x axis for

rectangle.
bh3 y
Ix  ... (i)
12
Also
Ix  k2 A  k2 bh ... (ii)
Equate i & ii
bh3
x
 k2 bh
12
h2 h
k2  ; k Fig.
12 12

A B
Problem 3.6: Determine the radius of gyration about its base for
rectangle.
bh3
Ibase  IAB  ... (i)
3
Also
Ix  k2A  k2 bh ... (ii)
Equate (i) & (ii)
bh3
 k2 bh
3
A B
h2 h Fig.
k2  ;k
3 3
Problem 3.7: Determine the moment of inertia of a triangle with
respect to its base.
Solution:
y
Consider a triangle of base
b and height h. Choose an axis h-y
AB to coincide with the base as
shown in Fig. h dy
N
Consider an elemental area
y
of thickness dy situated at a
distance y from base. A B
axis
Area of this element Fig. b AB
dA  ldy
From similar triangle
l hy h  y 
 or l  b
b h h
Moment of inertia of this element about the base

IAB  y2 dA
where dA  ldy
 h  y 
IAB   y2  b dy 
 h 
h
b h  y
IAB   y2 dy
h
0
h
b
IAB 
h  y2 h  y3 dy
0
h
b  h4 h4   b  [4h  3h ] bh3
4 4
b  hy3 y4 
IAB          
h 3 4 
0
h 3 4  h 12 12
bh3
Ibase  IAB 
12
Problem 3.8: Determine the moment of Inertia of a triangle with
respect to its centroidal x axis.
Solution:
y
bh3
We know that IAB 
12
from the previous problem. To
find Ix, we can use parallel axis h
theorem. x axis and the base C x a xis
AB are parallel to each other.
The distance (d) between these d=h /3
h
two axes is A b B
3
By parallel axis theorem Fig.
IAB  Ix  Ad2
h
[ here d  ; A  bh]
3
Rewriting,
Ix  IAB  Ad2
2
bh3  bh   h  bh3 bh3 3bh3  2bh3 bh3
        
12  2   3  12 2  9 36 36
bh3
Ix 
36
Problem 3.9: Find the moment of inertia about the centroidal axis
x  x for the shape shown in Fig.
Solution:
The given section is split up into three rectangular parts i.e.,
the top flange, the web and the bottom flange.
The computations are tabulated below:
Area Centroidal
ay ay2
Parts cm  2 distance y Ix self cm4
cm3 cm4
a from 1  1
3
Top 4  13  6  33
6  3  18 2 333 6160.50  13.5
Flange 12
 18.5
13 2  133
4
Web 2  13  26 2 273 2866.50 12
 10.5  366.167
10  43
Bottom 4
10  4  40 2 80 160 12
Flange 2
 53.333
Total 84 686 9187 433
Distance of centroidal axis xx from the bottom edge

11y
 ay 686
y   8.17 cm
a 84
Moment of inertia about the axis 1  1 I1  1
I1  1  Ix self  ay2 433  9187  9620 cm4


But I1  1  Ixx  [ a y2 ]
9620  Ixx  [ 84  8.172 ]
 Ixx  4013.1 cm4
Problem 3.10: For a built-up section, work out the moment of inertia
about the centroidal axes and their radius of gyration.
(Cochin University - June 2013 Similar type)
Solution:
The given Fig. can be combined and altered as shown in Fig. (a)
Now we can solve this problem. The procedure is same as that

of the previous problem. In this problem, since the given part is
symmetrical about y  y axis and x  x axis, we can solve the problem

as follows.
Ixx  Ix1 self  Ix2 self  Ix3 self  Ix4self
200  303 52  1003 200  303 50  1023

   
12 12 12 12
 450  103  4.333  106  450  103  4.422  106
 8.12  105 cm4

Iyy  Iy1 self  Iy2 self  Iy3 self  Iy4self
30  2003 100  523 30  2003 102  503

   
12 12 12 12
 2  107  1.172  106  2  107  1.063  106
 4.011  107 cm4

To Find Radius of Gyration
y A
k y =5 7.6 cm
y
A
x x
k x =8 .2cm
x x
y Fig .b y Fig .c
To Find kx
Total Area A  A1  A2  A3  A4
 6000  5200  6000  5100
 12100 cm2
Ixx  k2x A
 
 
Ixx 8.12  105
kx  
A 12100
 8.2 cm
To Find ky
Iyy  k2y A

 

Iyy 4.011  107
ky  
A 12100
 57.6 cm
Problem 3.11: Determine the moment of inertia about the centroidal
axes for the section shown in figure. Also determine the radii of
gyration about the centroidal axes. (AU - Apr/May 2007)
Solution:
Area
Seg. x cm y cm ax cm3 ay cm3 ax2 cm4 ay2 cm4 Ix self Iy self
cm2
4  73
4 7  43
47 11  7 12
1 2  3.5 364 98 4732 343 12
 28 2  114.33
 13  37.33
15 3  153
 7.5 3 15  33
15  3 2 7 12
2 2 337.5 382.5 2531.25 3251.25 12
 45  843.75
 8.5  33.75
2  53
5 5  23
25 2 10  12
3 1 2 10 125 10 1562.5 12
 10 2  20.833
 12.5  3.333
83 711.5 605.5 7273.25 5156.75 168.913 884.413

2 y
All dimensions
are in cm All dim ensions
are in cm
5
5
(3)
8
8
3 (2) 3
10
10
7
1 1
15 4
15 4 Fig. (a)
2
Given Fig.
Centroid
  ax   ay
x y
a a
711.5 605.5
 
83 83
 
x  8.572 cm y  7.295 cm
Moment of inertia
I1  1   Ix self   ay2
 168.913  5156.75
 5325.663 cm4
I1  1  Ixx   ay 2
5325.663  Ixx  83  7.2952
Ixx  908.65 cm4
I2  2   Iy self   ax2  884.413  7273.26
 8157.663 cm4
But
I2  2  Iyy   a x 2
8157.663  Iyy  83  8.5722

Iyy  2058.9 cm4

Radius of gyration
 
 
Ixx 908.65
kx    3.309 cm
A 83
 
 
Iyy 2058.9
ky    4.98 cm
A 83
Chapter 4
FRICTION
Friction - Characteristics of dry friction - Problems
involving friction of ladder, wedges and connected bodies -
Definition of work and virtual work - Principle of virtual work
for a system of connection bodies - Problems on determinate
beams only.
4.1 INTRODUCTION
Whenever there is a tendancy of sliding motion
between two surfaces in contact, a resisting force is
developed tangential to the common surface of contact. This
resisting force is called Frictional Force.
Friction is the property of two surfaces in contact by
virtue of which each surface resists the relative motion of
the other surface.
The resisting force developed by each surface is
tangential to the common surface of contact and is opposite
to the direction of impending motion.
The maximum resisting force that can be developed is
called limiting fricitional force.
4.2 LIMITING FRICTION

Refer Fig. 4.1 When a
body is resting on a floor, its
weight W acts downward. P
This force (weight W ) is W
cancelled by the normal F
reaction R N offered by floor.
Fig 4.1 RN
Now if external force P is applied pulling rightside,

the friction force F will come into play to resist the motion.
i.e., Force P tends to move the body in rightside,

Friction force opposes the motion by giving equal amount
of force in opposite direction.
For example, if we give P  10 N force rightside. F

will become 10 N leftside. If we increase P  20 N , then
F  20 N . If we increase P  30 N , then F  30 N . Similar
way, if we go on increasing the P , the F will also increase.
But at one stage, F will attain its maximum limit. For
example, if P  100 N , F will be only 99 N . At this moment,
the body starts moving in the rightside direction.
So 99 N is the maximum limit of friction. This is called

limiting friction. At this stage, limiting friction is the
maximum frictional force exerted when the motion is about
to begin. Upto limiting friction, it is called static friction.
Once the body starts moving, the friction is called

kinetic fricion or dynamic friction. Dynamic friction effect
is less than the static friction.
Static friction Fmax  s R N

Dynamic friction F  k RN
where s  coefficient of static friction;

k  Coefficient of dynamic friction.
4.3 CHARACTERITICS OF DRY FRICTION

(Coloumb’s Law of Dry Friction)
Coloumb’s Law of friction is applicable for friction
between two dry surfaces. If lubricating fluid is used, then
Friction 4.3
frictional force is reduced and the laws of dry friction are

not applicable.
Following are the Coloumb’s laws of dry friction.
1. Frictional force opposes the motion of the body.
2. For two given surfaces, the limiting frictional force
depends on the normal reaction and is independent
of the external area of surfaces in contact.
3. For two given surfaces, the limiting (maximum)
value of frictional force is proportional to the
normal reaction.
F max
F max  R N; F max   R N i.e.,  
RN
The ratio “Frictional force to normal reaction”

remains constant and this constant is called as
coefficient of friction 
4. Dynamic frictional force is less than the limiting
value of static frictional force.
4.4 ANGLE OF FRICTION

In Fig. 4.2, RN is the normal W
reaction; F   R N is the maximum
limiting frictional force, and ‘R’ is
the resultant reaction. F= R N

Resultant reaction is the vector RN R
Fig 4.2
sum of normal reaction ‘RN ’ and
limiting frictional force ‘F’.
The angle  that the resultant reaction ‘R’ makes with

the normal reaction ‘R N’ is the angle of friction.
 is the angle of friction
F  RN
Also tan    
RN RN
Hence tan   
 Angle o f fric tio n  tan  1 
Resultant reaction R  

 R 2N  2 R 2N
R  RN 
 1  2
Problem 4.1: A wooden block weighing 30N is placed on a

horizontal plane. A horizontal force of 12N is applied and the
block is on the point of moving. Find (i) Coefficient of friction
(ii) Angle of friction and (iii) The resultant reaction.
Solution:
W W
R
30N P = 1 2N F P

F Free bo dy
R N diagram
RN
Fig a Fig b
Considering equations of equilibrium

F x  0
 PF0
 P  F  12 N
Friction 4.5
F y  0
 RN  W  0
 R N  W  30 N
F
(i) Coefficient of friction  
RN
12
   0.4
30
(ii) Angle of friction 
tan   0.4;   tan  1 0.4  21.8
   21.8
(iii) Resultant reaction R
R 2  R 2N  F 2  30 2  12 2  1044
 R  32.3 N
Problem 4.2: A block of weight 80 N is placed on a horizontal
plane where the coefficient of friction is 0.25. Find the force
that should be applied to the block at an angle of 30 to the
horizontal to attain the condition of limiting equilibrium.
[Calicut University May 2010]
W P
80N 30
o
F= R N
RN =0 .25
Solution:
Equations of Equilibrium F x  0; F y  0
W P
80N 30
o
F= R N
RN =0 .25
Resolving all forces horizontally, and equate to zero.
F x  P cos 30    RN  0
 0.866 P  0.25 R N
i.e., P  0.2887 R N ... (i)
Resolving all forces vetically and equate to zero,
F y  RN  P sin 30  W  0
. .
 R N  0.5 P  80 ... (ii) [ . W  80 N]
Substitute P  0.2887 R N in equation (ii),
R N  0.5 0.2887 R N  80
80
RN   70 N
1.1443
P  0.2887 R N  20.2 N
A force of 20.2 N is required just to move the block.
Problem 4.3: A wooden block rests on a horizontal plane.

Determine the force required to pull it. Assume the mass m of
the block to be 5 kg and the   0.4
Friction 4.7
Solution:
W = 5x9.81= 49.05N
Force required to Pull it
 Fy  0
RN  W  0 5kg P ull
P1
R N  W  49.05 N 
F= R N
 Fx  0
R N = 49.05N
P1   RN  0
P 1   R N  0.4  49.05  19.62 N
P 1  19.62 N
Problem 4.4: A pull of 250 N inclined at 30 to the horizontal

plane is required just to move a body kept on a rough
horizontal plane. But the push required just to move the body
is 300 N. If the push is inclined at 30 to the horizontal, find
the weight of the body and the coefficient of friction
. (M.G. University - May/June 2009)
Solution: Let
W  Weight of the body in N

  Coefficient of friction
R N  Normal reaction
Case (i)
Pull 250 N inclined at 30 to horizontal
 Fy  0  RN  250 sin 30  W
 R N  W  250 sin 30
R N  W  125 ...(1)
25 0 sin 30 o
im pen ding 0N
m otion 25
o
30
o
y 250 cos 30
F f = R N
RN
 Force of friction, F f   [RN ]
  [W  125] ...(2)
 Fx  0  250 cos 30  F f  0 [ F f   RN ]
216.5   R N  0
216.5   [W  125]
216.5

W  125 ...(3)
Case (ii)
If a push of 300 N is acting at an angle 30 , to the
horizontal, then to find the value of W and .
 Fy  0  RN  W  300 sin 30  150  W
RN  150  W ...(4)
 Fx  0  300 cos 30  F f   R N   150  W
259.81   150  W 
Friction 4.9
P im pending
300 sin 3 0
30 W m otion
0N
o
30
o y
o
300 cos 30
Ff
RN
259.81

150  W ...(5)
Equate (3) and (5), we get
216.5 259.81

W  125 150  W
216.5 W  125

259.81 150  W
W  125
0.8333 
150  W
150  W 0.8333  W  125
125  0.8333 W  W  125
250  0.1667 W
250
W  1500 N
0.1667
W  1500 N
Substitute W  1500 in eqn (5), we get

259.81
  0.1575
150  1500 
  0.1575
Weight of the body W  1500 N
Coefficient of friction   0.1575
Problem 4.5: The coefficient of friction s  0.3 and

k  0.25 between all contact surfaces of contact. Determine
smallest force required to start the block moving if (a) Block
B is restrained by cable AB as shown in fig. (b) cable AB is
removed.
Solution:
Block B A B
1 0 0 kg
 Fy  0 D
RB  W B  0 150kg P
R B  W B  981 N s =0.3, k = 0.25

Fig
Case (a) Consider body D (Fig. b)

 Fy  0
R BD  W B  W D  0
R BD  W B  W D  981  1471.5
 2452.5 N
 Fx  0
P  s R BD  s RB  0
P  s R BD  R B   0.3 2452.5  981 
 1030.05 N
Friction 4.11
W B = 981N B lock D
B lock B
R B = 981 N
=1 471.5N
s R B
T D
B P
s R B D
2s R B
W = 100 X9 .81 =9 81N R B D =W B + W D = 2452 .5N

Fig a Fig b
Case (b) case b

When the cable AB is WB
removed, the bodies B and D will B
move together due to force P.
D WD
Refer Fig. (c).
P
When the bodies are about
S R B D
to move,
 Fy  0
R BD
R BD  W B  W D  0 Fig c
R BD  W B  W D  981  1471.5   2452.50 N
 Fx  0
P  s R BD  0
P  s R BD  0.3  2452.5  735.75 N

Problem 4.6: In Fig. (a), block B of weight 80 N rests on

another block A of weight 160 N. A string passing round a
frictionless pulley connects both these blocks as shown. What
would be the value of the horiontal force P to drag the block
A towards left? Coefficient of friction for all sliding surfaces is
0.25. (Nov/Dec 2008, Kannur University)
Solution:
Fig. (b) and (c) show FBD of the two blocks separated
from each other to study the forces acting on each block.
All the forces are marked.
Consider the block B. The forces acting on this block
are:
G iven
B
P =?
A
Fig (a)
W B =8 0N
W B =8 0N R B
P W A =1 60N
A T
R B B T
R A
RB RA
Free body diagram Free body
of body B diagram of body A
Fig (b) Fig (c)
Friction 4.13
(i) Its weight 80N acting downwards.

(ii) Reaction R B provided by block A.
(iii) Tension T in the string.
(iv) Frictional force  R B acting towards left, since the
block B has a tendency to move towards the right.
The block B is in equilibrium. Writing equation of
equilibrium,
F x  T   R B  0
 T  0.25 RB ..... i
and F y  RB  80  0
 R B  80 N
Substitute RB value in equation (i).
 T  0.25 R B  0.25  80  20 N
Consider block A. The forces acting on this block are:

(i) Weight of the block, 160 N acting downwards
(ii) Reaction R A provided by the ground (upward)
(iii) Weight of block B (80 N) acting downwards
(iv) Tenstion T in the string (right side)
(v) External force P (towards left)
(vi) Frictional force   RA , acting towards right,
opposing the motion.
(vii) Frictional force   R B exerted by block B and
acting towards right trying to oppose motion.
The block A is in equilibrium under the action of these
forces.
F x  T   R A    R B   P  0
. .
[ . T  20 N ;   0.25 ]
20  0.25 R A  0.25  80  P
 P  0.25 R A  40 ..... ii
and F y  RA  W A  W B  0
 R A  160  80  240
Substitute RA value in equation (ii), we get
P  0.25  240  40  100 N

Therefore a force of 100 N will be required, to drag
the block A towards left.
Problem 4.7: A block of wt 1290 N rests on a horizontal

surface and supports another block of weight 570 N on top of
it as shown in Fig. Find the force P applied to the lower block
that will be necessary to cause slipping to impend.
Coefficient of friction between block (1) and (2) is 0.25
Coefficient of friction between block (1) and surface is 0.40
(Calicut University - May 2011)
Solution:
3
tan  
4
A
  36.86 3 B
4 2
W 1  1290 N, W 2  570 N
1 P
1  0.4 , 2  0.25
Fig.
Consider block (2) is in equilibrium (FBD of Block 2)

 Fx  0
F 2 T cos 36.86  0
Friction 4.15
0.25 R 2  T  0.8  0  i 570N

W2
 Fy  0 T T sin36.86
B
T sin 36.86  570  R 2  0  2
T cos36.86 F2
R 2  570  T sin 36.86
FBD of Block 2 R2
Substitute R 2 in equation (i)
0.25570  T sin 36.86   T  0.8
 0.149 T  142.5  0.8 T
0.949 T  142.5
T  150 N
R 2  570  150  sin 36.86  480 N
F 2  0.25 R 2  0.25  480  120 N
Consider block (1) is in equilibrium

 Fx  0 R2
 F1  F 2  P  0
P  F1  F2 R1
F2
1 P
P  0.4 R 1  120
F1
 Fy  0 FB D of
B lock 1
R 1  R 2  1290  0
R 1  1290  480  1770 N
P  0.4  1770   120
P  828 N
4.5 INCLINED PLANE AND ANGLE OF REPOSE

Consider a block resting on a horizontal plane surface.
If this plane is now gradually tilted, it is observed that at
a cetain inclination of the plane, the block is about to slide
down the plane without application of any external force.
This inclination of the plane with horizontal is called the
angle of repose. The angle of repose is solely dependent
upon the nature of surface and is independent of the weight
of the block. In Fig. 4.3 the block is just on the point of
slipping down and therefore  is the angle of repose.
RN
y a x is f
t io n o x axi
s
D i r e c d in g
n
im p e n .
m o t io
R N 

W co
s
W
Fig 4.3 
W s in
Consider the forces acting on the body. W is acting

downwards, RN is acting normal to the inclined plane. The
body is about to move downward. So the friction force
 RN  is acting upward.
4.5.1 To find the angle of repose
Resolving the forces parallel to the plane
F x   R N  W sin   0
  RN  W sin  .... i

Friction 4.17
Resolving the forces perpendicular to the plane,
F y  RN  W cos   0
So R N  W cos  .... ii
Divide the equation (i) by (ii), we get
 R N W sin 
  tan 
RN W cos 
   tan 
But it is already known that   tan 
    i.e., the angle of respose is equal to the

angle of friction.
When a body is about to slip downward in an inclined

plane, then the angle of inclination  will be equal to the
friction angle  . And this angle of inclination  is called
angle of repose.
Note: When the angle of inclination  of the plane is

equal to the angle of friction , then the body is about to
slide down the plane by its own weight. If  is more than
 the body will run down the plane and an external force
will be required to prevent the body from running down
the plane. If  is less than  the body will be at rest. This
situation is called self locking.
4.6 TO SOLVE THE PROBLEM RELATED

TO INCLINED PLANE
Note: Instead of memorizing the formulae, we can draw
freebody diagram according to the given problem and
analyze the forces. The steps to be followed are given below.
4.6.1 Steps to be followed:
The following steps should be observed in dealing with

problem on inclined plane.
(i) Draw a neat and proportionate sketch

(ii) Show the body on the plane and mark the forces
correctly. These forces are:
(a)Weight W of the body - acts vertically
downwards.
(b)Reaction RN of the plane - always
perpendicular to the plane.
(c)External force P as given,
(d)Frictional force F   R N - always along the
plane and opposite to the motion.
(iii) Resolve the forces parallel to the plane, putting
F x  0
(iv) Resolve the forces perpendicular to the plane,

putting F y  0
(v) If necessary, take the moment about any point

and equate to zero. i.e., M  0
(vi) Find the value of the unknown from the above
equations of equilibrium.
Problem 4.8: A block weighing 60 N is just pulled up the
plane having an inclination of 30 with the horizontal by
applying a pull parallel to the plane. If the coefficient of
friction is 0.25, find the pull.
Solution:
Resolving the forces parallel to the plane,
Friction 4.19
RN P x is
xa
f
i o no
t g
e c in .25
D ir p e n d . 0 N
=
0
is im tio n W =6
x
ya mo o
W
30
R N
co
s3
0
o
30
W
30
s in
Fig W
F x  P   RN  60 sin 30  0
 P  0.25 R N  30 .... i
Resolving the forces perpendicular to the plane.
F y  R N  60 cos 30  0
 R N  60  0.866  51.96 N
Substituting this value in equation (i)
P  0.25 51.96   30
 12.99  30  42.99 N
A pull of 42.99 N will be required.
Problem 4.9: A force of 200 N is required to just move a

certain body up on an inclined plane of angle 15, the force
being parallel to the plane. If the angle of inclination of the
plane is made 20, the force required again parallel to the
plane is found to be 230 N. Find the weight of the body and
the coefficient of friction. (Nov/Dec 2007, Anna University)
230 N
200 N
20 o
15 o
Given data:
To find:
W? ; ?
Solution:
Condition: 1 [When   15]
Assume the body is in equilibrium

 Fx  0
 F x  0   F1  W sin 15  200  0
  R1  W sin 15  200  0 ... 1
 Fy  0
R 1  W cos 15   0
R 1  W c o s 15 .. 2
Substitute (2) in (1)

  W cos 15 
 W sin 15  200  0
Wsin 15   cos 15  200  3

Friction 4.21
Condition (2): [When   20]

Assume the block is in equilibrium
 F x  0; F y  0
 Fx  0
 F 2  W sin 20   230  0
  R 2  W sin 20  230  0

...(4)
 Fy  0
R 2  W cos 20  0
R 2  W cos 20 ...(5)
Substitute (5) in (4)

 W cos 20   W sin 20  230  0
W sin 20   cos 20  230 6
Dividing equation (6) by equation (3)

Wsin 20   cos 20 230

Wsin 15   cos 15 200
sin 20   cos 20
 1.15
sin 15   cos 15
sin 20   cos 20  1.15sin 15   cos 15
0.342    0.9397  1.15  0.2588  1.15    0.965
 0.342  0.9397   0.2976  1.11 
0.0444
  0.26
0.1703
  0.26
Weight of the body:

  0.26 apply in equation (6)
Wsin 20   cos 20  230
W[0.342  0.260.9397 ]  230
0.5863 W  230
230
W  392.3
0.5863
W  392.3 N
Problem 4.10: A block weighing 36 N is resting on a rough

inclined plane having an inclination of 30. A force of 12 N
is applied at an angle of 10 up the plane and the block is
just on the point of moving down the plane. Determine the
coefficient of friction. (May/June 2012, Anna University)
Solution:
(i) As the block is on the part of moving down the
plane, the frictional force is acting up the plane.
(ii) Even after applying the force of 12 N, the block
has a tendency to move down the plane. This
shows that the inclination of the plane is greater
than the angle of friction, i.e.,  is greater than 
Resolving the forces parallel to the plane
F x  12 cos 10   RN  36 sin 30  0
  R N  6.18 .... i
Resolving the forces perpendicular to the plane,

F y  R N  12 sin 10   36 cos 30  0
 R N  29.093 N
Friction 4.23
1 0
N s in
12 o 12
10
0
RN s1 s
co x axi
12
R N
36N
x is
ya
36
o
co
30
s3
W
0
30
30
o
s in
36 Fig
Substituting this value of RN in equation (i), we get
  29.093  6.18
   0.212
Problem 4.11: Find the limits of the values of the horizontal

force ‘P’, such that the body remains in equilibrium
(Oct.2000, Madras University)
Solution: The body will be

N
in equilibrium in the 00
15
following ranges of P . P is P
sufficient to prevent the body 0N
2 50
which is about to slide W = =0.3
s
downward and P is sufficient k =0.2 5
to make the body about to 30 o
move.
P to prevent the body
which is about to slide downward [Fig.(a)]
F x  0
F x P cos 30  s RN  2500 sin 30  1500  0
RN
N
00 of
15 x is tio n g
Ps
30 a
os x e c d in
in 3
Pc d ir p e n
0
im t io n
 sR
o
30 P N
F s= mo
x is s =0 .3
ya k =0 .25
o
30
25
00
W =2500 N
o
30
co
s3
0
in 30
0s
2 50 Fig (a)
 0.866 P  0.3 R N  250  0  i
 Fy  0
F y  R N  P sin 30  2500 cos 30  0
R N  0.5 P  2165.1
Substitute RN value in equation (i), we get
0.866 P  0.3 0.5 P  2165.1  250  0
0.866 P  0.15 P  650  250  0
900
P   885.83 N
1.016
P   885.83 N
(i.e., P is acting leftside direction) Here P is not used

to prevent the body. Because the body is not going to slide
down automatically. P is used to make the body about to
slide down.
Friction 4.25
P to make the body about to move up [Fig. (b)]
RN
N
00
15 x is
Ps
30
o s xa of
in 3
Pc i on g
t
0
e c d in
d ir p e n
o
30 P
 sR
N
F = i m o t io n
x is
s
ya m
s =0 .3
k =0 .25
o
30
25
00
W = 2500N
o
30 co
s3
0
0
s in 3
00
Fig (b) 25
F x  0
F x  P cos 30  s RN  2500 sin 30  1500  0
 0.866 P  0.3 R N  250  0 .... ii
Substitute RN value in equation (ii)
0.866 P  0.15 P  650  250  0
400
P  558.7 N
0.716
The body remains in equilibrium when P is in between

 885.83 N and 558.7 N
Problem 4.12: A block weighing 1000 N is kept on a rough

plane inclined at 40 to the horizontal. The coefficient of
friction between the block and the plane is 0.4. Determine the
smallest (least) force inclined at 15 to the plane required just

to move the block up the plane. (Calicut University, May 2010)
t
ou v e
Ps
b
A m rdo
in 1
R to p w
a
5
o
u
o
1 5
os 0 .4
Pc
o
15 =
R
N
N =
00 F
10 o
40
10
00
co
s4
0
o
4 0
sin
1000 N 00
o
10
40
Given
W  1000 N;   0.4 ; R N  Normal R eaction
To find
P?
 Fx  0
P cos 15  1000 sin 40   R N  0
P cos 15  0.4 R N  642.78 (i)

 Fy  0

R N  1000 cos 40  P sin 15  0
Friction 4.27

R N   P sin 15  766.04
Substitute RN in eqn (i)
P cos 15  0.4 P sin 15  766.04  642.78

0.965 P  0.1035 P  306.416  642.78
1.0685 P  949.196
P  888.34 N
Problem 4.13: Two blocks of weight 500 N and 900 N

connected by a rod are kept on an inclined plane as shown in
Fig. The rod is parallel to the plane. The coefficient of friction
between 500 N block and the plane is 0.3 and that between
900 N block and the plane is 0.4. Find the inclination of the
plane with the horizontal and the tension in the rod when the
motion down the plane is just about to start.
(May/June 2009, Calicuit University)
Solution:
tio n
g mo
e n d in
Im p 90 0
N
0 .4
1 =
N
500
0.3
2 =

1  0.4 [for 900 N block]
2  0.3 [for 500 N block]
Let angle of inclined plane  

Tension in the rod  T

Normal reaction for 900 N block  R N
1
Normal reaction for 500 N block  R 2

Force of friction, for the block of 900 N  F 1  0.4 RN
1
Force of friction, for the block of 500 N  F 2  0.3 RN

2
Consider 900 N block

 F y  0  RN  900 c o s 
1
Force of friction, F 1  0.4 RN

1
 0.4 900 cos 

 360 cos 
t io n
g mo
e n d in
Im p
N
900
0.4
1 =
N 
500
0 .3
2 = 

900 N
Free body diagram of the given situation

Friction 4.29
 Fx  0  900 sin   T  F 1
900 sin   T  360 cos 
 T  360 cos   900 sin  ...(1)
Consider 500 N block

 F y  0  R2  500 cos 
Force of friction, F 2  0.3 R N

2
 0.3 [500] cos   150 cos 
 Fx  0  500 sin   T  F 2
500 sin   T  150 cos 
 T  500 sin   150 cos  ...(2)

Equate equations (1) and (2)
360 cos   900 sin   500 sin   150 cos 
360 cos   150 cos   500 sin   900 sin 
510 cos   1400 sin 
510
 tan  
1400
 510 
   tan  1    20
 1400 
  20
Inclination of the plane   20 Ans

Problem 4.14: What should be the value of  in Fig. (a)

which will make the motion of 900 N block down the plane to
impend? The coefficient of friction for all contact surfaces is
1/3. Also find Tension in the string.
Solution:
First of all, we have to draw FBD of Block (2) which
is about to move down to find the direction of F 1.
When Block (2) is moving down F 1 will act upward.

So in FBD of Block (1), this F 1 will act downward -
opposite to the direction of F 1 in FBD of block (2).
Given
W 1  300 N, W 2  900 N
  0.333
N
300 1
R N  Normal Reaction
1 2
0N
90
Free body diagram for
block 2 Fig. a

 Fx  0
 1200 sin   F 1  F 2  0
0.33  300 c o s  R N2
 0.33 RN   1200 sin  ...(1) F1

2
2
 Fy  0
F2
12
R N  1200 cos 
00

cos
2


Substitute RN in eqn (1)

2
900+300 in 
0 0s
99 cos   396 c o s   1200 sin  12 Fig. b
Friction 4.31
495 cos   1200sin 
tan   0.4125
  22.41 
Free body diagram for block 1

 Fx  0
R N1 T s
0 0co
x3
T  300 sin   F 1  0 .33
1
F1 =0
T  0.33 R N  300 sin 
30
1 
0c
os
3 00 N
 Fy  0 in 
0s Fig. c
30
R N  300cos 
1
T  0.33 300 cos   300 sin  ...(2)
Substitute  in eqn (2), we get
T  0.33 300 cos   300 sin 
T  129.27 N
4.7 FRICTION ON LADDER

Problem 4.15: The ladder AB shown in Fig. weighs 200 N.
The coefficient of friction between the ladder and the wall is
0.2 and between the ladder and floor is 0.5. Determine the
force P applied horizontally at the bottom to just produce
motion to the left.
Solution:
Given B  0.2 ; A  0.5 ; W  200 N
Fig (b) shows all the forces acting on the ladder.

These are:
B B RB
B =0.2
B R B
6m 6m
200N W =200N
P P A 4.5m
4.5m
A A =0.5 A R A
Fig (a) Fig (b) FB D
RA
(i) Weight of the ladder acting through its midpoint.

(ii) Reaction R B perpendicular to the wall.
(iii) Reaction R A perpendicular to the floor.
(iv) Frictional force B R B  opposing motion of the top

end of the ladder along the wall. It acts upwards.
(v) Frictional force A RA  opposing motion of the
lower end of the ladder along the floor. It acts
horizontally - rightside.
(vi) External force P - leftside.
Writing equations of equilibrium,
F x  0; Fy  0 and  M  0
As the ladder is in equilibrium under the action of

these forces,
F x  A R A   P  RB  0
 0.5 RA  P  R B  0 i
F y  R A  200  B RB   0
Friction 4.33
 R A  200  0.2 RB  0  ii
 MA  0 ; Taking moments about A,
4.5
M A  R B  6  B R B  4.5  200  0
2
 6 R B  0.2 R B  4.5  450  0
 6.9 R B  450
 R B  65.2 N
Substituting this value of RB in equation (ii)
R A  200  0.2  65.2  0
 R A  187 N
Substituting the values of RA and R B in equation (i)
0.5  187  P  65.2  0
P  28.3 N
Problem 4.16: A ladder of weight 1000 N and length 4 m

rests on smooth wall as shown in figure. If a 750 N weight is
applied at a distance of 3 m from the top of ladder, it is at
the point of sliding. Determine the coefficient of friction between
ladder and the floor. (KTU - May 2011 - Q.No.2006)
Solution: Applying equilibrium condition,
 Fx   H  0  RB  FA  0 ...(1)
 F y   V  0  RA  1000  750  0 ...(2)
R A  1750 N
RB B
2m 3 m
4m
3.464m
10 00N 1m
sm oo th
w all
75 0N
2m 60 o A
FA
S lidin g
m otion
RA
We know that F A   RA
F A    1750
 MA  0   R B  3.464  1000  2 cos 60  750  1 cos 60  0
. .
3.464 R B  1000  375  0 [ . 4 sin 60  3.464 ]
1375
RB   396.94 N
3.464
Substitute RB value in eqn (1), we get
396.94  F A  0
396.94    1750  0
396.94
  0.227
1750
  0.227
Friction 4.35
Problem 4.17: A ladder rests on a rough vertical wall

  0.3 and inclined at 45 to horizontal and the other end
rests on the ground   0.5. A man ascends up the ladder till
3
ladder slips. It starts slipping when he climbs length of the
4
ladder.If the weight of the ladder is 10 kN, find out the weight
of the man climbing the ladder.
(KTU - May/June-2012 / Qn.1244)
Solution:
y
B =0 .3 W man
RB B
F B= B R B L
Sliding m otion
3
L
G 4
W ladder = 10 kN

o
F A = A R A
O x
A Slidin g m otion
A =0 .5
(b) F.B.D . o f la dde r RA
Applying equilibrium condition,
 F x  0  R B  F A  0  R B  0.5 R A  0  R A  2 R B ... (i)
 F y  0  R A  10  W man  F B  0
R A  10  W man  0.3 RB  0
2 R B  10  W man  0.3 R B  0
2.3 R B  10  W man  0
 W man  2.3 R B  10 ... (ii)
 M A  0 ; Take moment about A

3 L
 W man  L cos 45  Wladder  cos 45
4 2
 R B  L sin 45  B R B  L sin45  0 (Divide by L)
0.53W man  3.54  0.707 R B  0.212 R B  0
0.53 W man  0.919 R B   3.54 ... (iii)

 W man  2.3 R B   10 ... (ii)
 0.53W man  1.219 R B  5.3 [Eqn (ii)  0.53]
0  0.3 R B  1.76 Adding (iii) and (ii)
R B  5.87 kN
Substitute RB in eqn (ii), we get
 W man  2.3 5.87  10
W man  2.3  5.87  10  3.493 kN
Weight of man  W man  3.493 kN
Problem 4.18 A 10 m long ladder of weight 400 N rests

against a vertical wall, with which it makes an angle of 30
and on a floor. If a man of weight 675 N climbs it, how much
length of the ladder he shall climb before the ladder slips.,
The  between the ladder and wall is 0.25 and  between the
Friction 4.37
ladder and floor is 0.3.

(Cochin niversity-June 2014 and KTU - May 2011-Qn. 2006)
B = Wa ll=0.25 675 N

RB B W man
F B = 0.25 R B
10

o
m
L
Slipp ing direction
G 5
m
400 N
W ladder

o
F A = 0.3 R A
O x
A = FL O O R =0.3 A
Slipping direction
(b) F.B.D . o f la dde r RA
 MA  0
Take moment about A

 R B  10 sin 60  0.25R B  10 cos 60  400  5 cos 60
 675  L cos 60  0
 9.91R B  1000  337.5 L  0 ... (i)
 Fy  0
R A  0.25 R B  675  400  0
R A  0.25 R B  1075 ... (ii)

 Fx  0
R B  0.3 R A  0
R B  0.3 R A
... (iii)
Substitute RB in eqn (ii), we get
R A  0.25 0.3 R A   1075
1075
RA   1000 N
1.075
R B  0.3 1000  300 N
Substitute RB in eqn (i), we get
9.91 300  1000

L  5.85 m
337.5
The man can climb upto 5.85 m from bottom, before

slipping.
Problem 4.19: A 8 m long ladder rests against a vertical wall

making an angle of 50 with the wall and resting on a floor.
If a boy, whose weight is one half that of the ladder climbs
it, at what distance along the ladder will he be, when the
ladder is about to slip? The coefficients of friction between the
ladder and the wall is 1/3 and that between the ladder and
the floor is 1/2. (Nov/Dec 2012 - M.G. University)
Solution:
Let the boy climbs a length l of the ladder before
slipping occurs.
Free body diagram is shown in Fig.

Friction 4.39
boy B RB
B =1/3 WALL
8m 50 o
W /2 =
8sin40
C
1/3 R B
boy
w eight
o
4m 50
about
to slip
W = W t of ladder
40
o dow n
1/2R A A Floor w ard
about to slip R A A =1/2

left side 8 cos 40
Fig
Writing the equations of equilibrium.
F x  0 ; F y  0 ; M  0
1
F x  0  R  R B  0; R A  2 RB  i
2 A
W RB
F y  0  R A  W   0  ii
2 3
Taking moments about A, M A  0
1
M A  0 : R B 8 sin 40  RB 8 cos 40  W4 cos 40
3
W
 l cos 40  0
2
5.14 RB  2.04 R B  3.064 W  0.383 lW  0 .... iii 

From (i) RA  2RB , Substituting in (ii), we get
RB
2 RB   1.5W  0
3
R B  0.643 W
Substituting R B value in (iii), we get
5.14 0.643 W  2.04 0.643 W  3.064 W
 0.383 lW  0 .... iv
Divide the equation (iv) by W, we get
3.31  1.312  3.064  0.383 l  0
l  4.068 m
4.8 BELT DRIVES

In industries, the power from one shaft to another
shaft is usually transmitted by means of flat belts, V belts
and ropes.
Flat Belt: Types of Belt Drives

1. Open belt drive
2. Cross belt drive.
4.8.1 Open Belt Drive

The open belt drive is used to rotate the driver pulley
and driven pulley in the same direction. Refer Fig. 4.4
r1  r 2
sin  
x
  angle of contact for smaller pulley (also called

angle of lap and angle of wrap)
Friction 4.41
Parallel lines r 2 = radius of

 r 1=radius of bigger pulley sm aller pulley
r 1 -r 2 



  = 180 - 2 
for sm aller pulley
in radian
x = center to center distance
Fig. 4.4
  180  2 for smaller pulley in radian

Length of the belt  L
r1  r22
L  r1  r2  2x 
x
4.8.2 Cross belt drive

Cross belt drive is used to rotate the driver pulley and
driven pulley in the opposite direction. Refer Fig. 4.5.
P arallel lines
r2

r1 +
r1
 r2
o1 o2 


x = c en te r to ce n te r dis ta nc e
 = a n gle of la p o r
a ng le o f co n tac t Fig. 4.5
=1 8 0 + 2 
  angle of lap (or) angle of contact in rad
 180  2 in rad
Length of the belt  L
r1  r22
L  r1  r2  2x 
x
4.8.3 Ratio of Tensions for Flat Belts

  angle of lap in radian;
T1  Tight side tension (maximum tension)
T2  slackside tension minimum tension
T1
Ratio of tension   e
T2
If the belt is V-belt or rope,

   c lo
T1   ck
wi
then e  sin   se
T2 
where   half ‘V’ groove

D riv e r P u lle y
angle
or   half of the angle B e lt tra n s m its p o w e r

between two contact to p u lle y
T2 T1
surfaces. S la c k F ig. 4 .6
Tig h t
s id e
s id e
te n s io n
Power transmitted by te n s io n
the belt  T1  T 2 v
dN
where v  velocity of belt  in m/sec , where d  Dia of
60
pulley in m.
Friction 4.43
N  speed of pulley in rpm (revolution per minute)
Problem 4.20: A flat belt rolls over a pulley of a diameter

D making contact angle  when the respective tensions are
T1 and T2. Derive a relationship between the tensions, angle of
contact and coefficient of friction . Show that the diameter of
pulley is immaterial. (Oct. 2000, Madras University)
Solution:
Consider a flat belt wrapped around a portion of a
pulley.
  Angle of wrap (or) Angle of lap (or) Angle of

contact.
Assume the pulley is in
d
equilibrium and is about to
rotate in clockwise direction

by the difference of tension
T1  T 2. So T 1  T2.
T1  Tight side tension

(maximum) and T 2  Slack
D riven pulley
side tension (minimum) T1
T2 Fig.
Consider an
infinetesimal segment of a belt. This segment subtends an
angle d at the pulley center as shown in Fig. (a)
Writing the Equations of Equilibrium

F x  0; F y  0
d d
F x   T cos  T  dT c o s  dRN  0
2 2
d
So, dT cos  dRN
2
-Tcos d
y a xis (T+ dT)cos d x a xis
2 2
-Tsin d d dR N d
2
T 2 2 T+dT
T= S lackside dR N (T+ dT)sin d
ten sion 2
(le ss T+ dT= Tightside te nsion
Te nsion) d (M ore Tension)
dR N = Sm all R N force
d =S m all ang le
P ulle y C en tre
dT =S m a ll te nsion
Fig (a)
Since d is very small, assume d  0.
d
So cos  cos 0  1
2
dT  dR N  1
F y  0
d d
 T sin  T  dT sin  dR N  0
2 2
d d
 2T sin  dT sin  dR N  0
2 2
d d
Since  is very small, we can take sin  . So the
2 2
equation becomes,
d d
 2T  dT  dRN  0
2 2
d
Since dT is very small and negligible, we write the
2
equation as
Friction 4.45
 T d  dRN  0
T d  dRN
i.e., dR N  T d
substitute dR N  T d in equation (1), we get
dT  T d
Rearranging,
dT
  d
T
Integrating on both sides around the portion of the

belt in contact with the drum,
T1 
dT
 T
   d
T2 0
T1
ln  
T2
T1
Ratio of tension  e where  is in radian
T2
We have got the relation between the tensions and

. Here we can see the ratio of tension depends only on
the angle of lap  and coefficient of friction . It does not
depend on the diameter of the pulley.
Problem 4.21: A belt is running over a pulley of diameter
1.5 m at 500 r.p.m. The angle of contact is 170 and coefficient
of friction is 0.25. If the maximum tension in the belt is 1000
N, determine the power transmitted by it.
Solution
Given d  1.5 m ; N  500 r.p.m

  170   2.97 rad. ;   0.25
180
Maximum tension in the belt
 Tight side tension  T 1  1000 N
Power transmitted by belt P  T1  T 2 v in watts
To Find T 2
T1
e
T2
T1 1000
T2    475.923 N
 0.25  2.97 
e e
To Find Velocity v
dN   1.5  500
v   39.3 m/sec
60 60
To Find Power
Power  T 1  T2 v
 1000  475.923   39.3  20,596 watts

Power transmitted b y belt  20.596 kW
Problem 4.22: A belt is running over a pulley of diameter
1.5 m at 350 r.p.m. The angle of contact is 150 and the
coefficient of friction is 0.30. If the maximum tension in the
belt is 500 N, determine the power transmitted by it.
Solution
Given: d  1.5 m; N  350 r.p.m;
Friction 4.47

  150   2.618 rad.
180
  0.30; T 1  500 N
Power P  T 1  T2 v in watts.
To Find T 2
T1
e
T2
T1 500
T2    228 N
 0.3  2.618 
e e
To Find v
dN   1.5  350
Velocity v    27.5 m/sec
60 60
To Find Power P
P  T1  T 2 v  500  228  27.5  7480 watts
Power  7.48 kW
Problem 4.23: Find the force in member AB and the power
required to operate the flat belt pulley.   0.2. Refer fig
(Nov 2009, Anna University)
Solution:
  Angle of contact for smaller pulley  180  2
Note:  should be taken for smaller pulley only
800
x  8000 mm ; r1   400 mm;
2
200
r2   100 mm ; T 2  8 kN
2
G iven
A
T 1 =?
B  2 00 m m
m
rp
90
m
0m
80
C
D T 2 =8kN
8 00 0m m
F ig
To Find 
r1  r2 400  100
sin     0.0375
x 8000
  sin  10.0375  2.15 
To Find 
  180  2  180  2  2.15   175.7

 in rad.  175.7   3.07 rad.
180
To Find T 1 (Force in member AB )
T1
 e  ; T1  T 2e    8  e0.2  3.07  14.8 kN
T2
Force in member AB  14.8 kN
To Find Power
Friction 4.49
A
T 1 =?
m 20 0m m
rp B
90 
r 1 -r 2


m
m
8 00 
C
D T 2 =8 kN
8000m m
Fig
d1N 1
where v  Velocity of belt 
60
  0.8  90
  3.77 m /sec
60
 14.8  8 3.77  25.64
Power  25.64 kW
Problem 4.24: Find the power required to run the pulley belt
drive if (a) the differential tension is 2 kN, (b) the maximum
tension is 8 kN. (Apr.2000, Madras University)
Solution:
Given: Differential tension  T1  T 2  2 kN
r1  50 mm; d1  100 mm  0.1 m; N 1  200 r.p.m ;
r2  20 mm
G iven
r 2 =2 0m m
r pm
2 00
r 1 =5 0m m
=0.25
2m
F ig
d1N 1   0.1  200

Velocity of belt  v  
60 60
 1.0472 m /sec
Case (a)
Power  T 1  T2 v  2  1.0472  2.094 kW
Power transmitted by belt  2.094 kW
Case (b)
  180  2
r1  r2 50  20
sin     0.015
x 2000
  sin 10.015  0.8595 

  180  2  0.8595   178.3

 in rad  178.3   3.112 rad.
180
T1  8 kN
T1
e
T2
Friction 4.51
T1 8
T2    3.675 kN
 0.25  3.112
e e
Power transmitted by belt
 T 1  T2 v  8  3.675 1.0472  4.53
Power  4.53 kW
Problem 4.25: A flat belt develops a tight side tension of 2000

N during power transmission; the coefficient of friction between
pulley and belt is 0.3; the angle of lap on smaller pulley is
165 and the belt speed is 18 m/s. Determine the power that
can be transmitted, if the belt is assumed to be perfectly elastic
and without mass. (May/June 2013 - Anna University)
Solution:
Given
Tension, T  2000 N
Co-efficient of friction,   0.3

Angle of lap,   165  165   2.879 ra d
180
Belt Speed, v  18 m/s
To Find
Power, P
Solution
Power, P  T 1  T2 v
T1
 e 
T2
2000
 e0.3  2.879 ;
T2
2000
T2 
0.3  2.874 
e
 T2  843.19 N
 P  2000  843.19   18
P  20822.42 W
Result
P  20.822 kW
Problem 4.26: A belt supports two weights W1 and W2 over a

pulley as shown. If W1  2000 N, find the minimum weight
W2 to keep W1 in equilibrium. Assume   0.3.
(Apr. 2005, Kannur University)
Solution:
The belt is transmitting abou t to rotate
power to pulley. The belt in
the W 1 side pulls and makes 
A B
the pulley to rotate in
O
anticlockwise direction.
Take the tension in the belt
as T 1 and T 2 as shown. T1
T2
Since the weight W 2 just
prevents the tendency of
W 1 = 2000 N W2
weight W 1 to move down,
Fig
tension T 1 on the side of
W 1 is larger.
i.e. T1  T 2
  0.3;    angle of contact
Friction 4.53
T1
Using  e    e  0.3
T2
T1
 2.57
T2
T1
But T 1  W 1  2000 N; T2 
2.57
2000
T2   778.21
2.57
T 2  778.21 N
i.e. W 2  778.21
Problem 4.27: A rope is wrapped three turns around a pipe

as shown. Determine the force required to just support a weight
of 2000 N. Coefficient of friction between the rope and the
cylinder is 0.25. (Oct 2010 - Calicut University)
Solution:
F
For one revolution of
T2
rope  2 radian
Angle of lap
  2  3  6 radian for 3
turns of the rope.
T1
The rope is wound on a
surface without groove so,
W =2000N Fig
2  180
[i.e. Groove angle  180 ]
  90 
sin   sin 90  1
2
2 =1 80 o
Fo r
V g roove Fo r cylind erical
surfa ce, 2
N ote
[Note
For ‘V’ groove, the included angle  2  ]
Here in this problem the included angle of cylindrical

surface 2  180. (No ‘V’ groove is provided).
  
T1  
e  sin  
T2
where T 1 is the larger tension (tight side tension)
i.e., T1  W  2000 N
T2  F
 0.25  6 
2000  
1
Therefore,  e 
F
2000
F
0.25  6
e
 18 N
It can be seen here that a weight of 2000 N can be

prevented from slipping down by applying a very small
force 18 N because of the presence of frictional force.
Friction 4.55
Problem 4.28: A rope is wrapped three times around a rod

as shown in figure. Determine the force required on the free
end of the rope, to support a load of W  20 kN. Take  as
0.30. (May/June 2010 - Anna University)
T1  20 kN;   0.3;   3  2
T2  F
T1
 e 
T2
20  10 3
 e0.3  6
T2
20  10 3
T2   70
285.68 T2 = F
T2  70 N W = T1
4.9 WEDGE FRICTION

Wedge is a small
piece made up of wood or
metal with triangular WEDGE
shape (or) trapezoidal
Fig. 4.7
shape in cross section.
Wedges are generally used
 For lifting the heavy loads with slight movement.
 For slight adjustments like tightening keys in
between shaft and pulley.
 To remain in position after being forced under the
load due to the friction between surfaces in
contact.
The problems on wedges can be solved with knowledge
of friction on inclined plane by applying Equation of
equilibrium (or) Lame’s theorem.
Consider a block A resting against a vertical wall as
shown in Fig. 4.8. This block is lifted slightly by forcing a
wedge B in between block A and floor.
The block A is raised
upwards by pushing the
wedge leftwards.
Let P is the minimum
(push) force just sufficient
W all
to lift the block A. B lock A
When the force P is P (P U S H )

applied, W ed ge B
Fig.4 .8
Friction 4.57
Sliding takes place as follows

 Block A slides on wall and A moves upwards.
 Wedge B slides on bottom edge of block A and
B moves leftwards.
 Wedge B bottom edge slides on floor and B moves
leftwards.
Now, 1  Coefficient of friction between wall & block A
2  Coefficient of friction between block A and wedge B
3  Coefficient of friction between wedge B and floor.
Draw the Free Body Diagram [FBD] of block A and wedge

B
Note: S ince W edge m oves left sid e (Fig . (b)), F 2 m o ve s rig ht side .
B u t the sam e F 2 a cts in op po site d ire ction in B lo ck A (Fig (a))
M ove up wards R N2
R2
2
F 1 = R N 1
R1
F2 P (PU S H )
Block A
R N1 1
W edge B
W M ove
L eft F3
F2
3
2
R3 R N3
R2
R N2
Fig. 4.9 (a) Fig. 4.9(b)
In wedge problems, the normal reaction RN and

friction force F are summed up and given as R.
ie R1  F 21  R

 2
N1
R2  F 22  R

 2
N2
R3  
 F 23  R
2
N3
1  Angle between R 1 and R N1
2  Angle between R 2 and R N2
3  Angle between R 3 and R N3 R2
Equilibrium of block A
Refer Fig. (a) R1
Fig. 4.10 W
Since F and RN are made to R,
now, we have only three forces,
R 1, W and R 2 as shown here
Now using Lame’s theorem (or) equation of

equilibrium, the problem can be solved. Similarly, by using
fig. (b) free body diagram of wedge, R 2, R3 and P can be
found out. By solving numerical problems we can
understand much better.
Problem 4.29: A block weighting 3000 N is resting on a

wedge and its side wall is leaving against a vertical wall. The
block is to be raised by applying a horizontal force to the
10 wedge.   0.3 for all contact surfaces. Determine the
minimum force P to raise the block
(Kannur University - April 2013)
Given data
  10;   0.3
W  3000 N
Friction 4.59
  tan   0.3
  tan  1 0.3
B lock
W all
 16.67 
 = 0 .3
3 00 0 N
So   1   2  3  16.7  P (P U SH )
10
o
W edge
 = 0 .3
Free Body Diagram of wedge and block

To know the direction of friction force, we should draw
first FBD of wedge and then block.
R2 R N2
2
N ote: S ince W e d ge m oves
le ft side , F 2 m o ves righ t sid e.
B u t the s am e F 2 a cts in
F2 P (P U S H ) o pp os ite d ire ctio n in B lo ck.
W ed ge
M ove
L eftside F 3
3
R3 R N3
Fig. (a)
By knowing direction of F 2, now we can draw FBD of

block. Because F 2 is acting right side in wedge but F 2 is
acting left side in block.
FBD of block M ove up w ard s
Method (1)
F 1 = R N 1
Applying Lame’s theorem,
R1
3000 R1 B lo ck A
1
 R N1
sin 133.4  sin 153.3
W=
3 00 0 N F2
R 1  1855.22 N
o
10
Similarly,
o
10 2
R2
Fig. ( b ) R N2
R2
1 0 o + 1 6.7 o = 2 6.7 o
R1
1 = 16 .7
o
6 3.3 o
=
1 = 16 .7
o
1 0 o + 1 6.7 R1
W W
R2
Fig.(c) FBD of Block A
3000 R2

sin 133.4  sin 73.3
R 2  3955 N
For wedge
R2 P

sin 90  106.7 sin 180  16.7  26.7 ]
3955 P

sin 106.7 sin 136.6
Friction 4.61
R3
R2
o
2 6.7 o 1 6.7
P P
=
o
1 6.7 o 2 6.7
R2
R3
Fig.(d) FBD of Wedge
P  2837 N
Similarly,
R2 R3

sin 106.7 sin 90  26.7
R 3  3688.9 N
Method 2
Using Equation of equilibrium
For block
Apply  Fx  0
R 1 cos 16.7  R 2 sin 26.7  0
sin 26.7
R1  R 2  0.4691 R 2
cos 16.7
R 1  0.4691 R 2 ...(i)
Apply  Fy  0
 W  R 1 sin 16.7  R2 cos 26.7  0
 0.4691 R 2 sin 16.7  R 2 cos 26.7  W
 0.1348 R 2  0.8934 R 2  W
0.7586 R 2  W
W 3000
R2    3955 N
0.7586 0.7586
R 1  0.4691 R 2  0.4691  3955
 1855.2 N
For wedge
 Fx  0;
 P  R 2 cos 63.3  R 3 cos 73.3  0
 P  3955  cos 63.3  R 3 cos 73.3  0
 P  1777  0.2874 R 3  0 ...(3)
 Fy  0
 R 2 sin 63.3  R 3 sin 73.7  0
0.9578 R 3  3955 sin 63.3  3533.3
3533.3
R3   3688.9 N
0.9578
Now R 3 in eqn (3)
P  1777  0.2874  3688.9
P  2837.2 N
Friction 4.63
Problem 4.30: A concrete block weighting 20 kN in shifted

away from the vertical wall by using 15 wedge as shown in
Fig. Determine the vertical force P applied at the top of the
wedge to shift the block right side.   0.25 for all control
surfaces.
WEDGE
C O N C R ET E
BL O C K
Wall
20 kN
W  20 kN
15 o   15
  0.25
Method 3
FBD of wedge and block
 Fx  0
R N1  R N2 cos 15  F 2 sin 15
. .
[ . F 2   RN2]
F1
o
15
R N1 R N 2 co s 15
o
15
R N R N 2 sin 1 5
2
F 2 c o s 15
o
15
F2
F 2 s in 1 5
D IR E C TIO N
FB D o f W ed g e O F M O T IO N
R N1  0.966 R N 2   RN2 sin 15  0
RN1  0.9013 RN2 ...(1)
 Fy  0
 P  F 1  F 2 c o s 15  R N2 sin 15  0
 R N1   R N2 cos 15  R N2 sin 15  P
0.25 R N1  0.2415 RN2  0.2588 R N2  P
0.25 RN1  0.5 RN2  P
0.25 0.913 R N2  0.5 R N2  P
0.7253 RN2  P ...(2)
FBD of concrete block [F2   R N2]

 Fx  0
R N2 cos 15  F2 sin 15  F 3  0
Friction 4.65
F 2 sin 1 5
F2
F 2 cos 1 5
o
RN 15
2
R N 2 sin 15 o
15 D IR E C TIO N
R N 2 co s 15 15
o O F M O T IO N
F3
2 0 kN
FBD of Concrete block R N3
0.966 R N2  0.0697 R N2  0.25 R N3  0
0.9013 RN2  0.25 RN3  0 ...(3)
 Fy  0
 20  R N 2 sin 15  F2 cos 15  R N3  0
 20  0.2588 R N2  0.2415 R N2  RN3  0
RN3  0.5 RN2  20 ...(4)
Substitute (4) in (3),
0.9013 R N2  0.25 0.5 R N2  20  0
0.9013 R N2  0.125 R N2  5  0
0.7763 R N 2  5
5
R N2   6.44 N
0.7763
Substitute RN2 in eqn. (2)
P  0.7253 RN2
 0.7253  6.44  4.67 kN
P  4.67 kN
Problem 4.31: Determine the horizontal force P applied on

wedge to raise the block A weighting 9000 N.   0.2 for all
contact surfaces.
B lock A
W a ll
P (P U S H )
o
W ed ge B
15
FBD of wedge B and block A
Note: Since W ed ge m oves left sid e, F 2 m o ve s rig ht side.

Bu t the sam e F 2 a cts in opposite direction in B lo ck A
M ove up w ards
F 1 = R N 1
R2 RN2
15 R1
2=11.3 Blo ck A
RN1
1 = 11.3
o
W = 90 00N F2
F2 15 o P
o
Wedge B 15
M ove 2 = 11.3 o
Leftside F 3 15
o
R2
o
3 = 11.3
RN2
R3 RN3
Friction 4.67
  tan  1 0.2  11.3
R2
o
2 6.3
R1
o
6 3.7
1 = 11.3
o
= o
11 .3
R1
o
2 6.3
R2
Block A
W = 900 0N W = 900 0N BLO C K
R2 9000

sin 90  11.3 sin 11.3  90  26.3
R 2  11,139.3 N
R3
R 2 R N2
15
2=11 .3
11 .3 o
F2 15
o
P
P
=
W ed ge B
M ove o
2 6.3
L eftside F 3
3 = 11.3
o
R3 R N3 W ed ge B R2
P R2

sin 180  11.3  26.3 sin 90  11.3
P  6930.95 N
4.10 VIRTUAL WORK

Virtual work is the imaginary work done by the actual
forces moving through imaginary displacements. Or virtual
work is the imaginary work done by imaginary forces
moving through actual displacements.
But real work is done by true forces moving through
true actual displacements.
The principle of work is
F
dissolved into two parts.
1. Principle of virtual F sin  A A’
 S
displacement F co s 
Fig: 4 .11 (a)
2. Principle of virtual
forces
When a body A is pushed by a force F from A to A
through distance S as shown in Fig.4.11(a), then the work
is done.
U  w orkdone by the component of the force in the

direction of the displacement  displacement
U  F cos   S
F (or)
A A’
S


S
s in
co
Fig: 4.11 (b) s

S
U  F  S c o s 
Friction 4.69
When the force and F
displacement are in opposite

direction as shown in Fig.  S
(c),
Fig. 4.11 (c)
then U   F cos   S
When a particle A is moving along the path due to
the application of force F with a distance ds as shown in
Fig.4.12, then

dU  F cos   ds (or) dU  F  ds ...(1)
A2
A’
F ds
A

A1
r + ds
r
Fig.4.12
O
Expressing F and ds in terms of their rectangular

components,
dU  i F x  j F y  k F z  i dx  j dy  k dz
 F x dx  F y dy  F z dz
Total work done from A 1 to A 2,

 
U  F  ds   F x dx  F y dy  F z dz
  F c o s   ds
When a force is acting F

A
perpendicular to the S
direction of motion, then
Fig. 4.13
work done U will be zero as
shown in Fig.
The perpendicular force F will not do any work on the
body A to move through a distance S.
Because, U  F cos 90  S
0
Consider a force Ft
producing a displacement F1
ds along the arc of radius ds P at h of A
r. Since the length of arc A’
A
ds  r d,
r d
Now dU  F t  ds  F t r d
Fig.4.14 O
But F t  r  moment M W ork by a co uple or m om en t M .
of F t about the centre O.
 
So dU  F t r  d  M  d ...(2)
Combining Eqn. (1) and (2), we get
   
dU  F  ds  M  d ... (3)
Friction 4.71
4.10.1 Principle of virtual work
F2
F1
F3
Fn
A A’ x
ds
Fig. 4.15
Since the particle A is in equilibrium,

then  Fx  0
(i.e.) Hence virtual work dU  F x  ds  0 ...(4)

When the system of forces and couples is applied on
rigid bodies or connected bodies, then the equation of
virtual work can be written as
n n  
 
dU   F i  ds   M i  d  0
i1 i1 ...(5)
where d is virtual rotation of the rigid body.
Principle of virtual work [Eqn.(4)] states that if a

particle is in equilibrium, the total work of the forces acting
on the particle is zero for any virtual displacement of the
particle.
4.10.2 Applications of virtual work

The principle of virtual work may be applied to the
following problems:
1. Systems of connected bodies with (a) single
degree of freedom, or (b) multiple degrees of
freedom.
2. Beams and compound beams.
4.10.3 Procedure for analysis using principle of virtual

work
Step 1. Draw the free-body diagram showing all forces.

Step 2. Select some fixed point as origin.
Step 3. Select a variable  defining the equilibrium of the
system.
Step 4. Write x - coordinates in terms of  for horizontal
forces
Step 5. Write y - coordinates in terms of  for vertical
forces.
Step 6. Differentiate x - and y - coordinates with respect
to  and obtain the values of virtual displacement
x for horizontal forces and y for the vertical
forces. [Sometimes x and y can be given dx and
dy respectively.]
Step 7. Write down equation dU  0 for all forces. Find
the required result for given value of  or find
 for equilibrium of the given system.
Friction 4.73
4.10.4 Sign convention

1. Upward forces are considered as positive and
downward forces as negative.
2. Forces acting towards right are positive, where as
those acting towards left are negative.
3. Moments acting in anti clockwise direction are
considered as positive.
4. Tensile forces are considered as positive where as
compressive forces as negative.
4.11 DEGREE OF FREEDOM

The number of
independent co-ordinates
required to specify the position 
of a moving point is known as y
degrees of freedom of the N
system.
Number of degrees of
freedom of a system is the
number of coordinates which is x Fig.4.16
required to specify the
configuration of the system.
A pendulum shown in Fig.4.16 is restricted to move
in a plane. To define the displaced position, it is enough
to know one independent coordinate ‘’ that locates the
pendulum. Hence this system has one degree of freedom.
It is not necessary to specify both x and y coordinates
of the bob with two degrees of freedom, because when we
give x, the other coordinate y is determined since the length
of the string is constant.
Hence DOM is
 Number of independent   T otal deg re es 
  
 de grees of freedom   of freedom 
 Number of 
 
 constraint eq uation s 
B L L
 F1
L L
L L
  W1
W A B F2

F
A
(i) A lad de r (ii) A C olla ps ib le fram e (iii) A lever W2
C
O
B
 D
A
A
(iv) Fou r-b ar
linka ge
W
(v) A sim ple
p en du lu m
Fig: 4 .1 7 S ystem s w ith on e deg ree o f fre edo m .
For a pendulum, there is only one constraint equation
x 2  y2  l2
 No. of independent degrees of freedom  2  1  1
Fig.4.17 shows systems of single degree of freedom. Only

one angle  is required to specify the position of any point.
Friction 4.75
Solved problems given here will help reader to

understand the procedure.
Problem 4.32: A uniform ladder PQ of length L and weight
W rests against a smooth vertical wall. Find the magnitude of
the horizontal force F applied at the lower end P for the
equilibrium of the ladder. Assume floor to be smooth. Use
method of virtual work.
Solution
Refer to Fig.
+y
Q RQ Q
L/
L
2
G G
L
L/
2
W W
2
 F  F +x
O O
P P
RP
(a ) G ive n lad de r (b ) Free -bo dy d ia gra m s
Step 1: Draw free-body diagram F.B.D. of the ladder as

shown in Fig. (b).
Step 2: Select point O as the origin of the co-ordinate
axes.
Step 3: Forces F and W are the active forces when a
small virtual displacement is given to P.
Note: Since support reactions RP and RQ are perpendicular

to the virtual displacement at P and Q respectively,
therefore the virtual work done by them is zero.
Active Co-ordinate of point of Virtual

force application of force displacement
F x P  L cos  x   L sin   d
W L L
yG  sin  y  c o s   d
2 2
By principle of virtual work, dU  0

L 
  F  L sin   d  W  cos   d   0
 2 
L
 FL sin   d  W cos   d
2
1
or F W cot 
2
Problem 4.33: A uniform ladder of weight W and length L

rests on a smooth floor and against a smooth wall. The
slipping of the ladder is prevented by connecting a horizontal
L
rope from a point from its lower end to the wall. Using
3
principle of virtual work find tension induced in the rope.
Refer to Fig.
B B RB
W
y W
y L
G G
2
R ope L
E 3 E
D D T T
 x 
A x
A C C
RA (b) F.B .D . o f ladde r

(a) G ive n ladder
Friction 4.77
Fig. (a) shows the ladder AB and the rope tied to it

at point D. G is the mid point of the ladder.
L L
AG  BG  and AD  . Select end A as the origin of the
2 3
co-ordinate axes. Fig. (b) shows the F.B.D of the ladder.
Here W and rope tension T are the only active forces.
L
For point D, xD  AD c o s   cos ,
3
L
 dx D   sin   d
3
For point E, xE  AC  L cos   dx E   L sin   d
L
For point G, yG  AG sin   sin ,
2 L
dy G  cos   d
2
Select ‘A’ as origin
Active Coordinate of point Virtual displacement

forces of application of force dx and dy
T Right L L
xD  cos  dxD   sin   d
3 3
 T left xE  L c o s  d xE   L sin   d
 W down L L
yG  sin  d y z  cos   d
2 2
Virtual work
dU    T dx p   T dx E   W  dyG
 L  L 
 T   sin   d    T  L sin   d   W  cos  d 
 3   2 
2TL WL
or dU  sin  d  c o s   d
3 2
But the principle of virtual work dU  0

2TL WL
 We get sin   d  cos   d  0
3 2
2 W
 T sin   cos 
3 2
3
 T W cot
4
Problem 4.34: The collapsible mechanism shown in Fig. (a)
is acted by the vertical P. Find the magnitude of the horizontal
force required at the roller support B for the equilibrium of
the mechanism. End A is fixed.
Free-body diagram of the mechanism is shown in Fig.(b).

Support A is fixed hence reaction components RHA and
P P
C C
L L L L
L L L L
L L +y L L
A  B R HA
   F
+x
Fixe d R o lle r A B
S u pp ort S u pp ort
R VA RB
(a ) G ive n m e ch a nism (b ) F.B .D . o f th e m echa nism
R VA do not do any work. Similarly R B does not do any

work. The load P and the force F are the only “active”
forces.
Friction 4.79
Select A as origin
Coordinate of
Active point of Virtual displacement
forces application of dx and dy
force
F(. . . xB  2L cos  dxB   2L sin   d
towards left)
P
y C  3L sin  dyC  3L cos   d
(... downward)
Total virtual work done,
dU   F dx B   P  dy C
dU   F   2 L sin   d   P 3L cos   d
But, the principle of virtual work, dU  0
 F  2L sin  d  P  3L cos   d  0
3P
F cot
2
Problem 4.35: A uniform ladder of length L and weight W

rests on the rough floor and leans against a smooth vertical
wall, as shown in Fig. (a). Using principle of virtual work find
the inclination  of the ladder for its equilibrium.
Solution
Free body diagram F.B.D of the ladder is shown in
Fig.
Select O as the origin of the co-ordinate axes.

Reactions R A and RB are perpendicular to the displacement
of ends A and B and therefore they do not do any work.
y
B
RB L
B 2
L/
2
G G
L
2
L/
2
W
W

 F A = R A
O A O x
A
RA
(a ) G ive n lad de r (b ) F.B .D . o f lad de r
Thus the weight W and the frictional force F A   RA are

the only active forces.
Coordinate of Virtual
Active forces point at which displacement [dx
force applies and dy ]
 F (left) x A  L cos  dxA   L sin   d

L L
 W (downward) yG  sin  dyG  c o s   d
2 2
 Virtual work done

 dU   F dx A   W dy G
L 
  F  L sin   d   W  cos   d 
 2 
But the principle of virtual work, dU  0
W.L
  F L sin   d  cos   d  0
2
Friction 4.81
W
 F sin   cos 
2 ...(1)
where friction force F   RA
By using the condition  F y  0, we have
R A  W  0,  R A  W ...(2)
 FW
W
 Eqn. (1) gives   W sin   cos 
2
1
 tan  
2
 1 
  tan  1  
 2 
Problem 4.36: A uniform ladder of weight 250 N rests
against a smooth vertical wall and a rough horizontal floor
making an angle of 45 with horizontal. Find the force of
friction at the floor and  using the method of virtual work.
Solution
RB
B B
L
L
2
2
G G
L
L
2
2
2 50 N 2 50 N
y y
o
= 45
o
= 45
F F
O O
x A x A
RA
Here weight W 250 N and friction force F are active

forces
Coordinate of dx and dy
Active force point at which Virtual
force acts displacement
.. xA  L c o s  dxA   L sin   d
 F ( . Left side)
L L
 W (...downward) yG 
2
sin  dyG 
2
c o s   d
Virtual work dU  0 for equilibrium
dU   F  dxA  W  dyG  0
L 
Hence dU   F  L sin   d   W  cos   d   0
 2 
W
F sin   cos 
2
W 250 1
F cot     125 N
2 2 tan 45
Friction force F  125 N is acting left side
We know F   RA
Also  F y  0;  W  RA  0  W  RA
R A  250 N
F   RA
125    250
125
  0.5
250
Friction 4.83
Problem 4.37: An uniform ladder 10 m long weighing 400

N rests on a smooth floor at A and against a smooth wall at
B as shown in Fig.(a). A horizontal rope PQ at the centre of
ladder P prevents ladder from slipping. Determine the tension
in the rope using method of virtual work.
Solution
B RB
L B L
2 L 2 L
= =
10 10
m m
P P
8mQ 8mQ
T L T L
2 2
y y
W = 4 00N W = 4 00N
 
O x A O x A
6m 6m
RA
Fig (a) Fig (b )
Select A as origin
Active force Coordinate Virtual displacement

T (right) xQ  L cos  dx Q   L sin   d
L L
 T (left) xp  cos  dx p   sin   d
2 2
L L
 W (down) yP  sin  dyp  cos   d
2 2
RA and R B do not do any work
W and T are the active forces
Virtual work dU  0 for ladder to be in equilibrium
dU  T  dx Q  T  dxp  W  dy p  0
 L 
dU  T   L sin   d   T   sin   d 
 2 
L 
  W  cos   d   0
2 
T WL
 L sin   d  T L sin   d  cos   d  0
2 2
T WL
L sin   d  cos   d
2 2
W 400
T 
tan  8/6
T  300 N . . 8
 . tan   6 
 
4.12 APPLICATION OF PRINCIPLE OF VIRTUAL

WORK TO BEAMS
Problem 4.38: A simply supported beam AB is 5 m long has
an overhang BC 1 m. It carriers a load of 3 kN at point D
3m from A and another load of 1.5 kN at C. Using method
of virtual work, find reactions at supports A and B.
Solution
Fig. (a) shows the given beam.
To find reaction RB , remove support B and give it a

small virtual displacement  as shown in Fig. (b).
ie B B   
By comparing similar triangles ACC and ABB
CC  BB  CC  
  
AC AB 5 4
Friction 4.85
5
The Displacement CC  
4
3 kN 1 .5 kN
A D B
C
3m 1m
4m 1m
1 .5 kN
(a ) G iv e n b ea m
3 kN
C’
B’
D’

A 
D B C
(b ) Figu re fo r find in g R B RB
By comparing  ADD  and ABB 
DD  BB  
 
3 4 4
3
DD  
4
 Total virtual work done
dU    R B     1.5   CC   3  DD
5 3
dU  RB    1.5  3
4 4
By principle of virtual work dU  0.
5 3
 R B    1.5  3 0
4 4
 R B  4.125 kN
To find reaction RA , remove support A and give it a

small virtual displacement   AA as shown in Fig. (c).
3 kN 1 .5 kN
A D B
C
3m 1m
4m 1m
(a ) G ive n b e am
3 kN
1 .5 kN
A’
 D’
A 
C
D
C’
B
RA ( c) F igu re for finding R A
By comparing
 AA B and  DD B
DD AA 
 
BD BA BA
 Displacement at D

 DD   BD
BA
1 
DD  
4 4
Friction 4.87
By comparing
 CC B and  AA B
CC AA 
 
BC BA BA

Displacement at C  CC   BC
BA
1 
CC  
4 4
Applying principle of virtual work, we get
dU    RA  AA   3 DD   1.5  CC   0
   
 R A     3    1.5      0
4  4
R A  0.375 kN
Check Loads  3  1.5  4.5 kN
R A  R B  0.375  4.125  4.5 kN
Problem 4.39: Consider the beam AB which is simply

supported at its supports and subjected to point load 10 kN
at C as shown in Fig. Find reaction at B.
R A  Reaction at A; and 10 kN
R B  Reaction at B; 2 4
A B
C
Remove support B and RB
RA
give small virtual
Fig: (a) Real system in equilibrium
displacement  at B as shown
in Fig.(b).
Solution
Now consider an upward virtual displacement  of the
beam at B. 1 0 kN
2 4
Comparing
A B
C
 ACC  and RB
RA
 ABB , Fig: (a) Re al system in eq uilibriu m
2 B’
CC  BB   
2 +4
  
2 6 6 C’
A C B
2 
CC    
6 3 Fig: (b ) Virtu al sy stem
RB
Applying principle of virtual work
R B    10  CC   0

R B    10  0
3
R B  3.33 kN
Problem 4.40: A simply supported beam AB of span 10 m is

loaded as shown in Fig. Calculate the reaction at A and B
using principle of virtual work
(KTU Model Qn Paper - EN010-104)
To find RB [Give small virtual displacement at B]
Compare  ACC  and ABB  [Fig. (b)]

CC  
  CC   0.4 
4 10
Compare ADD  and  ABB 

DD  
  DD   0.2 
2 10
Friction 4.89
10 kN
5 kN /m
A D C B
2m 2m 6m
RA RB
Fig. (a) R ea l system 5 kN /m
B’
10 kN
C’ 
D’
B
A D C
Fig: (b ) Virtual sy stem RB
Total virtual workdone is zero.
1 
R B    5  0.4  6   100.2  0
2 
R B  21  2  0
R B  23 kN
To find RA [Give small virtual displacement at A]
 DD  B and AA  B [Fig. (c)]

DD  
  DD   0.8 
8 10
CC  B and  AA  B
CC  
  CC   0.6 
6 10
Total virtual workdone is zero.
1 
R A    10 0.8  5   6  0.6]   0
 2 
1 0 kN
5 kN /m
A D C B
2m 2m 6m
RA RB
1 0 kN Fig. (a) Real system B’
A’
D’ 5 kN /m
C’

B
A D C
RA Fig: (c) Virtual system
RA  8  9  0
R A  17 kN
Check
Total load  10  30  40 kN
R A  RB  17  23  40 kN
So the answer is correct.

Problem 4.41 Consider a simply supported beam subjected to
loading shown in Fig.(a). Find the reaction at support B and
A. [KTU - Model Qn Paper EN010-104 Similar type]
Solution
There is only one degree of freedom. Give small virtual
displacement at B as shown in Fig. (b).
Friction 4.91
1 0 kN
2 0 kN -m
4 kN /m
A C D B
2m 2m 6m
RA RB
Fig. (a) Real system
B’
1 0 kN
D’ B
C’
D
 C B
A C D
Fig: (b) Virtual system RB
DD 4 D 4
   ; D  0.4B
BB 10 B 10
CC 2 C 2  since  is very 

   ; C  0.2B  
BB 10 B 10  small, tan    
B
 
10
(i) Virtual work, due to 10 kN load
  10 C   10  0.2 B   2 B
(ii) Virtual work due to udl 4 kN/m   Area of virtual

displacement diagram between D and B  intensity of load
1
4  6 { D  B }
2
  12 { 0.4B  B }
 16.8 B
B
(iii) Virtual work due to moment   20    2B
10
(iv) Virtual work due to R B  B  RB
Total virtual work = 0

 2B  16.8 B  2B  R B B  0
 RB  20.8 kN
 Fy  0  RA  RB  10  4  6  34 kN
R A  34  20.8  13.2 kN
Problem 4.42: Two beams AC and CD of lengths 10 m and

14 m respectively are hinged at C. These are supported by
rollers at the left and right ends (A and D). A hinged support
is provided at B which is 6 m from A. Using the principle of
300N 4m
B C D
A
E
6m
10m 14m
Fig: (a) Real system ( equilibrium )
virtual work, determine the reaction force transmitted by the

support B when a load of 300 N is applied at E, 4 m from
D.
Solution
There is only one degree of freedom y at C . It can
be called as . Give small virtual displacement  at C .
Friction 4.93
3 00 N
4m
B C D
A
E
6m
1 0m 1 4m
Fig: (a) Real system ( eq uilibrium )
C’
6 3 00 N
 B’
10 4
 
E’ 14
A B D
C E
6m
RB 4m
1 0m 1 4m
Fig:(b ) Virtu al system ( com patib le )
Compare  ABB  &  ACC 

 BB

10 6
6
BB  
10
Compare  DCC  and  DEE 
 EE

14 4
4
EE  
14
R B  BB   300  EE  0
 6   4 
RB     300  0
 10   14 
300  4 10
RB    142.857 N
14 6
Problem 4.43: Two beams AE and BD are supported by roller

at B and C as shown in Fig. Determine the reactions at the
points B and D using the method of virtual work.
3 50 N
8 00 N
1 0m
A E
D
B
C F
5m 3m 3m 3m
Fig: (a) Real system
Solution
For Beam AE, RC acts up and for the Beam BD, R C
acts down.
To find R C
3 50 N
8 00 N
1 0m
A E
D
B
C F
5m 3m 3m 3m
Fig: (a) Real system 3 50 N
E’
C’
C E
A C E
8m
10 m RC
Fig. (b) Virtual system
Give small displacement (c) at C

Friction 4.95
Comparing similar
 ACC and AEE ,
CC 8

EE 10
C 8
i.e., 
E 10
C 8  8 
 ; C    E
E 10  10 
Applying principle of virtual work to AE

R C C  350E  0
 8 
RC   E  350 E  0
 10 
350  10
RC   437.5 N
8
To find R B
3 50 N
8 00 N
1 0m
A E
D
B
C F E
5m 3m 3m 3m
Fig: (a) R eal system B’ RC

8 00 N
C’
B
C F’
F
B C F D
3m 3m 3m
RB
Fig. (c) Virtual system
From similar triangles, for the beam BD
CC 6 C 6 2
 ;  ; C   B
BB 9 B 9 3
FF 3 F 3 B
 ;  ; F 
BB  9 B 9 3
Applying principle of virtual work,
R B B  R C C  800F  0
2 B
R B B  437.5  B  800 0
3 3
R B  291.67  266.67  0
RB  558.34 N
To find RD :
Compare  BDD  and  BFF 
3 50 N
8 00 N
1 0m
A E
D
B
C F
5m 3m 3m 3m
Fig: (a) Real system 8 00 N

B’
D’
RC
F’
D
C’ F
C
B C F D
3m 3m 3m
RB RC
Fig: (d) Virtual system

Friction 4.97
D F 6 2
   F    
9 6 9 D 3 D
2
F  
3 D
Compare  BCC  and BDD 

C D 1
  C  D
3 9 3
Apply principle of virtual work

R D  D  800  F  RC  C  0
2 D
R D  D  800  D  437.5  0
3 3
R D  533.3  145.63  0
RD  678.96 N
Problem 4.44: A beam ABC, 11 m long, is hinged at A and

freely supported at C with a prop at B, 4 m from A. It has
another hinge at D, 5 m from A and carries a load of 250 kN
at E, 2 m from C. Using principle of virtual work find reaction
at the support B. Also find reaction at supports A and C.
Solution
The given beam is shown in Fig. (a). Let RB be the
reaction at support B. Give the hinge D a slight vertical
displacement DD  D . The virtually displaced configuration
is shown in Fig.(b). The vertical displacement at points B
and E are B and E respectively.
To find B
Comparing  ABB and ADD ,
B D 4
   B  D
4 5 5
To find E
Comparing  CDD  and CEE ,
E D D
  E 
2 6 3
The equation of virtual work is:
  R B   B   250  E  0
4D  D 
 RB    250   0
5  3 
250 5
RB    104.16 kN
3 4
2 50 kN
H in ge
A B C
D E
4m 1m 4m 2m
(a) G iven be am
D
B’ 2 50 kN
B =  D
5 E’ E = D
B D
E 3
A
B D E C
4m 1m 4m 2m
RB
(b) Fig ure fo r find ing R B
Friction 4.99
For finding reaction RA , virtually displace the support

by A  AA  as shown in Fig.(c).
2 50 kN
H in g e
A B C
D E
4m 1m 4m 2m
(a ) G ive n b e am
A’
2 50 kN
A
E E E ’= 
A D D ’ = A 12
4
D E
A C
B E E’
D
RA 4m 1m 4m 2m
( c ) F igu re for finding R A
Displacement At D: By comparing  AA B and  DD B
DD  A

1 4
A  1
DD  
4
Displacement At E:
By comparing  EE C &  CD D

EE DD

2 6
DD
EE  E 
3
A A
 
43 12
Equation of virtual work is:

  RA  AA   250  EE  0
  A 
 R A  A   250   0
 12 
 1 
R A   250   
12 0
 
250
 RA  
12
or
R A   20.83 kN
 RA  20.83 kN downward
For finding reaction R C , give a virtual displacement to

C by C . The virtually displaced configuration of the beam
is shown in Fig. (d).
2 50 kN
H in g e
A B C
D E
4m 1m 4m 2m
(a) G ive n b eam

2 50 kN
EE’ =
2C C’
E’
3
E C
A B D C
E
4m 2m
RC
(d) Fig ure for findin g R C
Friction 4.101
To find EE
By comparing  DCC  & DEE 
EE CC

4 6
4 2
EE  c   c
6 3
The equation of virtual work is :
2 
  RC   CC    250   C   0
 3 
2C
 R C  C  250  0
3
 R C  166.67 kN
Check:
For the entire beam let us, find whether  Fy  0 is
satisfied.
 by  Fy  0, we get
 R A  R B  R C  250  0
   20.83   104.16  166.67  250  0
  F y  0 is satisfied.
Friction E4.1
4. FRICTION
Extra Problems
Problem 4.45: A packing case requires a horizontal effort of 500 N

to just move on a concrete ramp having a slope of 1 in 2. The
coefficient of friction is 0.2. Find the weight of the packing case.
(Apr/May 2003 - AU)
RN 
c os
50
5 0 0
0s
in
1 500N

W 2
W

cos
R N

W
 
s in
W Fig
Solution:
Slope of the ramp is 1 in 2,
 tan   1/2  0.5
   26.6
Resolving the forces parallel to the plane,
Fx  500 cos 26.6  W sin 26.6   RN  0
447.1  0.45 W  0.2 RN  0. .... i
Resolving the forces perpendicular to the plane

Fy  RN  W c o s   P sin   0
 RN  W 0.8942  500 0.4472  0
 RN  0.8942 W  223.6  0; RN  0.8942 W  223.6
Substitute this value of RN in equation (i)

447.1  0.45 W  0.2 0.8942 W  223.6  0
447.1  0.45 W  0.179 W  44.72  0
402.38
W  640 N
0.629
The weight of the packing case is 640 N
Problem 4.46: A body of weight 800 N is placed on the inclined
plane S  0.35 and k  0.25. Determine the external force P required
(1) to start the block moving up the inclined plane. (2) to keep it
moving up (3) to prevent it from sliding down.
(Nov/Dec 2011 - AU)
RN RN
of 65 no
f
c o s 6 5e c tio n i n g c o s ir e c t i o i n g
P d ir n d
e P d end
n65 im p t i o n x n65 im p t i o n x
Psi o
5 mo Psi 6 5
o
mo
6
P
P
 sR N sR N
F= F=
y y
o
25
o 25
o
25
o 25
Wc
Wc
os2
os2
W =80 0 N
W =8 0 0N
5
5
5 5
in 2 in 2
Ws Ws
Fig (a) Fig (b)
Solution:
Case 1. Force P To start the block moving up,

When the body is about to move up, then F will act downward.
Writing equations of equilibrium
Fx  0
Fx   s RN  800 sin 25  P sin 65  0
 0.35 RN  338.1  0.91 P  0  i
Fy  0
Fy  RN  800 c o s 25  P cos 65  0

Friction E4.3
RN  0.423 P  725
Substitute RN value in equation, (i) we get
 0.35 0.423 P  725  338.1  0.91 P  0

 0.148 P  254  338.1  0.91 P  0
0.76 P  592.1
592.1
P  780 N
0.76
Case 2. Force P to keep the body moving up

Since the body is moving, F  k RN  0.25 RN
Substitute this value F  0.25 RN in equation  i
We get 0.25 RN  338.1  0.91P  0 .... ii
Substitute RN value RN  0.423 P  725 in equation (ii) we get
 0.25 0.423 P  725  338.1  0.91 P  0

 0.11 P  181.3  338.1  0.91 P  0
0.8 P  519.4
519.4
P  649 N
0.8
Case 3: Force P to prevent block from sliding down

Now the friction force is acting upward, since the body is about
to slide down. (Fig. (b))
Fx  0
Fx  S RN  338.1  0.91 P  0
 0.35 RN  338.1  0.91P  0  iii
Fy  0
RN  0.423 P  725
Substitute this value in equation (iii)

So 0.35 0.423 P  725  338.1  0.91 P  0
0.148 P  254  338.1  0.91 P  0

1.058 P  84.1  0
84.1
P  80 N
1.058
Problem 4.47: Find the horizontal force P for the following
conditions. (1) to keep the 2.5 kN body moving up and (2) to prevent
the body when it is about to slip down the incline.
(April 2000, Madras University)
Solution:
kN
Case 1: ‘P ’ to keep the body
0 .1
o
moving up (Fig (a)) 20
Since the body is moving up, P N

2 .5 k
dynamic friction will come into play. W=
So Fk  k RN s = 0 .3
k= 0 .2 5
Also F is acting opposite to the 30o
motion of the body.
Fx  0
0 .1
kN
RN
s in
0 .1
20
20
os
Ps
3 0 c
os 0 .1
in 3
Pc o
x is
20 xa
0
f
no
o
30 P
t i o
 kR i r e c o n
N
x is F k= d ti
ya mo
o
30 s = 0 .3
2 .5
30
o k = 0 .2 5
co
s3
W = 2 .5 k N
30
s in
2 .5
F ig (a)
Friction E4.5
Fx  P cos 30  0.25 RN  2.5 sin 30  0.1 cos 20  0
 0.866 P  0.25 RN  1.156  0  i

Fy  0
Fy   P sin 30  RN  2.5 cos 30  0.1 sin 20  0
  0.5 P  RN  2.131  0
RN  0.5 P  2.131
Substitute RN value in equation (i) we get,
Fx  0.866 P  0.25 0.5 P  2.131  1.156  0

0.866P  0.125P  0.533  1.156  0
0.741P  1.689
1.689
P  2.279 kN
0.741
P  2.279 kN
0 .1
kN
s in
0.1
RN
20
20
Ps
c os is
0 .1
in 3
x
os
30 o
xa
20
0
P c
 sR
o
30 N
P Fs=
s = 0 .3
x is k = 0 .2 5
ya 30
o
o
30
2 .5
t to n
ou dow
co
b
s3
W = 2 .5 kN
A ve
mo
0
30
Fig b s in
2 .5
Case 2: P to prevent the body which is about to slip

Here S should be used, since body is
not in motion
Fx  0; Fy  0
Fx  P c o s 30  s RN  2.5 sin 30  0.1 c o s20  0
 0.866 P  0.3 RN  1.156  0
Substitute RN value in equation (ii)

(RN is same as that of previous case)
0.866 P  0.3 0.5 P  2.131  1.156  0

0.866 P  0.15 P  0.64  1.156  0
1.016 P  0.52  0
0.52
P  0.512 kN
1.016
P  0.512 kN
Module 5
DYNAMICS
Dynamics: Rectangular and Cylindrical co-ordinate

system - Combined motion of rotation and translation - Concept
of instantaneous centre - Motion of connecting rod of piston
and crank of a reciprocating pump - Rectilinear translation -
Newton’s second law - D’Alembert’s Principle - Application to
connected bodies (Problems on motion of lift only).
5.1 INTRODUCTION
The study of bodies in motion is called dynamics.
Dynamics is divided into two parts.
(i) Kinematics, (ii) Kinetics.
5.1.1 Kinematics
Kinematics is the study of motion of a body, without
considering the forces causing the motion. In kinematics,
we study about the position, displacement, velocity,
acceleration and time.
5.1.2 Kinetics
Kinetics is the study of motion considering the forces
causing the motion. In kinetics, we study about the motion,
mass of the body and forces acting on the body.
5.2 RECTANGULAR CO-ORDINATE SYSTEM

A particle moving along a straight line is said to be
in rectilinear motion. If a particle is moving in x direction
(or) y direction (or) both x and y directions, then it is called
Rectangular coordinate system.
5.2.1 Position -ve +ve

Position of a particle at P 1 P
any time ‘t’ is described with O x
x= -5m x= +10m
respect to reference point O
called as origin. Fig.5.1
If the particle is moving to the right side direction,

then it is considered as positive and otherwise as negative.
The distance x defines the position of the particle. x
is called as position coordinate of the particle.
If the particle moves 10 m to the right from O, then
position coordinate x   10 m.
If the particle moves 5 m to the left from O, then

position coordinate x   5 m.
Therefore position of a particle to the right of O is
 x and to the left of O is  x.
If we know the x value for every value of time t, then

motion of the particle can be defined.
The motion of the particle can be defined by equation
as follows:
x  t3  6t2  5t  30
By using the above equation, we can find out x for

any time t.
5.2.2 Displacement
If a particle moves
from A to C and comes back
A B C
to B, its displacement  AB ;
D isplacem e nt Fig.5.2
Dynamics 5.3
Distance travelled  AC  BC
So distance travelled by the particle is different from
displacement. It can be described by an example.
Example
A particle moves from O to D and then to E.
The displacement from O to E ‘s’  xf  xi   5 m
Distance travelled (from O to D then to

E)  10  10  5  25 m
The displacement is taken as positive for right side

and negative for left side. For any problem, Displacement
‘s ’  x f  x i
where xi  initial position of a particle; xf  final position

of a particle.
xi is also called x 0; x0 means x at time 0 sec. (i.e.

initial)
x1 means x at time 1 sec; x 10 means x at time 10 sec.
Displacement is a vector quantity where as distance

travelled is a scalar quantity.
Displacement x  xf  xi E O D
-5m 0m 10m
Time interval  t  tf  ti 5m 10m
x f = -5 xi = 0 Fig.5.3
5.2.3 Average velocity
x
Average velocity 
t
Average velocity is the ratio of displacement to the

time interval.
Instantaneous velocity: (or) simply ‘velocity’: It is the

limit of average velocity as the increment of time
approaches zero.
x
Instantaneous velocity  v  lim
t 0 t
In otherwords,
Instantaneous velocity
dx
or v
dt
simply ve locity
So the velocity of particle is defined as follows.
The rate of displacement of a particle with respect to

time is the velocity of the particle. Velocity is a vector
quantity. Unit of velocity is m/s (or) km/h.
Speed: The distance travelled per unit time is the speed of

the particle. Speed is a scalar quantity. Unit of speed is
also m/s.
5.2.4 Average acceleration
v change in velocity
Average acceleration  
t change in time.
It is the ratio of change in velocity to the time interval.
5.2.5 Instantaneous acceleration (or) Simply

acceleration: a
Instantaneous acceleration is the limit of average

acceleration as the increment of time approaches zero.
v dv
a  Lim 
t  0 t
dt
Dynamics 5.5
Acceleration is the rate of change of velocity.

Acceleration is a vector quantity. The unit of acceleration
is m  s2
5.2.6 Motion Under Variable Acceleration

There are different types of motions. Motion under
uniform acceleration and motion under variable
acceleration. In actual practice, a body may not move with
a uniform velocity or uniform acceleration, at all times. A
body, which does not move with a uniform acceleration, is
said to be moving with variable acceleration.
x  position of the particle in m
t  time taken for attaining the given position in sec.
v  velocity of the particle in m/sec
a  acceleration of particle in m/s 2
dx
v i
dt
d 2x
a ii
dt2
d  dx 
i.e., a 
dt  dt 
dv
a iii 
dt
a dv dt
Divide (iii) by (i), we get   So we get
v dt dx
dv
av iv
dx
Sometimes, the given equation of motion is in terms

of displacement x and time t
e.g., x  3t3  2t2  6 t  4
Now differentiate both sides of the equation with

respect to t
dx
 9 t2  4t  6 Velocity equation 
dt
The equation, so obtained by differentiation, will give

us the velocity of the body (as the velocity of a body is the
rate of change of its position). Again differentiate both sides
of the above equations, with respect to t, we get
d 2x
 18t  4 acceleration equation 
dt2
The equation so obtained by second differentiation, will

give us the acceleration of the body (as the acceleration of
a body is the rate of change of velocity).
Problem 5.1: The motion of a particle is defined by the

relation x  2t3  6t2  15 where x is in meters. and t in seconds.
Determine the time, position, and acceleration when the velocity
is zero. (Apr. ’98, Madras University, M.K.U)
Solution:
x  2t3  6t2  15
dx
velo city v   6t2  12t;
dt
d 2x
acceleration a   12t  12
dt2
Dynamics 5.7
To Find time
When velocity is zero, v  0  6t2  12t
t2  2t  0
t2  2t
t  2 sec
When time t  2, velocity will be zero.
To Find Position
When v  0; i.e. w hen t  2
x  2t3  6t2  15
x  223  622  15
 28  64  15
Position x  7 m
To Find Acceleration a
When t  2
d 2x
Acceleration ‘a’   12t  12
dt2
 122  12  12 m/sec 2
a  12 m/sec2
Problem 5.2: The velocity of a particle is given by

3 2
v  2t  6t . Find the distance travelled by it while its velocity
increases from 8 m/s to 108 m/s. (KTU-June 2011)
Given
v  2t3  6t2
v1  8 m/sec
v2  108 m/sec
For v1  8 m/sec
2t3  6t2  8
2t3  6t2  8  0, solving this, we get
t  1 s ec
For v2  108 m/sec
2t3  6t2  108  0, solving this, we get
t  3 sec
dx
v  2t3  6t2
dt
3 3
 dx   [2t3  6t2] dt
1 1
3 3
 2t4 6t3   t4 
[x]31      2t3 
 4 3 
1 
2 1
 81 1 
x3  x 1  s    54   2 
 2 2 
s  92 m

relation x  t3  12t2  36t  30 where x is expressed in meter
and t in sec. Determine the time, position, and acceleration;
when v  0. (Apr.’2000, Madras University)
Dynamics 5.9
Solution:
x  t3  12t2  36t  30
dx
v  3t2  24t  36
dt
dv
a  6t  24
dt
To Find t, When ‘v’  0

v  3t2  24t  36  0
 24  
 24 2  4  3  36 
t
 2  3
24  12
  6 sec or 2 sec
6
at t  6 sec, v  0 at t  2 sec, v  0
To Find a and x when t  6
a  6 t  24 a  6 t  24
a  6 6  24  12 m/sec2 a  6 2  24   12 m/sec2
x  t3  12t2  36t  30 x  t3  12t2  36t  30
x  63  1262  36 6  30 x  23  1222  36 2  30

 30 m  62 m
a  12 m/sec2; x  30 m a   12 m/sec2; x  62 m

relation x  7.5  22.5t  13.5t2  1.5t3 where x is in meter and
‘t’ in sec. Determine (i) the position when the velocity is zero
and (ii) the position and total distance travelled when the
acceleration is zero. (Cochin University, June 2013)
Solution:
x  1.5t3  13.5 t2  22.5 t  7.5
dx
v  4.5t2  27t  22.5
dt
d2 x
a  9t  27
dt 2
(i) Position when v  o

4.5t2  27 t  22.5  0
 27  
 
27 2  4  4.5  22.5
t
2  4.5
45 9
  5 or  1
9 9
t  5 sec or 1 sec,
When t  5 sec When t  1 sec
x  1.5  53  13.5  52 x  1.5  13  13.5  12

 22.5  5  7.5  22.5  1  7.5
  30 m   18 m
(ii) When a  0,
9t  27  0
9t  27
27
t  3 se c
9
Dynamics 5.11
when t  0,
xo  7.5 m
when t  3 sec, x3  1.5  3 3  13.5  3 2  22.5  3  7.5
6m
Total Distance travelled  x3  xo   6 m  7.5 m   13.5 m
Distance travelled
13.5 m in the left side direction

relation x  3t4  10t2  3t  20 where ‘x’ represents the distance
travelled by the particle in meters and ‘t’ represents the time
in seconds. Determine the position, velocity and the acceleration
of the particle when t  5s. (Cochin University, June 2014)
Solution:
x  3t4  10t2  3t  20
dx
v  12t3  20t  3
dt
d2 x
a  36 t  20
dt 2
when t  5s,
Position x  3 5 4  10 52  3 5  20
 1660 m
Velocity v  12 53  20 5 3  20 5  3
 1403 m/s
acceleration a  36 5  20
 160 m/s
Problem 5.6: A body moves along a straight line with an

acceleration, a  3  4t. After 4 seconds from the start of
observation, its velocity is 45 m/s and after 6 seconds, from
the start of observation, its position from origin is 150 m.
(i) Determine the acceleration, velocity and its position from
origin when t  0.
(ii) What is the time and distance travelled when velocity is
zero. (MG University, January 2007)
Solution
dv
a  3  4t   3  4t
dt
v t
 dv   3  4t dt
v  vo t0
4t2
v  vo  3t   3t  2t2
2 ...(i)
v  vo  3t  2t2
...(i)
After 4 sec, v  45 m/s
45  vo  3 4  2 4 2
vo  45  12  32  65 m /s
So v  3t  2t2  65 ...(ii)
dx
 3t  2t2  65
dt
Dynamics 5.13
x t
 dx   3t  2t2  65 dt

x  xo to
3t2 2t3
x  xo    65t
2 3
After 6 sec, its position from origin is 150 m
3 2
150  x o  62  6 3  65 6
2 3
x o  150  54  144  390
  150 m
 x  1.5t2  0.67t3  65t  150 ...(iii)
(i) When t  0,
xo   150 m
vo  65 m /s
a  3  4t  3 m/s2
(ii) What is time and distance travelled when velocity is

zero
v  0  3t  2t2  65  0
2  22  4  3  65

t  5 sec
23
Distance travelled  x  xo  1.5 52  0.67 53  65 5 
 278.75 m
5.2.7 Equations of motion with uniform acceleration

Consider a particle moving in a straight line and having
initial velocity u. It covers distance s in time t. v is called
as the final velocity. The velocity changes uniformly from
u to v during this time. So it is called uniformly accelerated
motion.
u  initial velocity
v  final velocity
(i) Change in velocity  v  u in time t

v  u
Acceleration,, a 
t
 a t v u
 v  u  at ... (i)
In differential equation
a  constant
dv
but a 
dt
dv  adt
Integrating on both sides
v t
 dv   adt
u 0
v  u  at
v  u  at ... (i)
Dynamics 5.15
(ii) Distance travelled

 s  Average velocity  time
uv
but, average velocity 
2
u  v
s t
2
From equation (i), v  u  at
u  u  at 
s t
2
2u  a t t

2
 s  ut  12 at2 ... (ii)
In differential equation
dx
v
dt
dx  vdt
Substitute v  u  at with above equation
dx  u  at dt
Integrating both sides, we get
xf t
 dx   u  at dt
xi 0
1 2
xf  xi  ut  at ... (ii)
2
From equation (i)

v  u  at  v2  u  at 2
 v2  u2  2 uat  a2 t2
 u2  2a ut  12 at 2
But,, ut  12 at 2  s
 v2  u2  2as ... (iii)
In differential form
dv
av adx  vdv
dx
Integrating both sides
xf v
 adx   vdv
xi u
v
xf  v2 
 ax    
xi
 2 u
2a x f  x i  v2  u2 or
v2  u2  2ax f  x i
v2  u2  2as ... (iii) where s  xf  xi
Three equations for uniform accelerated motion

1. v  u  at
2. s  ut  12 at 2 and
3. v2  u2  2as are very much important equations.

Dynamics 5.17
Constant speed motion (or) Uniform velocity motion

u  v
Velocity is constant and acceleration is zero. If it is
the constant speed motion,
v  u and
. .
Then, s  xf  xi  ut  vt [ . u  v]
Problem 5.7: A bus is accelerated at the rate of 0.75

m  sec2 as it travels from A to B knowing that the speed of
the bus was u  27 km  hour as it passed A, determine (a) the
time required for the bus to reach B (b) the corresponding
speed as it passes B. The distance between A and B is
150 m (Kannur University - May 2004)
Solution:
a  0.75 m/se c2
27  1000
u  27 km  hour   7.5 m  s
3600
Initial velocity u  7.5 m/s
Distance travelled s  x  x0  ut  12 at 2
150  7.5 t  12 0.75 t2
0.375 t2  7.5 t  150  0
 7.5  

7.5 2  4 0.375  150 
t
2  0.375
A B
 7.5  16.77
  12.361
2  0.375 150m
Fig.
t  12.361 sec
v  u  at
 7.5  0.75 12.361   16.77 m  sec
Final velocity v  60.37 km  hr
5.3 VELOCITY - TIME DIAGRAM

The graph plotted with time on x axis and velocities
on y axis is called a velocity time diagram. By using v  t
diagram, we can solve the problem easily.
In case of motion with uniform acceleration this graph

consists of inclined straight lines.
Area of the vt diagram gives the distance

travelled.
Slope of the side of vt diagram gives the

acceleration.
In Fig. 5.4 ABCD is v  t diagram. Initial velocity is

‘u’. From
A to B, the motion is with uniform acceleration.

v B C
A
v
s1 s2 s3
u
t
t1 t2 t3 D
Fig.5.4
Dynamics 5.19
vu
Acceleration  slope of AB 
t1
Distance travelled s1  Area of

trapezium  12 u  v t
Motion from B to C is with constant velocity v.

Distance s2  Area of the rectangle  v  t2
From C to D the motion is with uniform deceleration.
v
Deceleration  Slope of CD 
t3
Distance s3  Area of the triangle  12  v  t3

At D , the velocity is zero and body comes to rest.
Total distance of the journey  s1  s2  s3
Problem 5.8: A train starts from rest, moves with uniform
acceleration for the first kilometer and attains the maximum
velocity. With this velocity it moves for the next 6 kilometers
and then comes to rest with uniform retardation. If the total
journey is 9 kilometers and it takes 6 minutes for the train to
complete it, calculate the maximum velocity attained.
Solution:
A B
Let AE  maximum
velocity  BD
Area of v
velocity
s 1 =1km
OAE  12 t1  AE s 2 =6km s3

=2km
C
 1 km  1000 m O E D
t3 t
t1 t2
2000
 t1  6m inutes
AE
Fig.
Area of rectangle ABDE  t2  AE
 6 km  6000 m
6000
 t2 
AE
Area of DBC  12 t3  AE  2000 m.
[Total s  s1  s2  s3  9000 m
9000  1000  6000  s3
so s3  2000 m]
4000
 t3 
AE
2000 6000 4000 12000

t 1  t2  t 3    
AE AE AE AE
But t1  t2  t3  6  60 sec [Given]
12000
  360
AE
12000
 AE   AE  33.33 m  s.
360
 The maximum velocity  33.33 m  s Ans.
5.4 FREELY FALLING BODY

Consider a body, which is allowed to fall from the top
of a tower. As it moves vertically downwards, its velocity
goes on increasing due to the gravitational acceleration;
Such a body is a freely falling body and its motion is
the motion under gravity. As there is no other force
acting on the body except the constant gravity force, its
motion is similar to the linear motion with uniform
acceleration. Here air and other resistances are neglected.
Dynamics 5.21
Therefore, the three equations of motion with uniform

acceleration are applicable to motion under gravity.
These equations applicable to motion under gravity are
(i) v  u  at or v  u  gt
Here a   g, since it is always acting downward.
(ii) 1 2 1
h  ut  at or h  ut  gt2
2 2
(iii) v2  u2  2ah or v2  u2  2gh
where h  s distance travelled in y direction (vertical) and
g  9.81
5.4.1 Sign convention:
In case of motion under gravity, the point from which

the motion starts is considered as the reference point. The
distances measured upwards from the reference point are
treated as positive. Those measured down wards from the
reference point are taken as negative. Similarly all
quantities having upward direction are treated as positive
and those having downward direction are treated as
negative. As the acceleration due to gravity is
vertically downwards, it is treated as negative.
Problem 5.9: A body is allowed to fall from the top of a tower
100 m high. After what time will it reach the ground? What
will be its velocity then? g  9.81 m  sec2
Solution:
Initial velocity u  0
AB is the reference line. The distance travelled is
downwards.
So negative. h   100 m. A B
Tower
a   g   9.81 m  s2
[Since
g is always acting down
wards)
Using h  ut  12 at 2.
100m
 100  0  12   9.81 t2
 t2  200  9.81
 t  4.515 s
The velocity when the Grou nd

Fig.
body reaches the ground  v
Using, v  u  at
v  0   9.81  4.515
  44.29 m  s
Negative sign indicates downward direction of the
velocity.
Problem 5.10: A ball is thrown upwards from the top of a
tower, 29.4 m high, with a velocity of 19.6 m/sec. Determine
the time taken by the ball to reach the ground and the velocity
with which it strikes the ground. (Oct. ’97, Madras University)
u=19.6 m /s
Solution:
y i=y 0 = 29.4m
To find t
h  ut  12 at 2
h  s  y f  y0 29.4m
0  29.4  19.6t  12  9.81  t2

Fig.
y f =0
 29.4  19.6 t  4.905 t2
Dynamics 5.23
 4.905t2  19.6 t  29.4  0
 19.6   
19.6 2  4  4.905  29.4
t
 2  4.905
 19.6  30.99 
t  5.158 sec
 9.81
To find final velocity

v  u  at
v   19.6  9.81 5.158 
v   30.99 m  sec.
Final Velocity  30.99 m  s downward
5.5 RELATIVE MOTION

Consider two particles P and Q moving along the same
straight line.
If xP  6 m and xQ  14 m from origin O, then

xQ  x P  8 m is relative position coordinate of Q with
respect to P and is denoted by xQ  P or simply xQP
So xQ  P  xQ  xP  14  6  8 m
Problem 5.11: Two trains ‘A’ and ‘B’ leave the same station
on parallel lines. ‘A’ starts with uniform acceleration
2
1/6 m/sec and attains a speed of 24 km/hr when steam is
reduced to keep the speed constant. ‘B’ leaves 40 sec after, with
uniform acceleration of 1/3 m/sec2 to attain a maximum speed
of 48 km/hr. When will it overtake. (M.G. University - Dec
2005 similar type)[Apr/May 2013, Nov/Dec 2011 Anna
University]
Solution:
Easy method
Train ‘A’
Max Speed  24km/h  6.67 m/sec
a  1/6  0.167 m/sec2
v  u  at
6.67  0  0.167  t
6.67
t  40 sec
0.167
t  40 sec
So time to reach maximum speed (6.67 m/sec) is 40

sec for train A and after that the train moves with constant
speed.
For Train B
1000
vmax  48   13.333 m/sec
3600
1
a  0.333 m/sec2
3
v  u  at
13.33  0  0.333 t
13.333
t  40 sec
0.333
So time to reach max speed is 40 sec for Train B and

after that it moves with constant speed.
By using v-t diagram

Distance travelled by Train A = Area under OABC O
Dynamics 5.25
Distance travelled by Train B = Area under DEFCD
Area of OABCO  OAD  ABCD
1
Triangle OAD   40  6.67
2
Rectangle ABCD  t  40  6.67
E 13.33m /s Train B F
m /s 2
A 6.67m /s Train A B
2
13.33m /s
s
33
m/
0 .3
67
6.67m /s
0.1
aB =
aA =
O 40 D 40 G t-8 0 C t
t-4 0
Fig.
t
1
xA  [  40  6.67 ]  [ t  40  6.67 ]
2
Similarly, xB Area of DEFCD  DEG  EFCG
1
[  40  13.33 ]  [ t  80  13.33 ]
2
. .
Equate xA and xB [ . when B overtakes A, xA  xB ]
1 
 2  40  6.67   [ t  40  6.66 ]
 
1 
   40  13.33   [ t  80  13.33 ]
 2 
133.2  [ t  40  6.66 ]  266.6  [ t  80  13.33 ]
133.2  6.66t  266.4  266.6  13.33 t  1066.4
666.6
6.67t  666.6 ; t   100 sec
6.67
After 100 secs, Train B overtakes Train A

Problem 5.12: Two trains A and B leave the same station on
parallel lines. A starts with a uniform acceleration of
0.15 m/s2 and attains the speed of 24 km/hour, after which,
its speed remains constant. B leaves 40 seconds later with
uniform acceleration of 0.30 m/s2 to attain a maximum speed
of 48 km/hour. Its speed also becomes constant thereafter.
When will B overtake A? (MG University-Dec 2005)
Given data
Train A Train B
a  0.15 m/s2 a  0.3 m/sec2
speed  24 kmph speed  48 kmph
v  6.67 m/s v  13.33 m/s
time  t sec time t  40 sec
u0 u0
Train A
vA  u  at
6.67  0  0.15  t
6.67
tA   44.467 s ec, Time taken to reach 24 kmph
0.15
Dynamics 5.27
13 .3 3 m /s G 13 .3 3 m /s Train B H
6.67 m /s F
13.33 m /s
6.67 m /s C Train A
2
s
m/
2
6 .6 7 m /s
m /s
5
0 .1
0.3
a =
A
aB =
D J
A B E t in s
40 t-8 4 .4 3
44 .4 6 7 t-4 4 .4 67 O ver
t taking
Fig point
Train B
vB  u  at
13.33  0  0.3 t
Time taken to reach 48 kmph
13.32
t  44.43 sec
0.3
Note: By using vt diagram we can easily solve the problem;
Generally distance travelled = vt. So
Area under the vt diagram represents the distance

travelled.
Distance travelled by train A  xA
xA  Area ACFEA  Area of triangle ACD
 Area of rectangle CDEF

1
  44.467  6.67  6.67 t  44.467 
2
 148.297  6.67t  296.6
xA   148.3  6.67 t ... (i)
Distance travelled by train B  xB
xB  Area BGHEB  Area of triangle BGJ

 Area of rectangle GHEJ
1
  44.43  13.33  13.33 t  84.43 
2
 296.13  13.33 t  1125.45
xB   829.32  13.33t ... (ii)
When B overtakes A,
xB  x A
 829.32  13.33 t   148.3  6.67 t
6.66t  681.02
681.02
t  102.3 sec
6.66
B overtakes A, when t  102.3 sec.
5.6 MOTION OF A PROJECTILE

Projectile: In general, any body thrown in the atmosphere
with a velocity is called a projectile. A cricket ball thrown
in the atmosphere, a bullet fired from the rifle, a golf ball,
a shell of a gun, a bomb released from a moving plane are
examples of projectiles.
Dynamics 5.29
5.6.1 Terms connected with the motion of a

projectile:
Consider a bullet fired from a rifle. Its barrel is
inclined at an angle  with the horizontal. The initial
velocity is u. This is the velocity at the mouth of the rifle
and therefore called the muzzle velocity . The path followed
by the bullet is shown Fig 5.5. The motion of the bullet is
the motion of a projectile. In the study of this motion, the
air and wind resistance’s are neglected.
A
u Trajectory

O B
R
Fig.5.5
(i) Velocity of Projection The initial velocity with

which a body is projected is called the velocity of
projection. u is the velocity of projection.
(ii) Angle of Projection The angle with which the
initial velocity makes with the horizontal is called
angle of projection.  or  is the angle of
projection.
(iii) Trajectory The path of a projectile, with initial
velocity in any direction other than the vertical,
is called its trajectory. The trajectory of a
projectile is a curve called parabola. O AB is the
trajectory.
(iv) Horizontal range The distance between the

point of projection and the point where the
horizontal line meets the trajectory is called the
horizontal range. R is the horizontal range.
(v) Maximum height The maximum vertical
distance of a projectile from the point of projection
is its maximum height. h is the maximum height.
(vi) Time of flight The time taken by the projectile
from the moment of projection to come again to the
level of projection or the time for the body to return
to its initial elevation is called the time of flight.
5.6.2 Study of the motion of a projectile

The assumptions in the study of motion of a projectile
are:
1. The acceleration due to gravity remains constant
throughout the motion.
2. The only force acting on the projectile is the
vertical force of gravity. All other forces like air
friction are neglected.
usin  A
u ucos 
ucos 
ucos 
h

O B
ucos 
R
Fig.5.6
Consider a body projected with an initial velocity u and

angle of projection  .
Dynamics 5.31
The horizontal component of velocity of projection

ux  u cos
The vertical component of velocity of projection
uy  u sin 
As there is no force acting in the horizontal direction,
the horizontal component remains constant throughout the
motion. Therefore at any instant the value of the horizontal
component of velocity is u cos  . The horizontal distance
travelled by the projectile is due to this horizontal
component.
The vertical motion of the projectile is due to the
vertical component. The vertical motion is the motion of a
freely falling body. Because of the simultaneous influence
of these two motions, the body follows the parabolic path.
Thus the motion of a projectile is a combination of two
separate motions: one in the horizontal direction with
constant velocity motion and the other in the vertical
direction (under the action of gravity) with uniform
accelerated motion.
Vertical Motion Horizontal Motion
Initial velocity Initial velocity = Final
 uy  u sin  velocity
1. ux  u cos  vx
ag a0
h  vertical distance Horizontal range R  x 
travelled horizontal distance travelled
1 2.
1. h  uy t  a t2
2 R  uniform velo city  time
2. vy  uy  at  u cos  t
3. v2y  u2y  2ah
The three equations of motion with uniform

acceleration are applicable to the vertical motion of
projectile.
The formulae for projectile motion.
2 u sin 
1. Time of flight, t 
g
u2 sin2 
2. Horizontal range, R 
g
u2 sin2 
3. Maximum height, h 
2g
Problem 5.13: A ball is projected with an initial velocity of

10 m/s at an angle of 45 with the horizontal. Find the time
of flight, maximum height attained and the horizontal range.
(May/June - 2012 - AU)
Solution:
Components of velocity:
uy  u sin   10 sin 45  7.07 m/s
ux  u cos   10 cos 45  7.07 m/s

Refer Fig :
u y = usin 
A ucos 
ucos 
/s
m
h
10
u=

O B
u x = ucos 
R
Dynamics 5.33
(i) Time of flight,

Considering vertical motion from O to B,
h  yf  y0  0; a  g   9.81 m/s 2
1 2
Using, h  ut  at
2
0  7.07 t  4.9 t2
 t  1.443 sec
(ii) Horizontal range, R  x

x  R  uniform velocity  time  ux  t
 7.07  1.443
 10.2 metres
(iii) Maximum height,

Considering vertical motion from O to A.
uy  7.07 m/s, vy  0
. .
[ . At maxim um height, vy  0 ]
Using, v2y  u2y  2ah
0  7.07 2  2 9.81  h
 h  50/19.6  2.55 metres
Problem 5.14: A projectile is fired from the edge of a 90 m

high at an angle of 30 with the horizontal. If the velocity of
projection is 120 m/s determine.
(a) the horizontal distance from the point of projection to the
point where it strikes the ground
(b) the maximum height reached by the projectile above the

ground. (Dec 2008 - M.G. University)
Solution:
In ‘x’ direction: Uniform velocity and no
acceleration exists
So horizontal distance travelled

x  horizontal velocity  time
x  ux  t
ux  u cos   120 cos 30  103.92 m/s
In ‘y’ direction: uniform acceleration of  9.81 m/sec2
vy  uy  at
1
h  uyt  at2
2
v2y  u2y  2ah
(where h  yf  y0 ; yf  final height; y0  initial height ]
Before the projectile reaches its maximum height, its

velocity is upward. After reaching the maximum height, its
velocity becomes downward. When the projectile reaches its
maximum height, its velocity becomes zero,
So vy  0 when it reaches max. height.
uy  u sin   120 sin 30  60 m/s
vy  uy  at
0  60  9.81 t
Dynamics 5.35
60
t  6.116 sec.
9.81
t1  6.116 sec
(from 90 maximum height to maximum height)
/s
0 m
12
u= 30
o
90m M ax.
Height
Fig . Horizon tal Distance (R ang e of projectile )
Maximum height
y 1 = 273.49m
/s
0m
12
u= 30
o
m ax.h t
=2 73.49m
A t m ax h t, u y = 0
90m
s x = x = horizontal distance tra ve lled Fig. (a)
1 2
y1  y0  uyt  at
2
1
y 1  y0  uyt  at2
2
1
 90  60  6.116   [  9.81   6.116 2 ]
2
 90  366.96   183.47  273.49 m
y1  maximum height  273.49 m
Consider the motion of ball from max height to

ground level :
sy  vertical distance travelled
1
sy  y 2  y1   273.49  uyt  at2
2
[ y2  ground level  0]
1
0  273.49  0  t   9.81  t2
2
273.49
t2  [ At max ht, uy  0 ]
4.905
t  7.467 sec
Time to reach from maximum height to ground level

t2  7.467 sec
Total time taken to reach ground level from 90 m

height through maximum height
 t1  t2  6.116  7.467  13.583 sec.
So horizontal distance travelled sx  ux t
. .
[ . Tota l time t  13.583 s ]
 103.92  13.583
So horizontal distance travelled  1411.58 m

Dynamics 5.37
5.7 CYLINDRICAL CO-ORDINATE SYSTEM

(i) Angular displacement
: (Fig. 5.7) The angle
A Start
subtended at the center by
the path (A to B) travelled
by the particle is its angular
displacement . The unit of O 
angular displacement is Tim e t
degree or radian or
revolution. It is denoted by
Fig.5.7 B
 if measured in degrees or
in radians and by N if
measured in revolutions.
(ii) Angular velocity : The angular displacement of a
body per unit time is its angular velocity. It is denoted by
(omega) .
Angular dis placement 

 
Time interval t
The unit of  is degrees per second (or) radians per

second. The unit of N is revolutions per second (rps) or
revolutions per minute (rpm). Now  can be written as
  t.
(iii) Angular acceleration : The change in angular

velocity per unit time is the angular acceleration. It is
denoted by .
Change in angular velocity


Time interval
1  0

t
where  1 and  0 are the final and initial angular velocities

respectively and t is the time during which this change
takes place. The unit of angular acceleration is
degrees /sec 2 or radian  sec 2.
A Start
5.7.1 Rotation Motion
r
Consider a particle
moving along the
A B=S
O  = t
circumference of a circle of
Tim e t
radius r with constant
angular velocity  rad/s.
Fig.5.8 B
Let the particle at A
(Refer Fig 5.8) moves to B
in t seconds.
It moves through an angle  radians.
 The angular displacement   t
The linear distance travelled in t seconds along the

circumference is equal to the length of arc AB  s;  in
arc length s
radians  
radius r
So s  r .... i
If the distance is covered in t seconds,
s r
 Tangential velocity (or) Linear velocity v  
t t
Dynamics 5.39

substitute  , we get
t
v  r ....ii
v
We can also write  
r
If the body is moving with a constant angular

acceleration  ;
1  0

t
v u
But from (ii)  1  and  0 
r r
vu a . .vu 
   . a
rt r  t 
 a  r  iii
In all these equations from (i) to (iii) the value of
,  and  must necessarily be in radian units. Then the
terms in translation motion s, v and a will have the units
corresponding to the unit of r. Thus if  is in radians and
r is in metres, then the distance s obtained by the formula
s  r is in metres. The same procedure applies to the units
of linear acceleration.
5.7.2 Equations of rotational motion:

For the rotational motion with uniform angular
acceleration, there are three equations similar to the three
equations of translation motion with uniform acceleration.
Consider a body moving along the circumference of a

circle. It has  0 as its initial angular velocity and  the
uniform angular acceleration. After time t, the angular
velocity is  1 called the final angular velocity and  is the

angular displacement.
Change in angular velocity   1   0
1  0

t
  1   0  t i
(This equation is similar to v  u  at)
Angular displacement 
  Average angular velocity  Time
 0   1
 t  ii
2
Substitute  1   0  t in eqn. (ii), we get
 0   0  t
 t
2
1
    0t  t2  iii
2
 1 2
 This is similar to s  ut  2 at 
 
From equation (i)
B
 1   0  t
Squaring on both sides, 

O A
we get
 21   0  t2 r
A O B =
Fig.5.9 r = rad ius
 21   20  2 0t   t2 2
Dynamics 5.41
1
  20  2 0t  t2
2 . . 1 2
 .   o t  2  t 
 
 21   20  2 ...(iv)
(This is similar to v2  u2  2as)
The three equations of angular motion (rotational

motion) with uniform angular acceleration are
1. 1   0  t
1 2
2.    0t  t
2
3. 21   20  2
Circular motion or motion of rotation may be explained

in a different manner in the following pages.
The motion of a body along a circular path is known

as circular motion. In circular motion, the centre of rotation
remains fixed. The examples of the bodies moving in a
circular path are: Shafts, Flywheels, Pulleys, etc.
Angular Velocity 
It is defined as the rate of change of angular
displacement of a body.
Angular displacement

Time
d
 in rad/sec.
dt
Linear displacement
Linear velocity v 
Time
dx
 in m/sec
dt
Relation between v and  is v  r
Angular acceleration 
It is defined as the rate of change of angular velocity.
d dv
 where a 
dt dt
d dv
 where a  v
d dx
Relation between ‘a’ and ‘’ is a  r
5.8 SUMMARY OF TRANSLATION AND ROTATIONAL

MOTION
Equations of Translation and Rotational Motion with

Uniform acceleration
Circular (Rotation) Linear (Translation)

1 2 1 2
1.    ot  t where s  ut  at
2 2
2.  1   0  t where v  u  at
3.  21   20  2 where v2  u2  2as and
s  x  x0
N  revolution 2N

per minute; 60
Rotation motion with 1   0

constant angular velocity
So    0t   1t
0
Dynamics 5.43
Total number of

revolutions  for any
2
type of motion.
Problem 5.15: The angle of rotation of a body is given by
the equation   2t3  5t2  8t  6. Determine
1. the angular velocity and
2. angular acceleration of the body when t  0 and when
t  4 seconds. (Oct. 2003 - AU)
Solution:
Angular displacement   2t3  5t2  8t  6
d
Angular velocity    6t2  10t  8
dt
d
Angular acceleration    12t  10
dt
when t  0
. .
  8 rad /s [ .   6t2  10t  8]
. .
   10 rad /s2 [ .   12t  10]
when t  4 sec
  642  104  8
 96  40  8  64 rad/s
  64 rad /s
  124  10  38 rad/sec 2
  38 rad /s2.
Problem 5.16: A body is rotating with an angular velocity of

5 rad/s. After 4 sec the angular velocity of body becomes 13
rad/s. Determine the angular acceleration of the body.
(Apr 2006 - AU)
Solution:
Given
 0  5 rad /s; t  4 sec;  1  13 rad /s
  Angular acceleration  ?
 1   0  t i.e. 13  5  4
8
  2 rad/sec 2
4
Angular acceleration   2 rad /s2

Problem 5.17: The rotor of an electric motor is rotating at a
speed of 720 rpm. When the steam supply is suddenly cut off,
it is observed that 5 mins are required for the rotor to come
to rest. Assuming uniformly accelerated motion determine
(a) the angular acceleration and
(b) the total number of revolutions.
(KTU - June 2011)(Cochin University - May 2014)
Solution:
1 revolution  2 rad
2N 0
N 0  720 rpm ;  0 
60
2  720
  75.4 rad/s
60
. .
t  5 min  300 sec;  1  0 [ . finally the rotor comes
to rest]
Dynamics 5.45
 1   0  t
0  75.4  300 
 75.4
   0.251 rad  s2
300
Angular acceleration (deceleration)  0.251 rad  s2
1
   0t  t2
2
1
 75.4 300   0.251 3002  11325
2
  11325 rad
2  radian ...... 1 revolution
1
11325 radian   11325 revolutions  1802.43 revo lutions
2
Total no. of revolutions  1802.43 revolutions
Problem 5.18: A flywheel rotating at 1500 rpm comes to rest

with constant angular deceleration is 100 seconds owing to
friction in the bearings. If the moment of inertia of the flywheel
with respect to its axis of rotation I  12.5 kg.m2, determine
friction couple that produces this angular deceleration.
Solution:
2 N 1 2  1500
1    157.08 rad/s
60 60
2  0
2  1   t
0  157.08   100
 157.08
   1.571 rad/s2
100
[ sign indicates deceleration]
To find
Frictional couple (or) Frictional Torque T
TI
 12.5   1.571   19.63 Nm
T   19.63 Nm
Problem 5.19: The rotor of flywheel is governed by the

equation   2t2  2t  2 where  is rad/s and t is in second.
After 1 second from start, the angular displacement was 4
radian. Determine the angular displacement, angular velocity
and angular acceleration of the fly wheel when t  3 second.
(Cochin University, May 2014)
Solution:
d
Angular velocity,    2t2  2t  2
dt
 t
 d   2t2  2t  2 dt
o to
Angular Displacement,
t
 2t3 2t2 
  o     2t  when t  1s,
 3 2 o
  4 rad
3 2
   o  0.67 t  t  2t
   o  0.67  1  2  1.67 rad

Dynamics 5.47
 o  4  1.67  2.33 rad
Hence   0.67 t3  t2  2t  2.33
d2
Now    4t  2
dt2
Angular acceleration   4t  2
When t  3 sec:   0.67t3  t2  2t  2.33

  0.67 33  3 2  2 3  2.33  17.42 rad/s
  17.42 rad/s
  2t2  2t  2  2 32  2 3  12 rad/s
  12 rad/s
  4t  2  4 3  2  10 rad/s2
  12 rad/s 2
5.9 COMBINED MOTION OF ROTATION AND

TRANSLATION [GENERAL PLANE MOTION]
General Plane motion is considered as the sum of a
translation motion and a rotational motion.
Example 1
(i) Consider a rod at its initial position A1 B 1 (Dotted
line). The rod moves to new position A 2 B 2 as
shown in Fig 5.10 (a). This movement is called
General plane motion.
B1 B1 B1 B1
Initial
·
·
B2
B2 = +
A1 A2
A1 A2 A2
Plane m otion = Translation + Rotation about
the center
(a) (b) Fig.5.10. (c)
(ii) The movement can be obtained by moving A1 B 1

horizontally to A 2B 1 (Translation) as in Fig.5.10
(b) and then
(iii) Rotating A2 B 1 about A 2 so that B 1 rotates to
B 2 anticlockwise (Rotation) as shown in Fig.
5.10(c).
So G eneral 
 Translation  Rotation about end A2
plane motion 
Similarly consider example 2 (Fig. 5.11)

(i) A wheel is rolling on road. After some time, the
point A1 and B 1 moves to new position A2 and
B 2. This motion is general plane motion, ie
combination of rotation and translation.
B1 B1 B1· B1
·
= +
A1 A1 A2 A2
A2
B2 B2
Plane m otion = Translation + Rotation about

Fig. 5.11 the center A 2
Dynamics 5.49
The same can be obtained by,

(ii) Moving A 1 and B 1 horizontally into A2, B 1
respectively (Translation motion) and then
(iii) Rotating A 2 B 1 about A 2 so that B 1 rotates to
B 2 clockwise. (Rotation motion).
So General plane motion  Translation  Rotation about

the center.
By using above principle,the absolute velocity of B can

found out by the following formulae.
vB  vA  vB  A
Plane Rotation of
Translation
motion AB about A
where vB  Absolute velocity of B
vA  Absolute velocity of A
vB  A  Relative velocity of B with respect to A
 The length AB  angular ve locity of the rod AB
 r
The formula can also be written as vA  vB  vA  B
Similarly, to find acceleration of place motion,
aA  aB  aA  B
aB  aA  aB  A
Problem 5.20: A cylinder of radius 1 m rolls without slipping

along a horizontal plane. Its centre has a uniform velocity of
20 m/s. Find the velocity of the points E, F and G on the
circumference of the cylinder as shown in fig.

(Nov/Dec 2007, AU)
F F
G G
o
C 30 C :c
E :c E
A B v D C =r 
D D Fig .(a)
Fig .
Solution:
At D , velocity of D is zero. [Sine D is in contact with
road]
The motion of the center ‘C’ is known - ie.
vC  20 m  s
To find 
Plane motion  Translation  Rotation about the center

 
vD  vC  vD  C (Vector sum) and vD  C  r  1  
 
0  20  1   [Since vD  C is in leftside direction, it is
negative]
Angular velocity  20
  20 rad  s
of cylinder  1
Velocity of point E (Fig. (b))

vE  C is vertically upward
vE  v
C  vE  C  (vector sum)
Dynamics 5.51
F v F /C ishorizo ntally F v F /C =r

v E C =r 
right
 G G
C vc C vc
E E
v D C =r  Fig.(b) v D C =r  Fig.(c)
D D
vE  
 v2C  vE
2
C
[And vE  C  r  1  20  20 rad  s]
 

20 2  20 2  28.28 m  s
vE C 20
tan     1;   45 F
vC 20
G
o
o
60
To find Velocity of point C 30
E v c =20
F (Fig. (c))
v C G =r
vF  C is horizontally =1 x 2 0
vDC =20 m /s
right. =r  D Fig.(d)
Plane motion  Translation  Rotation about the

center
 
vF  vC  vF  C
   
vF  20  vF  C  vF  C  r  1  20  20 rad  s 
 

 
vF  20  20  40 m  s
To Find Velocity of Point G (Fig. (d))

Plane motion  Translation  Rotation about the centre.

vG  vC  vGC
 v2C  v2GC  2vC vGC cos 60


 

20 2  20 2  2  20  20  cos 
60
 34.641 m  s
vG  34.641 m  s
Problem 5.21: An automobile travels to the right at a

constant speed of 72 km/h. The diameter of the wheel is
560 mm.
Determine the magnitude and direction of the following:
1. Angular velocity of the wheel.
2. Velocity of the point B.
3. Velocity of the point C.
4. Velocity of the point D.
5. Velocity of the point E. (May/June 2012 AU)
Solution:
B
At C , velocity of C is
D
. . 30
o
zero. [ . C is in contact with
road] A
E
i.e vC  o
The motion of the center

‘A ’ is known
G iven Fig. C
i.e vA  72 km/h
Dynamics 5.53
72  1000
 vA  B
3600
D o
30 
vA  20 m/s
A vA
Diameter of wheel,
 560 mm
 radius, v C A = r
C Fig. a
560  10  3
r  0.28 m
2
  . .
vC  vA  vC /A . vC/A  r
  vC/A   0.28 
0  20  0.28  
[Here vC/A is in left side direction, hence it is  ve]
20
 Angular velocity of wheel,    71.42
0.28
  71.42 rad/s
2. Velocity of the point E

vE/A is vertically upward.
 v E A =r 
vE  vA  vE/A  B
D

vE  
 v2A  v2E/A
A
. . E vA
[ . vE/A  r  0.28  71.42
 20 rad/s]
v C A =r 
2 Fig. b
 
 20   20 2
vE  28.28 m/s
vE/A 20
tan    1
vA 20
   45
3. Velocity of the point B

vB/A is horizontally right.
Plane motion  T ranslation  rotation a bout the center

 
vB  vA  vB/A
B v B /A = r 
D

A
E vA
v C A =r 
C Fig. c
  
vB  20  vB/A 
[ vB/A  r   0.28  71.42  20 rad/s ]
  
vB  20  20

vB  40 m/s
4. Velocity of the point D

Plane motion  Translation  Rotation about the centre

vD  vA  vDA
Dynamics 5.55
V DA = r = 0.28 x 71.42

30 o = 20 rad / s
D B
30 o

E A vA
v C A =r 
C Fig. d
 
 
v2A  v2DA  2vA vDA cos 30
 
 
202  202  2  20  20  cos 30
vD  38.64 m/s
Result
1.   71.42 rad/s
2. vB  40 m/s
3. vC  zero [At C, Velocity of C is zero]
4. vD  38.64 m/s
5. vE  28.28 m/s
Problem 5.22: A cycle is travelling along a straight road with

a velocity of 5 m/sec. Determine the velocity of a point A on
the wheel situated at a radial distance of 200 mm from the
center C of the front wheel, when CA makes 30 with the
horizontal through C. The radius of the wheel is 400 mm
(May/June 2010-AU)
Solution:
m
We take C as a pole. 0 .2
r 1= A
(and we can write vAC o
30
o 60
instead of vA  C , vDC instead C v C =5m /s
4m
of vD  C 
0.
v AC
r=

  
=0
vA  vC  vAC (Vectorial D
.2 
v D C =r 0.4  Fig.
addition)
. .
where vAC  r1   0.2  [ . CA  r1  0.2 m]
To find 
The velocity of point ‘D’ which is having contact with
the plane must be zero, i.e. vD  0
  
But vD  vC  vDC Vectorial addition
0  5  0.4 
[vDC is leftside direction, so it is negative]
5
  12.5 rad  sec
0.4
  12.5 rad  sec
(So vAC  r1   0.2  12.5  2.5 m  s
  
Now vA  vC  vAC Vectorial addition
 
 5  0.2  12.5  Vectorial addition
By drawing the velocity diagram, we can easily get the

solution
Dynamics 5.57
Graphical method
o v C = 5 m /s (5 cm ) c
60 o
v A /C
vA =
6 .6 1
=2
4m
/s
.5
m/
s
a
Refer the Figure (a)

1. Take a point ‘o’
2. From ‘o’ draw a line horizontally parallel to vC
and equal to 5 cm and mark the point c.
(Take 1 cm  1 m  sec
3. Draw a line parallel to vAC inclined at 60 to
horizontal from c and length equal to 2.5 cm
(equal to 2.5 m/s) and mark a. vAC direction is
60 inclined to horizontal)
4. Now join oa which is equal to 6.614 cm. Then
length oa is equal to vA i.e. vA  6.614 m/s.
Analytically
  
vA  vC  vAC vectorial addition 
vA  
 v2C  vA  C 2  2vC vA  C  c o s 
60 
 
 52  2.5 2  2  5  2. 5  cos 
60 
 
 25  6.25  12.5  6.614 m  sec
vA  6.614 m  sec
vA is same in both methods.
Problem 5.23: A cylindrical roller is in contact at its top and

bottom with two conveyor belts. If the top belts runs at uniform
speed of 4 m/s and the bottom at 2.5 m/s, find the linear
velocity and angular velocity of the roller. The diameter of the
roller is 500 mm. (Nov 2011 - AU)
Velocity of the point A
G iven : S olution
v 1 = 4 m /s v 1 = 4 m /s
A A v A /C =r 
C vc C vc
.2 5m .2 5m
r =0 r =0
Fig Fig.(a)
B r = v B /C B
v 2 = 2.5 m /s v 2 = 2.5 m /s
    
vA  vC  vA  C ; substitute vA  v1  4 m  s
  
4  vC  r   1
Velocity of the point B
   
vB  vC  vB  C ; [vB  v2  2.5 m  s]
  
2.5  vC  r  2
Add 1 & 2
6.5  2vC  0
6.5
vC   3.25 m  s
2
Dynamics 5.59
Substitute vC  3.25 in equation (1), we get

  
4  vC  0.25 
  
4  3.25  0.25 
0.75
  3 rad  s
0.25
vC  3.25 m  s;   3 rad  s.
Problem 5.24: The rod AB is 1.8 m long and slides with its
ends in contact with the floor and the inclined plane. End A
moves with a constant velocity of 6m/s to the right. At the
instant when   25, determine (a) the angular velocity of the
rod (b) the velocity of the end B (Refer the fig.)
(Nov/Dec 2007-AU)
v B /A
vB parallel lines v B b
B v BA
m parallel lines
1 .8
25 o
o o
A 25 o 40
o
65
v A =6m /s 40 o v A = 6m /s (6cm ) a
G iven F ig. Fig.a Velocity diagram
Solution:
The velocity of the end ‘A’ is known, So we choose ‘A’
as the pole. Now apply the General Plane Motion Equation.
vB  vA  vB  A (Vectorial addition)
To Draw velocity diagram [Refer Fig. (a)]

1. Take any point as o.
2. Draw oa  6 cm to represent vA  6 m  sec. (Scale
1m  sec  1 cm horizontally since vA direction is
horizontal.
3. Draw a line parallel to inclined plane 40
through point o, (Here the length of the line is
not known. So draw to any length) to represent
vB direction.
4. Draw a line perpendicular to the rod AB through

point a to represent vB  A direction. (Here also,
the length of the line is not known. So draw to
any length)
The above two lines will intersect at b .
Now measure ob  5.6 cm . So vB  5.6 m  sec
Now measure ab  4 cm . so vB  A  4 m  sec
Analytically
by analysing triangle shown in Fig b.
Using Lami’s theorem,
vBA vA 6
   6.212
sin 40 sin 75 sin 75 . .
 . vA  6 m/s
vBA  6.212  sin 40  4 m/s
vB vA 6
   6.212
vB  6.212  sin 65  5.63 m /s
vB  A  AB  
Dynamics 5.61
b
4  1.8  vB
75 o v
4 BA
  2.222 rad  s
1.8 o
25
So angular velocity of o o
40 65
the rod
o v A= 6m /s (6cm ) a
 rod  2.222 rad /s. Fig.(b)
5.10 CONCEPT OF INSTANTANEOUS CENTER

A rigid body in plane
I (Ins ta ntaneo us
motion, at any given instant  ce nter)
of time appears as if rotating
about a certain point in the
plane of the body. The point
vb
which is instantaneously at
rest and has zero velocity is
P vP va B
called as the instantaneous A
center of rotation. The body R igid body
may seem to be rotating
about one point at one instant of time and about another
point at the next instant. This instantaneous center is
changing every instant and is not a fixed point.
The velocity of any point in the body can be
determined by assuming that point is rotating with some
angular velocity , about the instantaneous center I at the
instant.
va vp vb
 ; ;
IA IP IB
5.10.1 Motion of connecting rod of piston and crank

of a reciprocating pump
Problem 5.25: In a reciprocating pump mechanism, the crank
AB has a constant clockwise angular velocity of 2500 rpm. For
the crank position shown in fig. determine (a) the angular
velocity of the connecting rod BD. (b) The velocity of the
piston. (May/June 2010, AU)
l= 2 0 0 m m
m m m B
m
75 75
r= B
G A B 50
o
o
o  40
40 P
A vB
A
Fig. D Fig.(a)
Solution:
To find vB
2 N AB 2   2500
AB    261.8 rad  s.
60 60
vB  r AB  AB  AB  0.075  261.8  19.63 m  s
vB direction is perpendicular to crank AB .
To find vD and BD (Motion of connecting rod BD)
Plane M otion = Translation + R otation

Fig .(b)
Dynamics 5.63
First of all, find   the angle between connecting rod

and horizontal.
 Draw ABD by using given data (Fig.(c)).
 Extend AB and draw vertical line from D.
Both lines intersect at I.
Now by measurement from Fig. (c),
We get IB  0.2534 m
ID  0.211 m
Instantaneous centre method
B I
m = 0 .2 m
75
o
0
0.
o
50
r =4 0 o =13 .95
o
A D B D
B 5 3.9 5 o
m l = 0 .2
75 o m
. 0 1 26 .05
o
0 7 6.0 5
r= o
=13 .95
o
40
A Fig. (c) D
Using law of sines,

0.2 0.075

sin 40 sin 
0.075  sin 40
sin    0.241
0.2
  13.95
From  IAD
ID
sin 40 
IB  AB
From  IBD
ID 0.2
  ID  0.211 m
sin 53.95 sin 50
Also,
IB 0.2
  IB  0.2534 m
sin 76.05 sin 50
vB vD
  BD  
IB ID
19.63 vD
  vD  16.35 m/s
0.2534 0.211
vB 19.63
 BD    77.5 rad/s
IB 0.2534
Alternate Method
Refer Fig. (c)
v D =1 6.3 5m /s
1. Draw ob  19.63 cm to
represent o d
vB  19.63 m/sec
perpendicular to AB
vB =
/s
19
ie 50 to horizontal
5 .5 m
.6
v DB
3m
line.
/s
v DB = 1
2. Draw line horizontally

(length not known) to Fig. (c) b
represent vD from O.
Dynamics 5.65
3. Draw a line perpendicular to BD from b to represent

vDB (length not known).
4. Both lines intersect at d.

5. Now measure od  vD  16.35 m/s ; vDB  15.5 m/s
Also vD  B  BD  BD
15.5  0.2   BD
 BD  77.5 rad  s
Problem 5.26: In a reciprocating pump, the piston, connecting

rod and crank are shown in Fig. (a). The Crank OA has a constant
speed of 1500 rpm in clockwise. When crank OA is at 45 to the
horizontal, determine (a) the angular velocity of the connecting rod
AB and (b) the velocity of the Piston B.
Take the length of the crank OA  8 cm and that of connecting
rod AB  16 cm (Nov 2012 - AU)
A
O A
=45 o 
B
O
Fig. (a)
Solution:
A
Given:
0 .1
6m
Speed of the Crank
m
08
0.
 N OA  1500 rpm; vA
 B
45
o
  45 ; OA  0.08 m O Fig. (b)
AB  16 cm  0.16 m
Angular Velocity of the Crank

2NOA 2  1500
OA    157 rad  s
60 60
Linear Velocity of the crank
vA  vOA   OA  OA  157  0.08  12.57 m  s

o vB b
From the Fig. (b)
o
0.08 0.16 45 p ara llel to
 d ire ction o f
r to AB
sin  sin 45 p istio n B .
vA v B /A
sin 45  0.08 =1 vA
sin    0.3535 2.
0.16 57
m
Fig.(c)
/s
  20.7 a
Velocity of the Point A is known in magnitude and
direction, while the velocity of the Point B is known in
direction only.
1. Draw Oa  12.57 cm perpendicular to OA, scale 1

cm = 1 m/s. [Fig.(c)]
2. From O, draw horizontal line to represent
direction of portion B. (length is not known)
3. From a, draw line perpendicular to AB to
represent vBA (length not known). Both lines
intersect at point b.
Now measure
vB  12.25 cm  12.25 m /s
vBA  9.5 cm  9.5 m /s
Angular velocity of the connecting rod
vB  A  AB  AB
Dynamics 5.67
vB  A 9.5
 AB    59.4 rad  s
AB 0.16
Instantaneous centre method
Draw OA  80 mm [Take suitable scale] at an angle of

45. Draw horizontal line from O. Take 160 mm as radius,
A as centre, draw an arc on this horizontal line and get
B. Now  OAB  114.3 .
Produce OA and from B, draw vertical line. Both lines

intersect at I. (Instantaneous centre).
o
45
A B
m
15
21
0.
A=
tI
B y m e asurem en IB = 0 .20 6 m
en
m
re
su
ea
m
By
o
A 6 5.7
114.3 o
l =0
m
.16
m
08
0.
r=
o
=4 5 o =2 0 .7 o
O B
Now by measurement IA  0.2115 m a nd
IB  0.206 m
(or)
To find out IA and IB
IB
sin 45 
IA  OA
Consider  I AB
0.16 IB

sin 45 sin 65.7
IB  0.21 m
IA 0.16

sin 69.3 sin 45
IA  0.21 m
vA vB
We know AB  
IA IB
vA vB 12.57
Now   vB   0.206
IA IB 0.2115
vB  12.243 m/s
vA 12.57
AB    59.43 rad/s
IA 0.2115
AB  59.43 rad/s
Problem 5.27: The crank of a reciprocating pump is rotating

at 210 rpm. The lengths of the crank and the connecting rod
are 200 mm and 1 m respectively. Find the velocity of the point
A (i.e. velocity of piston), when the crank has turned through
Dynamics 5.69
an angle of 45 with the horizontal as shown in Fig. (a).

(KTU-May 2011 - Qn 2006)
B
1m
0 .2
m
 
A C
Fig. (a)
Solution:
Given data:
N  210 r.p.m ; l  1 m ; r  0.2 m
According to sine rule

0.2 1

sin  sin 
0.2  sin 45

sin   0.1414
1
  sin 10.1414
  8.30
2N 2  210
 BC    22 rad/sec
60 60
vB  r  BC
 0.2   BC  0.2  22  4.4 m/s
vB  4.4 m/s
Refer Fig.(b)
To mark instantaneous centre I,
Draw  ABC .
Extend CB and draw vertical line from A.
Both lines intersect at instantaneous centre I.
Now by measurement from Fig.(b),
We get IA  1.13 m
IB  1.4 m
=45
o
A B
By
By m ea su re m e n IA = 1.13 m
m
ea
su
re
m
en
IB
=
1.
4
m
o
5 3.3
B
r=
m o 0.
N =1 2
o m
8 1.7
=8.3 o
=45 o
A Fig. (b) C
Dynamics 5.71
(or) Consider  IAC , I
from fig. (c) o

45
A B
IA
sin  
IB  BC 
Consider  IAB, vB
IA 1

sin 53.3 sin 45 5 3.3
o
B
IA  1.13 1 26 .7 o
0.
1m 2m
o
IB 1 8 1.7
o 1 80 -8.73 -45 =1 26 .8 7
Also, 
sin 81.7 sin 45 =8 .3
o =4 5 o
A C
vA
IB  1.4 m Fig . (c)
vA vB
  AB   vA  1.13  3.143
IA IB
vA  3.56 m/s
4.4
AB  
1.13 1.4  vA  3.56 m  s
 3.143 rad/s
Alternate method
b
p e rp e n d
/s
v B A = 3 .1 4
m
4 .4 v BA
=
BC
ic u la r to
vB
to
l ar
m /s
d ic u
en
AB
p
p er
45 o vA
o a
v A =3.56 m /s
Fig . (d)
1. Draw a line ob perpendicular to BC to represent

vB  4.4 m/s. [Fig. (d)]
2. Draw horizontal line through O, to represent
vA piston velocity (length not known).
3. Draw a line, through b, perpendicular to AB to
represent vBA .
4. Both lines intersect at b.
5. Now measure
oa  vA  3.56 m/s
ba  vBA  3.14 m/s
Problem 5.28: The lengths of crank OB and connecting rod

AB are 200 mm and 800 mm respectively. If the crank rotates
clockwise with an angular velocity of 10 rad/s, find 1. velocity
of the slider A and 2. Angular velocity of the connecting rod
AB.
B 10 rad/s
3 20
80 m
0 m 0m 2
m
A 45
o
O
4
1
Solution:
0.2 0.8

sin  sin45
0.2
sin    sin45
0.8
 0.1624
  10.38 
Dynamics 5.73
 OB  10 rad/s
V BO  V B   OB  OB  10  0.2  2 m/s
Draw ABO
 Extend OB and draw vertical line from A.
Both lines intersect at Instaneous centre at A.
(or)
Consider  IAB,
IA 0.8

sin 55.38 sin 45
o A B
45
B y m e asu rem e n IA = 0 .92 6 m
By
m
ea
su
re
m
en
IB
=
1.
11
1
m
o
5 5.3 8 B
r=
0.
N = 0 .8 m 
o
2
o m
7 9.6 2 o
=1 0 .38
o
=4 5
A O
IA  0.93 m
IB 0.8
Similarly, 
sin 79.62 sin 45
IB  1.1 m
Now measure,
IA  0.926 m
IB  1.111 m
To find velocity of slider A

we know,
VA VB
(or) 
IA IB
VB
V A  IA 
IB
2
 0.926   1.667 m/s
1.111
To find angular velocity of the connecting rod

AB  AB 
We know,
VA VB
   AB
IA IB
VA 1.667
AB    1.8 rad/s
IA 0.926
Problem 5.29: A bar 1 m is leaned against a wall of

negligible friction. The lower end resting on floor moves with
a constant velocity of 5 m/s horizontally, while the other end
Dynamics 5.75
slides over the wall, without leaving it. There is no friction

between the floor and the bar. Find (i) the angular velocity of
the bar; (ii) The velocity of the end touching the wall; and
(iii) the velocity of the mid-point of the bar at the instant when
the axis of the bar makes an angle of 30 with the horizontal.
Solve the problem by instantaneous centre method. Neglect the
weight of the bar.
w all
B IB = 1 co s30 = 0.86 6 I
D irection o f m otio n
A B
vB
IA = 1 sin3 0 = 0.5
1m
vC
o

o
v A = 5 m/s
O Floo r A D irection of m otion
(b ) F.B .D . o f lad de r
vA  5 m/s
Draw the diagram and mark OAB.

AB  1 m is the bar leaning against a wall with 30
with floor.
 Draw a line perpendicular to wall from B and
draw a line perpendicular to floor from A.
 Both lines intersect at I (Instantaneous centre).
vA vB
   AB
IA IB
(i) Angular velocity of the bar

5
AB   10 rad/s
0.5
(ii) Velocity of the end touching the wall [vB ]

vB   AB  IB  10  0.866  8.66 m /s
(iii) Velocity of mid point of bar C. ‘vc’

IC IC
tan 60    IC  0.5 tan 60
AC 0.5
 0.866 m
vc  AB  IC  10  0.866  8.66 m
5.11 RECTILINEAR TRANSLATION

- NEWTON’S SECOND LAW
Consider a body shown in Fig. 5.13 (a). In this
system, the sum of forces (Resultant) acting on the body in
x and y direction is zero. So there is no motion of the body
in x and y direction.
x W =50N
W =50N
P=10N P=20N
 F= R N =0.2x50
R N =5 0N R N =5 0N =10N
Fig. 5.13 (a) Fig. 5.13 (b)
Dynamics 5.77
F x  0 and F y  0
Refer the Fig. 5.13 (b). In this system,
F y  0. So there is no motion in y direction

But F x  P  F  20  10  10 N
The resultant acting on the body is 10 N in the right

side direction.
So the body will move in the right side direction due

to the resultant force.
Newton’s second law states that
If the resultant force acting on a particle is not zero,

the particle will move with an acceleration proportional to
the magnitude of the resultant and in the direction of this
resultant force.
Newton’s second law can be proved by the following

experiments.
When a body is subjected to a force F 1, then the body

will move with an acceleration a1. (Fig. 5.14 (a))
When a body is subjected to a different force F 2

(magnitude and direction is different), then the body will
move with an acceleration of a2 (a2 direction is same as
that of F 2). (Fig. 5.14 (b))
Similarly, when a body is subjected to a force F 3, it

has acceleration of a3. By seeing above, we can come to
conclusion, each time the particle moves in the direction of
force and its acceleration a1, a2 and a3

are proportional to F 1, F 2 and F 3. a1
F1
respectively. (Fig. 5.14) Fig 5.14 (a)
So F 1  a1; F 2  a2; F 3  a3
F2
F1 F2 F3 a2
(or)    ....  c o nstant
a1 a2 a3 Fig 5.14 (b )
F3
The proportionality constant is
known as mass ‘m’ of the particle. a3
So according to Newton’s second law, Fig 5.14 (c)
F  ma
when a particle is acted upon several forces, then
 F  ma
where  F is the resultant force (i.e. sum of all forces acting

on a particle).
F 1  F 2  F 3  F  ma
F1
F
R e su
lt a n t
F2 = =
ma
Fig 5.15 F3
5.11.1 Unit of Force

Unit of force is Newton.
One Newton (1 N) is defined as the force which gives
an acceleration of 1 m/s2 to a mass of 1 kg
Dynamics 5.79
1 N  1 kg 1 m/s2  1 kg.m /s2
So 1 N  1 kg.m /s2
The Newton’s second law can be applied for weight of

the body.
When a body is subjected to its own weight, it has an
acceleration a  g  9.81 m/s2
According to Newton’s second law, F  ma
Here F  W; a  g
So W  mg
From the above equation, the weight of the body of
mass 1 kg is
W  mg  1 kg  9.81 m/s2  9.81 kgm/s 2  9.81 N
So one kg mass has 9.81 N weight.
5.11.2 Equation of Motion

According to Newton’s second law
F  m a
If forces are resolved x, y and z directions, then

F x  max; Fy  may; F z  maz.
In vectorial form,
F xi  F yj  F zk  maxi  ayj  azk
If the forces are resolved in tangential and normal

directions, then
F t  mat ; F n  man
dv v2
where at  and an 
dt r
5.12 D’ALEMBERTS PRINCIPLE

The Newton’s second law can be rearranged as follows
F  ma  0
where ‘ ma’ is called inertia force (or) inertia vector.
‘ ma’ has magnitude equal to ma and direction

opposite to a.
The particle is said to be in equilibrium according to

the above law. i.e. By given forces (i.e Resultant and inertia
force) the particle is in equilibrium. This equilibrium is
called dynamic equilibrium.
So F  ma  Equation of motion.
F  ma  0  Dynamic equilibrium.
If we include ‘ ma’ as a force (inertia force), then the

equation becomes
F1 F1
= 0
= ma -m a
F = m a (E quation of F - m a = 0
m o tion) F2 D ynam ic E quilibrium
F2
Fig. 5.16 (a)
F1
= 0
-m a
F = 0 (includ ing
F2
ine rtia force)
S ta tic E qu ilib rium
Fig. 5.16 (c)
Dynamics 5.81
F  0 including inertia force. (Static equilibrium)
Dynamic Static
Equilibrium Equilibrium
F x  max  0 F x  0 including inertia force
F y  may  0 F y  0 including inertia force
The principle used to convert the dynamic problem into

static problem is called D’Alemberts principle.
Here afterwards, we can solve the dynamic problems

as static problems.
F  ma: Equation of motion
F  ma  0: Dynamic equilibrium
F  0 (including inertia force  ma) : Static

equilibrium
Note: In all problems, we take direction of motion as

positive direction. So force F 1 acting in the direction of
motion is  F 1, force F 2 acting in the opposition direction
of motion is  F 2.
Problem 5.30: A 100 kg block rests on a horizontal plane.

Find the magnitude of the force P required to give the block
an acceleration of 2.5 m/sec2 to the right. The coefficient of
kinetic friction between the block and the plane is k  0.25.
Solution:
Mass m  100 kg
Effort or force P  ?
W  100  9.81  981 N

P
a x = 2.5m /s 2
30 o
10 0 kg
K =0.25 Fig
P RN
30 o
ma
10 0 kg =
m =100
Fig a
F= R N
W
k  0.25
ax  2.5 m /sec 2
max  100  2.5  250 N
In x direction
Fx  max
P cos 30  R N  max ... (i)
In y direction
 P sin 30  W  RN  0 ... (ii)
R N  P sin 30  W; R N  0.5P  981 ... (iii)
Substitute RN in eqn. (i)
P cos 30  0.25 0.5P  981   250
0.867 P  0.125 P  245.25  250

Dynamics 5.83
0.742 P  495.25
495.25
P  667.5 N
0.742
P  667.5 N
5.13 APPLICATION TO CONNECTED BODIES

Problem 5.31: Two bodies of weight 20 N and 10 N are
connected to the two ends of a light inextensible string, passing
over a smooth pulley. The weight of 20 N is placed on a
horizontal surface while the weight of 10 N is hanging free in
air. The horizontal surface is a rough one, having coefficient
of friction between the weight 20 N and the plane surface equal
to 0.3, determine.
1. the acceleration of the system. 2. the tension in the string.
(Jan 2005, Calicut University)
Solution:
Given:
20N
10 N a
Fig
W 1  20 N
W 2  10 N
  0.3
Free body diagram for 20 N body
F y  0  W  RN  20 N [Refer Fig. (a)]
F x  ma
T  R N  m 1a
T  m1a  RN ... (i)

Free body diagram for 10 N body (Fig.(b))
[Taking direction of motion as  ve direction]
10  T  m2a
T  10  m2a ... (ii)

Equating (i) and (ii)
m 1a  RN  10  m 2a
m 1  m 2 a  10  R N
W1 T
T m 1a
20N =
10N =
F= R N a
RN W 2 = 10 N
m 2a
Fig. (a) FB D of 20 N body Fig. (b) FB D of 10 N body
Dynamics 5.85
10  R N 10  0.3  20
a   1.308
m1  m 2 30/9.81 
a  1.308 m/s2
Substitute a value in eqn. (ii), we get

 10 
T  10  m2a  10    1.308   8.67
 9.81 
T  8.67 N
5.14 LIFT MOTION T

Lift is
Case 1: Lift is going upward going D irection
upw ard of m otion
T  Tension in the cable; a
W  weight of the lift
m  mass of lift; m
a  acceleration of the lift.
Direction of motion is
taken as  ve direction
Fig. 5.17 (a)
Fy  ma W
Net force acting upward

T  W  ma
W
 a
g
W
TW a
g
when lift is going upward,

 a
TW1 
 g T D irection
a of m otion
Case 2: Lift is going
downward
F y  ma m
W
W  T  m a  a
g
W W
TW a
g
Fig. 5.17 (b )
when lift
is going
 a
downward, T  W  1  
 g
5.16.1 Problems on motion of lift

Problem 5.32: A lift carries a weight of 100 N and is moving
with a uniform acceleration of 2.45 m/s2. Determine the tension
in this cables supporting the lift, when
1. lift is moving upward
2. lift is moving downward.
Solution
1. Lift is moving upward 2. Lift is moving

downward
T  Tension in the cable
 a  a
T  W 1   T  W 1  
 g   g
 2.45   2.45 
 100  1   125 N  100  1   75 N
 9.81   9.81 
Dynamics 5.87
Problem 5.33: A lift has an upward acceleration of

1.225 m/s2. (1) What force will a man weighing 500 N exert
on the floor of the lift? (2) What force would he exert if the
lift had an acceleration of 1.225 m/s2 downwards? (3) What
upward acceleration would cause his weight to exert a force of
600 N on the floor?
(KTU - May 2014 - Qn.2045)(Oct 2003, Anna University)
Solution:
Note: The force exerted by man
T
is equal to the “Tension” in the
cable supporting the lift always,
provided the lift weight is (i)
neglected (or not given).
a  1.225 m/sec 2; W  500 N W = 500N

Case 1: T
 a 
T  W 1  
 9.81  (ii)
 1.225 
 500  1   562.4 N
 9.81 
W
Man exerts a force of 562.4 T=600N
N on the floor of lift.
Case 2:
 a 
T  W 1  
 9.81 
 1.225 
 500  1   437.5 N
 9.81  W = 500N
Man exerts a force of 437.5

N on the floor of lift.
Case 3: The lift is moving with upward acceleration

exerting force of 600 N i.e. T  600 N
 a 
TW1
 9.81 
 a 
600  500  1  
 9.81 
600 a
1
500 9.81
600 a
1 
500 9.81
a  1.962 m/s2
Problem 5.34: An elevator of weight 5 kN starts from rest

and moves upward with constant acceleration, travelling a
distance of 10 m is 5 s. Find the tensile force in the cable
during this accelerated motion. Neglect friction.
Solution:
1 2
s  ut  at
2
1
10  0  a 5 2
2 . .
[ . u  0]
20
a  0.8 m/s2
25
T  Tension in the cable
 a
TW1 
 g
Dynamics 5.89
 0.8 
51  5.408 kN
 9.81 
T  5.408 kN
Problem 5.35: An elevator weighs 2500 N and is moving

vertically downwards with a constant acceleration. Write the
equation for the elevator cable tension. Starting from rest it
travels a distance of 25 m during an interval of 15 seconds.
Find the cable tension during this time. Neglect all other
resistance to motion. [KTU, April 14 Qn - 1799]
Solution:
 a
TW1  [Refer Page 5.86/sec 5.14]
 g
We know that
1 2
s  ut  at
2
u0
1 2
s at
2
1
25  a 15 2
2
a  0.222 m/s2
 a
TW1 
 g
 0.222 
 2500  1   2443.37 N
 9.81 
Tension in cable T  2443.37 N

Problem 5.36: An elevator weighing 5000 N is ascending with

an acceleration of 3 m/s2. During this ascend, its operator
whose weight is 700 N is standing on the weighing pan placed
on the floor. What is the weighing pan reading? What will be
the total tension in the cables of elevator during this motion?
(May/June 2015 Anna University)
Solution:
Weight of the elevator W 1  5000 N;
Acceleration of elevator a  3 m/s2

Weight of the operator W 2  700 N ;
m2  Mass of the operator.
When the operator is standing on the weighing pan

placed on the floor of the elevator, the reading of this pan
will be equal to the reaction R offered by the floor on the
operator.
So R  Reaction offered by the floor on the operator
T  Total tension in the cables.
Consider motion of the
operator
The operator is moving
upward along with the
elevator with an
acceleration of 3 m/s2. The
net force on the operator is
acting upward.
Net force on the
operator  Reaction offered
by the floor on the operator
Dynamics 5.91
 Weight of the operator,  R  700
700
But Net force  m 2  a   3  214.1 N
9.81
So R  700  214.1 N
R  700  214.1  914.1 N
So weighing pan reading  914.1 N
Note: Here, actual weight of operator is 700 N. But

weighing pan reading shows the weight as 914.1 during
ascending motion.
Total tension in the cable
Total weight W  W 1  W 2  5000  700  5700 N
Net force acting on the elevator and operator in

upward direction  T  W
and T  W  ma (m  Total mass of elevator and

operator)
5700
T  5700  3
9.81
5700
T  5700   3  7443.1
9.81
T  7443.1 N
Dynamics E5.1
5. DYNAMICS
Extra Problem
Problem 5.1: The acceleration of a particle is defined by the relation

a  9  3 t2. The particle starts at t0 with v  0 and x  5 m.
Determine (a) the time when velocity is again 0, (b) the position and
velocity when t  4 sec., (c) the total distance travelled by the particle
from t  0 to t  4 sec. (Apr.’99, Madras University)
Solution:
a  9  3t2
dv
 9  3t2
dt
v t
v  0 dv  t  0 9  3t2 dt
v  9t  t3
dx
 9t  t3
dt
x t
x  5 dx  t  0 9t  t3 dt
t4
x  5  4.5t2 
4
x  5  4.5t2  0.25t4
To Find t When v is again zero

When v  0, 9t  t3  0
t2  9
then t  3 sec. At 3 sec, the v becomes zero again.
Position When t  3
x3  5  4.532  0.2534  25.25
x3  25.25 m
To Find x and v, When t  4

x  5  4.5t2  0.25t4
x4  5  4.542  0.2544
 5  4.516  0.25256  13
x4  13 m
v  9t  t3
v4  94  43
 36  64   28
v4   28 m/sec
To Find Total Distance Travelled by the Particle from

t  0 to t  4
From t  0 to t  3, v is positive. x3  25.25.
From t  3 to t  4, v is negative. x4  13.
When t  3 sec, v  0; Total distance traveller  25.25  13  38.25 m
Problem 5.2: A particle under a constant deceleration is moving in

a straight line and covers a distance of 20m in first two seconds and
40 m in the next 5 seconds. Calculate the distance it covers in the
subsequent next 3 seconds and the total distance covered by it before
it comes to rest. (Apr. ’97, Madras University)
t=0 t=2sec t=7sec t=10sec v = 0
20m 40m x 1 0 -x 7
s
x=0 Fig.
Dynamics E5.3
Solution:
x2  x0  ut  12 at2 [Here t  2 sec]

2
20  u  2  12 a 2
20  2u  2a 1
2
x7  x0  ut  12 at [Here t  7 sec]
60  7u  24.5 a 2
Solving (1) and (2)
140  14 u  14a [multiply equ (1) by 7]
120  14 u  49a [multiply equ (2) by 2]
20  0  35 a
20
a   0.571 m  s2
 35
Substitute a   0.571 in equation (1), we get
20  2u  2  0.571
20  [2  0.571
u  10.57 m  sec
2
x10  x0  ut  12 at2  10.57  10  12  0.571  102
 77.16 m
Upto 7 sec, it covers 60m. So in the subsequent 3 sec, it covers
17.61 m (i.e 77.16 – 60 = 17.61 m)
Total distance covered before it comes to rest
v2  u2  2 as
0  10.572  2  0.571 s
[Since it comes to rest finally, final velocity v  0]
10.572
s  97.83 m
2  0.571
s  97.83 m
Problem 5.3: Two electric trains A and B leave the same station on
parallel lines. A starts with a uniform acceleration of 0.2 m/s2 and
attains a speed of 45 km/hr, and then the speed is maintained
constant. B leaves 1 min. after, with a uniform acceleration of
0.4 m/s2 to attain a maximum speed of 72 km/hr. When train B will
overtake train A? (MG University - 2007 Dec)
Solution:
Easy Method
Train A
aA  0.2 m/s2
vA max 45 km/hr  12.5 m/s.
Train B
After 60 sec, aB  0.4 m/s2
vB max  72 km/hr  20 m/s
For Train A
‘t’. Time to attain maximum speed
v  u  at
12.5  0  0.2t
12.5
t  62.5 sec
0.2
For Train B
After 60 sec, B starts
vmax  u  at
20  0  0.4t
20
. t  50 sec
0.4
Time to attain max speed (20 m/sec) = 50 sec for train B
Note: By using vt diagram we can easily solve the problem;
Generally distance travelled = vt.
Dynamics E5.5
So
Area under the vt diagram represents the distance travelled.
Distance travelled by train A  xA
xA  Area ACFEA  Area of triangle ACD
 Area of rectangle CDEF

1
 62.5 12.5  12.5 t  62.5
2
 390.625  12.5t  781.25
xA   390.625  12.5 t ... (i)
Distance travelled by train B  xB
xB  Area BGHEB  Area of triangle BGJ
 Area of rectangle GHEJ

1
 50 20  20 t  110
2
 500  20t  2200
xB  1700  20t ... (ii)
When B overtakes A,
xB  xA
 1700  20t   390.625  12.5t

1309.4
7.5t  1309.4; t   174.583 sec
7.5
t  174.583 sec
B overtakes A, when t  174.583 sec.
Problem 5.4: A projectile is fired from the edge of a 200 m tower
with an initial velocity of 180 m/s at an angle of 30 with the
horizontal. Neglecting air resistance, find (a) the horizontal distance
from the gun to the point where the projectile strikes the ground.
(b) the greatest elevation above the ground reached by the projectile.
[Cochin University - June 2014]
Solution:
Vertical motion: (uniform acceleration)
ec
/s
0m
30 o
18
y 0 =200 m
y m a x =?
200m
y f=0m
x=?
u y =18 0sin30
=90 m /sec
ec
/s
0m
18
Fig.
30 o u x =180 co s3 0=15 5.9 m /sec
Dynamics E5.7
uy  180 sin 30  90 m/sec.
1 2
y  y0  uy t  at  200  90t  4.905 t2
2
y  200  90t  4.905 t2 ... (i)

vy  uy  at  90  9.81 t
vy  90  9.81 t ... (ii)

2 2
v2y  uy  2ay  y0  90  19.62y  200
v2y  902  19.62 y  200 ... (iii)

Horizontal motion (uniform velocity):
ux  180 cos 30  155.9 m/s
x0  0 m
x  x0  uxt
 0  155.9 t  155.9 t
x  155.9 t ... (iv)
(a) To find x from the gun to the point where projectile

strikes the ground
When the projectile strikes the ground, we have y  0 m
Substituting in eqn (i),
0  200  90t  4.905 t2
 4.905 t2  90t  200  0

 90  8100  4  4.905  200

t
2   4.905
 90  109.7 199.7
   20.35
 9.81 9.81
t  20.35 s
Carrying it in eqn (iv), we get,
x  155.9  20.35  3172.6 m
(b) To find greatest elevation

When the projectile attains its greatest elevation, vy  0,
Carrying it in equation (iii), we get
v2y  8100  19.62 ymax  200
0  8100  19.62 ymax  3924
12024
ymax   612.8 m
19.62
Greatest elevation from the ground  613 m
Problem 5.5: A flywheel starts from rest and uniformly accelerated
to a speed of 750 rpm in 5 sec and then for 6 sec further accelerated
with a different acceleration. During the two periods find the total
angle covered by the flywheel before attaining 1500 rpm.
(Apr/May 2007 - AU)
Solution:
Let 0  Initial angular velocity ; N1  750 rpm; N2  1500 rpm;
t  5 sec; 1  Final angular velocity
1st - Period (between 0 and 1)

0  0
2N 2  750
1    78.54 rad/sec
60 60
t  5 sec
1  0 78.54  0
   15.708
t 5
  15.708 rad/sec2 fo r 1st period
1 2
  0t  t
2
1
Angle so covered 1  0  15.708 52
2
 196.35 rad
1  196.35 rad fo r1st period

Dynamics E5.9
2nd - Period (between 1 and 2)

1  78.54 rad/s
2  1500
2   157.1 rad/s
60
t  6 sec
2  1 157.1  78.54
   13.09 rad/sec2
t 6
  13.09 rad/sec2 for 2nd period

1 2
Angle covered in second period 2  1t  t
2
1
 78.54  6  13.09  62
2
 471.24  235.6
 706.84
2  706.84rad  for 2nd period
Total angle covered   1  2
 196.35  706.84  903.19
  903.19 rad.
Problem 5.6: A flywheel is rotating at 200 rpm and after 10 sec, it
is rotating at 160 rpm. If the retardation is uniform, determine
number of revolutions made by the flywheel and the time taken by
the flywheel before it comes to rest from the speed of 200 rpm.
(Nov/Dec - 2007 - AU)
Solution:
2N1 2  200
N1  200 rpm; 1    20.94 rad/s
60 60
2N2 2  160
N2  160 rpm; 2    16.76 rad/s
60 60
t  10 sec; 2  1  t
2  1 16.76  20.94
    0.418
t 10
   0.418 rad/s2
To find time taken by the flywheel to come to rest from

N1  200 rpm
1  20.94 rad/s; 3  0
3  1  t1
3  1 0  20.94
t1    50.10
  0.418
t1  50.10 sec
To find number of revolutions

1 2
  1t  t
2
1
 20.94  50.1   0.418  50.12  524.5 rad
2
  
2 rad  1 revolution  Note: No. of revolutions  
 2 
1
524.5 rad   524.5  83.5 rev.
2
It will make 83.5 revolutions before it comes to rest.
Problem 5.7: A grinding wheel is attached to the shaft of an electric
motor rated speed of 1800 rpm; When power is switched on, the unit
attains the rated speed in 5 sec. When the power is switched off, the
unit comes to rest in 90 sec. Assuming uniformly accelerated motion,
determine the number of revolutions the unit turns
(a) to attain the rated speed
(b) to come to rest. (Similar type of KTU - June 2011)
Solution:
N1  1800 rpm; N0  0 rpm so 0  0
t  5 sec for acceleration motion; t1  90 sec for deceleration
motion
Dynamics E5.11
To find the  to attain the rated speed

2N1 2  1800
1    188.5 rad/s
60 60
1  0  t
188.5  0  5
188.5
  37.7 rad/s2
5
To attain the speed

1 1
  0t  t  0  37.7  52  471.25
2 2
  471.25 rad.

No. of revolutions   75 revolutions
2
To find 1 before coming to rest (from the rated speed)

2  1  1t1 [2  0 since it comes to rest
0  188.5  190 t1  90 sec for deceleration.]
 188.5
1    2.094 rad/s2
90
1
1  1t1  1t21
2
1
 188.5  90  2.094  902
2
 8482.5 rad.
No. of revolutions before coming to rest

1 8482.5
   1350 revolutions
.
2 2
Problem 5.6: A flywheel weighing 60 N and having a radius of
gyration 0.8 m looses its speed from 360 rpm to 180 rpm in 3 minutes.
Calculate
(a) the retarding torque acting on it
(b) change in its kinetic energy during the above period and
(c) change in its angular momentum during the same period.

Solution:
Given
Weight of flywheel W  60 N; Radius of gyration  k  0.8 m;
Initial speed N0  360 rpm; Final speed N1  180 rpm; Time
‘t’  3  60  180 sec
Retarding torque ‘T’  I  
where I  mass moment of inertia  mk2 (m  mass of flywheel)
and   angular acceleration in rad/sec2
To find 
2N0 2  360
0    37.7 rad/sec
60 60
2N1 2  180
1    18.85 rad/sec
60 60
1  0  t
18.85  37.7  180
18.85  37.7  18.849
    0.105
180 180
Angular acceleration    0.105 rad/sec2 (Retardation)
(a) To find I
60
‘I ’ for flywheel  mk2   0.82  3.9144 kgm2
9.81
I  3.9144 kgm2
Retarding torque T  I  
 3.9144   0.105
T   0.411 N  m
(b) Change in kinetic energy during this period

I20 I21
K.E0  ; K.E1 
2 2
Dynamics E5.13
Change in K.E.
1 1
 I21  20   3.914418.852  37.72
2 2
  2086.3 Nm
(c) Change in its angular momentum
Initial angular momentum  I0; Final angular momentum  I1
Change in angular momentum  I1  0  3.914418.85  37.7
  73.786 kgm2/sec
Problem 5.9: The link BC shown in Fig. (a) is rotating clockwise
with an angular velocity of 0.25 rad/s. Determine the velocity of the
block ‘C’ and the angular velocity of the link AB at that instant.
(Nov/Dec 2008 - AU)
B
B C = 0.25 ra d/s
25
0m
0 mm m
30
o
60
A C
Fig. (a)
Given:-
BC  0.25 rad/sec
r  250 mm  0.25 m
L  0.3 m
  60
Find :-
vc  ?; AB  ?
D irection of C
vC c
o
m /s
pe
rp 6 25
en vB 0 .0
x 5=
C B
di r
cu
la = BC
02 C
.
V B / .2 5 X to B
C
rt
o
AB = 0 cu la r
di
r p en
b p e
Fig. b
Applying sine rule

0.3 0.25

sin 60 sin 
sin   0.721
  46.19
[ Angle between AB and BC
 180  60  
 180  60  46.19  73.81 ]

1. Draw bc vBC  0.0625 m/s perpendicular to BC
(bc  6.25 cm) [Scale 1 cm = 0.01 ms]
2. Through b, draw a line perpendicular to AB to represent
vB (length not known).
3. Through c, draw horizontal line to represent vc (length

not known).
4. Both lines intersect at O.
5. Now measure vB and vC.
vB  m/s
vC  m/s
Dynamics E5.15
Problem 5.10: Two bodies of weight 40 N and 25 N are connected

to the two ends of a light inextensible string, which passes over a
smooth pulley. The weight 40 N is placed on a rough inclined plane
while the weight 25 N is hanging free in air. If the angle of the plane
is 15 determine:
1. acceleration of the system
2. tension in the string. (Take  for inclined rough surface as 0.2)
3. the distance moved by the weight 25 N in 3 seconds starting from
rest. (KTU - May 2011 - Qn 2006)
40 N
o
= 0 . 2
15 25 N
Fig. (a)
RN
a
T m1a
=
4 0N
F = R
N
15 o o
40c
15
o s15
Fig. (b)
40 s in 1 5
T
25N
=
a
+ve direction
W 2 = 25N m2a
Fig. (c)
Solution:
RBD of Body (1) (40 N) Fig. (b)
Fy  0
RN  40 cos 15  0
RN  40 cos15
Fx  m1a
40
T  RN  40 sin 15  a
9.81
40
T  0.2  40 cos 15  40 sin 15  a
9.81
T  18.1  4.1a
T  18.1  4.1a ... (i)
FBD Body (2) (25 N) (Fig. (c))

Fy  m2a
[Taking direction of motion as  ve direction]

25
25  T  a  2.55a
9.81
T  25  2.55a ... (ii)
Equate (i) and (ii), we get
18.1  4.1a  25  2.55a
6.65a  25  18.1  6.9
6.9
a  1.04 m/s2
6.65
Substitute a value in eqn. (ii), we get

T  25  2.551.04  22.35 N
To Find s
u  0; t  3 sec; a  1.04 m/s2
1 2 1
s  ut  at  0  1.04 32  4.68
2 2
s  4.68 m
Dynamics E5.17
Problem 5.11: A weight of 10 N resting on an inclined plane at

30 to the horizontal is connected by a string passing over a
frictionless pulley at the upper end of the inclined plane. The free end
of the string is connected to a weight of 20 N which hangs in air. If
the coefficient of friction of the inclined surface is 0.2, calculate the
time taken by the hanging weight to decend by 1 m.
(Similar type of KTU -May 2011)(Apr/May- 2006 - AU)
)
(1
10N 0 .2
= (2)
o
30
G iven d iagram s=1m
Fig
Solution:
FBD of Block (1) : (Refer Fig. (a))

Fx  m1a
T  10 sin 30  RN  m1a
10
T  5  0.2RN  a
9.81
T  5  0.2RN  1.02a ... (i)
Fy  0
RN  10 cos 30  0
RN  10 cos 30  8.66
RN  8.66 N ... (ii)

Substitute RN in (i)
T  5  0.28.66  1.02a
T  6.732  1.02a
T  1.02a  6.732 ... (iii)
FBD of Block (2) : (Refer Fig. (b))
Bo dy 1 x T Block (2)
RN a T
) R N (2)
(1 =
10N
wc
a
os
y 30
o
30
o
30 m 2a
10N 0
w2
in 3 Fig a
ws Fig b
Consider free body diagram of block (2).

. .
Fy  m2a [ . direction of motion is taken as  ve direction.]
W2  T  m2a
20
20  T  a
9.81
T  20  2.04a ... (iv)
Equate (iii) and (iv)
1.02a  6.732  20  2.04a
3.06a  13.268
13.268
a  4.34 m/s2
3.06
a  4.34 m/s2
1
s  ut  at2
2
Initially the blocks are at rest
So u  0; s  1 m
Dynamics E5.19
1
s  ut  at2
2
1
10  4.34t2
2
t  0.679 sec
Problem 5.12: For the system of connected bodies shown in Fig.(a),
determine the acceleration of each block and the tension in the rope.
Coefficient of friction between block A and horizontal surface is 0.3.
Block A and B weigh 100 N and 200 N respectively. Hence find the
1
velocity of each block after 5 sec. Radius of pulley C  radius of
2
pulley P. (Nov/Dec - 2007 - AU)
Solution:
In this configuration
1 1
aB   aA, similarly vB   vA
2 2
Block (A)
Fy  0
RN  WA  0
RN  WA  100 N
Fx  mAaA
T  F  mAaA
T  RN  mAaA
100
T  0.3  100   aA
9.81
T  30  10.194aA ... (i)
Block B
Fy  mBaB
200
200  T2  a
9.81 B
A T2
100N Block B
P
c B =
aB
Fig (a) 200N mBaB

B
200N Fig (c)
R N =100N T1 T1
B lock A
a A
Pulley
A T C
A
m Aa A
=
W A = 10 0 N
T2
Fig. (b) Fig (d)
200 . . 1 
200  T 2   aA  10.194 aA  . a B  2 aA 
9.81  2  
T2  200  10.194aA  ii
Consider Pulley C
Assuming mass of pulley is zero. mC  0
Fy  mCaC
2T1  T2  0
T2  2T1
Dynamics E5.21
Equate equation (i) and (ii)

200  10.194aA  230  10.194aA  60  20.194aA
30.39aA  140
140
aA   4.61 m/s2
30.39
1
aB  aA  2.3 m/s2
2
To Find velocity
vA  u  aAt  0  4.61  5  23.05 m/s
vA  23.05 m/s
1
vB  vA  11.53 m/s
2
vB  11.53 m/s
Module 6
MECHANICAL VIBRATIONS
Mechanical Vibrations - Free and forced vibration -

Degree of freedom - Simple Harmonic motion - Spring - Mass
model - Period - Stiffness - Frequency - Simple numerical
problems of single degree of freedom.
6.1 INTRODUCTION
Springs, beams, shafts and other elastic bodies when
displaced from their equilibrium position due to the
application of external forces, and then released, they
execute a ‘to and fro’ motion called vibratory motion.
Vibrations are due to elastic forces. Whenever a body

is displaced from its equilibrium position, work is done on
the elastic constraints of body and is stored as strain
energy. Now if the body is released, the internal forces
cause the body to move towards equilibrium position. If the
motion is frictionless, the strain energy stored in the body
is converted into kinetic energy. During the period, the body
reaches the equilibrium position at which it has maximum
kinetic energy. The body passes through the mean position,
the kinetic energy is utilised to overcome the elastic forces
and is stored in the form of strain energy. Again the body
begins to return to the equilibrium position and vibration
is repeated indefinitely.
6.2 COMMONLY USED DEFINITIONS IN VIBRATORY

MOTIONS (OR) BASIC FEATURES OF VIBRATING
SYSTEM
1. Period of Vibration
It is the time interval after which the motion is
repeated itself. It is time period to execute one complete
cycle of vibration. It is expressed in second ‘s’.
2. Cycle
It is the motion completed in one time period. If a
particle starts from mean position, goes to two extreme
positions and then again comes to mean position, then it
completes one cycle. (Fig. 6.1)
m ax im u m
m ea n pos ition
end
S ta rt
m in im u m m ax im u m
S ta rt
1 cy cle m in im u m
(a) F ig . 6.1. (1 C yc le ) (b )
3. Frequency
Number of cycles completed in one second.

Unit: cycles/sec  Hertz  Hz.
4. Amplitude
The maximum displacement of a vibrating body from

the equilibrium position.
Mechanical Vibrations 6.3
5. Natural frequency
It is the frequency of free vibrations of body vibrating

of its own without the help of an external agency.
6. Fundamental (or principal) mode of vibration
It is the mode of vibration having the lowest natural

frequency.
7. Degree of freedom
The minimum number of independent coordinates

required to specify the motion of system.
8. Damping
It is the resistance to the motion of vibrating body.
9. Phase difference
It is the angle by which one vibrating system is ahead

or behind the other vibrating system.
10. Resonance
When the frequency of external excitation is equal to

the natural frequency of a vibrating body, resonance occurs.
11. Mechanical system
A system consisting of mass, spring and damper is

called mechanical system.
12. Discrete (or lumped) system
A system with finite number of degrees of freedom.

6.3 TYPES OF VIBRATORY MOTION
1. Free (or) Natural Vibrations

A vibration, in which after the initial displacement, no
external forces act on the body and the motion is
maintained by the internal elastic forces, is called Natural
vibration.
First of all, a body is given an initial displacement.

Then no external force acts on a body; Then the body is
said to be under Free Vibrations or Natural Vibrations. The
frequency of this vibration is called as natural frequency.
Ex: Vibration created in Guitar string, Vibration created in

Diving boat, Vibration created in Twining fork, Suspension
spring at two wheelers (when falling on to a pit).
2. Forced Vibrations
When a body vibrates under the influence of
continuous periodic disturbing internal (or) external force,
then the body is said to be under forced vibrations.
Ex: Vibration created by rotating and reprocating

masses of IC engine.
3. Damped Vibrations
When there is reduction in amplitude over every cycle
of vibration, energy possessed by a system is gradually
dissipated in overcoming the internal or external
resistances to motion and body comes to rest in its
equilibrium position, the motion is said to be damped
vibration.
Ex: Shock Absorber with Dashpot. (Fig. 6.2)

o il
sp rin g d a sh p o t
M e a n p o s ition
p o sitio n a fte r tim e t
F ig .6.2 . D am p ed V ib ration
6.3.1 Types of Free Vibrations

1. Longitudinal Vibrations
When particles of shaft
move parallel to axis of the
shaft, then the vibrations
are known as Longitudinal S h a ft
Vibrations. During this L o n g itu d in a l a x is

vibration, the body moves
parallel to longitudinal axis
as shown in Fig. 6.3(a). E x trem e p o sition
If the movement of
M e a n p o sition
system is parallel to the
axis, then the vibration is E x trem e p o sition
called as longitudinal
F ig .6.3 (a). L o n gitu d in al
vibration. V ibratio n s
The amplitude of
longitudinal vibration is expressed in mm. Longitudinal
vibration induces tensile & compressive stresses.
2. Transverse Vibrations:
When particles of shaft moves perpendicular to the
axis of shaft, then the vibrations are known as Transverse
vibrations. During this motion, the body moves
perpendicular to the longitudinal axis as shown in Fig.
6.3(b) and the shaft is bent and subjected to tensile and
compressive stresses alternatively.
E xtrem e
L o n g itu d in a l
p o sitio n
L o n g itu d in a l a xis
a xis
M ea n
p o sitio n
E xtrem e p o sitio n
E xtrem e M ea n
p o sitio n p o sitio n
E xtrem e p o sitio n
F ig .6.3 (b).T ra n sv erse
V ibr ation s F ig .6.3 (c).T or sion al
V ib ration s
If the system vibration is perpendicular to the axis,

then this is called transverse vibration. It is expressed in
mm. It induces bending stress.
3. Torsional Vibrations (Fig. 6.3 (c))
When particles of shaft move in a circle about the axis
of the shaft, then the vibrations are known as Torsional
vibrations. Here, the body will be twisted and untwisted
about the longitudinal axis of the shaft.
Under the influence of twisting moment (Torque), the
system is twisted and untwisted about the longitudinal
axis. This induces shear stress. This vibration is measured

in radians.
6.4 BASIC ELEMENTS OF VIBRATING SYSTEM

Idealised mathematical modes of vibrating system
consists of three elements, namely the mass, the spring and
damper. In a vibrating body, there is exchange of energy
from one form to another.
(i) Inertia elements
Energy is stored by mass in the form of kinetic energy
1 
 m x2. These are represented by lumped mass m for
2
rectilinear motion and lumped moment of inertia (I or J)
for angular motion.
(ii) Restoring elements
Energy is stored in the form of potential energy
1
 k x2. These elements are represented by massless linear
2
k or torsional kt springs for rectilinear and torsional
motion respectively.
(iii) Damping elements
Energy is dissipated in
the damper in the form of
heat energy which opposes c
k kt
the motion of the system. I or J
These are represented by

massless dampers for energy m ct
dissipation. The vibration x
damping elements are (a) R ectilin ear (b ) T orsio n al
elem en ts elem en ts
shown in Fig. 6.4. These F ig .6.4 . E lem en ts o f a V ib ratin g
are represented by c for Sy ste m .
rectilinear motion and ct for torsional motion.

The equation of motion of such a vibrating system can
be written as
 
m x  c x  kx  0

Where cx  Damping force, kx  spring force;
  dx  d2 x
m x  Inertia force ; x  and x 
dt dt 2
6.5 DEGREES OF FREEDOM

Degrees of freedom is
defined as the number of
independent coordinates
required to describe the k

motion of vibratory system.
(a) Single degree of m

freedom (a) (b ) m
x
A single spring mass Sing le deg ree o f freed om
system or a simple
pendulum as shown in Fig. k1 1
6.5 (a,b) requiring only one m1 m1
coordinate x to describe x1
k2
position is called single 2
m2
degree of freedom system. m2
(c) x 2 (d)
(b) Two degree of
T w o deg rees of freedo m
freedom
A two spring - two
mass system or a double
pendulum represents a two (e) In fin ite D egr ees of freedom
degree of freedom system F ig . 6.5. D eg rees of freedo m
[Fig. 6.5 (c,d)]. There are two coordinates required

x1, x 2 to describe the position. Similarly for a three degree
of freedom system, the coordinates required are
x1, x 2, x3.
(c) Discrete or lumped system (Finite degree of

freedom)
A system with finite number of degrees of freedom are
called discrete or lumped system.
(d) Infinite degree of freedom
A continuous system in the form of a vibrating beam
held between two supports represents an infinite degrees
of freedom Fig. 6.5 (e).
6.6 SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION

When the acceleration of a body is directly proportional
to the displacement from the mean position and is always
directed towards the mean position, then motion is said to
be Simple Harmonic Motion (SHM).
6.6.1 Introduction
A particle is a moving around the circumference of a
circle of radius r with anticlockwise sense, with a constant
angular velocity  as shown in Fig.
Let P be the position of the particle  Y
P
at any instant and D be the
r
projection of P on the diameter
XX of the circle. X’ 
D X
O
When the point P moves along

the circumference of the circle from
Y ’
X to Y, D moves from X to O; When

P move from Y to X, D moves from O to X. Similarly when

P moves from X to Y, D moves from X to O. Finally when
P moves from Y to X, D moves from O to X. Hence when
P completes one revolution, the point D completes one
vibration about the point O. This to and fro motion of D
is known as Simple Harmonic Motion (S.H.M.).
6.6.2 Velocity and Acceleration of a Particle Moving
with Simple Harmonic Motion
P  Position of the particle after t seconds;
  Angle turned by the particle in t seconds.
So     t
Refer Fig. 6.7
Since D is the projection of P on the diameter X X,
the displacement of D from its mean position O is
x  r  cos   r  cos t ...(i)
The velocity of D
V D     r sin     

r 2  x2
dx
 V D    r sin 
dt ...(ii)
 . . . r sin   DP   r2  x 2 

 
Y 1 cy cle

P
X’ 
D X
O
r x
0    
Y’
F ig . 6.7 A n g le tu r n e d in ra d
Velocity is maximum, when x  0, i.e. when   90,

when D passes through O i.e., its mean position.
 V max     r
We also know that the acceleration of P is the

centripetal acceleration whose magnitude is  2 r. The
acceleration of D is directed towards the centre O, i.e.,
d2 x
 aD   2  r c o s     2  x
dt 2
...(iii)
. .
 . x  r cos 
The acceleration is maximum when x  r i.e. when P

is at X or X. ie   90 (or)   180
amax    2  r
From equation (iii), when x  0 , the acceleration is zero

i.e. D passes through O. In other words, the acceleration
is zero at the mean position. Hence from equation (iii), the
acceleration of D is proportional to its displacement from
its mean position, O, and it is always directed towards the
centre O; so the motion of D is called simple harmonic
motion.
The negative sign shows that the direction of

acceleration is opposite to the direction in which x
increases, i.e. the acceleration is always directed towards
the point O.
In general, a body vibrates with simple harmonic

motion, if it satisfies the following two conditions:
1. Vibrating body’s acceleration is always directed
towards the centre (or) mean position;
2. Its acceleration is proportional to the distance
from this mean position.
6.6.3 Differential Equation of Simple Harmonic Motion

From equation (iii), we can write differential equation
of SHM as
d2 x
 2 x  0
dt 2
This is the standard differential equation for simple

harmonic motion of a particle. The solution of this
differential equation is
x  A cos  t  B sin  t
where A and B are constants which should be

determined by the initial conditions of the motion.
6.6.4 Terms Used in Simple Harmonic Motion

1. Amplitude
It is the maximum displacement of a body from its
mean position. In Fig.6.7 OX or OX is the amplitude of
the particle P. The amplitude is always equal to the radius
of the circle.
2. Periodic time
It is the time taken for one complete revolution of the
particle. X to X. (or) 0 to 2.
2
 Periodic time, tp  seconds

We know that the acceleration,
x

a a
a   2 x or  2  or  
x
2 Displacement

 

x
 tp   2  2 seconds
 a Acceleration
It is thus obvious, that the periodic time is

independent of amplitude.
3. Frequency
It is the number of cycles per second and is the

reciprocal of time period, tp.
 x Hz


1 1 a
 Frequency, f   
2 tp 2
cycle
[Hz = Hertz]; 1 Hz  1
sec
When the particle moves with angular simple

harmonic motion, then the periodic time,
Angular displacement 
tp  2

 
Angular acceleration
 2
  seconds



1 
Frequency, f  Hz
2 
Problem 6.1: The piston of a steam engine moves with simple

harmonic motion. The crank rotates at 200 r.p.m. with a stroke
of 2 metres. Find the velocity and acceleration of the piston,

when it is at a distance of 0.8 metre from the centre.
Solution
Given
2  200
N  200 r.p.m or    20.94 rad/s; 2r  2 m or
60
r  1 m ; x  0.8 m
Velocity of the piston
V
 2
r x 2
 20.94

 1  0.8 2
 12.564 m/s
Acceleration of the piston
a  2 x  20.94 2  0.8  350.79 m/s 2
Problem 6.2: A point moves with simple harmonic motion.

When this point is 0.7 metre from the mid path, its velocity is
10 m/s and when 1.8 metres from the centre of its path its
velocity is 3.2 m/s. Find its angular velocity, periodic time and
its maximum acceleration.
Solution
Given
When x  0.7 m, V 0.7  10 m/s; when x  1.8 m,
V 1.8  3.2 m/s
Angular velocity
  A ngular ve locity of the particle, and
r  Amplitude of the particle

Velocity of the point when it is 0.7 m from the mid

path V 0.7
V 0.7  10   
 r2  x 2  r2  0.72
 ...(1)
Similarly, velocity of the point when it is 1.8 m from
the centre V 1.8 ,
V 1.8  3.2    r2  1.8 2

 ...(2)
Dividing equation (1) by equation (2)
10   r2  0.72
 
r2  0.72
 
3.2 
r2  1.8 2 
 r2  1.8 2
Squaring on both sides,
100 r2  0.49
 2
10.24 r  3.24
100r2  324  10.24 r2  5.02 (or) 89.76 r2  318.98
 r2  3.55 (or) r  1.89 m
Substituting the value of r in equation (1)
10    2
1.89 2  0.7  1.75 
10
   5.713 rad/s
1.75
Periodic time
We know that periodic time,
2 2
tp    1.099 s
 5.713
Maximum acceleration
amax   2  r  5.713 2  1.89  61.69 m/s 2
Problem 6.3: A body moving with simple harmonic motion

has velocities 10 m/s and 4 m/s at 2 and 4 m distance from
mean position. Find amplitude and time period of the body.
(KTU 2045 - May 2014)
Given
Velocity of body V1  10 m/s
Velocity of body V2  4 m/s
Distance of point 1 from centre  2 m
Distance of point 2 from centre  4 m
To Find
r  Amplitude of the vibration
T  Time period of the vibration
Solution
2
T

2

T ...(1)
When V1  10 m/s, the distance x1  2 m
V 2  4 m/s, the distance x2  4 m
V 
r 2  x2
Let,
V1   r2  x21

10   
 r2  2 2
10   
 r2  4 ...(2)
Similarly, V2   
 r2  x22
4 
 r2  4 2
4 
 r2  16 ...(3)
Dividing equation (2) by equation (3), we get
10 
 r2  4 r2  4

 
4  r2  16

r2  16 

Squaring on both sides, we get
2
 10  r2  4
 4  
  r2  16
r2  4
6.25 
r2  16
6.25 r2  16   r2  4
6.25 r2  100  r2  4
6.25 r2  r2  100  4
6.25 r2  r2  96
5.25 r2  96
r  4.3 m
Amplitude r  4.3 m
Substituting the value r in equation (2), we get
10   
 4.3 2  16
10  1.577 
  6.34 rad/sec
Substitute the value  in equation (1) we get
2 2
T   0.99 ~
 1.0 sec
 6.34
Time period
T~
 1.0 sec
Problem 6.4: A body is moving with simple harmonic motion

and has an amplitude of 5 m and period of complete oscillation
as 4 sec. Find the time required by the body in passing between
two points which are at a distance of 3 m and 2 m from the
centre and are on the same side. (KTU 1799 - April 2014)
Given Data
Amplitude r  5 m
Period T  4 sec
Distance of 1st point from centre x1  3 m
Distance of 2nd point from centre x2  2 m
Solution
2
T

2 2  
   1.57 rad/sec
T 4
Let
t1  time taken by the body from centre to the 1st point
t2  time taken by the body from centre to the 2nd point
Then
t2  t1  Time required by the body in passing between two

points.
The distances of the 1st and 2nd point from centre is

given by equation as,
x  r cos  t
For the 1st point
x 1  r cos  t1
3  5 cos 1.57  t1

. .
 .   1.57 
3
 cos 1.57  t1
5
0.6  c o s 1.57  t1
1.57 t1  53.13 cos  1 0.6  53.13

  
1.57  t1   53.13  rad 
 180 
1.57  t1  0.9272 rad
t1  0.591 s
t1  0.591 sec
For the 2nd point
x2  r cos  t2
2  5 cos 1.57  t2
2
 cos 1.57  t2 cos  1 0.4
5
0.4  cos 1.57  t2  66.42 
1.57  t2  66.42 
  
1.57t2   66.42  rad 
 180 
1.57  t2  1.159
1.159
t2   0.738 sec
1.57
t2  0.738 sec
 Time required by the body in passing between the

two points t  t2  t1  0.738  0.591  0.1474 sec
Formulae:
For finding static deflection for Longitudinal

Vibrations.
Wl
1.  
E .A
where W  Load attached to the shaft or beam in N
l  Length of shaft o r beam in m
E  Young’s Modulus o r Modulus of elasticity N/m2

A  Cross sectional area of the shaft or beam m 2
 2
 d for Solid shaft
4
 2
 d  d2i  for Hollow shaft
4 0
where d  dia of shaft.
...(1)

 

k g
  Angular velocity  rad/sec or
m 
k - stiffness (Force needed for unit deflection)
m = mass
W
k in N  m

Time Period (tp)
It is defined as time period to complete one cycle.
2
k

m
tp   2 ‘se c’

...(2)



tp  2 ‘sec’
g
Frequency of natural vibration
   2 
  m ‘Hz’.
1 1 g 1 k
fn   ...(3)
tp 2
Natural Frequency of Longitudinal Vibration

0.4985
fn  cycles /s Hz


  sta tic deflection ; fn  N atural Frequency
Problems in Longitudinal Vibration

Problem 6.5: A shaft of 100 mm diameter and 1 metre long
is fixed at one end and other end carries a flywheel of mass
1000 kg. Take young’s modulus as 200 GN/m2; find Natural
frequency of Longitudinal Vibrations.
Given: d  100 mm  0.1 m ; l  1 m ; m  1000 kg
W  mg  1000  9.81 N; E  200 GN/m 2  200  10 9 N /m 2
. .
[ . 1 Giga N  1  10 9 N ]
Solution
(i) Find Area
 
Area A   d2   0.12  7.8539  10  3 m 2
4 4
(ii) To find deflection of shaft

W.l 1000  9.81   1
 
A.E 7.8539  10 3  200  10 9
  6.2453  10  6 m
(iii) Natural Frequency of Longitudinal Vibration

0.4985
fn 


0.4985
fn   199.47 ~
 200 Hz
6

 6.2453  10
fn  200 Hz
Problem 6.6: A cantilever shaft of 50 mm dia, 300 mm long

has a disc of 100 kg attached to the free end. The Young’s
modulus is 200 GN/m2. Determine
(a) Frequency of longitudinal vibration.
Solution:
Given: d  50 mm; l  300 mm, m  100 kg,
E  200 GN  m 2
 200  10 9 N  m 2
(i) To find fn d=5 0m m
longitudinal vibration
l= 0 .3 m
W  mg  100  9.81  981 N
 2 
A d   0.052
4 4
1 00 k g
3
 1.96  10
GN
E  200  200  10 9 N/m2
m2
W
Stress A Wl
E  
Strain  A
l
Wl 981  0.3
or  
AE 1.96  10  3  200  109
  7.49  10 7
.
Natural frequency f
 g 

1 1 9.81
fn   
2 2 7.49  10  7
fn  575.82 Hz
This is the frequency of longitudinal vibration.
6.7 SPRING - MASS MODEL
Natural Frequency of Free Longitudinal Vibrations can

be derived by “Equilibrium Method”.
Equilibrium method is based on Newton’s second law

of motion, according to which inertia force is equal to the
product of mass of vibrating body and its acceleration in
the direction of motion.
k
k
S ta tic d eflection
u n stra in e d

p ositio n
m
k ( + x)
A
x
W =m g
B
2
W m d x2 C
dt
F ig .6.8 .N atu ra l freq u en cy of th e lon gitu tio na l vibra tio n s
Consider a spring - mass system as shown in Fig. 6.8

for equilibrium
Inertia (or disturbing) force on mass
 Restoring force due to spring
Disturbing force  mass  acceleration
When a weight is attached at the end of the spring,
the spring will be deflected (extended) by . The spring has
attained a new equilibrium position. Now the system is in
equilibrium position, by two vertical forces (Fig. 6.8 B).
1. W  W eight of the body 
2. Force of spring k   where k  stiffness of spring
Under the equilibrium condition W  k ... (6.1)

Now pull the weight so that it is displaced by a
distance of x and then release. Then the system executes
a vibratory motion.
Refer the Fig. 6.8 C
After time t, the body is subjected to two forces
1. Weight of the body acting downward 
2. Upward force  k   x 
So, Net force (or Restoring force)
 W  k   x
[For our convenience, downward direction

is taken as positive and upward as negative.]
 W  k   kx
 k  k  kx
  kx  6.2
. .
[ . W  k from equation (6.1)]
We know, by equation of motion of body,
Force  mass  acceleration
d 2x
 kx  m  or
dt2
d 2x
m  kx  0
dt2

(or) mx  kx  0 ... (6.3)
Equation of motion
d 2x k ... (6.3a)
2
 x0
dt m
From the equation of simple harmonic motion;
We know
d 2x ... (6.4)
2
  2x  0
dt
Compare the equation (6.3) and (6.4),
We get,
k
2 
m
... (6.5)


k
(or)  
m
2 2 ... (6.6)
Time period ‘tp’  



k
m


1 1 k
Frequency f  
tp 2 m
k ... (6.7)


1
f
2 m
We know, W  k from equation
mg  k
k g ... (6.7(a))

m 
k g
Substitute  in equation (6.7), we get,
m 
g ... (6.8)


1
f
2 
0.4985 ... (6.8(a))

Substitute g  9.81 m/s2, we get f  Hz


(Depends on the condition of the problem, the  value

will vary.)
If the mass of the spring m 1 is also taken into
consideration, then the periodic time,


m1
m
3
t p  2 s econds,
k


1 k
Frequency, f  Hz
2 m1
m
3
Problem 6.7: A helical spring with negligible mass extends

0.3 mm under a mass of 1.5 kg, and is made to support a
mass of 50 kg. The spring and the mass system is displaced
vertically through 13 mm and released. Determine the
frequency of natural vibration of system. Find also the velocity
of the mass, when it is 6 mm below its rest position.
Solution
Given
m  50 kg; r  13 mm  0.013 m; x  6 mm  0.006 m
Since a mass of 1.5 kg extends the spring by 0.3 mm,

therefore a mass of 50 kg will extend the spring by .
0.3
  50  10 mm  0.01 m
1.5
Frequency of the system
1 9.81

 

g 1
f   4.98 Hz Ans.
2  2 0.01
Velocity of the mass
Let V  Linear velocity of the mass.
We know that angular velocity,
  
  0.01
g 9.81
  31.32 rad/s
V 

r 2  x2  31.32 
0.013 2  0.006 2  0.361 m/s
6.7.1 Equivalent Stiffness of Spring
(i) Spring in series
For two springs in series, equivalent stiffness is given

as [Fig. 6.9(a)].
1 1 1
 
k e k1 k 2
for n springs in series
n
1 1
 
ke i1
ki
(ii) Springs in parallel
For two springs in parallel, equivalent stiffness is

given as [Fig. 6.9 (b)]
k e  k1  k 2
k1
k1 k2
k2
m m
x
x
F F
F ig .6.9 (a). S pring s in series. F ig .6.9 (b). Sprin gs in p arallel.

n
For n springs k e   ki
i1
Problem 6.8: Determine the equivalent spring stiffness and

the natural frequency of vibrating system shown in Fig.(a).
Since it has single spring,
keq  k 1  2000 N/m,

k 1 = 2 0 0 0 N /m


k eq


1 1 2000 m m =20 kg
fn    1.5915 Hz
2 m 2 20 (a)
Problem 6.9: Determine the equivalent spring stiffness and

the natural frequency of vibrating system shown in Fig. (b).
1 1 1
Spring in series   or
keq k 1 k2 k 1 = 2 0 N /m
k1  k2 20  20 400
keq     10 N/m k 2 = 2 0 N /m
k 1  k2 20  20 40
m m = 40 k g
Natural frequency
(b )


k eq
40  0.0796 Hz

1 1 10
fn  
2 m 2
Problem 6.10: Determine equivalent spring stiffness and the

natural frequency of vibrating system as shown in Fig. (c).
Stiffness of spring on each side of mass
k
  2k
 1/2 
Total equivalent stiffness

keq  2k1  2 k2
k 1 = 5 0N /m
keq  2k1  2k2  2  50  2  100  300 N/m
m m =10kg
Natural frequency
k 2 = 1 00 N /m

 

1 k eq 1 300
fn    0.872 Hz
2 m 2 10
Problem 6.11: Determine the equivalent stiffness and natural

frequency of vibrating system as shown in Fig. (d).
When mass is attached at mid point of spring, the

spring stiffness of a coiled spring is inversely proportional
to the number of coils in the spring. As mass is fixed at
centre, the number of coils becomes half on each side.
k1
Stiffness on each side   2k1
1/2
k 1 = 5 0 N /m
Total stiffness
keq  2k1  2k1  4k1  4  50  200 N /m m m =10k g
Natural frequency
(d)


k eq 200


1 1
fn    0.712 Hz
2 m 2 10
Problem 6.12: Determine the equivalent stiffness and natural

frequency of vibrating system as shown in Fig. (e).
keq  k 1  k2 (spring in parallel)
k 1 = 5 N /m
keq  5  10  15 N/m k 2 = 1 0 N /m
Natural frequency m =10 k g

(e)

 

1 k eq 1 15
fn    0.195 Hz
2 m 2 10
Problem 6.13: Determine the natural frequency of a mass

m placed at one end of a cantilever beam of negligible mass
with beam length l.
Solution
m
Given m : mass l
l : le n g th
Wl3
We know deflection  
3EI
load W 3EI
Stiffness k    3
defle ction Wl /3EI
3
l

The equation of motion is m x  kx  0
 3 EI
mx 3 x0
l

S.H.M equation is x   2n x  0
On comparing above two equations, we have


3EI
n 
ml 3
n


1 3EI
Natural frequency fn   Hz
2 2 ml 3
Problem 6.14: Find the natural frequency of the system

shown in Fig. (a) below with k1  2000 N/m, k2  2500 N/m ,
k3  3000 N/m, m  5 kg
k2 k1
(k 1 + k 2 ) (k 1 + k 2+ k 3 )
5 kg
5 kg 5 kg
k3
Ans. k3 Ans.
Qn.
(a)
F ig . F ree b od y diag ram .
Solution
Given:
k1  2000 N/m, k2  2500 N/m, k3  3000 N/m, m  5 kg
The 3 springs are in parallel so
The equivalent stiffness k eq  k1  k 2  k3
 2000  2500  3000
k eq  7500 N/m
We know that
keq
 
 
7500
n    38.73 rad/sec
m 5
n 38.73
Natural frequency fn    6.164 Hz
2 2
Problem 6.15: Find the natural frequency of the system

shown in Fig. (a). Here k  5  103 N/m, m  40 kg.
Solution
For springs in parallel k e  k1  k 2 
1 1 1
Springs in series   
k e k1 k 2
2k 2 k/3 k
k 5 k/3
k
k k k k
k k
k
m
(b ) k
k
m m
(a) 5 k/8 k (c)
G ive n 1 3k /8
k 1 3k /2 1
k
F ig .
m
m m (f)
(d)
(e)
From the Fig. (b) to (f) we get
13 k
ke  ,
21
Natural frequency

m 
ke 5  10 3  13
n 
 
40  21
 8.797 rad/s ec
n 8.797
fn    1.4 Hz
2 2
Problem 6.16: A 5 kg mass attached to the lower end of a

spring, whose upper end is fixed, vibrates with a natural period
of 0.45 sec. Determine the natural period when 2.5 kg mass is
attached to the mid point of the same spring with the upper
and lower end fixed. (Anna University June 2012 - ME 2302)
Solution
Given: tp  0.45 sec, k1
m  5 kg, m 1  2.5 kg
k
m m = 2 .5 k g
(i) Mass attached at
lower end m
k1
Refer Fig. (a) m =5k g

(a) (b )
Angular frequency F ig


k
n  k : stiffness of spring
m
2
Time period tp   0.45
n
2
 n 
0.45


k 2

m 0.45
2
 n 
0.45


k 2

m 0.45
2
 2 
k   5 974.78 N/m
 0.45 
(ii) Mass m 1  2.5 kg attached at mid point
Spring stiffness of coiled spring is inversely

proportional to number of coils of spring.
k
Stiffness of spring on each side of mass   2k
1/2
 Total equivalent stiffness
k eq  2k  2k  4k  4  974.78
k eq  3899.12 N/m
k eq
Now Angular frequency n 
m



3899.12
n   39.492
2.5
2 2
Time period tp    0.159 sec
 n 39.492
Problem 6.17: The strength of the spring is 2.5 N/mm. When

the spring is fixed to one end and a weight is attached to the
other end and allowed to perform simple harmonic motion,
then the frequency of oscillation is 90/min. Determine
(a) The weight attached to the spring
(b) The acceleration of the weight and the force acting on it
when it is 3 cm below its mean position.
(KTU 1244 - May/June 2012)
Given Data:
Stiffness, k  2.5 N/mm  2500 N/m
90
f  90 cycles/min   1.5 cycles/s ec
60
Solution
(i) Weight attached to the spring


1 g
Frequency of oscillation f 
2 
 

1 9.81
1.5 
2
  static deflection (or) extension of spring

1 9.81
1.5 2  2

2 
9.81

22  1.5 2
 0.1104 m
Weight attached W
Stiffness, k  
Static deflection 0.1104
W
2500 
0.1104
W  276.1 N
(ii) Acceleration of the weight,

When x  3 cm  0.03 m from its mean position
a  2 x
and

f
2
  f  2
 1.5  2  9.425
  9.425 rad/s
a  2 x
 9.425 2  0.03  2.665
a  2.665 m/s2
Vertical force  mass  acceleration
W 276,1
  2.665   2.665
g 9.81
 75 N
Result
(i) Weight of the body W  276.1 N
(ii) Acceleration of the body a  2.665 m /s2
(iii) Vertical force  75 N

Problem 6.18: A 100 N block is suspended
by two helical springs of constants
k1  800 N/m and k2  600 N/m arranged in k 1 = 80 0 N /m
series as shown in figure. If the block is
pulled 50 mm down from its equilibrium
k 2 = 60 0 N /m
position and released, determine the period
of oscillation, the maximum velocity of the
block and the maximum acceleration of the
block.
(Cochin Univ BTS I & II - 06.14 - 0411 - June 2014)(A))
Given Data
Mass of block, Equivalent stiffness

100
m  10.194 kg
9.81
Stiffness, k 1  800 N/m; 1 1 1
 
k eq k1 k2
Stiffness, k 2  600 N/m; 1 1
 
800 600
Maximum amplitude, k eq  342.85 N/m
r  50 mm
 0.05 m Now the two springs are
made into 1 spring of
k q  342.88 N/m
To Find
(i) The period of oscillation
(ii) Maximum velocity
(iii) Maximum acceleration

 

1 1 keq 1 342.85
(i) T  ; f  
f 2 m 2 10.194
f  0.923 cycles/s
1 1
Period of oscillation T    1.083 sec
f 0.923
Alternate way
W 100
Static extension of the 1st spring  
stiffness k 1 800
 0.125 m
Similarly,
W 100
Static extension of the 2nd spring  
stiffness k2 600
 0.166 m
Total static extension  0.125  0.166  0.291 m

s tatic extension
(i) Period of oscillation T  2
 g


0.291
 2
9.81
T  1.083 sec
V max    r
2 2
   5.801 rad/sec
T 1.083
Vmax   5.801  0.05   0.29 m/sec
amax   2 r
 5.801 2  0.05
amax  1.683 m/sec2
Problem 6.19: A body of mass 50 kg is suspended by two

springs of stiffness 4 kN/m and 6 kN/m as shown in figure.
(a), (b) and (c). The body is pulled 50 mm down from its
equilibrium position and released - calculate (i) frequency of

oscillation (ii) maximum velocity (iii) maximum acceleration.
6 k N /m
6 k N /m
6 k N /m
50 kg
4 k N /m
4 k N /m
4 k N /m
50 kg 50 kg
(a) (b ) (c )
(KTU - Model Qn. Paper)
Given Data
k1  6 kN/m
k2  4 kN/m
m  50 kg
x  50 mm  0.050 m
Solution
For Figure (a)
1 1 1
Springs in series  
k eq k1 k 2
k1  k2 6  4 24
or   
k1  k2 6  4 10
k eq   2.4 kN/m  2.4  10 3 N /m
(i) Frequency of oscillation


1 keq
f
2 m


1 2.4  10 3
  1.1026 Hz
2 50
f  1.1026 Hz

V max  xm
  f  2  1.1026  2  6.92 rad/s
V max  r  0.05  6.92  0.346 m/s
Vmax  0.346 m/s
amax  x  2  0.050  6.922
amax  2.394 m/s2
For Figure (b)

k
keq   2k
1/2
keq  2k1  2k2
keq  2  6  2  4  20 kN/m  20  10 3 N/m

keq  20  10 3 N/m

 

1 k eq 1 20  10 3
f 
2 m 2 50
f  3.18 Hz
V max  x  
  f  2
 3.18  2
 20 rad/s
V m  0.050   20
Vm  1 m/s
am  x  2
 0.050  . 202
am  20 m/s2
For Figure (c)
keq  k 1  k2 spring in parallel
keq  6  4  10  10 3 N/m

 

10 4
1 keq 1
f 
2 m 2 50
f  2.25 Hz
V max  x  
  2 f  2  2.25  14.14 rad/s
keq 10 4
(or)     14.14 rad/s
m 50
V max  0.050   14.14 
Vmax  0.707 m/s
(iii) Maximum Acceleration
am  x  2
 0.050  14.142
am  10 m/s2
6.8 SIMPLE PENDULUM

Consider a simple pendulum with string length L and
bob mass ‘m’ at the end of string as shown in Fig. 6.10.
A simple pendulum consists of heavy bob suspended

at the end of a light inextensible flexible string. The other
end of the string is fixed at O, as shown in Fig.6.10.
O
O
L
/
m
m B
C
A 
in
gs 
m
m
gc
os

m
F ig .6.1 0 (a) F ig .6.1 0 (b ) mg
Let
L  Length of the string,
m  Mass of the bob in kg,

W  Weight of the bob  m.g, and
  Angle through which the string is displaced.
When the bob is at A, the pendulum is in equilibrium
position (mean position). If the bob is brought to B and
released, it will start oscillating between two positions B
and C. If the angle  is very small, the bob will have simple
harmonic motion. Now, the restoring torque tending to
restore the bob to the equilibrium position.
T  m.g sin   L
Since angle  is very small, therefore sin    radians.

 T  m.g.L.
The mass moment of inertia of the bob about an axis

through the point of suspension.
I  mass  length2  m.L2
 Angular acceleration of the string,
T m.g.L. g.  L
   or 
I m .L2 L  g
Angular displacement L

Angular acceleration g
We know that the periodic time,

Displacement
 

L
tp  2  2
Acceleration g
...(i)
Frequency of oscillation,


1 1 g
f 
tp 2  L
...(iii)
Hence, the periodic time and the frequency of
oscillation of a simple pendulum depends only upon its
length and acceleration due to gravity. The mass of the bob
has no effect on it.
1. The motion of the bob from one entreme end to

another (i.e. from B to C or C or B ) is known as
1
beat of swing. Thus one beat  oscillation.
2
2. A pendulum, which executes one beat per second
(i.e. one complete oscillation in two seconds) is
called as a second’s pendulum.
D’Alemberts principle method (Alternate method)

According to D’Alemberts principle
Reverse Inertia torque  Restoring Torque  0

From the Fig. 6.10 (b), we have
d2 
Accelerating torque (or) Inertia  I 
dt2
Restoring torque  mg sin   L
 mg   L
[Here sin  ~
  since  is small]
d2 
I  mg  L  0
dt2
Here I: Mass moment of Inertia  mL2

d2 
 mL 2  mg  L  0
dt 2
d2  g
or 2
   0 or
dt L
 g
    0 Equation of motion
L ...(6.20)
2
d x
Considering equation of S.H.M, 2
 2 x  0
dt
Comparing the above two equations, we get
L

g g
2  or 
L



1 g
 Natural frequency fn  
2 2 L ...(6.21)
6.9 COMPOUND PENDULUM

A compound pendulum
O
system is shown in Fig.
6.11. The system is h
vertically suspended and 
oscillates with a small

G
amplitude under gravity and 
W s in
is known as compound

pendulum.
W W cos 
F ig .6.1 1. C om p ou n d Pe nd ulu m
Let
W : Weight of rigid body  mg
kG : Radius of gyration about the axis through CG
h: Distance of point of suspension from G
I: Moment of Inertia of body about O
 m k2G  mh 2
If OG is displaced by an angle  , then the restoring

torque T
T   hW sin    mgh sin  [sin     since,  is small]
 Restoring Torque T   mgh 


Inertia Torque TI
According to D’Alembert’s principle

  mgh
I   mgh   0 or     0 Equation of motion (6.21)
I

 Comparing with S.H.M, x   2 x  0
mgh
We get  2 
I

 
k 
mgh gh
 2
 2 2 2
mR  mh h G
1

 k 
gh
Natural frequency fn  ...(6.22)
2 2
h 2
G
Time period


k2G  h2
 2
gh
Problem 6.20: A simple pendulum of weight W = 10 N and

length L = 1.2 m as shown in figure is released from rest at
A. When   60, swing downward under the influence of
gravity and strikes a spring of stiffness k  10 N/cm at B.
Neglecting the mass of the spring determine the maximum
compression of the spring.
(Cochin Univ BT - MRE (D) - May 2014)
Given Data
W  10 N  1.019 kg
‘L’ Height or length  1.2 m;
Stiffness k  10 N/cm;
k  1000 N/m;
  60;
To Find
Maximum compression of 
L
the spring
Solution A
L
Velocity of the ball

W
moving horizontally = velocity k
of ball attained by a vertical B
fall of height of 1.2 m.

W
When a mass of 1.019 kg
is dropped from a height of 1.2 m.
Let velocity attained by the body is v.
By using the law of conservation of mechanical energy,
v2  u2  2gh u  0
v2  2gh
v

2gh  Velocity of ball moving horizontally.
From law of conservation of energy
Total energy of the ball = Total Energy of spring
P.E  K.E of the ball = Total Energy of spring
(ie)
1 1
0 mv 2  ks 2
2 2
1 1
m   2gh 2  ks2

2 2
1 1
m  2 gh  ks 2
2 2
1 2
mgh  ks
2
Substituting the given data,

1
1.019  9.81  1.2   1000  s2
2
11.99  500 s2
s  0.155 m
Compression of spring
s  155 mm
Problem 6.21: Determine the period of oscillation of the

compound pendulum shown in figure, which consists of square
plate of weight 20 N suspended by a slender rod of weight 2N.
(Cochin University BTS I & II - 06.14 - 0411 - June 2014 (A))
Given Data
Mass of square plate m  20 N
Mass of slender rod m  2 N
Let,
The length of slender rod
L  40 cm
4 0 cm
The height of square plate
b  30 cm
40 30
h   20  15  35 cm
30 cm
2 2
To Find 3 0 cm
Period of oscillation
Solution
For a compound pendulum, the time period is,
T  2

 k2G  h2
gh
L 0.4
kG    0.1155 m

12 12

k G  0.1155 m


0.1155 2  0.35 2
T  2
9.81  0.35
Period of oscillation
T  1.25 sec
Note: To find k G
Mass moment of inertia of slender rod about an axis
through C.G
m L2
I ; Also I  m k2G
12
 mL2 
 
I 12 
k 2G  
m m
L2 L
k 2G  
12 
12
L
kG 
 12

Two Marks Questions and Answers TM.1
Objective Type (2 Marks)

Questions & Answers
Chapter 1
1.1 Differentiate between scalar and vector

quantities?
Scalar quantities have only magnitude, no direction.
Eg. Volume, length, area, mass.
Vector quantities have both magnitude and direction.
Eg. Force, Velocity, Acceleration.
1.2 Define mechanics?
Mechanics is defined as that science which describes
and predicts the condition of rest or motion of bodies under
the action of forces.
1.3 What is kinetics and kinematics.

Kinetics is the branch of mechanics which deals with
the body in motion when the forces which cause the motion
are considered.
Kinematics is the branch of mechanics which deals

with the body in motion when the forces causing the motion
are not considered.
1.4 Define a rigid body?

A rigid body is one on which when force is applied
there is no deformation in shape and size of the body. Thus
there is no change in its dimensions.
TM.2 Engineering Mechanics
1.5 What is statics and dynamics?

Statics is branch of mechanics which deals with the
force and its effects on bodies at rest.
Dynamics is branch of mechanics which deals with the
force and its effects on bodies in motion.
1.6 Define a force?
It is defined as an agency which changes or tends to
change the position of a body which is either at rest or in
motion.
A force can produce push, pull or twist. Force is a
vector quantity which has both magnitude and direction.
1.7 Name the laws available to add (a) two forces,
(b) several concurrent coplaner forces.
Q Q
Q
P+
R=
Q
(a) P+
R=
P
Fig. (a) Parallelogram law and Law of triangular of forces
F4
F3 F2
F3
(b)
tR
F1
ta n
su l
F4
F2
Re
F1
Fig. (b) Law of polygon of forces

1.8 What is meant by coplaner concurrent force

system?
All the forces in a single F2 F3
plane are focussing on or
emerging from a point A.
Definition: When a number of F 1 F4
A
forces lie in a plane, they are
said to be coplaner forces. If
these forces pass through a F 5
common point, then the system

is called as coplaner concurrent force system.
1.9 What is the single force that replace a system of
coplaner concurrent forces?
Resultant force.
1.10 Name the basic principles of mechanics.

1. Newtons three fundamental laws (First, second and
Third law)
2. Newtons law of gravitation.
3. Parallelogram law of addition of forces
4. The principle of transmissibility of forces
5. The triangular law of forces
6. The law of conservation of energy
7. The principle of work and energy
1.11 State the analytical conditions for equilibrium

of a body under the action of a system of
coplaner concurrent forces.
F x  0; F y  0.
1.12 The horizontal and vertical components of a

force are 20 N and 8 N. The magnitude and
direction of the resultant are 21.54 N and .
21.8 
Explanation
R 
 F2x   
F 2y   20 2  8 2  21.54 N
Direction of R
Fy 8
tan     0.4;   21.8.
Fx 20
1.13 State parallelogram law of forces.

(Anna Univ, Dec 2008, ME 1206)
The parallelogram law of forces states that if two
forces comprise the adjacent sides of a parallelogram,
passing through a point, then the diagonal passing through
the same point of parallelogram represents the resultant of
the two forces and mathematically given as
Resultant R  

 P 2  Q 2  2PQ cos 
where
P and Q are two forces
 Angle between these two forces
1.14 State the principle of transmissibility.

(Nov/Dec - 2007 - AU)
The principle of transmissibility of force states that
the condition of motion of a rigid body remains unchanged
if a force F of a given magnitude, direction and sense acts
anywhere along the same line of action on the rigid body.
F
=F
P ull = P ush
The condition of equilibrium or of motion of a rigid

body will remain unchanged if the point of application of
force acting in the rigid body is transmitted to act at any
other point along its line of action.
b b
F
B B
=
A A
F
1.15 State triangular law of forces. What is the use

of this law? (Anna Univ, ME 1206, Nov 2007)
If two forces acting simultaneously on a body are
represented by the sides of a triangle taken in order, their
resultant is represented by the closing side of the triangle
taken in opposite order. It can be used for determining the
resultant of two forces acting on a body.
1.16 Differentiate between concurrent and
non-concurrent force system?
Concurrent forces are the forces whose lines of action
pass through a common point. Non-concurrent forces are
the forces acting in a plane whose lines of action are
parallel and they will not intersect in one point.
1.17 What are types of force system?

(i) Coplanar force system
(d) Collinear
(ii) Non coplanar force system
1.18 State various types of coplaner forces?
When a number of forces are present in a plane, they
are said to be coplaner forces.
1. Concurrent forces are forces whose line of action

pass through a common point.
2. Parallel forces are forces whose line of action are
parallel to each other.
3. General system of forces are forces acting in a
plane such that they do not intersect in one point
and are not parallel.
1.19 Define (i) Coplanar forces (ii) Concurrent
forces. (Anna Univ, May 2010, ME 2151)
(i) Coplanar forces: A system of forces that are
contained in a single plane or system of forces having their
line of actions in the single plane are called coplanar forces.
(ii) Concurrent forces: When the line of action of all

the forces of a system intersect at a common point. These
forces are called concurrent forces.
1.20 What is composition of force?

Composition of a force system is a process of finding
a single force, known as resultant, that can produce the
same effect on the particle as that of the system of forces.
1.21 State parallelogram law of forces.

(Nov/Dec 2008 AU)
It states that two forces acting on a particle may be
replaced by a single force called resultant obtained by
drawing the diagonal of the parallelogram which has sides
equal to the given forces.
R 
 P 2  Q 2  2 PQ cos
1.22 State the necessary condition for static

equilibrium of a particle in two dimensions.
 F x   H  0,  F y   V  0, M0
1.23 A force 120 N is acting away from origin at an

angle of 30 to the horizontal. The horizontal
and vertical components of the forces are
cos 30  and 

120 120 sin 30  respectively.
F y =12 0 sin30
o
30
F x =12 0 cos30
1.24 State Polygon law of forces for resultant of

several forces?
If a number of coplaner forces are acting at a point
such that they can be represented in magnitude and
direction by the sides of a polygon taken in an order, their
F4
F3 F3
F2
nt R
u lt a
Res
F1 F2
F4
o F1
resultant is represented in both magnitude and direction

by the closing side of polygon taken in the opposite order.
1.25 State the condition for equilibrium of a two
dimensional rigid body?
F x  0; F y  0; M  0
1.26 What is the difference between a resultant force

and equilibrant force?
Resultant force Equilibrant force

1. It is a single force which Equilibrant is a force which is
will produce the same effect as equal in magnitude to
produced by the given force resultant but in opposite
system on the body. It is direction. When the resultant
 of a number of forces acting on
represented by R
a particle is zero, the particle
is in equilibrium. The force
which makes the set of forces
to equilibrium is called as
equilibrant E.
2. Mathematically 2. Mathematically
     
R  Rx i  Ry j  Rz k |R|  |E|

|R|  

R2x  R2y  
R2z
1.27 Define non-coplaner concurrent forces.

Forces acting in a different planes
and passing through a common point is
called non-coplaner concurrent forces.
(or)
Forces acting in a space having
x, y and z coordinates and concentrating
on a common point is called non-coplaner
concurrent forces.
1.28 Define Equilibrant.
F2 F3
F3 O F1 O F1 F2
Re
Eq
sul
F4
u i li
ta n
b ra
F4
t
nt
Equilibrant is a force which is equal in magnitude and

opposite in direction to the resultant force.
1.29 What is Lami’s theorem?
(Anna Univ, ME 2151, May 2012, F1 F3
GE 1151, Nov 2009)

If three forces acting on a
particle are in equilibrium, then
 
each force is proportional to the
sine of the included angle between
the other two forces.
F2
F1 F2 F3
Mathematically  
sin  sin  sin 
1.30 State the conditions for a body to be in

equilibrium under coplaner non concurrent
forces.
F x  0; F y  0; M  0
1.31 If a body is in equilibrium under the action of

three coplaner forces, they must be
.
concurrent forces
1.32 State the characteristics of a force.
The force has got both magnitude and direction.
Whenever the force acts on a body, either it moves the body
or tends to move the body in a direction in which the force
is acting on the body. The unit of force is Newton - “N”.
1.33 Define coplaner
Non-concurrent forces. la ne
ep
Forces acting on a single Si ngl
plane but not merging on a
common point are called
coplaner non-concurrent forces.
F3
F2
F1
1.34 Define Resultant.

A single imaginary force which will give the same
effect as given by the forces acting on a single plane is
called resultant.
Mathematically, Resultant is the algybraic sum of all

given forces.
F x  F x1  Fx2  F x3 ....; F y  Fy1  F y2  F y3 ....
Magnitude of Resultant R   F2x  F 2y


1.35 Define Free body diagram.
A diagram which is separated from its surroundings
(wall, mountings, hinges, etc.) focused by the force system
with the introduction of ‘reaction’ forces is called as free
body diagram.
1.36 Distinguish between resultant and equilibrant?
Resultant is that value
of force which can be used to R
F1
represent 2 or more forces
and when replaced produces t
an
s u lt ra n
t
the same effect. Re u il
ib
Eq
Equilibrant is the value
of force equal to the F2
resultant in magnitude but
opposite in direction.
1.37 Two wires are attached to a bolt in a foundation
as shown in fig. Determine the pull exerted by
the bolt on the foundation.
Pull exerted by the bolt on the foundation
= Resultant of these two forces
F y  3600 sin 25  6650 sin 15  3242.6 N
F x   6650 cos 15  3600 cos 25   3161 N
Resultant  
 2
3242.6 2   3161  4507.5 N
3600N
6650N
o
15
o
25
Bolt
Fo undation
Resultant  4507. 5 N
 Fy   1  3242.6 
Angle of resultant    tan  1   tan   3161 
F  
 x
 45.73
1.38 Distinguish the following types of forces with

suitable sketch.
(a) Collinear and (b) co-planar
Collinear Coplanar
O ne single pla ne
F1 F2 F3
Com m on line of actio n of fo rces
Common line of action of Here all the forces are

forces. acting in one single plane
The forces which act along a
common line of action are
called collinear forces
1.39 State Varignon’s theorem? (June 2009)

It states that “The moment of a force about an axis
is equal to the sum of the moments of its components about
the same axis.”
1.40 State the application of Varignon’s theorem.
Moment developed by a force P about A (Refer the
Fig.)
 Pd   P sin x  P c o s y
The moment of
P s in P
a force about an x 
axis is equal to the P co s
sum of the B
moments of its
components about y
the same axis.

d
Application: Var
ignon’s theorem is A
used to find centre
of gravity of a body,
centroid of the length of curve, centroid of the area of a
surface, centroid of the volume of a body and mass centre
of the mass of a body.
1.41 Define moment of force.
Moment of a force is the turning effect produced by a
force, on the body on which it acts. The moment of force
is equal to the product of the force and the perpendicular
distance between the point and the line of action of force.
Moment M  F  d
Chapter 2
2.1 What are the conditions to be satisfied if a
particle acted upon by forces in space is to be in
equilibrium?
F x  0; F y  0; F z  0 and M x  0; M y  0; M z  0
2.2 The following forces act at a point P.

        
F 1  50 i; F 2   30i  15 j; F 3   25 i  10 j  5k
Determine the resultant R

   
R  F 1  F 2  F 3   5i  25j  5k.
2.3 A force is represented by a vector form

P  10i  8j  14 k N. Determine the projection of
this force on a line which originates from
 2,  5, 3 and passes through point 5, 2,  4
Solution
dx  5  2  3 ; dy  2  5  7 ; dz   4  3   7
(5,2,-4)
(2,-5,3)
displacement d   32  7 2   72
  10.34 m
 3i  7j  7k
Unit vector    0.24 i  0.68j  0.68 k
10.34
Projection of force P  10 i  8j  14 k along the above

line

 P   10i  8j  14k 0.29 i  0.68j  0.68k
 2.90  5.44  9.52
  12.06 N
2.4 Three couples  16 N m ,  45 N m and 120 N-m are

acting in the xy, yz and xz planes respectively.
Determine the magnitude of the resultant vector
of these three couples.
Resultant ve ctor   16 k  45 i  120 j
  45 i  120 j  16 k
Magnitude of resultant vector

   452  120 2  16 2
  129.15 N m
2.5 Two vectors A and B are given. Determine their

cross product and the unit vector along it.
A  2i  3j  k and B  3i  3j  4k
Solution
       
A  2i  3j  k; B  3i  3j  4k
Cross product of A and B

 
i

j

k
   
AB2 3 1
 
3 3 4
 
 [3  4  1   3] i  2  4  1  3 j

 [2   3  3  3] k
  
 12  3 i  8  3 j   6  9 k
    
A  B  15 i  5j  15 k
 
Unit vector along the vector [A  B ]
Unit vector
15i  5j  15k 15 i  5j  15k
 
21.79

 2
15 2   52   15
  
 0.688 i  0.23 i  0.688 k
Unit vector along the vector
    
[A  B]  0.688 i  0.23j  0.688 k
2.6 What are the types of supports?

(i) Roller or rocker support
(ii) Frictionless support
(iii) Knife edge support
(iv) Link support
(v) Fixed support
(vi) Bearing support
2.7 What are the types of Loadings?

(i) Concentrated or point load
(ii) Uniformly distributed load (U.D.L)
(iii) Uniformly varying load (U.V.L)
(iv) Combined loading

2.8 How will you replace a given force into a force

and a couple?
F F F F
A B A B A B
d F (Fxd)
2.9 What is a beam?

A structural member designed to support load applied
at various points along the member is known as beam.
2.10 A couple of moment  80 Nm acts in the plane
of the paper. Indicate this couple with 40 N
forces.
40N
+80 Nm
=
1m 1m
2m
40N
2.11 Sketch a Roller support and mark the direction

of reaction.
A B
(R oller sup port)

R oller reaction acts only
suppo rt in the ve rtical directio n R
B
2.12 A couple of moment 60 N-m acts in the plane of

the paper. Indicate this couple with 30 N forces.
30N
=
-60 N m
1m 1m
2m
30N
2.13 What are the condition of equilibrium of a rigid

body in two dimensions.
(Anna Univ, ME 2151, June 2010)
 Fx  0,  F y  0,  M x  0,  M y  0
2.14 Sketch the Hinged support and mark the

direction of the reaction.
H orizontal
H A=R AX
R eaction A B
H inged S upport R oller Support

Vertical
R eaction
R AY = V A V B= R BY
2.15 What are the types of beams.

(i) Simply supported beam
(ii) Over hanging beam
(iii) Continuous beam
(iv) Cantilever beam
(v) Fixed beam
2.16 What is Maxwell’s diagram?

Maxwell’s diagram is also called as vector diagram.
(Force diagram).
2.17 A horizontal bar ABC AB  3 m; BC  1 m is
hinged at A and freely supported over roller at
B. Calculate the reaction at B, if a force of 6 kN
acts downwards at C.
Moment about A: 6 kN
RB  3  6  4 A B C
24 3m
RB   8 kN 1m
3 RA RB
Reaction at B  8 kN
2.18 Define couple and moment of couple?
(Anna Univ GE 1151 May 2008)
Two equal and opposite parallel forces acting on a body
form a couple.
The moment of couple is the product of the force (one
of the two equal and parallel forces) and the arm of the
couple (perpendicular distance between the forces).
Moment of couple M  P  a
2.19 A horizontal beam ABC is hinged at A and freely
supported at B. Calculate the reaction at B due
to a clockwise moment of 12 Nm applied at C.
Moment about A,
R B  3  12 RA
12Nm
RB  4 N B C
A
3m 1m
RB
2.20 Two forces F1  5i and F2  8.66 j pass through a

point whose coordinates are (2, 1). Calculate the
moment of force about the origin.
Resultant  F 1  F 2  5i  8.66 j; r  2i  j
     
Moment, M  rF  2i  j 5i  8.66j
i j k
M 
 2 1 0   k[ 2  8.66  1  5 ]  12.32 k
 5 8.66 0 
 
2.21 A simply supported beam of 6 m span carries a
load P at 2 m from the left end. If the support
reactions at the left end is 8 kN. Find P
(Anna Univ, ME 1206, Nov 2007)
 H  0,  V  R A  R B  P,  M A  R B  6  P  2  0
2P
RB  P
6
2P
8  P or A B
6
 2 2m
1 6 P8
  6m
86 R A =8kN RB
P  12 kN
4
Load P  12 kN
2.22 Following forces act on a point P.

     
F1  50i, F 2   30i  15 j, F3  30k determine the
resultant.
         
R  F 1  F 2  F 3  50  30 i  15j  30k  20i  15 j  30k
2.23 List two types of supports for a beam and

corresponding reactions.
1. Simply supported beam, 2. Cantilever
Simp ly su pported beam Cantilever

P
P
H in g ed R o lle r C o up le
H
H
O N LY
V Ve rtica l
R e action V
  
2.24 Two forces F1  5i, F 2  8.66 j pass through a point
whose coordinates are (2,1). Calculate moment
about origin and resultant.
  
R  F 1  F 2  5i  8.66j
 
i
 
j k
      
MrF2 1 0   k [2  8.66   1  5]  12.32 k
 
 5 8.66 0 
2.25 A force F  5i  6j  4k (N) passes through a point
where position vector r   2i  3j  4k (m). What
is the moment of the force about the origin?
  
MrF
      
M   2i  3j  4k   5i  6j  4k
 i j k
    
MrF2 3 4
 5 6 4
 
  
 12  24  i   8  20 j   12  15 k
  
  12i  28 j  27k
  12 2  28 2   272  40.71 Nm

   
2.26 A force F  8.25 i  12.75 j  18 k N acts through
the origin. What is the magnitude of this force
and angles it makes with x, y and z axes
(Anna Univ, GE 1151, Nov 2009)
   
F  8.25i  12.75 j  18k
 F x  8.25 N ; F y  12.75 N ; F z   18 N
Magnitude
F F2x  F 2y  F 2z 
 8.25 2  12.75 2   182

  23.55 N
Fx  F cos  x, F y  F c o s  y, Fz  F cos z
 Fx   1  8.25 
 x  cos  1    cos  23.55   69.49 
 F   
 Fy   1  12.75 
y  cos  1    cos  23.55   57.22
 F   
 Fz   1   18 
z  cos  1    cos    139.84
 F   23.55 
2.27 Determine the resultant of the three concurrent

     
forces F 1  2i  3j  2.5k, F 2   i  5j  3k and
 
F 3  7i  7j  6k. (Anna Univ GE 1151, May 2008)
      
Resultant R  F 1  F 2  F 3  8i  j  0.5 k
MagnitudeR   2
8 2  12  0.5  8.077 N
   
2.28 Find the unit vector of force F  4i  5j  8k .
(Anna Univ, GE 1151, May 2008)
Unit vector
   
 F 4i  5j  8k   
    0.39 i  0.487 j  0.78 k
|F |  
2 2
4   5  8 2
2.29 Write the equations of equilibrium of particle in

2 dimension?
  
R   F x i   Fy j

R  0   Fx  0,  F y  0 ;  Mx  0;  M y  0
2.30 What is the magnitude of resultant of concurrent

forces acting on a particle in space?
   
Resultant R   Fx i   F y j   F z k

|R |    F2x   F2y   
 F 2z
2.31 What is the condition of equilibrium of particle

in space.
   
Resultant R  R x i  Ry j  Rz k  0
ie Rx  0, Ry  0, Rz  0
 Fx  0 ,  F y  0,  Fz  0
Module 3
3.1 Define Centroidal axis.
The central point is defined as a point where the entire
physical quantity can be assumed to be concentrated to give
the same first moment as that obtained by considering the
elements of the body.
The central points for a length, an area and a volume
are called centroids.
The axes passing thro’ the centroid is called centroidal
axes.
3.2 A quadrant of a circle has 3 cm radius. Locate
the centroid of the lamina with respect to the
radii.
r c
y
4r = 4x3 = 4
y=3 3 
4r
x= 3
3.3 Define the term radius of gyration.

The radius of gyration k is the effective distance where
the entire area considered to be located with respect to axes

 

Ix Iy
of rotation. kx  ; ky 
A A
3.4 The coordinates of a centroid of an area may be

obtained by dividing the first moment of the area
.
by the area
3.5 Name the axis on a plane laminar, about which
sum of moment of elementary axis equals zero?
Centroidal axis.
3.6 Locate Centroid of a semi circular lamina of
diameter ‘d’?
R
c 4R (or) 2D
3 3
3.7 A wire of length 10 cm is bent in the form of L ,

the length of the short leg 4 cm and long leg 6
cm. Locate the centroid. (Jan 2003 AU)
y
6cm
x
4cm
 y 1l1  y2l2 3  6  0  4
y   1.8 cm
l1  l2 10
 x 1l1  x2l2 2  4  0  6
x   0.8 cm
l1  l2 10
3.8 What for theorem of pappus is used?

It relates the area of the surface of revolution or the
volume of a body of revolution to the determination of the
centroid of generating curve or area.
3.9 State Pappus theorem.
Theorem of pappus - Guidinus.
G e nerating curve S urfa ce ge nerated
e
gh t l in
St ra i
S urfa ce of co ne
y
y = kx
G e neral spandrel
x S urfa ce ge nerated
S em icircle
S phere generated
Torus
C ircle abo ve the x axis ge nerate d
Theorem 1: The area of a surface of a revolution is equal

to the length of the generating curve times the distance
travelled by the centroid of the generating curve while the
surface is generated.
Theorem 2: The volume of a body of revolution is equal

to the generating area times the distance travelled by the
centroid of the area while the body is generated.
3.10 For a hollow circular section, the external
diameter is D and internal diameter KD, find the
polar moment of inertia?
   4
J [ D 4o  D 4i ]  [ D4  KD4 ]  D 1  K 4
32 32 32
3.11 For a cone of diameter ‘d’ and height ‘h’, locate

the centroid?
h
G
y =h/4 from
base
d
3.12 State the parallel axis theorem of M.I. of a body.

The moment of inertia of an area with respect to any
axis in its plane is equal to the moment of inertia of the
area with respect to a parallel centroidal axis plus the
product of area and the square of distance between the two
axis.
I  ICG  Ad2
where A  Area of the plane; ICG  M.I. about centroidal

axis
d  distance between the given axis and centroidal axis.

3.13 What is Polar moment of inertia?
y
dA
x
r
y
x
O
z
The polar moment of inertia of an area A, about an

axis normal to the area and passing through a pole O is
defined as
J  Izz   r2dA   [ x2  y2 ] dA
  x2dA   y2dA  Ixx  Iyy
So the polar moment of inertia about an axis zz
through a pole must be the sum of moments of inertia
about xx and yy axis through that pole.
3.14 The moment of inertia of a circular cylinder of
1
radius r and height h about its axis is mr2.
2
3.15 Write the formula for the mass moment of
inertia of a thin circular disc of radius ‘r’ and
mass ‘m’ about the axis passing through the
centre and perpendicular to the plane of disc.
y
1
Izz  mr 2
2
x m   [r2]
3.16 Define the principal moment of inertia and

define principle axes.
The principle axes of an area about O are mutually
perpendicular set of axes, one about which moment of
inertia is maximum and the other about which the moment
of inertia is minimum.
R
I m in
la v
Im a x
The maximum and minimum moments of inertia about

a point are called the principal moments of inertia about
that point.
Imax  Iaverage  R
Imin  Iaverage  R


2
Ixx  Iyy  Ixx  Iyy 
Imax      I2xy
2  2 


2
Ixx  Iyy  Ixx  Iyy  2
Imin      Ixy
2  2 
3.17 Determine the moment of inertia of area of a

circle of diameter ‘d’ about its diameter.
d4
IXX  IYY 
64
x x
3.18 What is the second moment of area of a triangle

of base ‘b’ and height ‘h’ about the base.
bh3
Ibase 
12
h
bh3
Ic.g 
36 CG
The second moment of area is nothing b

but the moment of inertia.
3.19 For a figure INA  500 cm 4, M.I. about a line

parallel to the N.A. and at distance of 4 cm from
N.A. is 900 cm 4. Determine the area of the fig.
IBB  900 cm 4
(centroid axis,i.e N eutral A xis)
INA  500 cm 4 NA NA
IBB  INA  Ad2 4cm
900  500  A  4 2
B B
900  500
A  25
16
A  25 cm 2
3.20 State parallel axis theorem as applied to

moment of inertia of plane areas.
IB  B  Ix  x  Ad2 A  Area 
It states that the moment of

inertia of an area with
respect to any axis in its x centroid axis x
plane is equal to the
moment of inertia of the d
area with respect to a
parallel centroidal axis plus B B
the product of area and the
square of distance between the two axes.
3.21 Define Radius of gyration.
The radius of gyration of an area about a given axis
is defined as the effective distance where the entire area
may be considered to be located with respect to the axis of

rotation.
3.22 Define Product of inertia.
The integral Ixy   xy dA obtained by multiplying each

element dA of an area A by its coordinates x and y and
integrating over the area is known as the product of inertia
of the area A with respect to x and y axes. Unlike the
moment of inertia Ix and Iy, the product of inertia Ixy may
be either positive or negative.
Note: When one or both of the x and y axes are axes of
symmetry for the area A, the product of inertia Ixy is zero.
3.23 What is radius of gyration?
A

I
Mathematically, radius of gyration, k 
where I  moment of Inertia
Area
k
Axis
A  cross sectio nal area
‘k’ is the distance at which the complete area is

assumed to act as a strip of negligible width such that
there is no change in the moment of inertia.
3.24 State principal axes of inertia.

The perpendicular axes about which product of inertia
is zero are called “principal axes” and the moments of
inertia with respect to these axes are called as “principal
moments of inertia”.
3.25 Define Center of Gravity.
The point through which the entire weight of the body
is concentrated is called as center of gravity.
3.26 What are the theorems of moments of inertia?
(i) Perpendicular axis theorem
(ii) Parallel axis theorem
Module 4
4.1 State laws of friction?

1. The total friction developed is independent of the
magnitude of the area in contact.
2. The total friction is proportional to the normal
force transmitted across the surface of contact.
3. For low velocities total amount of frictional force
developed is practically independent of velocity.
2nd law can be expressed mathematically,
F  RN ; F   RN
F  Force required to start sliding or friction force

equal to the limiting friction. R N  Normal reaction between
the surfaces.   Coefficient of friction.
The equation F   RN is valid only at the time of

impending motion. After the motion starts,  is called as
the coefficient of kinetic friction k.
4.2 Differentiate between angle of friction and

coefficient of friction.
The normal reaction RN and the limiting friction force
F  [  R N ] acting at the surface of contact can be combined
into a single resultant R. The angle which the resultant
R makes with the normal reaction R N is called as the
angle of friction .
F  RN
tan    
RN RN
So tan   
W
R
RN
F= R N P

F
RN
  Coefficient of friction which is defined as the ratio

F
of friction force and normal reaction i.e.   .
RN
4.3 In a thrust bearing where does the load act?

The load acts in axial direction
W W
T h ru st
B e a rin g
E ithe r Ve rtica lly or H o rizo n ta lly
4.4 The force required to pull a body of weight 50 N

on a rough horizontal plane is 15 N. Determine
the coefficient of friction.
R N = 50N
F= R N
15
W = 50N
F  15   R N    50
15
  0.3 .
50
4.5 A vertical wall weighs 500 N. It is subjected to a

lateral force of 3 kN. Will it be safe against
sliding on a horizontal plane on which   0.01 .
R N =500kN
R N =W
3kN
F= R N

W =500kN
For equilibrium, F should be greater than or equal to

the lateral force.
Frictional Maximum force
  R N  0.01  500  5 kN
Frictional Maximum force
 5 kN and lateral force  3 kN
It will not slide, so it is safe.
4.6 A body of weight 120 N is placed on a rough

horizontal plane. Determine the coefficient of
friction if a horizontal force of 65 N cause the
body to slide over the horizontal plane?
F   R N  65 R N =W
  120  65
F= R N 65
65
  0.542
120
W = 120
4.7 What is meant by limiting friction?
The maximum value of frictional force, which comes
into play when the body just begins to slide over the
surface, is called limiting friction.
F max   R N.
4.8 Define coefficient of Kinetic friction.

Dry friction is sub
divided into static friction W
between non-moving surfaces
and kinetic friction (or
sliding friction or dynamic F
friction) between moving
surfaces.
If the magnitude of fF = k R N
applied force is greater than
RN
the magnitude of the force of
kinetic friction opposing it,
the block is accelerating to the left (Refer Fig.).
The coefficient of friction, K  when the block is

moving, is considered for the analysis.
Ff
Mathematically, coefficient of dynamic friction, K 
RN
4.9 Define coefficient of friction .
It is defined as the ratio of the limiting friction (Max.
value of static friction) to R N normal reaction between the
two bodies.
F

RN
F  Maximum frictional force (limiting friction);
R N  Normal reaction.
4.10 What is the ratio of tension in an open belt drive?
T1
Ti g ht s id e


d ri
ve
n 
T2
d rive r e
S la c k s id
T1
 e 
T2
T1  Tight side tension
T2  Slack side tension
  Angle of contact in radians;
  180  2 (for smaller pulley)
  Coefficient of friction.
4.11 A body of weight 50 N is resting on a rough

horizontal surface.  for the surface is  0.2.
Determine the minimum force required to move
the body.
R N = 50
W  R N  50 N
P min  Friction force F

F = R N P m in = F
and F   R N  0.2  50
 10 N
So P min  10 N W =50
4.12 Define friction and limiting friction?

Friction is the opposing or resistive force that acts
during the motion of a body on a rough surface.
Limiting friction F   RN where R N  normal
reaction and   coefficient of friction
Limiting friction is the value of frictional force when
the body is on the verge of moving. Limiting friction is the
maximum frictional force.
4.13 Write the relation between the tension in the
pulling part of a belt and the resisting part of
a belt.
T1
 e 
T2
T 1  Tension in pulling part of a belt Tight side Tension
T 2  Tension in resisting part of a be lt Slack side tension.
  coefficient of friction
  angle of conta ct angle of lap .
Module 5
5.1 When a stone is dropped from the top of a

building of ht 24 m, it will reach the ground
after 2.212 seconds .

1 2
s  ut  at [ u  0]
2
2  24

 

2s
t   2.212sec
a 9.81
5.2 Differentiate between kinematics and kinetics ?

Kinematics is the study of motion of a particle without
considering forces.
Kinetics is the study of motion of a particle by

considering forces acting on the particle.
5.3 A particle is projected from a groundlevel

vertically upwards with a velocity of 60 m/s.
When it will hit back the ground ?
[Total displacement x2  x1  0 ]
1
x2  x 1  ut  at2
2
1
0  60t   9.81 t2
2
0  60t  4.905 t2
4.905 t  60
60
t
4.905
 12.232 sec
After 12.232 sec, it reaches the ground.

5.4 What will be the pressure at the floor of an

elevator due to a man weighing 600 N when the
lift is ascending with an acceleration 1 m/s2 ?
2 W Direction
a=1m /s
of m otion
RN
 F y  ma y
600
R N  600  1
9.81
Pressure at the floor of an elevator
600
‘R’  600   1  661.2 N
9.81
5.5 When a stone is dropped from the top of a

building of height 18 m, it will reach the ground
1.915 sec.
after 
Description
y0  18m; yf  final ht  0 u  initial velocity  0
1 2
y f  y0  ut  at a   9.81 m  sec 2
2
0  18  0  1/2  9.81  t2


18
t  1.915 sec
4.905
5.6 The displacement of a particle at any instant is

given by s  2t2  1 where s is in cm and t is in
sec. The velocity of a particle at t  2sec is
8cm /sec .
Explantion: s  2t2  1
ds
 velocity  4t  4  2  8 cm /sec
dt
5.7 What is Kinematics?

Kinematics is the study of motion of bodies without
considering the forces. It deals with displacement, velocity
and acceleration.
5.8 A stone is thrown upwards with a velocity of 14.7

m/sec. Determine the maximum height reached by
the stone?
When the stone is thrown upwards, it will be acted
by gravitational (downward) acceleration. When the stone
is reaching its maximum ht, its velocity will be zero.
So by using the equation v2  u2  2ah
u  Initial velocity ; v  Final velocity ; h  distance

travelled
v2  u2  2ah
0  14.7 2  2   9.81   h
 216.09   19.62  h
216.09
h  11.013 m
19.62
Maximum ht reached  h  11.013 m

5.9 A steel ball is thrown vertically upwards from a

top of a building 25 m above the ground with an
initial velocity of 18 m/s. Find the maximum
height reached by the ball from the ground.
Solution
When the ball is thrown upwards, it will be acted by
gravitational acceleration (downward) i.e., a   9.81 m/s2
When the stone is reaching its maximum height, its
velocity will be zero i.e., v  0;
So by using the equation,
v2  u2  2a y  y0 where u  18 m/s and y 0  25 m
y  maximum height
v2  u2  2a y  y0
0  18 2  2   9.81 y  25
y  25  304.38 
Maximum height from the ground y  329.38 m
5.10 A particle starting from rest, moves in a straight

line and its acceleration is given by
a  50  36t2 m/s2 where t is in sec. Determine the
velocity of the particle when it has travelled 52m.
dv
a  50  36 t2
dt
 dv   50  36 t2 dt
36 t3
v  50t   50t  12 t3
3
v  50 t  12 t3
dx
v  50t  12t3
dt
 dx   50t  12t3 dt
50t2 12t4
x   25t2  3t4
2 4
x  25t2  3t4
When x  52 m,
52  25t2  3t4
25t2  3t4  52  0
Substitute y  t2
25y  3y2  52  0
 3y 2  25 y  52  0
 25  
 25 2  4  3  52  24
y  4
2   3 6
y  t2  4
t  2 sec ;
We know, v  50t  12 t3  50  2  12  23  4 m  s.
5.11 A stone is dropped into a well and if the splash

is heard 2.5 seconds later, determine the depth
of water surface assuming that the velocity of
sound is 330 m/s.
Solution
The stone is dropped into a well and the splash is
heard in 2.5 sec. This 2.5 seconds includes, “the time taken
h
S ound
W ate r level
by the stone to reach the water level in the well t1” and
“the time taken by the sound t2”
Let h  depth of water level in the well
1
h  ut1  at21
2
1
0 9.81 t21
2
. .
[ . initial velocity of stone is zero so u = 0]
h   4.905 t21 ... (i)

For the sound to travel this distance
h  ut2  vt2  330  t2
h  330 t2 ... (ii)

Equate (i) and (ii)
h  4.905 t21  330 t2 ... (iii)

But we know,
Total time t1  t2  2.5 sec
i.e., t2  2.5  t1
Substitute t2  2.5  t1 in equation (iii), we get,
4.905 t21  330 2.5  t1
4.905 t21  825  330 t1
4.905 t21  330 t1  825  0
Solving t1,
 330  
 
330 2  4  4.905  825
t1 
2  4.905
 330  353.7 23.68
   2.41 sec
9.81 9.81
So depth of water level
h  4.905 t21  4.905  2.412  28.57 m
h  28.57 m
5.12 A body moves along a straight line so that its
displacement from a fixed point on the line is
given by s  3t2  2t. Find the velocity and
acceleration at the end of 3 seconds.
s  3t2  2t
ds
v  6t  2 , vt  3  6  3  2  20 m/sec
dt
dv
a  6 m/sec 2
dt
5.13 A particle moves along x- axis and its position

is expressed as x  3.5 t3  7t2 where x is in mts
and t is in seconds. Determine the displacement
during three seconds.
x  3.5 t3  7t2
x  3.5 3 3  7 32
x  94.5  63
x  31.5 m
5.14 State and explain the principle of equilibrium.

Newton’s second law in the alternative form is
F  ma  0
If we add the vector  ma to the forces acting on the

particle, we obtain equilibrium. The vector  ma , of
magnitude ma and opposite direction to that of the
acceleration, is called an inertia vector. The particle may
thus be considered to be in equilibrium under the given
forces and the inertia vector. The particle is said to be
in dynamic equilibrium and the problem may be solved by
methods discussed in statics.
5.15 A body of weight 98 N is moving vertically
downwards with an acceleration of 1.8 m/s2.
Determine the force applied on the body.
Net force acting on the body W  T
(Equation of Equilibrium)
F  ma  0
W  T  ma  0
2
a=1.8m /s
W
98N
m otion
direction
W
98
T  W  ma  98   1.8  80 N
9.81
The force applied on the body is
T  80 N upward
5.16 What is Inertia force?

The inertia force can be defined as the resistance to
the change in the condition of rest or of uniform motion of
a body. The magnitude of the inertia force is equal to the
product of the mass and acceleration of the particle and it
acts in a direction opposite to the direction of acceleration
of the particle.
The equation of motion of the particle P
F  ma can be written in the form F  ma  0
The force  ma is called the inertia force.
5.17 State D’Alembert’s principle.

The external forces acting on a rigid body are
equivalent to the effective forces of the various particles
forming the body. This statement is referred to as
D’Alermbert’s principle.
F  ma
F2 F1 ma
G
= I
F3
F4
m
F   ma  0
Inertia force
To write the equation of dynamic equilibrium of a

particle, add a fictious force equal to the inertia force to
the external forces acting on the particle and equate the
sum (resultant) to zero. This concept is known as
D’Alembert’s principle.
5.18 State the principle of virtual work.

The principle of virtual work states that if a rigid body
is in equilibrium, the total work of the external forces acting
on the rigid body is zero for any virtual displacement of the
body consistent with the geometrical conditions of the body.
5.19 Name different types of forces which do no work.

1. The weight of a body when its center of gravity
moves in horizontal direction.
2. The reaction at a frictionless hinge when the body
rotates about the hinge.
3. The reaction at a frictionless surface when the body
moves along the surface.
4. The friction force acting on a wheel when it rolls
without slipping.
5. The internal forces (the tension in the string and

the axial forces in the bar).
5.20 The weight of a body is active force, for all
modes of motion of body - Is the above statement
true or false?
False. Because the gravity force (or) weight of the body
does not do work when the body moves horizontally.
5.21 A man of mass of 72 kg is standing on a board
inclined 20 with the horizontal. Find the
component of man’s weight.
(a) Perpendicular to the plane of the board
(b) Parallel to the plane of the board
perpendicular
20 o to pla ne
W = 72 x 9.81
=706.32N
parallel to p lane
20 o
The component of man’s weight 

 W cos 20
perpendicular to the plane of board 
 706.32  cos 20
 663.72 N
T he component of man’s weight 

 W sin 20
paralle l to the plane of the board 
 706.32  sin 20  241.58 N

5.22 The number of equations need to describe the

motion of a rigid body in plane motion is
3 three.

F x  max; F y  may; MG  IG.
5.23 The instantaneous center is a point identified

with the body where the velocity is zero
.
5.24 If a circular cylinder rolls without slipping, the
instantaneous center of rotation is the

point of contact.
5.25 The kinetic energy of a rigid body of mass m
and moment of inertia I, moving such that the
velocity of its center of mass is v and the
1 1
rotational velocity is  is given by mv 2  I2.
2 2
5.26 Write down the three equations of plane motion
for a rigid body.
 F x  ma x,  F y  ma y,  M  I 
5.27 Write down the expressions for kinetic energy of

a rigid body.
1
For rectilinear motion K.E  mv2
2
1
For curvilinear motion K.E  I 2
2
1 1
K.E. for rigid body  mv2  I2
2 2
5.28 Explain Instantaneous center of rotation.

A rigid body in plane motion, at any given instant of
time appears as if rotating about a certain point in the
plane of the body. The point which is instantaneously at
rest and has zero velocity is I

called as the instantaneous 
center of rotation. The body
may seem to be rotating
about one point at one vb
instant of time and about
another point at the next P vP va B
instant. This instantaneous A
center is changing every
instant and is not a fixed point.
The velocity of any point in the body can be
determined by assuming that point to be rotating with some
angular velocity , about the instantaneous center I at the
instant.
va vp vb
 ; ;
IA IP IB
5.29 A body is said to have general plane motion if it

possesses translatory motion and rotary motion
simultaneously
5.30 State the relationship between linear
displacement and angular displacement.
Linear displacement  ‘s’ in meters
Angular displacement  ‘’ in radian
r
s  r
where r is the radius of the circle or curvature.
We can also write ds  rd
5.31 Write the equations of equilibrium of a rigid

body.
 F x  0;   Fy  0;  F z  0;
 M x  0;  M y  0;  M z  0
5.32 What is instantaneous centre of rotation in

plane motion?
Velocity of any point can be found out by using
instantaneous centre method. It can be shown that for a
rigid body in plane motion at any given instant of time
appears as if it is rotating about a certain point in the
plane of the body. This point, which is instantaneously at
rest is known as instantaneous centre of rotation.
5.33 What do you mean by general plane motion?
The combination of rotation and translation motion is
called general plane motion
Eg: Truck, Car.
5.34 A body is rotating with an angular velocity of 5
radians/sec. After 4 seconds, the angular velocity
of the body becomes 13 radians/sec. Determine
the angular acceleration of the body.
Given Data:
 o  5 radians /seconds ; t  4 seconds
 1  13 radians/seconds
To Find:
angular acceleration   ?
Solution:
1  o   t
13  5   4
8

4
  2 rad/sec2
Module 6
6.1 What is meant by Mechanical Vibrations?
Springs, beams, shafts and other elastic bodies when
displaced from their equilibrium position due to the
application of external forces, and then released, they
execute a ‘to and fro’ motion called vibratory motion.
6.2 What is meant by Period of Vibration?
It is the time interval after which the motion is
repeated itself. It is time period to execute one complete
cycle of vibration. It is expressed in second ‘s’.
6.3 Define a Cycle.
It is the motion completed in one time period. If a
particle starts from mean position, goes to two extreme
positions and then again comes to mean position, then it
completes one cycle. (Fig. 6.1)
m ax im u m
m ea n pos ition
end
S ta rt
m in im u m m ax im u m
S ta rt
1 cy cle m in im u m
(a) F ig . 6.1. (1 C yc le ) (b )
6.4 Define Amplitude.

The maximum displacement of a vibrating body from
the equilibrium position.
6.5 Define Degree of freedom.

The minimum number of independent coordinates
required to specify the motion of system.
6.6 What is Free (or) Natural Vibrations?

A vibration, in which after the initial displacement, no
external forces act on the body and the motion is
maintained by the internal elastic forces, is called Natural
vibration.
6.7 What is Forced Vibration?

When a body vibrates under the influence of
continuous periodic disturbing internal (or) external force,
then the body is said to be under forced vibrations.
Ex: Vibration created by rotating and reprocating

masses of IC engine.
6.8 What is Damped Vibrations?

When there is reduction in amplitude over every cycle
of vibration, energy possessed by a system is gradually
dissipated in overcoming the internal or external
o il
sp rin g d a sh p o t
M e a n p o s ition
p o sitio n a fte r tim e t
F ig .6.2 . D am p ed V ib ration
resistances to motion and body comes to rest in its

equilibrium position, the motion is said to be damped
vibration.
Ex: Shock Absorber with Dashpot. (Fig. 6.2)
6.9 What is Longitudinal Vibrations?
move parallel to axis of the
shaft, then the vibrations
S h a ft
are known as Longitudinal
L o n g itu d in a l a x is
Vibrations. During this
vibration, the body moves
parallel to longitudinal axis
E x trem e p o sition
as shown in Fig. 6.3(a).
If the movement of M e a n p o sition
system is parallel to the
axis, then the vibration is E x trem e p o sition
called as longitudinal F ig .6.3 (a). L o n gitu d in al

vibration. V ibratio n s
6.10 What is meant by Transverse Vibration?

When particles
of shaft moves E x trem e
perpendicular to the p o sitio n
L o n g itu d in a l
axis of shaft, then a xis
the vibrations are M ean

known as Transverse p o sitio n
vibrations. During
this motion, the body
E x trem e
moves perpendicular p o sitio n
to the longitudinal
axis as shown in Fig. F ig . T ra n sv erse V ibr ation s
6.3(b) and the shaft is bent and subjected to tensile and

compressive stresses alternatively.
If the system vibration is perpendicular to the axis,
then this is called transverse vibration.
6.11. What is meant by
Torsional Vibration?
move in a circle about the axis L o n g itu d in a l
a xis
of the shaft, then the vibrations
are known as Torsional
vibrations. Here, the body will
be twisted and untwisted about E x trem e p o sitio n
the longitudinal axis of the
M ean
shaft.
p o sitio n
E x trem e p o sitio n
Fig . Torsional Vibr ation s
6.12 Explain Degrees of Freedom.

Degrees of freedom is defined as the number of
independent coordinates required to describe the motion of
vibratory system.
(a) Single degree of freedom
A single spring mass system or a simple pendulum as
shown in Fig. 6.5 (a,b) requiring only one coordinate x
to describe position is called single degree of freedom
system.
k

m
(a) (b ) m
x
S ing le d eg ree o f freed om
k1 1
m1 m1
x1
k2
2
m2
m2
(c) x 2 (d )
T w o deg rees of freed o m

F ig . Deg rees o f freed om
(b) Two degree of freedom

A two spring - two mass system or a double pendulum
represents a two degree of freedom system [Fig. 6.5 (c,d)].
There are two coordinates required x1, x2 to describe the
position.
6.13 Define Simple Harmonic Motion.
When the acceleration of a body is directly proportional
to the displacement from the mean position and is always
directed towards the mean position, then motion is said to
be Simple Harmonic Motion (SHM).
Index IN.1
INDEX
Clockwise Moment, 1.29
Clockwise Couple, 1.64
A
Collinear forces, 1.25
Acceleration, 5.4
Coloumb’s Law of Dry Friction,
Amplitude, 6.2, 6.12 4.2
Angle of Repose, 4.16 Combined Motion of Rotation
Angle of Friction, 4.3 and Translation, 5.47
Anticlockwise Couple, 1.64 Component of force in space,
Anticlockwise Moment, 1.29 2.33
Application to Connected Compound Pendulum, 6.48
Bodies, 5.83 Concentrated or Point Load, 2.6
Applications of virtual work, Concurrent forces, 1.24
4.72 Coplanar force system, 1.24
Arm of a Couple, 1.63 Coplanar - concurrent force
Average velocity, 5.3 system, 1.24
Average acceleration, 5.4 Coplanar - Non concurrent
forces, 1.25
B
Couple, 1.63
Basic Elements of Vibrating
System, 6.7 Cross belt drive, 4.41
Belt Drives, 4.40 Cycle, 6.2
Built-in Support or Fixed Cylindrical Co-ordinate System,

support, 2.3 5.37
C D
D’Alemberts Principle, 5.80, 6.46
Centre of Gravity, 3.4
Damped Vibrations, 6.4
Centroid, 3.1
Damping, 6.3
Centroid of a Uniform Lamina,
Damping elements, 2.46, 4.73,
3.2
6.3, 6.7, 6.8
Centroid and Moment of
Dimensional Analysis, 1.8
Inertia of Composite Area,
3.36 Dimensional Homogeneity, 1.11
Characteritics of Dry Friction,

4.2
IN.2 Engineering Mechanics
Discrete (or lumped) system, Frictionless (Simple) Support ,

6.3, 6.9 2.2
Displacement, 5.2 Fundamental mode of
vibration, 6.3
E
Equation of Motion, 5.79 G
Equations Equilibrium, 1.102 General Plane Motion, 5.47
Equations of rotational motion:, Graphical Method, 1.142
5.39
Equilibrant, 1.92 H
Equilibrium of Rigid Body, 1.94 Hinged (Pin) Support, 2.3
Equilibrium of Rigid Body in Horizontal range , 5.33
Three Dimensions, 2.64
I
Equilibrium of Two Force
Body, 1.104 Inclined Plane, 4.16
Equilibrium of Particle, 1.91 Inertia elements, 6.7
Equilibrium of a Three Force Infinite degree of freedom, 6.9

Body, 1.105 Instantaneous acceleration, 5.4
Equivalent couples, 1.64 Instantaneous Center, 5.61
Equivalent Stiffness of Spring,
K
6.29
Kinematics, 5.1
Equivalent Force System, 1.66
Kinetics, 5.1
F
Finite degree of freedom, 6.9 L
First Moment of Area, 3.2 Lami’s Theorem, 1.106
Force Systems in Space, 2.32 Law (or) Principle of
Forced Vibrations, 6.4 Transmissibility of Forces,
Forces in three dimensional 1.20
space, 2.33 Law of conservation of energy,
Free (or) Natural Vibrations, 6.4 1.21
Free Body Diagram, 1.94, 2.62 Lift Motion, 5.85
Freely Falling Body, 5.20 Like parallel forces , 1.58
Frequency, 6.2, 6.13 Limiting Friction, 4.1
Friction on Ladder, 4.31 Longitudinal Vibrations, 6.5
Index IN.3
M P
Mass Moment of Inertia of Pappus-Guldinus Theorem I,
Cylinder and Thin Disc, 3.73 3.92
Maximum height, 5.33 Pappus-Guldinus Theorem II,
Mechanical system, 6.3 3.92
Moment of Inertia, 3.31 Parallel Axis Theorem, 3.32,
Moment of a Couple, 1.63 3.73
Moment of Force About a Parallel forces, 1.26

Point, 2.77 Period of Vibration, 6.2
Moment of a Force about an Periodic time, 6.12
axis, 2.84 Perpendicular Axis Theorem,
Motion of a Projectile, 5.28 3.34
Motion Under Variable Phase difference, 6.3

Acceleration, 5.5 Polar Moment of Inertia, 3.34,
3.69
N Polygon Law of Forces, 1.19
Natural frequency, 6.3 Position, 5.2
Newton’s First Law, 1.14 Principal Moment of Inertia,
Newton’s Second Law, 1.15 3.82
Newton’s Third Law, 1.16 Principle of virtual work, 4.71
Newton’s Law of Gravitation, Principle of Moments, 1.30
1.16 Principle of work and energy,
Non concurrent and 1.22
non-parallel forces, 1.25 Problems on motion of lift, 5.86
Non coplanar Non concurrent Product of Inertia, 3.81
forces, 1.27
R
Non coplanar concurrent forces,
1.26 Radius of Gyration of an Area,
3.69
Non-parallel Spatial Forces, 2.98
Ratio of Tensions for Flat
Non coplanar parallel forces,
Belts, 4.42
1.27
Reciprocating pump, 5.62
O Rectangular Co-ordinate
Open Belt Drive, 4.40 System, 5.1
IN.4 Engineering Mechanics
Rectilinear Translation, 5.76 Torsional Vibrations, 6.6

Relative Motion, 5.23 Transverse Vibrations:, 6.6
Resolution, 1.37 Triangular Law of Forces, 1.17
Resonance, 6.3 Two degree of freedom, 6.8
Restoring elements, 6.7 Types of Free Vibrations, 6.5
Resultant of Force System, 1.31 Types of Vibratory Motion, 6.4
Resultant Force, 1.40 Types of Supports, 2.2
Review of Vectors, 2.26 Types of Beams, 2.5
Roller and Knife Edge U

Supports, 2.2 Uniformly Varying Load, 2.7
Rotation Motion, 5.38 Uniformly Distributed Load
Second Moment of Area, 3.31 (UDL), 2.6
Unlike parallel forces, 1.59
S
SI units, 1.6 V
Varignon’s Principle, 1.30
Simple Pendulum, 6.44
Varignon’s Theorem, 2.78
Simple Harmonic Motion, 6.9,
6.12 Vectorial treatment, 2.79
Velocity - Time Diagram, 5.18
Virtual Work, 4.68
Single degree of freedom, 6.8
Volume of Revolution, 3.91
Skew forces, 1.27
Solved problems on centroids , W
3.8 Wedge Friction, 4.56
Spring - Mass Model, 6.24
Spring in series, 6.29
Springs in parallel, 6.29
Surface of Revolution , 3.91
T
The Parallelogram Law of
Forces, 1.17
Theorems of Pappus and
Guldinus, 3.91
Time of flight, 5.33

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As per Leading Universities’

(d) Non coplanar Non concurrent and

1.14.1 Equilibrant ...................................................... 1.92

2.6.4 Equivalent system of forces............................. 2.36

3.12 Solved Problems on Product of Inertia and

5.13 Application to Connected Bodies.................................. 5.83

(iii) Damping elements ............................................ 6.7

Statics: Fundamental concepts and laws of mechanics -

The different motions that we notice, everyday, like

1. Mechanics of rigid bodies

2. Mechanics of deformable bodies

Mechanics, when applied in engineering is called

1.2 CLASSIFICATION OF ENGINEERING MECHANICS

Rig id Deform able Ideal Viscous Com pressible

S ta tics Dynam ics

K inetics K inem atics

A particle is defined as an idealized model of actual

A rigid body is one which does not deform under load.

Fluid mechanics is branch of mechanics which deals

1.3 FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS OF MECHANICS

Space is a geometric region in which events involving

Time is a measure of the succession of events. The

Mass is used to characterize and compare bodies on

Force is the action of one body on another. Each body

a vector. Simply force is push or pull, which by acting on

1.4 SCALAR AND VECTOR QUANTITIES

that have both magnitude Tail o f Vecto r

1.5 UNITS AND DIMENSIONS

The four basic concepts in mechanics namely, space, time,

Force (F)  mass (m)  Acceleration (a) ...(1.2)

The different system of units are

(i) SI units – International System of units

 SI units have 7 base units, 2 supplementary units

Parameter Symbol Unit

Multiples and sub multiples of SI units are obtained

Table 1.2 Prefixes in SI units

Multiplication factor Prefix Symbol

1.5.2 Dimensional Analysis

 The quantitative description of physical variable

The basic and derived dimensions of various quantities

Table 1.3 Dimensions of physical quantities in

11. Impulse m MLT  1

17. Modulus of rigidity (K) N ML 1T  2

1.5.3 Dimensional Homogeneity

In the above equation Dimension of X  Dimension of

where K is constant and  is dimensionless quantity

LT  12  LT  12  [LT 2]  [L]

 Equation is dimensionally homogenous.

[LT  1]  [LT  2  L]1/2

 Equation is dimensionally homogeneous.

[L]  [LT  1]  [T]  [T2]

 The equation is not dimensionally homogeneous.

Problem 1.2: A physical phenomenon is given by relation

Dimension of x  Dimension of P  Dimension of

x  ML  1 T 2  y LT 12  ML  3 LT  2  z

Problem 1.3: What is the dimension of Newton’s law of

Substituting the various dimensions of the above

1.6 LAWS OF MECHANICS