NE

p e te rb ilt
e sse nt ia ls

MO D ULE 5

• Front and Rear Axles

• Steering
• Front and Rear Suspensions

• Drivelines
 peterbilt NEW essentials – Module 5

Introduction How To Use

This module will cover axle configurations, front and rear New Peterbilt Essentials
suspension, steering operation, hubs/drums, drivelines and 1. Print the module and study the information. To print,
power take-offs click the printer icon on your browser. Highlight
The design and placement of axles under a truck frame material that is new to you, or complex.
vary. This module describes common configurations for 2. When you are ready to take the online test, click
front and rear axles, how they operate and the rationale for the "Begin" button in the "Test" column for the
axle placement. desired module. When the test is completed, it will
Succeeding modules present more detailed information automatically be scored and the results will be entered
about major truck operating systems. in the Peterbilt training records database.
3. Upon successful completion of all modules, you will
receive a personalized certificate.

It is recommended that you

complete these training modules
in sequence since each
succeeding module
builds on the previous module.

Published by Peterbilt Motors Company.

This material is intended for Peterbilt training purposes and may not be sold, given, loaned or reproduced, in whole or in part, including photocopying,
without the express written consent of Peterbilt Motors Company.

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Front Axle Axle Configurations

One of the primary functions of a truck’s front axle You will often see the designations 4x4, 4x2, 6x4 and 6x6
assembly is to help support the weight of the vehicle. The in connection with truck and tractor configurations.
front axle typically carries between 25 percent and 37 These are indicators of the total number of axles compared
percent of the gross vehicle weight (GVW). The amount to the number of driving axles. The first number indicates
of weight the front axle carries depends primarily on the the number of “axle ends” (each axle has two ends); the
axle’s position (set-forward or set-back) and the fifth wheel second indicates how many of them are live (driven by
setting. However, to maximize Federal Bridge Law legal the engine).
limits, the front axle will carry about 15 percent of the
For example, “6x4” means that the truck has three axles
combined weight of the tractor, trailer and cargo. The front
(six axle ends) and that two of the axles (four axle ends) are
axle also serves as a foundation for the truck’s steering
being driven by the engine. A “6x6” designation indicates
components and transmits braking torque to the front
that all three axles, including the front axle, are being
suspension springs.
driven by the engine.

Weight Distribution
and Axle Position
Since weight and the distribution of weight have so much
to do with the function of the front axle, it is useful to
review some common concepts associated with weight,
beginning with gross vehicle weight and gross combination
weight.
• Gross Vehicle Weight (GVW) is the total weight of a
fully equipped truck and payload.
• Gross Combination Weight (GCW) is the total weight of
a fully-equipped truck or tractor, trailer or trailers and
payload.

As indicated earlier, the front axle carries a significant

portion of the gross weight of a tractor-trailer combination
or straight truck. How much it actually carries depends
in part upon where the axle is positioned relative to the
payload. At this point the concepts of the set-forward front
axle (SFFA) and the set-back front axle (SBFA) need to be
The axle center is known as the beam, and is most
defined. Both are measurements of the distance from the
commonly a forged steel I-beam. Round tubular stock
bumper to the centerline of the front axle.
of tempered seamless steel can also be specified for the
front axle beam; this is frequently used in applications that • The SFFA on a Peterbilt is about 29- to 31-inches.
involve extremely heavy loads. • The SBFA on a Peterbilt ranges from 47- to 51-inches.
There are in general two types of front axles: driving or
non-driving. A driving axle is one that is receiving power Since the location of the front axle affects the length of
from the engine to provide vehicle motion. Except for some the wheelbase, it also affects the percentage of weight
off-road or extremely heavy-duty applications, most front distributed to the axle. With a set-forward axle, less weight
axles are non-driving. will be transferred to the front axle. With a set-back axle,
more weight will be transferred to the front axle. A set-back
axle usually helps maximize loads, because more weight
will be distributed to the front axle. On the other hand, a
set-forward axle helps distribute loads when the possibility
of overloading the front axle exists.

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Axle Ratings Front Drive Axles

Front axles are rated according to the weight they can Steerable drive axles are typically used on heavy-
carry. The axle rating a truck owner selects will depend on duty on/off-road vehicles that require greater traction
GVW or GCW. Peterbilt offers non-driving axles rated from and maneuverability than can be obtained from a 6x4
10,000 to 22,000 pounds. Drive axles rated from 12,000 configuration. A transfer case remotely mounted to the
to 23,000 pounds are also available. It’s important to transmission is commonly used to drive a front drive axle.
remember, however, that the load capacity of an installed The transfer case is designed with front and rear drivelines
front axle is determined by the Gross Axle Weight Rating that provide torque to the front and rear axles respectively.
(GAWR) rather than by the rating of the axle alone. Gross
Axle Weight Rating is the rated capacity of the suspension
system and front axle components, which include the
springs, tires, steering gear, and wheels in addition to
the axle. The lowest-rated of these weight-sensitive
components will determine the GAWR.
The following components are considered in determining
Gross Axle Weight Rating.

Component Weight Rating

Axle 12,000 pounds

Suspension 12,000 pounds
Front Drive Axle
Wheels 12,080 pounds
As another choice on trucks with steerable drive axles,
Tires 10,860 pounds Peterbilt can also install an all-wheel drive system
Steering Gear 12,000 pounds instead of a transfer case. The all-wheel drive system is
a power divider that is often referred to as a “spaghetti
drive” because of the number and configuration of the
drivelines. The system’s design calls for a driveline from
Since the GAWR cannot exceed the capacity of the
the transmission to the rear axle and then an additional
lowest-rated component, it corresponds in this case to the
driveline from the rear axle to the front axle.
rating of the tires: GAWR = 10,860 pounds.

“Spaghetti Drive”: the Dana Spicer All-Wheel Drive System

Whether a transfer case or a spaghetti drive is used, torque

is distributed to the front wheels in the same proportion as
to the rear wheels by means of a differential.
Like a rear drive axle, a front drive axle must provide a
sufficient range for all operating speeds; this means that
the front drive axle must have the same gear reduction
capabilities as the rear axle.

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Front Axle Steering • The rack piston’s movement, in mesh with gears on
the sector (steering gear output) shaft, causes the
Since the front axle is essential to the steering of the sector shaft to rotate left or right.
vehicle, design and maintenance of the front axle
and the steering components attached to it are major • The steering gear output shaft or sector shaft, working
considerations in determining steering ease and tire wear. through the pitman arm and drag link, pushes or pulls
Peterbilt vehicles are standard with power steering, which the steering arm, which rotates the wheel assembly on
means that steering is assisted by means of a hydraulic the knuckle pin (or “king pin”).
pump that circulates fluid from a reservoir through the
• The Ackermann arm transmits torque to the tie-rod
steering gear and back. An engine-mounted two-quart fluid
assembly, which transfers the torque to the opposite
reservoir is standard, but to ensure optimum performance
Ackermann arm, which then turns the opposite wheel.
by maintaining proper fluid temperatures, the size of the
reservoir is designed to increase as the front axle GAWR of
STEERING
the vehicle increases. For GAWRs from 16,000 to 20,000 KNUCKLE
pounds, Peterbilt offers a twelve-quart reservoir.

Steering Gear Operation

Here is how the steering system works:
Ackermann
• When the steering wheel is turned, force is transmitted arm
through the intermediate shafts to the steering gear
input shaft. Resistance causes the steering gear’s
internal torsion bar to be twisted by the input shaft.

Axle Beam with Steering Components (Left Side of Vehicle)

Steering Geometry
(Alignment)
The alignment that keeps a truck rolling efficiently both
straight ahead and through curves is achieved through a
balance of several factors:
• Caster
• Camber
• Ackermann geometry
Typical Steering Linkage
• Toe-in/Toe-out
• The twisting of the torsion bar actuates a control valve,
which allows pressurized fluid to enter one end of the The following is a brief discussion of each of these
rack piston cylinder. The end of the cylinder that the properties and how they are related to the operation of a
fluid enters is determined by the direction the wheel Peterbilt truck.
was turned; the control valve also permits open flow
from the opposite end to aid in the cooling of the fluid.
The pressure of the fluid against the rack piston acts to
reduce the amount of steering effort required to move
the rack piston along the input shaft.

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Caster
positive Camber Negative Camber
Caster is the fore or aft tilt of the top of the steering
knuckle pin as it might be viewed from the side of the
vehicle. “Positive” caster is the tilt of the top of the knuckle Vertical C/L
pin toward the rear of the vehicle; negative caster is the
tilt of the pin toward the front of the vehicle. Peterbilt uses

Illustration of Camber

nonadjustable setting. Camber can be adjusted only by

bending the axle beam, which is not recommended.

Ackermann Geometry
Illustration of Caster While a truck is moving straight ahead, the front wheels
should be tracking parallel to each other. However,
a caster of +4 degrees to maintain steering stability and when the vehicle encounters a curve in the road, parallel
steering return to center. Caster angle is determined by operation of the wheels would cause one tire to side-slip
the installed position of the steer axle; it can be adjusted because the wheels would be forced to rotate around
by inserting wedge-shaped shims between the front circles of different diameters. To ensure that the inner
suspension springs and the front axle beam (or the spacer
block if the truck is equipped with one). Although incorrect
caster adjustment has a negligible effect on tire wear, it
may affect steering effort and stability. A greater positive
caster angle than is specified may result in excessive ackermann arm
steering effort. A smaller caster angle than is specified may
result in vehicle wander or poor steering return to center.

Camber
The vertical tilt of the wheel as it might be seen from the
front of the truck is called camber. Positive camber is an
outward tilt of the wheel at the top; negative camber is an
inward tilt of the wheel at the top. A front axle will deflect
slightly under a load. To offset this deflection and bring
the axis of the knuckle pin closer to the contact point of tie rod
the road and the center line of the tire, a small amount of
positive camber is designed into the axle.
Axle, Ackermann Arms and Tie Rod
Excessive positive camber can result in wander, steering
difficulty and abnormal wear on the outer area of the tire.
Excessive negative camber can cause inside tire wear. wheel will always turn through a shorter circumference
Camber is a condition that is machined into the axle than the outer wheel, each Ackermann arm (or “tie-rod
by Peterbilt and is generally considered a permanent, arm”) is positioned at an angle to the tie rod. This angle is

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determined by the tire width and the wheelbase. During Wheel Cut and Turning Radius
turning, the geometry of the Ackermann arms causes the
angle of the inner wheel to become greater and the angle Wheel cut determines a vehicle’s turning radius. Since
of the outer wheel to become smaller. Because Peterbilt larger wheel cut angles imply improved maneuverability,
offers a large number of wheelbase choices, Ackermann wheel cut figures are often quoted in promotional
arm options are selected to minimize tire side-slip. materials. “Inside” wheel cut angles (which are numerically
greater) often are the ones quoted, but it is actually the
outside tire that turns the vehicle. The significant wheel cut
Wheel Toe-in/Toe-out angle, then, is the one for the outside wheel in each turn
“Toe” is the relationship of the distance between the front direction. Factors influencing wheel cut angles include the
of the front tires and the rear of the front tires. When the sizes of the tires and the wheels, and the width (or track) of
distance at the front is smaller than the distance in the rear, the front axle. All of these factors affect how far the tire can
the wheels are said to be “toed-in”. When the distance be turned before it touches a chassis component, which is
in the rear is smaller, the wheels are “toed-out.” “Zero often the limiting factor.
toe” is the condition of the wheels when they are parallel.
Because of the forces acting on them, a truck’s front tires
tend to toe-out as the vehicle travels down the road. If
the toe setting of the wheels were zero, excess rolling
resistance, tire wear and vehicle wander would likely result.
Therefore, wheels should be toed-in about one-eighth of
an inch.

front view

toe-in

Turning Radius: The Significant Wheel Cut is the One for the
front view Outside Wheel

With some exceptions, a Peterbilt with identical specs to

a vehicle made by another OEM will have a greater wheel
cut, in part because of the Peterbilt’s steering component
toe-out
design. The position of the steering gear is a good
example of this. On a Peterbilt, the steering gear is located
forward of the axle, where it won’t obstruct the path of the
Toe-in and Toe-out wheel. This design increases the angle that the wheel can
be turned.
Turning radius is the arc described by the center of the
track of the outside front wheel in the tightest turn a truck
can make. The tightest turn is described by the angle of
the outside wheel when the inside front wheel reaches
maximum wheel cut.
There are 2 turning radius measurements:
• Curb-to-Curb – the arc described by the front wheel.
• Wall-to-Wall – the arc described by the outside edge
of the bumper or fender.

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Front Suspensions Peterbilt Split Progressive

Peterbilt offers several front leaf suspension systems in Springs
various capacities; all are designed to achieve optimum Peterbilt split progressive springs are rated at 23,000
ride characteristics under varying operating loads and pounds. This suspension provides a comfortable ride
applications. The 12,000-pound suspensions are offered with minimal maintenance for a range of heavy loads. The
with a choice of springs: unique design minimizes friction by using only the number
• Peterbilt taper leaf of springs required to carry the load at a given time. The
lower leaves act as “helper” springs, becoming active only
• Peterbilt split progressive leaf as the spring pack flattens under the weight of a load. This
design provides a smooth ride when the vehicle is lightly
loaded and allows a gradual stiffening of the ride as the
Peterbilt load is increased.
Taper Leaf Springs
Tightly clamped front leaf spring assemblies used on
many trucks typically have substantial friction between
the leaves. This tends to cause stiffness of ride quality,
especially without a load. Since the friction between spring
leaves is a major contributor to a stiff ride, each Peterbilt
taper leaf suspension uses only two or three contoured
leaves: fewer leaves – less friction. The thickness of each
leaf is tapered so that it can absorb stresses uniformly from
its thin ends to its thick center area. This creates a smooth
ride under light loads and also support heavy loads. The
unique two-leaf design of the Peterbilt suspension also
reduces weight, which can translate into greater payload
potential.
Peterbilt Split Progressive Springs

Peterbilt Taper Leaf Springs

Peterbilt offers taper leaf springs rated at (10,000 only on

medium duty), 12,000, 14,600, 16,000, 18,000, 20,000 and
23,000 pounds. All taper leaf springs include tubular shock
absorbers for positive rebound control.

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Hubs/Drums Oil Seals

A hub-piloted wheel mounting system (PHP-10) is standard Peterbilt installs oil seals and sight glasses on all
on Peterbilt trucks. Hub-piloted wheels are centered non-driving axles – a feature that makes for ease of
around the hub with close tolerances between the wheel maintenance and contributes to extended wheel
center and machined surfaces on the hub. This hub-pilot bearing life.
mounting system is more effective at centering the wheel,
resulting in a smoother ride and better tire wear. There are
also fewer parts in a hub-piloted mounting system.

Benefits of Peterbilt’s PHP-10

• The elimination of inner capnuts, which simplifies
installation and saves weight.
• Improved wheel centering for a smoother ride and
even tread wear.
• All right-hand thread wheel studs for simplified
maintenance and parts stocking.

Oil Seal Sight Glass

Hub-Piloted Wheel Mounting System

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Drivelines
The driveline is an extremely important link in the drivetrain.
Its purpose is to transfer power and speed variations from
the transmission to the drive axles. The shaft must be
strong enough to handle the maximum low gear torque
from the engine as it comes from the transmission. It
should also be light in weight and dynamically balanced
to prevent excessive noise and vibration. To meet these
requirements, a tubular steel shaft with universal cross-
joints and a slip joint are used.
If the driveline were solidly connected at both ends,
the length would remain constant. This is not possible,
however, because the shaft must become longer or Midship Bearing
shorter to accommodate the up-and-down motion of the
vehicle’s suspension across uneven road surfaces. This transmission or axles. The bearing caps allow the yokes
is accomplished with a splined slip joint at the front end to rotate around the cross assembly and also permit the
of the driveshaft where it is attached to the output shaft cross assembly to pivot inside the yokes.
of the transmission. The front end of the driveshaft has Driveshaft construction varies according to function and
internal splines that match the external splines on the location on the vehicle. A driveshaft may transmit torque
driveshaft body. to a driving axle directly, or to an auxiliary transmission.
Since the driveshaft’s front end is solidly mounted to the Dual driving rear axles are connected by an inter-
transmission, the driveshaft, when properly lubricated, will axle driveline. On long-wheelbase vehicles, it may be
slide in and out of the driveshaft end along the splines necessary to use two or more driveshafts supported by
as the suspension moves up and down. The ends of the an intermediate bearing, more commonly called a midship
driveshaft must also be able to adjust for the forces acting bearing (or carrier bearing). A midship bearing allows free
upon them. They must accommodate power transfer, rotation while maintaining the driveline’s position relative
frame and axle twist, as well as nonparallel joint angles to the transmission and axle. Peterbilt uses drivelines
and the changes in joint angles caused by uneven road manufactured from high-quality steel tubing.
surfaces.
The universal joints (U-joints) allow the driveshaft ends to
adjust for these changing forces by enabling the driveshaft
to operate at different angles. A U-joint consists of a cross
assembly with precision bearing caps at each end and
two yokes, one on the driveshaft and the other on the

Slip Joint at Front of Driveshaft

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Rear Axles
Rear axles are manufactured in multiple designs for both
single and tandem configurations. Peterbilt offers rear
axles to fit any application ranging from 21,000 to 46,000
pounds GAWR. Regardless of the axle specified, the basic
functions of a rear axle are the same:
• Support the load.
• Retain and position the wheels.
• Act as a mounting surface for the suspension.
• Provide support for the braking system.
• Encase the differential gearing and axle shafts.
• Provide power transfer to the ground.
• Allow a differential action to each side during a turn.

5. The axle shaft side gears are in mesh with the four
differential pinion gears.
Differential
A differential is used in all rear driving axles to vary wheel 6. Since the ring gear is bolted to the differential case,
speed in turns. When a vehicle is driven in a straight line, any time the ring gear rotates, the differential case and
the wheels rotate at the same speed. When the vehicle the spider, along with the four differential pinion gears,
negotiates a curve, the outer drive wheel must travel faster must also rotate.
to cover a greater distance than that of the inner drive 7. The two side gears, splined to the axle shafts
wheel. To allow one wheel to go faster or slower than the (one on each side), are free to turn within the
other, a differential is required. If no differential were used, differential casing.
the wheels would skid in turns.

Differential Operation
A differential works in the following manner:
1. Power from the driveline is transferred to the input
yoke of the differential. The input yoke is splined and
bolted to a pinion gear.
2. The pinion gear is in constant mesh with the differential
ring gear. The ring is bolted to the differential casing.
3. Power is transferred through the differential casing to
internal side gears to which the axle shafts are splined;
this completes the flow of power to the wheels.
4. A “spider” shaft supports four differential pinion gears.
Each pinion is free to rotate around the spider shaft on
which it is mounted.

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Let’s examine what happens when a vehicle makes a turn Rear Axle Operation
a right turn, in this example. During turning, the pinion
gears start to rotate freely around their spider shafts. The needs of different applications have led to the design
The right axle side gear begins to slow due to tire rolling of many different rear axle configurations. A vehicle may be
resistance encountered from turning. The spider pinion equipped with a single rear axle or with a tandem, in which
gears begin to “walk around” the right side gear, causing two rear axle assemblies are used. Each type functions in
the left side gear and axle shaft to speed up. This allows the same basic manner. In this section we will cover the
one wheel to turn faster than the other during the turn. The most widely used axles:
action during a left-hand turn is similar, but starts from the • Single-reduction axle
left axle side gear.
• Double-reduction axle
• Two-speed axle
When Turning a
Tandem Axle
Although they are of a different type than the gears in
transmissions, rear axle gears do the same type of work
All Wheels Rotate at when it comes to gear reduction and torque multiplication.
Different Speeds The rear axle has to absorb the torque multiplication sent
back from the transmission, multiply it again, change the
direction 90 degrees and send it out to the wheels.
Axle Differential
Compensates for speed
variations between each set of
axle wheels
Single-Reduction Axle
In a standard rear axle, the input or driving gear is called a
pinion. The driven gear, or output, is called a ring gear. A
Inter-Axle Differential single-speed, single-reduction rear axle has one ring and
Compensates for variance of
speed between axles pinion gear set. The axle ratio is determined by dividing the
number of teeth on the ring gear by the number of teeth
on the pinion gear. For example, if a ring gear has thirty-
Differential Operation During a Right Turn nine teeth and the pinion gear has nine teeth, the ratio is
4.33-to-1 (39 divided by 9 = 4.33). Multiple gear sets are
available in a variety of ratios that can be tailored to the
needs of a particular operation. There can be over fifteen
ratios available for a given axle model.

Double-Reduction Axle
A single-speed, double-reduction axle has two sets of
gears in which reduction takes place twice (once through
each set of gears). Axles such as this are usually found in
heavier-duty applications in which additional strength and
torque are required, such as in dump, mixer or off-highway
work and also where speed is not needed. There are two
methods of obtaining double reduction: a planetary gear
arrangement or a hypoid-helical design. With the planetary
double-reduction method, the first reduction occurs in the
ring and pinion. The ring gear has an additional set of teeth
that drive a planetary gear set, where the second reduction
takes place.

Planetary Double-Reduction Gearing In the hypoid-helical design, the first reduction takes place
in the ring and pinion, but the ring gear is mounted on a

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shaft that has a helical drive gear cut into it. This powers
the helical-driven gear for the second reduction.
Both types also have a variety of ratios available. The
axle ratio for a double-reduction axle is determined by
multiplying the ratio of the first reduction times the ratio of
the second reduction.

Two-Speed Axle
Two-speed rear axles are almost identical to single-
speed, double-reduction axles, but the two-speed type
incorporates a powered shifting mechanism. This shifting
arrangement locks or releases the planetary gear set
to provide high and low ranges. In the low range, the
planetary gear set works just like the double-reduction,
single-speed gear set that it actually is. In the high range, Inter-axle Differential
the planetary set is locked up, eliminating the double-
reduction feature. The axle becomes a single-speed, valve should be placed in the lock position any time that
single-reduction unit. With a two-speed axle air shift the vehicle encounters ice, snow, wet surfaces, mud or
system, the driver controls the range with a shift button loose terrain. However, the lockout selector should not be
located on the top of the gear shift lever. The rear axle can engaged when a wheel is already slipping or spinning.
be shifted into low, then high, each time the transmission
is shifted, providing two gear ratios for each transmission Another purpose of an inter-axle differential is to distribute
gear ratio. This allows added flexibility along with increased power to both axles. The inter-axle differential is part of the
gear reduction when required. forward rear axle.

Tandem Axles
Tandem rear axle assemblies combine two single axle units
Interaxle
with a power divider; they are connected by an inter-axle Differential
driveline. Options include single-reduction tandems, two-
speed tandems and double-reduction tandems.

Inter-axle Differential
The inter-axle differential is a mechanism that allows faster
or slower rotation of one axle in relation to the other. This
is necessary because tandem axles will rotate at different
speeds when the vehicle turns a corner or negotiates
uneven road surfaces, or when different or mismatched tire
sizes are used.
When extra traction is required under adverse road
conditions, the inter-axle differential can be locked out
through a dash-mounted air-operated control switch.
With lockout engaged, the dash-mounted valve is in the
“lock” position and the inter-axle differential acts as a
solid shaft and does not compensate for differences in
axle speed. When the lockout selector is placed in the
“unlock” position, the lockout is disengaged and the inter- Power from Driveline
axle differential operates normally. The lockout selector

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The power is transferred through the inter-axle differential Auxiliary Axles

unit to both the forward and rear axles. This transfer
through the power divider unit distributes power more or Auxiliary axles are often specified in addition to the
less equally from the transmission to both axle assemblies. vehicle’s steer axle and rear drive axle(s). All auxiliary axles
The differential in each drive axle will provide individual are non-driving axles; that is, they do not receive power
differential action to each axle’s left and right wheels. from the engine and therefore do not help move the vehicle
down the road. The sole purpose of an auxiliary axle is
Earlier we mentioned that rear axles are available in a to increase a vehicle’s legal load capacity. Auxiliary axles
variety of ratios so it is possible to spec an axle that is best may be self-steering and liftable, fixed and liftable, or fixed
suited to a particular operation. Below is a list of typical and non-liftable. Although there are many variations and
rear axle ratios. GAWR’s, an auxiliary axle is generally classified as either a
pusher axle or a tag axle.
Typical Rear Axle Ratios
2.64 3.36 4.33 5.43
2.85 3.55 4.56 5.57
2.93 3.70 4.63 6.17
3.08 3.90 4.88 6.50
3.25 4.11 5.29 7.17

So far, we have examined individual components

and individual gear ratios. They work in combination
so the performance of each item in the powertrain is Liftable Pusher Axle
compounded. This compounding of the ratios of the
individual components results in total gear reduction. A pusher axle is an auxiliary non-driving axle located in
front of the drive axle(s). It can be located close to the rear
Total Gear Reduction driving axles or placed some distance ahead. The pusher’s
location depends on the customer’s weight distribution
Total gear reduction is the maximum reduction attainable needs. A tag axle is an auxiliary axle located behind the
from all the components in the powertrain. It is determined driving axle. A tag axle’s spacing is also determined by the
by multiplying each ratio by the other. The table below customer’s particular operation but is more limited. In most
illustrates the process. instances, pusher axles are preferred.
Transmission Total Gear
Ratio Axle Ratio Reduction
4.46 x 4.56 = 20.34 to 1
14.78 x 4.56 = 67.40 to 1

With the 4.46/4.56 example, the total reduction is 20.34 to

1. If the engine produces 500 pound-feet of torque with
this powertrain, it would be multiplied 20.34 times, which
totals 10,170 pound-feet. If the same engine is used in
the 14.78/4.56 example, the 500 pound-feet of torque is
multiplied 67.40 times, for a total of 33,700 pound-feet.
Powertrains that combine high horsepower, high torque- Liftable Tag Axle
rise engines with deep reduction ratios in the transmission
and rear axle can create a real “stump puller”.
Occasionally a customer will specify a single drive axle
Remember, the higher the numerical ratio, the slower the with a tag or pusher mounted to a tandem suspension to
vehicle’s top speed. The lower the numerical ratio, the save weight, or reduce the maintenance and operating
faster it will run, given the same engine rpm, powertrain costs associated with a tandem drive axle.
and tire size.

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Rear Suspensions
Selecting the correct rear suspension for a given
application has a direct bearing on the performance,
economy and reliability of the vehicle. The rear suspension
must perform a variety of functions, including:
• Support the payload of the vehicle.
• Transmit acceleration and braking forces to the frame.
• Articulate tandem axles for all road conditions.
• Provide an acceptable ride both loaded and unloaded.
• Track properly to provide safe steering.
• Be easily serviced and maintained.
Slipper Type Spring End
Several types of rear suspensions are found on heavy-
duty vehicles. Each is specifically designed to handle
the load requirements of a specific maximum vehicle
rating. Overloading – and thus exceeding the maximum
suspension load rating – results in damage to the
suspension system itself and to other components. Most
suspensions systems can be easily identified by their
design characteristics, and they can be classified into one
of three types:
• Spring
• Walking-beam
• Air

Spring-Type Suspensions
Suspension springs generally refer to multi-leaf or taper Taper Leaf Rear Suspension Spring (Peterbilt Quadraflex)
leaf designs. They are commonly attached to the axle
housing with U-bolts, nuts and lock washers. Peterbilt Peterbilt Quadraflex Taper Leaf Suspension
rear spring suspensions are mounted to the frame with The Quadraflex Taper Leaf features a 38,000-pound
“slipper” type ends. The spring ends are allowed to slide, capacity and unique two-leaf taper leaf springs. High grade
or “slip,” in the frame bracket as conditions change. When spring steel and a specialized manufacturing process
a load is placed on the vehicle, the spring will deflect and allow Peterbilt to use springs that achieve a heavy load
lengthen. This forces the point of spring contact with the capacity with only two spring leaves instead of three. The
frame mounting bracket to move toward the center of the two contoured leaves of the Quadraflex Taper Leaf rear
spring, which stiffens the spring’s rate of deflection. This springs are tapered in thickness so stresses are absorbed
also allows for compression and rebound of the springs uniformly from the thin ends to the thick center areas.
when the road wheels are displaced by varying road
surface conditions.
Peterbilt offers a proprietary spring suspension: the
Peterbilt Quadraflex Taper Leaf.

Peterbilt Quadraflex Taper Leaf Suspension

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Since friction contributes to a “stiff” ride, and since there Walking-Beam Type Suspensions
is less inter-leaf friction in a two-leaf spring than in the
conventional three-leaf spring configuration, the two-leaf Peterbilt offers walking-beam (sometimes referred to as
design provides a more comfortable ride. The design is equalizing beam) suspensions rated from 36,000 to over
also light in weight. 65,000 pounds. These suspensions lower the center of
gravity of the axle loads since the beam is actually
Peterbilt rear spring suspensions feature a simple, low- below the axle center line. The equalizing beams utilize the
maintenance design: lever principle to absorb road shock and bumps; torque
• The steel wear pads that isolate frame brackets from rods add to the suspension’s effectiveness by controlling
spring wear are replaceable and easy to maintain. axle torque.

• The load equalizer evenly distributes the load between

the forward and rear drive axles and prevents the
overloading of either axle during road fluctuations. The
load equalizer pivots on shear rubber bushings and
thus requires no lubrication.
• Four radius rods transmit axle acceleration and braking
forces to the frame. This relieves the springs from
these forces and increases the life of the springs.

Walking-Beam Type Suspension [Haul Maxx]

Regardless of road or load conditions, the axles are

always parallel, which results in better tire wear, stability
and freedom from maintenance. All suspension models
Radius Rod (lower center, below spring leaves) of this type use four-point frame mounting to eliminate
concentrations of stresses at any one point on the
vehicle frame.
The two beams, one on each side of the vehicle, are
connected to the forward and rear drive axles, which
helps lateral stability and maintains a constant parallel
relationship of the axles. Torque rods are connected
from each rear axle to a frame crossmember to prevent
axle rotation caused by driving and braking forces. Most
walking-beam suspensions employ rubber center bushings
at the beam center pivot point to provide weight capacity,
and axle-insulating end bushings and connections. Torque
rods also are used. None of these bushings require
lubrication. Overall, walking-beam suspensions are reliable
and perform well in a wide range of heavy-duty on/off
highway applications.

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Air Type Suspensions Standard axle spacing (dimension between the center
of the two rear axles) on the Low Air Leaf suspension is
Nothing compares to the feel of a truck that is equipped 52-inches; axle spacing of 54-inches is available as an
with an air suspension. Customers appreciate the superior option. Optional axle spacing provides customers with the
ride and enhanced handling from an air suspension. opportunity to maximize payload potential in accordance
Peterbilt offers a full line of air suspensions, including the with local regulations.
Low Air Leaf, the Flex Air, the Air Leaf with Tracking Rods The Low Air Leaf is designed specifically for use with
and the Air Trac. “high cube” general freight trailers or for auto carriers
or flat beds, which require a low frame or fifth wheel
Low Air Leaf height. It features a ride height of 19.5-inches, which is
approximately 2.5-inches lower than standard. A reduction
Peterbilt’s Low Air Leaf suspension is available as a dual of about 4-inches can be achieved with low profile tires. An
tandem suspension application on Class 8 and single and additional 2-inches is available by ordering this suspension
dual Class 7 vehicle. It is a low-maintenance suspension as a “low-low” air leaf suspension. This is one of the
that requires no lubrication. It has a rated capacity of lowest frame heights in the industry – an advantage that
40,000 pounds and a maximum GCW rating of 143,000 translates into improved ride stability and less concern
pounds. The smooth, controlled ride of this suspension is a about overpass interference.
result of these features:
• A spring eye at the leading end of the leaf spring Flex-Air
assembly transmits axle acceleration and braking The Peterbilt Flex-Air suspension is a low-maintenance
forces through the leaf springs to the frame. design that also requires no lubrication. It has a
rated capacity of 38,000-pounds and a GVW rating
• A tapered spring leaf distributes bending stresses of 143,000-pounds The Flex-Air is the lightest of the
evenly throughout the leaf, minimizing friction industry’s air suspensions. Flex-Air’s design features these
and weight. components:
• Air bags mounted to the leaf springs on the side of • Underslung axle drive beams bolt to the axle and
each axle carry most of the load. provide mounting for the air bag and front spring. This
provides the low ride height.
• Transverse tracking rods are included to control lateral
(side-to-side) axle movement and help maintain correct • Transverse tracking rods and parallel radius rods keep
axle alignment. the axle positioned for controlled handling and easily
maintained axle alignment.
• The leading semi-elliptical taper leaf spring and air
spring enhance ride characteristics and all-around
stability.
• Fewer parts and non-welded axle seats ease service
and extend axle life.
• Flex-Air is designed to provide an excellent ride and
superior handling for the driver.
• Flex-Air is perfect for on-highway customers who
need the stability of lower ride height for high cube
van trailers.

Features of the Low Air Leaf Suspension

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Air Leaf with Tracking Rods Air Trac

The Peterbilt Air Leaf with Tracking Rods is another low- The Air Trac suspension is a rugged and versatile air
maintenance suspension with a superior ride. The tapered suspension designed for heavy-duty on- or off-highway
spring leaves are attached to the frame brackets with applications. The Air Trac provides a superior combination
a spring eye that is bolted to the leaf. Wide air spring of ride, stability and durability. Equipped with two taper
brackets (sometimes called “air bag paddles”) support leaf springs, sturdy air bag mounting brackets and
the air bags and effectively distribute the axle’s loads. transverse tracking rods, the Air Trac is similar to the
Transverse tracking rods provide additional vehicle stability
by helping to maintain axle alignment and by controlling
lateral movement of the drive axles. This increases
performance and reduces wear on the suspension.
This suspension is very effective for all on-highway freight
services. The overall durability of its design also allows it
to be used in some on/off-highway applications, such as
semi end dump tractors. The suspension’s durable design
also allows for extensive use of aluminum in the mounting
brackets for the leaf springs and air bags. As a result, the
suspension is comparable in weight to most four-spring
suspensions without sacrificing strength. This provides the
customer the benefit of air suspension without the usual
weight penalty.
52-inch axle spacing is standard on the Peterbilt Air Leaf
with Tracking Rods suspension; optional 54-inch axle
spacings are available if required. The suspension has a
Peterbilt Air Trac Suspension
rated capacity of 38,000 pounds and a maximum GCW
rating of 143,000 pounds.
Air Leaf with Tracking Rods suspension. However, the
Air Trac is also designed with longitudinal radius rods to
transmit acceleration and braking forces to the frame. The
springs use a slipper style front bracket that includes a
replaceable wear pad. The slipper spring improves ride
characteristics and exerts less stress on the spring. The
wear pads can reduce maintenance costs and downtime.
This added durability allows the Air Trac to be used for all
highway freight applications, as well as for several severe
off-highway applications such as logging, refuse dump and
low-bed operations.
The Air Trac is available in both single and tandem drive
axle configurations. Single drive application is available
in 20,000- and 23,000-pound capacities, and tandem
drive applications in 40,000-, 44,000- and 46,000-pound
Peterbilt Air Leaf with Tracking Rods Suspension capacities. Standard axle spacing for the dual drive Air
Trac is 52-inches. Optional axle spacings of 54, 60, 65 and
72-inches are also available. The Air Trac has a maximum
GCW rating of 125,000 pounds for single axles and
180,000 pounds for tandems.

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Air Springs Height Control Valve

The air spring on a Peterbilt air suspension is a rubberized The height control valve (sometimes called the leveling
fabric tube. On the Air Leaf with Tracking Rods and the valve) keeps the frame at a constant height in changing
Air Trac, each air spring is equipped with an internal bump load conditions by varying the pressure in the air springs.
block, which protects the air spring and the frame rail in When a load is applied to the vehicle, the frame lowers;
the event of total air loss. The Low Air Leaf uses a frame- this activates the control valve through a linkage. The
mounted axle stop so the entire inside of the air spring can control valve allows more air to enter the spring, which
be used to hold air. This increases the volume in the air raises the frame. When the load is removed, the control
spring and improves the ride. valve exhausts air from the air spring, lowering the frame.
When load conditions remain constant, the height control
lever arm stays in the neutral position. This means the
valve is closed and no air can flow into or out of the air
spring. The design of the height control valve allows it to
maintain correct frame height as well as the required air
volume for proper operation of the suspension.

Air Spring

Bump
Block
Piston

Air Spring Cutaway

Height Control Valve

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Power Take-offs
A power take-off (PTO) is a mechanical device driven
from either the transmission or the engine. It is used
to transmit power to another mechanical device, such
as a compressor or hydraulic pump. We will discuss
a transmission-driven PTO as it would be used with a
hydraulic pump system. There are many variations in
applications that use PTOs.

Hydraulic Pump (Foreground) Connected to Side-mounted PTO

An inlet and return fluid line run from the pump to the
frame-mounted reservoir. A valve on the return line allows
hydraulic pressure from the pump to flow to a cylinder,
or ram, which operates the various hydraulically driven
machinery.

Power Tower The PTO application familiar to most people is one that
provides power to a dump body or dump trailer. Other
applications include wreckers or tow trucks, aerial bucket
A PTO system consists of the PTO unit, a hydraulic pump, applications, fire trucks, refuse packers, liquid and dry
a fluid reservoir, valves and the connecting hardware, bulk delivery tankers and fertilizer or salt spreaders.
which includes fluid lines, shift cables, fittings and the Transit mixers typically have PTO-driven hydraulic motors
driveline. powering the mixer drum. The list is nearly endless, and all
of these devices have specific requirements for PTO’s and
Most heavy-duty transmissions can be used with a PTO. PTO-driven equipment.
The transmission cover plates, when removed, expose
the drive gear of the transmission that will be used to For heavy-duty applications like mixers, PTO’s can be front
power the PTO unit. Side-mount and bottom-mount crankshaft or rear engine driven. Other applications include
locations on the transmission are commonly used. Some very heavy off-road mining or oilfield equipment. When
customers prefer a top-mount (“power tower”) PTO, the PTO is driven from the front of the crankshaft and the
but this configuration is rare and is usually used with an pump or mechanical device is mounted to the front frame/
auxiliary transmission. The mounting location will primarily bumper extension, it is commonly referred to as a front-
determine the pitch line velocity (measurement of PTO engine power take-off (FEPTO). When the PTO is driven
application capability) because of different gear tooth from the rear of the crankshaft, it is called a rear-engine
contact and leverage from the driving gear. The PTO power take-off (REPTO). Selection factors for a PTO
controls can be mounted on the dash or on the floor, and include the following:
can be either electrically or air-operated. • Type of equipment.
A pump is connected to the PTO. Some configurations call • Power required, torque and shaft speed.
for an integral pump, which means it is part of the PTO unit
itself. Other configurations call for the pump to be mounted • Type of service – continuous or intermittent.
on a frame or bumper extension; in these cases a driveline • Output shaft rotation direction.
connects the PTO unit and the pump.
• Speeds.
• Reversibility.
• System dimensions and clearance.

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