The Geometry of Involute Gears
The Geometry of Involute Gears
The Geometry of Involute Gears
J.R. Colbourne
The Geometry
of Involute Gears
Springer-Verlag
New York Berlin Heidelberg
London Paris Tokyo
J.R. Colbourne
Department of Mechanical Engineering
The University of Alberta
Edmonton, Alberta
Canada T6G 2G8
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987654321
Introduction
3. Gears in Mesh 53
A Pinion Meshed wi th a Rack 53
A Pair of Gears in Mesh 65
Imaginary Rack 72
Fundamental Circles of a Gear 78
Advantages of the Involute Profile 79
Bibliography 525
Index 527
Notation
a Addendum
b Dedendum
c Clearance
e Profile shift
f Special function defined by Equation (13.89)
h Length on tooth of rack cutter
k Dimensionless factor
m Ratio
p pi tch
r Radius of circles not centered at the gear axis
s Coordinate, measured along path of contact
t Tooth thickness
u position of rack
v Velocity
w Space width; Tooth contact force intensity
x,y,z Coordinates
K Dimensionless factor
L Lead
M Measurement over pins; Torque
N Number of teeth
P Pitch point; Diametral pitch
Q End points of single-tooth contact
R Radius of circles centered at gear axis; Polar coordinate
S Span measurement
T End points of the contact path
W Tooth contact force
X,Y Coordinates
Ital ic Symbols
m Module
n Uni t vector
p Posi tion vector
v Veloci ty vector
Greek Symbols
a General angle
Angular position of gear
Angle between involute tangent and tooth center-line
f Roll angle
Coordinates
Polar coordinate
Lead angle
Generator inclination angle; Poisson's ratio
p Radius of curvature
o Stress; Swivel angle
T Time
Profile angle; Pressure angle
Helix angle
w Angular velocity, measured in radians/sec
Shaft angle
Notation xi
Subscripts
Superscript
c Cutting
INTRODUCTION
SPUR GEARS
Chapter 1
The Law of Gearing
(...!l.)211' ( 1.1)
(w, ) average N, T
_ (...!l.) 211' (1. 2)
(w 2 )average N2 T
- N (w ) ( 1. 3)
2 2 average
Gear 2
( 1 .4)
J 1
1 r
Figure 1.4. A rack and pinion.
Rack and Pinion 13
Tooth thickness
= p/2
Pitch P
Space width
= p/2
Profile
angle ¢Ar /
Xr
Tangent at Ar
!!E ( 1. 5)
T
(W)average ( 1. 6)
N ( 1. 7)
21r(w)average
vr Nw ( 1. 8)
p 271'
. IP Ar n
- 51n - cos IP Ar n ( 1. 9)
t ~
Common
tangent
x
(1.10)
A
- cos ~ r vr (1.11)
A vA . ~ Ar - wX cos ~ Ar
wY Sln (1.13)
vn nnr
Pinion pitch
circle
y A
cot 1/1 r (1.14)
(x - ~)
211"
Equation (1.14) can be interpreted in the following
manner. There is a fixed point P, at a distance (Np/211") from C
on the line through C perpendicular to the rack reference
line, such that the slope of line PA is equal to cot I/I Ar • This
means that line PA makes an angle (11"/2 _I/iA q with the n~
direction, and it is therefore the common normal at the
contact point A, since the common tangent makes an angle I/IA r
with the n~ direction. The position of point P is shown in
Figure 1.7.
The result just proved is known as the Law of Gearing, as
it relates to a rack and pinion. It may be stated in the
following way. The condition that must be satisfied by the
tooth profiles of a rack and pinion, in order that the
relation between rack velocity and pinion angular velocity
should remain constant, is that the common normal at the
contact point should at all times pass through a fixed
point P. The position of P is at a distance (Np/211") from the
pinion center C, on the perpendicular from C towards the rack
reference line.
The point P is called the pitch point. The circle passing
through P whose center is at C is called the pinion pitch
circle, and its radius Rp is equal to the length CP,
(1.15)
(1.16)
pitch line. When the pinion and rack are in motion, the
velocity of any point on the pinion pitch circle is equal
to RpW, and the velocity of any point on the rack pitch line
is equal to v r ' Since these velocities are equal, as we can
see from Equation (1.16), the motion of a rack and pinion is
identical to the motion that would be obtained if the rack
pitch line and the pinio~ pitch circle were to make rolling
contact with no slipping.
Ci rcular pi tch
211'R (1.17)
N
R
Circular pitch PR
at radius R
C
Circular pitch Pp
at the pitch circle
circle, we use the symbol Pp' and its value can be found by
substituting Rp in place of R in Equation (1.17).
211'Rp
Pp N (1.18)
p (1.19)
17
r-Pitch circle of gear 2
Pitch circle of
gear 1 - /nn
Common normal
TJ
C
Figure 1.9. pitch point of a gear pair.
20 The Law of Gearing
C (1.20)
(1.21)
(1.22)
Equations (1.21 and 1.22) imply that the ratio of the pitch
circle radii is equal to the ratio of the tooth numbers,
( 1. 23)
( 1 .24 )
(1.25)
(1.26)
Al
v = w 1n S x [(Rpl+~)n~+1/n1/]
v A2
( 1. 29)
( 1 .30)
A A
Equating the expressions for vn 1 and vn 2 , we obtain a relation
which must be satisfied by the vector components s~ and s1/'
o (1.31)
( 1. 32)
211'Rp2
Pp2 (1.34)
N2
(1.35)
Path of Contact
constant (2.1)
In some cases the profile angle ~Ar may vary near the
tips and the roots of the basic rack teeth. For example, the
teeth may be rounded at the tips. The rack is still called an
involute rack, provided a substantial part of its tooth
profile is straight-sided. For the purpose of finding the
shape of the gear tooth, we will start by assuming that the
basic rack has teeth which are entirely straight-sided, as
shown in Figure 2.1. The pressure angle is ~r' and we use the
symbol Pr to represent the pitch of the basic rack.
Pitch
Pr Pr
2"
(2.2)
The three quantities Pr' Pbr and 4J r are the parameters used to
describe the basic rack. Since they are related by
Equation (2.2), it is clear that only two of the quantities
are independent. We can choose any two, and then use
Equation (2.2) to find the third.
NPr
RS (2.3)
21r
211'Rs
Ps (2.4)
N
Ps Pr (2.5)
Tooth Profile of an Involute Gear 27
Operating
pressure angle cf>
Standard pitch circle~ Line of action
Pinion base circle---. ""
Basic rack
pressure angle cf>r~
---=:::::
(2.6)
(2.7)
Alternative Definition of the Involute 29
Rigid bar
c
Figure 2.3. A rigid bar rolling on a fixed cylinder.
30 Tooth Profile of an Involute Gear
arc EB EA (2.8)
Tangent to
involute at A
Normal to
involute at A
(2.10)
EA (2.11)
arc EB (2.13)
(2.14 )
Rb
(2.18)
R
(2.20)
34 Tooth Profile of an Involute Gear
"'r (2.21)
Basic rack
pressure angle
Pinion tooth
Base pitch
211"R
N
211" Rb
N
(2.22)
(2.23)
(2.24)
c
Figure 2.7. Base pitch.
Gear Parameters 37
AA' (2.25)
We pointed out earlier that the parameters Pr' Pbr and 'r
can be used to describe the basic rack, and for gears we
introduced three corresponding quantities, the circular
38 Tooth Profile of an Involute Gear
pitch Ps at the standard pitch circle, the base pitch Pb' and
the pressure angle 41 s • We have already shown in Equations (2.5
and 2.21) that the two pi tches and the two pressure angles are
equal,
= (2.26)
NPr
(2.27)
"""21r
and since the pitch of the basic rack is equal to the circular
pitch of the gear, the radius of the standard pitch circle can
be expressed directly in terms of the circular pi tch,
(2.28)
m (2.29)
(2.30)
and, since once again the circular pitch of the gear is equal
to the basic rack pitch, a relation between the circular pitch
and the module can be found immediately from Equation (2.29),
(2.31)
N
(2.32)
2Rs
..JL (2.33)
Ps
1 (2.34)
m
Tooth Thickness
Tooth thickness tR
at radius R
Space width wR
at radius R
C
Circular pitch p
R
at radius R R
C x
= (2.35)
(2.36)
tR
tR
2
= R2 [r
1
+ 2(inv 'R
1
- inv'R )]
2
(2.37)
where 'R and /fiR are the prof ile angles at the two radi i.
1 2
y
,\sase circle
(2.38)
ts .
tan ~ - --- - lnv ~ (2.39)
R 2Rs s
c
Standard
pitch circle
and b s between these circles and the standard pi tch circle are
called the addendum and the dedendum, and for this reason the
tip and root circles are also called the addendum and dedendum
circles. The sum of the addendum and the dedendum is known as
the whole depth of the gear teeth. Finally, we use Figure 2.11
to express the addendum and the dedendum in terms of RT , Rs
and Rroot '
R
T - R
s (2.40)
(2.41)
120, 96, 80, 72, 64, 48, 40, 32, 24, 20, 16,
12, 10, 8, 6, 4, 3, 2.5, 2.25, 2, 1.5, 1.
Pr
2
Pr = rrm
Pr
2
1.250 m (2.42)
0.300 m (2.43)
required for the gear design, we will need to know the radius
RT of the tip circle. However, rather than include the value
of the radius as part of the specification, it is normal
practice to give the diameter, since this can be more easily
measured. Another gear blank dimension, which will be used in
the design calculations, is the length of the gear teeth
measured in the axial direction. This dimension is shown in
Figure 2.16, and is known as the gear face-width F.
The third group of quanti ties in the specification
relate to the cutting of the gear. They include the number of
teeth N, the whole depth of the teeth, and some dimensions
that can be conveniently measured, from which the tooth
thickness can be calculated. It is difficult to measure the
tooth thickness directly, but in discussing the geometry of a
gear, we will assume that the tooth thickness ts has been
specified, and in Chapter 8 we will describe some of the
actual measurements that can be made to determine the tooth
thickness. Finally, the fourth group of quantities concern
the assembly of the gear pair, and in this group are the
center distance, the part number of the meshing gear, and the
backlash when the gear pair is assembled.
Overall length
Hub
diameter
Hole diameter
~
Face-width
Diameter DT of the tip circle F
Numerical Examples
Example 2.1
A 24-tooth gear has a module of 8 mm and a pressure angle
of 20°. The diameter of the tip circle is 212 mm, and the
tooth thickness is 14.022 mm. Calculate the standard pitch
circle radius, the base circle radius, the circular pitch,
and the tooth thickness tT at the tip circle.
52 Tooth Profile of an Involute Gear
RS = 96.000mm (2.30)
Rb 90.210 (2.20)
Ps 25.133 (2.31)
Pb 23.617 (2.22)
inv ~s = 0.014904 (2.15)
~T = 31.675° (2.18)
inv ~T = 0.064175 (2.15)
t T =5.037mm (2.36)
Example 2.2
A 16-tooth gear has a D.P. (diametral pitch) of 4, a
pressure angle of 25°, and a tip circle diameter of 4.75
inches. Calculate the minimum tooth thickness at the standard
pitch circle, if the tooth thickness at the tip circle is not
to be less than 0.0625 inches.
Example 2.3
For the gear specified in Example 2.1, calculate the
radius R of the tooth profile point A whose polar coordinate
9 R is4°.
9 R = 0.069813 radians
Rs = 96.000 mm
Rb = 90.210
inv ~R = 0.018122 (2.35)
q = 0.068994 (2.16)
cos ~R = 0.9317 (2.17)
R = 96.823 mm (2.18)
Chapter 3
Gears in Mesh
Introduction
the basic rack was known, but not that of the pinion, and our
intention was to find the pinion tooth shape that would
satisfy the Law of Gearing. In the present case, the pinion
tooth shape is known, but the shape of the rack is not yet
decided, apart from the fact that its teeth are
straight-sided. We now determine what conditions must be met
by the rack parameters, if the rack is to mesh correctly with
the pinion.
In order to check whether the Law of Gearing is
satisfied, we adopt the following procedure. We find a
typical position of the contact point between the pinion and
the rack, and we draw the common normal through this point. We
also draw the perpendicular from the pinion center to the rack
reference line, and the point where this line intersects the
common normal is labelled P'. The Law of Gearing is satisfied
if pI coincides with the pitch point P.
Figure 3.1 shows the pinion base circle, and a pair of
teeth in contact. The base circle radius is given by
Equation (2.20),
(3.1)
P~
Base circle
Since the module m and the pressure angle 4ls are part of the
specification of the pinion, the base circle radius Rb is
known, and its value is constant.
Any normal to the rack tooth in Figure 3.1 must be
perpendicular to the tooth profile, while any normal to the
pinion tooth must touch the base circle. Hence, as shown in
the diagram, the common normal must be the base circle tangent
which is perpendicular to the rack tooth profile, and the
contact point must lie on this line. If E is the point where
the common normal touches the base circle, the radius CE is
parallel to the rack tooth profile, and the length CP' can
therefore be found from triangle ECP' ,
CP' (3.3)
cos 4l~
The rack in Figure 3.1 has a pitch p~, so in this case the
pinion pitch circle radius is as follows,
Np~
271"
(3.4)
Point P' in Figure 3.1 will coincide with the pitch point if
the length CP' is equal to the pitch circle radius Rp' We
equate the two expressions given in Equations (3.3 and 3.4),
and rearrange the terms to put the condition in the following
form.,
271" Rb
p~ cos 4l~ N
(3.5)
56 Gears in Mesh
211'Rb
N
(3.6)
and the base pitch Pbr of the rack, defined as the distance
between adjacent teeth measured along a common normal, can be
expressed in terms of the pitch and the pressure angle with
the help of Figure 3.2,
P~ cos ~~ (3.7)
(3.B)
(3.9)
Operating
pressure angle ¢
Line of action
I+------,'--Rack reference line
Base circle
c
41'r (3.10)
58 Gears in Mesh
(3.11)
p'r (3.13 )
(3.14 )
~' (3.15)
r
Pinion and Rack Posi tions 59
4l'r (3.16)
~ (3.18)
2Rp + inv 4lp - inv 4lR
c
x
fi -~ (3.19)
2Rp
ur 1 (3.20)
2"tpr
fi (3.21)
position of the Contact Point 61
(3.22)
(3.23)
(3.24)
o (3.25)
fJ (3.26)
s (3.27)
s Rb~ + lt
2 P
cos ~ (3.28)
lls (3.29)
Sliding Velocity
(3.31)
(3.32)
(3.33)
(3.34)
(3.35)
(3.36)
The lengths E,C, and E2C2 are equal to the base circle radii,
which we express by means of Equations (3.35 and 3.36), and
the relation then takes the following form,
(3.37)
(3.38)
Hence, if the two gears are designed with the same module and
the same pressure angle, this ensures that they have the same
base pi tch, and therefore that they wi 11 mesh correctly.
A Pair of Gears in Mesh 67
Line of action
(3.40)
(3.41)
(3.42)
(3.43)
We then use Equations (3.42 and 3.43) to eliminate RP1 and RP2
in this relation, and we obtain an equation from which the
value of ~ can be found,
cos ~ (3.44)
(3.45)
(3.46)
I/>pl (3.47)
I/>P2 (3.48)
Line of action
Icommon tangent
f11 -~ (3.50)
2Rp1
-~ (3.51)
2Rp2
After rotations ~f11 and ~f12' the angular positions of the two
gears are given by the following expressions,
(3.54)
(3.55 )
o (3.56)
Line of action
C1
Imaginary rack
c
Figure 3.'0. An imaginary rack.
72 Gears in Mesh
Imaginary Rack
4>'r (3.57)
(3.58)
s (3.59)
~s (3.60)
Sliding Velocity
Common
tangent
C
Figure 3.'1. Unit vectors associated with the contact point.
v A, - v A2 (3.63)
Involute
Base circle
(3.64)
The same cutter can then be used to cut a gear pair with the
same tooth numbers, designed for any center distance C which
is sufficiently close in value to Cs • As a rough guide, we can
say that C should not be less than Cs ' and that when C is
larger than Cs ' the difference should not normally exceed
v(C B tan ~s). The quantity B in this expression is the gear
pair backlash, which will be defined in Chapter 4. The two
condi tions just given can be expressed by the following
inequali ty,
C (3.65)
Tip circle
(3.67)
(3.68)
Numerical Examples
Example 3.1
A 26-tooth pinion with a module of 12 mm and a pressure
angle of 25° is to be meshed with a rack whose pressure angle
is 22°. Calculate the pitch P~ of the rack, and the pitch
circle radius of the pinion.
Ps = 37.699 mm (2.31)
Pb = 34.167 (2.24)
Pbr = 34.167 (3.8)
P~ = 36.850 (3.7)
Rp = 152.488 mm (3.4)
Example 3.2
A gear pair has a module of 10 mm and a pressure angle
of 20°. The gears have 24 and 75 teeth, and the center
distance is 500 mm. Calculate the pitch circle radii, and the
operating pressure angle of the gear pair.
RS1 = 120.000 mm
Rs2 375.000
Rb1 112.763
Rb2 352.385
Rp 1 121 .212 (3.40)
RP2 = 378.788 mm (3.41)
I/J = 21.519° (3.44)
Example 3.3
In traditional printing machines, the gearing was
designed so that the center distance was always equal to the
standard center distance. It was then necessary to use
circular pitch gears, in order that the circumferences of the
standard pitch circles should be exact multiples of the paper
82 Gears in Mesh
Pd = 4.1888 (2.33)
m = 0.2387 inches (2.34)
Rsl = 5.2521
Rs2 = 10.5042
C Cs = 15.7563 (3.64)
Try Pd = 4
m = 0.25 inches
Rsl = 5.2500
Rs2 = 10.5000
Cs 15.7500 inches (3.64)
Rbl = 4.9334
Rb2 = 9.8668
til = 20.063° (3.44)
Chapter 4-
Contact Ratio, Interference and Backlash
Contact Ratio
(4 • 1)
2~
(4.2)
N
c
Figure 4.1. The ends of the path of contact.
as (4.3)
(4.5)
2 2 (4.6)
- Rb1 tan t/I + v'(R T1 -R b1 )
2 2 (4. ?)
Rb2 tan t/I - v'(R T2 -R b2 )
In these equations, RT1 and RT2 are the radii of the tip
circles, Rb1 and Rb2 are the base circle radii, and t/I is the
operating pressure angle of the gear pair, given by
Equation (3.44),
(4.9)
Contact Ratio 87
Line of action
Length of
path of contact dS c
c
Figure 4.3. A gear pair, with two pairs of teeth in contact.
~' (4.10)
r
I----~J--Line of action
Path followed by
the tips of the rack teeth
Figure 4.4. Path of contact for a rack and pinion.
-~ (4.11)
sin tfJ
(4.12 )
where apr is the addendum of the rack, measured from its pitch
line. These expressions are substituted into Equation (4.5),
and we obtain the contact ratio,
\-Tip circle of
gear 1
c
Gear 1 driviny
Fillet circle
Involute
Interference
Fillet Circle
For the tooth shown in Figure 4.6, the point where the
fillet begins is labelled Af • Above this point, the tooth
profile coincides with the involute, and below this point the
fillet profile lies outside the involute, so that the tooth is
strengthened near its root. The circle through point Af will
be referred to as the fillet circle. It is generally called
92 Contact Ratio, Interference and Backlash
< (4.18 )
~ < (4.19 )
sin t/J
94 Contact Ratio, Interference and Backlash
Pitch line
Line of action
where apr is the rack addendum, measured from its pitch line.
If the condition given by Equation (4.18) in the case of
a gear pair, or by Equation (4.19) in the case of a rack and
pinion, is not satisfied, then interference will take place.
However, even when these conditions are satisfied, they are
not always sufficient to prevent interference. We stated
earlier that the tooth fillet of a gear extends to point Af ,
which generally lies a certain distance outside the base
circle. We must now ensure that the top of the fillet, between
the base circle and the fillet circle, does not come into
contact with the teeth of the meshing gear. We therefore
calculate the minimum radius at which contact takes place,
and compare thi s wi th the radius of the fillet ci rcle.
Limi t Ci rcle
(4.20)
2 ~2 (4.21)
Rb + [R b tan 41 - sin 41]
< (4.22)
(4.23)
(4.24)
Clearance c 1
C-Rroot1-RT2 (4.25)
Interference Points
Backlash
Backlash
Ci rcular Backlash
(4.26)
(4.27)
B (4.28)
that question.
When either gear of the pair is held fixed, the other can
be rocked to and fro through a small angle, due to the small
gap which exists between the teeth. If the angle (measured in
radians) through which the second gear can be turned is
multiplied by the radius of its pitch circle, we obtain the
length of the path moved by a point on the pitch circle,
during the rocking of the gear. We will now prove that the
length just described is equal to the circular backlash. For
this reason, the circular backlash is also known as the
backlash, measured at the pitch circle.
Before we discuss the general case of the backlash in a
gear pair, we consider first a rack and pinion, and we will
determine the tooth thickness of the rack, if its teeth are in
contact with both faces of the pinion teeth. This is the
situation known as close-mesh operation, when there is no
backlash. Figure 4.11 shows the pinion and rack, in positions
such that the contact point between one tooth of the pinion
and the rack lies exactly at the pi tch point. The same pinion
and rack are shown in Figure 4.12, and the pinion has been
rotated until the opposite profile of the same tooth passes
through the pitch point. Since both faces of the pinion tooth
are in contact with the rack, the pitch point again coincides
wi th a contact point.
The rotation ~p between the two positions of the pinion
A{1 (4.29)
(4.30)
(4.31)
(4.32)
Imaginary rack 1
maginary rack 2
Imaginary rack 1
P P'
(4.33)
B (4.34)
(4.35)
B (4.36)
104 Contact Ratio, Interference and Backlash
~s (4.37)
B' (4.38)
B' (4.39)
The base circle and the pitch circle radii are related by
Equation (3.42),
B (4.41)
-Dial gauge
Base CirCle~
Numerical Examples
Example 4.1
A gear pair has a module of 8 mm, a pressure angle
of 20°, and a center distance of 453 mm. The tooth numbers are
16 and 95, the tooth thicknesses 14.90 mm and 16.76 mm, and
the diameters of the tip circles are 150.4 mm and 787.6 mm.
Calculate the contact ratio, the circular backlash, and the
radii of the two limit circles.
RS 1 = 64.000 mm
Rs2 = 380.000
Rb 1 = 60.140
Rb2 = 357.083
</I = 22.924° (3.44)
Ps = 25.133 (2.31)
Pb = 23. 6 1 7 mm (2.24)
mc = 1.471 (4.9)
Pp = 25.642 (4.27)
</I p = 22.924° (3.49)
RPl = 65.297 (3.40)
RP2 = 387.703 (3.41)
tpl = 14.170 (2.36)
tP2 = 10.969 (2.36)
B 0.503mm (4.28)
RL 1 = 61.034 (4.20)
RL2 = 380.458 mm
Example 4.2
A pinion, with D.P. 2 and pressure angle 25°, has 24
teeth and a tip circle diameter of 13.2 inches. A rack, with
the same D.P. and pressure angle, is mounted so that the line
through the tips of its teeth lies a distance 5.6 inches from
the pinion center. Calculate the contact ratio.
Examples 109
m = 0.5000 inches
Rs 6.0000
Rb = 5.4378
t/> = 25° (3.10)
apr = 6.0 - 5.6 = 0.4
Pb = 1.4236 inches
me = 1.511 (4.13 )
Example 4.3
Use Equation (4.43) to choose a suitable design backlash
for a gear pair with D.P. 3 and a center distance of 32.0
inches.
m = 0.3333 inches
B = 0.026 inches (4.43)
Example 4.4
Find the maximum sliding velocity, for the gear pair
specified in Example 4.1, when the pinion is turning at
800 rpm.
ST 1 = 19 • 7 12 mm (4.6)
A A
At T 1 , v Lv 2 = 1930nTr mm/sec (3.63)
A A
v Lv 2 = - 1471 n Tr mm/sec (3.63)
Form Cutting
Generating Cutting
must have some other motion to provide the cutting action, and
it is therefore given a reciprocating motion in the direction
of its axis. This method of cutting gears is known as shaping,
in common with other cutting processes in which the cutting
tool has a reciprocating motion.
Figure 5.3 shows the positions of the cutter, relative
to the gear blank, as it makes a number of cutting strokes.
The shape of the gear tooth, after the cutting has been
completed, is the same as the envelope of the cutter
positions. It can be seen that this shape is not exactly an
involute, but consists of a series of arcs, whose sizes depend
on the number of strokes that occur during the cutting of each
tooth.
The amount of material that can be removed with each
cutting stroke is of course limited, and it is therefore
impossible to cut the first tooth of the gear blank
immediately to its full depth. Before the cutting process
begins, the cutter and the gear blank are given the correct
angular velocities, and the reciprocating motion of the
cutter is started. The cutter is then fed radially to.wards the
gear blank, so that each tooth space of the gear blank is cut
in turn to an increasing depth, until eventually the correct
depth is reached. At this point the radial feed of the cutter
is discontinued, and the cutting process continues while the
gear blank makes one more complete revolution. In some cases a
single cut is sufficient, while in others, it may be necessary
to carry out one or more roughing cuts before the finishing
cut, or else to finish the tooth surfaces by some other
method.
A typical pinion cutter is shown in Figure 5.4, and the
quantities used in its specification will be identified by
the subscript c. If the number of teeth is Nc ' the radius of
the standard pitch circle is given in terms of the module m by
Equation (2.30),
( 5. 1 )
( ••\
J Front
clearance
angle
Standard pitch circle
(5.2)
The gear blank and the cutter are shown in Figure 5.5,
and all calculations can be carried out exactly as if they
were two gears meshed together. A number of symbols were
defined in Chapter 3, relating to the operation of two gears
in mesh. These included the center distance C, the pressure
angle ~, and the operating circular pitch Pp of each gear.
When we consider the situation of a gear blank and a pinion
cutter, the corresponding quantities will be identified by
116 Gear Cutting I, Spur Gears
-Pinion cutter
J--+---->.....Cutting pitch
circles
CC
Cutting center distance
- Nc wc (5.3)
(5.4)
(5.5)
(5. 6)
(5. 7)
The meshing diagram of the gear blank and the cutter was shown
in Figure 5.5. Since the diagram relates to the situation when
the gear is being cut, the pitch circles are known as the
cutting pitch circles. Their radii are given by Equations
( 3 • 40 and 3.41) ,
N CC
RC
pg
9
(Ng+N c ) (5.8)
Nc CC
RC
pc (Ng+N c )
(5.9)
The angle ,C between the line of action and the common tangent
to the cutting pitch circles is the cutting pressure angle,
and its value is given by Equation (3.44),
(5.10)
angles at the cutting pitch circles, and they are known as the
cutting pressure angles of the gear blank and the cutter.
Since they are equal to each other, they are both represented
by the same symbol ~~, and their value is equal to that of the
cutting pressure angle ~c,
~c (S.l1)
pc _ t (S.12)
P pc
where p~ is the circular pitch of both the gear and the cutter
at their cutting pitch circles, and is given by
Equation (4.27),
(S.13)
(5.16 )
(5.17)
1
inv ~s - 2Cc(PS - tsg - t sc ) (5.18 )
s
The right-hand side of this equation contains only quantities
whose values are known, so we can use the equation to find the
value of the involute function (inv ~~). We calculate the
corresponding angle ~~ by means of Equations (2.16 and 2.17),
and the required cutting center distance CC is then found
Shaping with a Pinion Cutter 121
tP c (5.19)
P
Rbg+R bc
(5.20)
cos tP c
In the case of a gear blank and a pinion cutter, the sum of the
tooth thicknesses is equal to the circular pitch p~ at the
cutting pitch circles, as we showed in Equation (5.12), so the
relation can be written as follows,
R
sg /3 g + R
sc /3 c + 1P
2 s o (5.21)
though, the cutter normally has exactly the same shape as the
basic rack, and in describing the operation of the rack
cutter, we will assume that this is the case. The pitch and
the pressure angle of the cutter are then represented by the
symbols Pr and ~r' which are also used for the basic rack. In
order to cut a particular gear, we use a rack cutter in which
the values of Pr and ~r are equal to of Ps and ~s' the circular
pi tch and the pressure angle requi red in the gear.
The number of teeth cut in the gear blank depends on the
angular velocity Wg of the gear blank, and the velocity vr of
the rack cutter in the direction of its reference line. The
relation between Wg and vr is achieved in the shaper by means
of change gears or stepping motors, and in order to choose the
correct settings, we must determine the required relation, so
that the shaper will cut a gear with Ng teeth. The gear blank
and the cutter are each driven, as if they were a pinion and
rack in mesh, so Wg and vr must satisfy Equation (1.8),
vr ~
(5.22)
Pr 211'
(5.23)
(5.24)
The meshing diagram of the gear blank and the rack cutter is
shown in Figure 5.7. The cutting pressure angle ~c is always
equal to the cutter pressure angle ~r' and does not depend on
the position of the cutter, as it does in the case of a pinion
cutter. The cutting pitch line in the rack cutter is tangent
to the cutting pitch circle of the gear, and the tooth
thickness of the gear is equal to the space width of the
Rack cutter
Gear blank
(5.25)
(5.27)
o (5.28)
Bobbing
Lead angle
Gear axis
Hob axis
angle ASh
rWork table
faces are formed. Figure 5.10 shows the positions of a hob and
a gear blank during the cutting process. The cutting action of
the hob is very similar to that of a rack cutter. The gear
blank and the hob are each rotated about their axes, the gear
blank slowly and the hob more quickly. Since the hob has the
shape of a screw, its threads appear to move in the direction
of its axis, so that they simulate the movement of a rack
cutter. In addition, since the hob is rotating, the cutting
faces move continuously in the tangential direction, and this
movement provides the cutting action. The hobbing process
therefore has two advantages over that of a rack cutter. The
motions of the cutting faces are continuous in both the axial
and the tangent ial di rect ions, so there is no need to move the
hob back after one or two teeth are cut, as we must in the case
of a rack cutter, and the cutting action is obtained without
any reciprocating motion of the hob.
In order to cut each tooth across the entire face-width
of the gear, the hob is fed slowly in the direction parallel
to the gear axis. Each cutting face of the hob simulates a
tooth of the rack cutter, and in order that the cutting faces
should meet the gear blank at the same angle as a rack cutter,
130 Gear Cutting I, Spur Gears
(5.29)
(5.30)
1
"2'1fm + 2e tan ~s (5.31)
Cutting Point
Gear blank
R' (5.32)
c
Rbc
Rhc (5.34)
cos qJhc
tsc
8 hc -- + inv t/l s - inv t/lhc (5.35)
2Rsc
(5.36)
8'
c arctan (y~)
x'c (5.39)
1f4rr m
h (5.40)
xhr - h (5.41)
1
Yhr - "'4 1Tm + h tan ~r (5.42)
For most rack cutters and hobs, the values of a r and rrT
are chosen so that the length h is slightly larger than 1.0m.
For example, in a 20° pressure angle rack cutter, with an
addendum of 1.25m and a circular tip radius of 0.3m, the
length h has the following value,
h 1.0526m (5.46)
138 Gear Cutting I, Spur Gears
Path followed by
point A hc of the cutter-~--....
(h - e )-t---t--
Path followed by
point A hr of the cutter - - - + \
pass through point Hc' and its radius Rfg is given by the
following expression,
(5.47)
R2 [ h-e ] 2 (5.48)
bg + Rbg tan 4J s - sin 4J s
Undercutting
I--\--Base circle
Path followed by
point A hc of
the cutter
(5.49)
Numerical Examples
Example 5.1
A 24-tooth pinion cutter with a module of 6 mm and a
pressure angle of 20° is used to cut a 54-tooth gear. The
tooth thickness of the cutter is 0.5ps' and the cutting
center distance is 233.7 mm. Calculate the radii of the
cutting pitch circles, the cutting pressure angle ~c, and the
tooth thickness cut in the gear.
RC
pg 161.792 mm (5.8)
RC
pc 71.908 mm (5.9)
~c 19.797° (5.10)
~c 19.797° (5.11)
p
CC
s 234.000 (5.16)
Example 5.2
A 16-tooth pinion cutter with a module of 8 mm and a
pressure angle of 20° has a tip circle diameter of 151.2 mm
and a tooth thickness of 14.313 mm. Determine whether the
cutter can be designed with a tooth tip radius r cT of 2.4 mm.
RSC = 64.000 mm
Rbc = 60.140
R~ = 73.200 (5.32)
144 Gear Cutting I, Spur Gears
Example 5.3
A rack cutter with D.P. 1 and pressure angle 20° is
designed with an addendum of 1.335 inches. Determine the
largest usable value of r rT' and the corresponding value of h.
m = 1.0000 inches
Example 5.4
The pinion cutter specification in Example 5.2 is
modified, so that the tooth tip radius is 2.0 mm. The cutter
is to be used to cut a 12-tooth gear with a tooth thickness of
14.0 mm. Check to see whether there will be undercutting.
C~ = 112.000mm (5.16)
. c
lnv I/>p = 0.029102 (5.18)
(2.16,2.17)
24.767° (5.19)
Examples 145
Rbg = 45.105
R bc =60.140
R' = 73.6 (5.32)
c
¢hc = 36.454° (5.33)
Rhc 74 . 77 1 mm (5.34)
(5.49)
Example 5.5
A rack cutter with D.P. 4 and pressure angle 14.5° has an
addendum of 0.290 inches and a tooth tip radius of 0.040
inches. Determine the minimum cutter offset, and the
corresponding tooth thickness of the gear, if the cutter is to
be used to cut a 20-tooth gear, and there is to be no
undercutting.
m = 0.2500 inches
h = 0.2600 (5.40)
(5.50)
Example 5.6
A gear pair has a module of 6 mm and a pressure angle
of 20°. The tooth numbers are 19 and 86, the tooth thicknesses
are 9.64 mm and 11.09 mm, the tip circle diameters are
127.0 mm and 533.0 mm, and the center distance is 318.0 mm.
Determine whether there will be interference at the tooth
fillets of the pinion, if the pinion is cut by a hob with
addendum 7.5 mm and tooth tip radius 1.8 mm.
Procedure: Start by checking that the first condition
for no interference is satisfied. Next, calculate the limit
146 Gear Cutting I, Spur Gears
Rbl = 53.562 mm
Rb2 = 242.441
~ 21.436 0
(4.18)
h = 6.316 (5.40)
e1 0.296 (5.27)
Rfl = 53.596 (5.48)
Example 5.7
Repeat Example 5.6, assuming that gear 1 is cut by the
pinion cutter specified in Example 5.1. The diameter of the
cutter tip circle is 159.0 mm, and the radius of the rounding
at the tooth tips is 1.0 mm.
Examples 147
Rbc = 67.658 mm
R' = 78.500 (5.32)
c
q,hc 31.096 (5.33)
Rhc = 79.012 (5.34)
Cc = 129.000 (5.16)
s
. c
lnv q,p = 0.015739 (5.18)
Introduction
blanks which are integral with the shafts, and this is not
practical in the case of catalogue gears. The use of catalogue
gears is therefore quite restricted, and the majority of
gears are designed for the requirements of a particular
application. It is then evident that the designer of a gear
pair has a great deal of flexibility in the choice of values
for the center distance, the tooth thicknesses, and the gear
blank diameters. The only restriction which must normally be
accepted is that the gears should be cut by standard cutters.
This is not generally a problem, since, as we showed in
Chapter 5, it is one of the principal advantages of the
involute profile that non-standard gears can be cut by
standard cutters.
A gear intended to mesh at the standard center distance
will differ in several respects from one designed to mesh at a
non-standard center distance. In particular, the tooth
thicknesses and the tip circle radii of the two gears will
usually be different. Figures 6.1 and 6.2 show two such gears,
each with the same number of teeth, and cut by the same
cutter. Since both gears have the same standard pitch circle
radius Rs and the same pressure angle ~s' they must have base
circles of the same size, and therefore the tooth profiles of
each gear are formed from parts of the same involute. However,
the tooth thickness and the tip circle radius of the second
gear are larger than those of the first. In Figure 6.2, the
involutes forming the opposite faces of each tooth are
further apart than those in Figure 6.1, so that the tooth
profiles of one gear are shifted, relative to those of the
other. Any gear whose tooth thickness ts is not equal to 0.5ps
is said to be cut with profile shift. In this chapter, we will
discuss how the amount of profile shift can be defined, and we
will show how it is related to the tooth thickness. We will
then describe a method by which the tooth thickness and the
addendum values can be chosen, for a gear pair intended to
mesh at any specified center distance C. And finally, we will
present some of the most common reasons why gears are designed
with profile shift.
Profile Shift 151
CC - (R +R ) (6.2)
sg sc
where Nand
g
Nc are the numbers of teeth in the gear and the
cutter. There is, however, no simple exact relation between
the cutter offset ~c~, and the resulting profile shift in the
gear.
In order to determine the profile shift in the gear,
corresponding to any specified value CC of the cutting center
distance, we must calculate the tooth thickness tsg of the
gear at its standard pitch circle. Before we can carry out
this calculation, we need to know the tooth thickness t of
sc
the cutter, and this value must be measured. The method by
which we calculate the tooth thickness was outlined in
Chapter 5. We use the following sequence of equations, which
are taken from Equations (5.6 - 5.17),
Rb9 +R bc
cos I/Ic (6.5)
CC
I/Ic tP c (6.6)
P
e 1 (t - 11l'm) (6.8)
2 tan I/I s sg 2
R - R (6.9)
T s
(6.10)
(6.11)
(1 + ~)m (6.12)
m
when all these requirements are met, that the values of the
profile shift coefficients lie between the following limits,
1 (6.15 )
RS1 '2N1m
1 (6.16)
Rs2 '2N2m
tPp tP (6.22)
211'C (6.23)
Pp (N 1+N 2 )
B (6.24)
1
-(p -B) (6.25)
2 p
(6.26)
Geometric Design of a Spur Gear Pair 157
e1 - 11l'm) (6.27)
2 tan 41 s (t s1 2
t 2
ts2 R [~+ 2 (inv 4Ip - inv4ls)] (6.28)
s2 Rp2
1 11l'm) (6.29)
e2 2 tan 41 s (t s2 - 2
(6.30)
(6.31)
(6.32)
(6.33)
c1 b P1 - a p2 (6.35)
c2 b P2 - a p1 (6.36)
2.0m (6.39)
(6.40)
1 (6.41)
m - 2(b p1 - b p2 )
1
m + 2(b p1 - b p2 ) (6.42)
and the diameters of the two gear blanks are then found as
follows,
(6.43)
(6.44)
tsl
~ + 2(inv q,p - inv q,s)]
Rsl [R (6.47)
pl
el 2 tan 41 s (t sl - 17Tm)
2 (6.48)
b sl ar - e l (6.49)
1
m - '2(b
a pl pl - b p2 ) (6.51)
m 1
a p2 + '2(b p1 - bp2 ) (6.52)
addendum values are unequal in both the initial and the final
designs.
. c
lnv ~p (6.54)
~c (6.55)
P
Rbg+R bc
(6.56)
cos ~c
CC _ CC (6.57)
s
a - ~Cc (6.58)
sc sl
162 Profile Shift
for Atp often produces a gear pair which satisfies all the
geometric requirements. However, if the tooth strengths of
the two gears are significantly different, the design can be
improved by increasing the tooth thickness of the pinion, and
reducing that of the gear. If Atp is chosen so that the tooth
strengths are equal, the design is known as a "balanced
strength design".
Line of action
Line of action
Gear 1 driVin g\
T 1 Last poi nt of contact
rGear 2 driven
(6.59)
sin I/I s
- ..1L + inv 1/1 + I/I s (6.60)
cos I/I p 2C P
(6.61)
B
(6.62)
2C tan I/I s
Numerical Examples
Example 6.1
A 24-tooth pinion cutter with module 6 mm and pressure
angle 20° has a tooth thickness of 0.5ps' Calculate the
cutter offset required to cut a 17-tooth gear with a profile
shift of 3.0 mm.
CC = 123.000 (5.16)
s
tP cp 23.230° (2.16,2.17)
tP c 23.230° (5.19)
Rb9 47.924
Rbc 67.658
CC 125.780 (5.20)
ac cs 2.780 mm (6.2)
Example 6.2
A gear pair is to be cut by a hob with D.P. 4, pressure
angle 25°, and addendum 0.3125 inches. The tooth numbers are
24 and 61, the center distance is 10.8 inches, and the
backlash is to be chosen according to Equation (4.43). Use the
procedure outlined in Equations (6.45 - 6.53) to design the
gear pair, first for atp equal to zero, and then for atp equal
to 0.04 inches. For each design, calculate the tooth
thicknesses, the tip circle diameters, and the clearances at
the root circles.
Examples 171
m = 0.2500 inches
RS1 3.0000
RS2 7.6250
Rb1 2.7189
Rb2 6.9106
RP1 3.0494 (6.19)
RP2 7.7506 (6.20)
4> = 26.922° (6.21 )
4>p = 26.922° (6.22)
Pp = 0.7983 (6.23)
B = 0.0149 inches (4.43)
Initial design,
~tp 0.0000
tp1 0.3917 (6.45)
tP2 0.3917 (6.46)
tS1 0.4331 (6.47)
tS2 0.5068
e 1 = 0.0434 (6.48)
e 2 = 0.1223
b S1 0.2691 (6.49)
b s2 0.1902
b P1 0.3186 (6.50)
bP2 0.3158
a p1 0.2486 (6.51)
a p2 0.2514 (6.52)
DT1 6.5961 (6.53)
DT2 = 16.0039
c 1 = 0.0672 (6.35 )
c 2 = 0.0672 inches (6.36)
Second design,
~tp 0.0400
tP1 0.4317 (6.45)
tP2 0.3517 (6.46)
tS1 0.4725 (6.47)
tS2 0.4674
e1 = 0.0855 (6.48)
172 Profile Shift
e 2 = 0.0801
b s1 0.2270 (6.49)
b s2 0.2324
b P1 0.2764 (6.50)
b P2 0.3580
a p1 0.2908 (6.51)
a p2 0.2092 (6.52)
DTl 6.6804 (6.53)
DT2 = 15.9196
c 1 = 0.0672 (6.35)
c 2 = 0.0672 inches (6.36)
Example 6.3
The gear pair described in Example 5.6 was designed with
L'ltp equal to zero. We showed in Example 5.7 that there is
interference at the tooth fillets of the pinion, when the
gears are cut by the pinion cutter specified in Examples 5.1
and 5.7. Redesign the gear pair, assuming that the gears are
to be cut by the same pinion cutter. Use L'ltp equal to 1.0 mm,
and choose the backlash according to Equation (4.42).
RS 1 = 57.000 mm
Rs2 = 258.000
Rbl = 53.562
Rb2 = 242.441
RPl = 57.543
RP2 = 260.457
~ = 21.436°
~ = 21.436°
P
P = 19.029
P
B = 0.384 mm (4.42)
atp = 1.000
tp1 = 10.323 (6.45)
tp2 = 8.323 (6.46)
ts1 10.634 (6.47)
ts2 10.095
Ccs1 129.000
. c
lnv ~p1 = 0.019592 (6.54)
(6.55)
Rbc = 67.658
130.590 (6.56)
b P1 6.453 (6.50)
b p2 9.046
a p1 7.297 (6.51)
a p2 4.703 (6.52)
DT1 = 129.679 (6.53)
DT2 = 530.321 mm
shows how the contact force acting on one tooth depends on the
position of the contact point, as it moves along the path of
contact. The part of the meshing cycle when the contact point
lies between Q and Q' is called the period of single-tooth
contact. During this period, only a certain part of the
profile of each meshing tooth comes into contact with the
tooth of the other gear. The ends of this section of the tooth
profile are called the highest and lowest points of
single-tooth contact.
The maximum stresses in a spur gear tooth occur when the
tooth force is at its largest value, or in other words, during
the period of single-tooth contact. There are two types of
stress which are of primary interest to the gear designer, the
tensile stress in the fillet of each tooth, and the contact
stress at the point of contact. A typical loaded tooth is
shown in Figure 7.3, with the critical regions of fillet
stress and contact stress marked on the diagram. For a
176 Miscellaneous Circles
-
Q)
u
....
o
-
()
U
ell
C
o
Q Q' Position of
contact point
on contact path
Figure 7.2. Variation of the contact force.
Region of
maximum tensile Tooth contact
fillet stress force
~--Region of contact
stress
2
RHSC1
(7•2)
Form Diameter
(7.3)
178 Miscellaneous Circles
and for a pinion meshed with a rack, the limit circle radius
was given by Equation (4.21),
(7.4)
RL - O.025m (7.5)
(7.6)
Undercut Circle 179
Undercut Ci rcle
Undercut circle
Path followed by
point A hc of
the cutter
-Involute
Base circle
--Locus of
point A hc
-Undercut circle
(7. 7)
{C C )2+R2 _R 2
arccos [ hc] - 9 (7 .8)
2C c Rhc hc
(7.9)
182 Miscellaneous Circles
8' (7.10)
R
e
Yr
C p
r-~~--------+Xr
(7.12 )
C
~-------r--------------~
-u r +1;4rrm
-h tan <Ps
8' (7.13)
R
circle. The two circles are nearly equal in size, and to avoid
complicating the diagram, the limit circle is not shown.
However, it is possible to verify that the limit circle is
larger than the undercut circle, by the following argument.
The point where the undercut circle intersects line E 1E2 , the
common tangent to the base circles, is labelled U1 • The lower
end T2 of the path of contact lies between U1 and the pitch
point, so T2 lies outside the undercut circle. Hence, the
limit circle of gear 1, which is the circle through T2 , is
larger than the undercut circle. Since T2 lies outside the
undercut circle, the contact on the tooth face of gear 1
ceases at a point on the tooth profile above the undercut
circle. Although the profile is cut away inside the undercut
circle, the meshing is not affected, because the missing part
of the involute would not in any case be touched by the
meshing gear. The contact ratio mc is therefore given by
Equation (4.9), exactly as if there was no undercutting.
(7. 15)
Numerical Examples
Example 7.1
A gear pair is designed with D.P. 2.5 and pressure
angle 25°. The tooth numbers are 50 and 99, the diameters of
the tip circles are 20.98 inches and 40.62 inches, and the
center distance is 30.0 inches. Calculate the radii of the
highest and lowest points of single-tooth contact on each
gear.
m = 0.4 inches
Rb1 = 9.0631
Rb2 = 17.9449
~ = 25.807°
Pb = 1. 1389
10.2034 (7.1)
9.9652 (7.2)
Example 7.2
A 12-tooth gear with module 10 mm and pressure angle 20 0
is cut by a hob with an addendum of 12.5 mm and a tooth tip
radius of 3.0 mm. Show that the gear is undercut, if there is
no profile shift, and calculate the radius of the undercut
circle.
R = 60.000 mm
s9
Rb9 = 56.382
h = 10.526 (5.40)
Choose R = 56.555 mm
ur - 23.378 (7.11)
- 0.651431 radians = - 37.324° (7.12)
9'R 8.345° (7.13)
R
Since 9 is equal to 9 R , we have chosen the correct value
of R, and the undercut circle radius Ru is equal to 56.555 mm.
This particular gear is shown in Figure 5.16.
Example 7.3
The gear pair shown in Figure 7.9 has the following
specification. Gear 1 is the gear which was described in
Example 7.2, with a tip circle diameter of 140 mm, and the
radius of its undercut circle was calculated in that example.
Gear 2 has 25 teeth, and the diameter of its tip circle is
285 mm. The center distance is 195 mm. Show that the form
circle of gear 1 is larger than its undercut circle, and then
calculate the contact ratio.
Rbl = 56.382 mm
Rb2 = 117.462
4> = 26.937°
RL 1 = 56.899 (7.3)
Rf orm, 1 = 56.649mm (7.5)
Pb = 29.521
mm
mc = 1.146 (7.14)
Chapter 8
Measurement of Tooth Thickness
Introduction
1
"2 7rm + 2e tan q, s (8.1)
(8.2)
2 tan q,s
Gear-tooth caliper
-Tooth centerline
ts
8s (B.3)
2Rs
(B.6)
Gear-tooth caliper
-Tooth centerline
c
Figure B.3. Measurement at radius R.
Measurement by Gear-Tooth Vernier Caliper 195
(8.7)
2R sin OR (8.8)
(8.9)
R2 1 2 + (R - 2 (8.10)
<'2 t Rch) T aRch)
t Rch
tan OR (8.11)
2 (RT - aRch)
tR 2ROR (8.12)
t
ts R [-B + 2(inv fR - inv fs)] (8.13)
s R
Span Measurement
c
Figure 8.4. Span measurement over 3 teeth.
Span Measurement 197
the involute all the way down to the base circle. Inside the
fillet circle the tooth profile lies outside the involute, so
that the tooth is strengthened near its root. However, the
tooth thickness t b , which is used in Equation (S.14), is the
tooth thickness that the tooth would have, if the profile at
the base circle did coincide with the involute. Its value is
therefore found from Equation (2.36), when we substitute the
value zero for the profile angle at the base circle,
(S.15)
(S.16)
(S.17)
S (S.lS)
S inv
- (N'-ll1rm - Nm ~ (S. 19)
cos ~s s
-Tooth centerline
c
Figure 8.5. Radius of the span measurement contact points.
5pan Measurement 199
(8.20)
5 5!! (8.21)
N' (8.22)
N' (8.23)
R (8.24)
1 N~~ 2e[0.75-(2/N)]
N' 2" + 180 + 7rm tan ~s (8.25)
112M
M
Figure 8.6. Measurement over pins.
R' r
ts
2R + inv tPs - inv tPR
s
(8.26)
The angle between CB' and CA' is equal to (inv tP R')' and
the angle between the center-lines of the tooth and the tooth
space is (~/N). These two angles are together equal to 9b, so
we obtain the following relation between the various angles,
.
lnv tP R ' +
~
N (8.28)
Measurement Over Pins 203
M 2R' + 2r (8.29)
give the value of (inv ~R')' and the angle ~R' is found by
means of Equations (2.16 and 2.17). The values of R' and Mare
then found from Equations (8.30 and 8.29).
When a gear has an odd number of teeth, the pins are
placed in tooth spaces which are as closely as possible
opposite to each other, in the manner shown in Figure 8.8. The
radii through the pin centers no longer form a straight line,
and the angle between them is equal to [180° - (180 0jN»). The
relation between R' and M is then given by the following
equation,
Apart from this change, the equations for finding the tooth
thickness are exactly the same as those for a gear with an
even number of teeth.
Examples 205
Numerical Examples
Example 8.1
The gear in Figure 8.2 has 36 teeth, a module of 8 mm,
and a pressure angle of 20°. Calculate the correct settings
for a gear-tooth caliper, if the tooth thickness is half the
circular pi tch, and the addendum is one module.
RS = 144.000 mm
ts = 12.566 (2.31)
0.043633 radians = 2.500° (8.3)
tsch = 12.562 (8.4)
RT = 152.000 (2.40)
a sch = 8.137 mm (8.5)
Example 8.2
The gear shown in Figure 8.3 has 15 teeth, D.P. 2, and
pressure angle 20°. It is cut from a blank with a diameter of
9.0 inches, and the specified profile shift is 0.25 inches.
After a roughing cut, the tooth thickness is measured by means
of a gear-tooth caliper. with the chordal addendum set at
0.5 inches, the chordal tooth thickness is found to be
0.810 inches. Determine how much further the cutter should be
fed in for the final cut, assuming the gear is cut by a hob.
m = 0.5000 inches
Rs = 3.7500
Rb = 3.5238
R 4.0205 (8.10)
5.781° = 0.100906 radians (8.11)
tR = 0.8114 (8.12)
~R = 28.779° (2.18)
ts = 0.9974 (8.13)
0.0301
toe - 0.0413 inches (8.2)
Example 8.3
For the gear specified in Example 8.2, the final tooth
thickness is to be checked by a span measurement. Calculate
the number of teeth over which the span should be measured,
the corresponding value of the span, and the radius at which
the caliper jaws will touch the faces of the teeth.
Example 8.4
Calculate the measurement over pins for the 11-tooth
gear shown in Figure 8.8, which has module 10 mm, pressure
angle 20°, and profile shift 5.0 mm. The diameter of the
measuring pins is 26 mm.
RS = 55.000 mm
Rb 51. 683
ts = 19.348
inv~R' = 0.156726 (8.28)
~R' = 41.227° (2.16, 2.17)
R' = 68.718 (8.30)
M = 162.038 mm (8.31)
Chapter 9
Geometry of Non-Involute Gears
Introduction
General Theory
Yr
Reference l i n e -
-r-.~----+
I~ Pr
I~
use the symbol Rsg for the radius of the pitch circle, and the
two equations take the following form,
( 9. 1 )
(9.2)
(9.3)
(9.4)
tan ~Ar
(9.5)
1 (u _ lp ) (9.6)
Rsg r 2 s
R (9.7)
1/
arctan (~) - ~g (9.8)
sg
Finally, the tangent to the gear tooth profile at A coincides
with the tangent to the basic rack tooth profile at Ar , and
therefore makes an angle ,Ar with the ~ axis. The angle YR,
which is defined as the angle between the gear tooth tangent
at A and the tooth center-line, is then given by the following
expression,
(9.9)
Line of action
/,,4---Path of contact
Contact point
~ I e + x'r (9.10)
214 Geometry of Non-Involute Gears
1/' (9.11)
s' (9.12)
s s' - r rT (9.13)
and we then write down the position of the cutting point Ar'
(9.14)
( ...§...) ., • (9.15)
s' 'f
fJ g _l_(u _ lp ) (9.16)
Rsg r 2 s
R (9.17)
(9.18)
Fillet Shape Cut by a Rack Cutter 215
Yr
Reference line
1 (e+x ') _ y I
(9.20)
tan ~r r r
The other end of the gear tooth fillet, the point where
it meets the root circle, is cut by point ATr on the cutter.
The normal to the cutter tooth profile at ATr is parallel to
the ~ axis, and ATr becomes the cutting point when the line of
action is in the same direction. This will occur when point A'
r
lies on the ~ axis, and its coordinate ~' is equal to zero.
The corresponding position of the cutter can then be found
from Equation (9.11),
- Y~ (9.21)
Base circle
- 11Tm
4 - x r t an ..
"'r (9.22)
Profile Modification
Yr
.A:~
r q sin ",Ar
'I'
(9.23)
1 A
- "41rm - q tan ~r - rq cos ~r + rq cos ~ r (9.24)
- R~ sin a (9.26)
(9.27)
5 S' - r cT (9.28)
(..E....) t , (9.29)
S' ~
1/ (9.30)
Fillet Shape Cut by a Pinion Cutter 223
a - e'c ( 9.31)
1 1
- ~(R -2P s) (9.32)
sg sc ~ c +
R (9.33)
a o (9.36)
Numerical Examples
Example 9.1
A hob has a module of 6 mm and a pressure angle of 20°.
Its addendum is 7.5 mm, and the tooth tip radius is 1.8 mm.
The hob is used to cut a 24-tooth gear, with a profile shift
of 1.5 mm. Calculate the polar coordinates in the gear of the
point where the fillet meets the involute, and of the point
where the fillet meets the root circle.
Rsg = 72.000 mm
Ps = 18.850
s = -6.000 (9.13)
- 6.000 (9.14)
11 = 0 (9.15)
- 0.120869 radians = - 6.925° (9.16)
R = 66.000, 9R = 6.925° (9.17,9.18)
Example 9.2
A hob with D.P. 2.5 and pressure angle 20° is designed to
cut gears with tip relief. The tooth profile of the hob is
shaped like Figure 9.8, with the values
. of q and r q being 0.16
and 4.8 inches. Determine the reduction in the tip tooth
thickness of a 40-tooth gear, compared with a gear cut by a
conventional hob, if the gear has zero profile shift and an
addendum of 0.4 inches.
m = 0.4000 inches
Rsg 8.0000
RTg = 8.4000
= 22.5110
tJ>A r (9.23)
Yr = - 0.4486 (9.24)
~0.3560 (9.3)
11 = 0.8590 (9.4)
u r = 1.3076 (9.5)
f3 g 0.084916 radians 4.865° (9.6)
R = 8.4000 (9.7)
Examples 227
Example 9.3
Repeat the calculations of Example 9.1, assuming that
the gear is cut by a 16-tooth pinion cutter with a tip circle
diameter of 113.4 mm, a profile shift of 1.8 mm, and rounding
at the tooth tips with a radius of 1.5 mm. This is the cutter
shown in Figure 5.12.
CCs = 120.000
~c 23.577° (2.16,2.17)
p
~c 23.577° (5.19)
CC 123.033 (5.20)
p EA ( 10. 1)
p (10.2)
Euler-Savary Equation
c
Figure 10.1. A rigid bar rolling on the fixed base circle.
('0.3)
Pitch circle of
gear 1, fixed
(10.4)
(10.5)
v A/ 2 + ws (10.6)
_1_ + 1 (10.9)
RC RC
pg pc
so that the quantity (1/RO) represents the relative curvature
of the two cutting pitch circles. We then solve
Equation (10.8) for Pg ' obtaining the following expression,
(p +s)2
c (10.10)
s -~ (10.12)
sin If>
( 10.13)
(10.14)
'11 0
(r CT +s)2
P r + (10.17)
f cT RO sin ~ - (rCT+s)
t RC
pc
- R
Tc
~ 0
, 90 0
s RC
pc
- R
Tc
(RTC-Rpc-rCT)2
rf r cT + c ( 10. 18)
RO + (RTC-Rpc-rCT)
Examples 239
Numerical Examples
Example 10. 1
For each of the fillet points whose positions were found
in Example 9.1, calculate the fillet radius of curvature.
Example 10.2
Calculate the fillet radius of curvature at each end of
the tooth fillet, for the gear described in Example 9.3.
240 Curvature of Tooth Profiles
Introduction
a pair of spur gears. The AGMA does not provide the background
theory, but the formulae presented in the AGMA Standard, when
applied to spur gears, are based on the same theory that is
described in this chapter.
The stresses in a gear tooth depend primarily on the load
and the tooth shape, but there are several other phenomena
which must be taken into account. The stresses are first
calculated, considering only the load and the tooth shape,
and these are called the static stresses. Then the static
stresses are multiplied by a number of factors, to compensate
for each of the other influences. These factors include the
application factor, which allows for momentary overloads,
depending on the type of application: the size factor, which
allows for non-uniformity of the material properties in the
gears: the load distribution factor, which allows for
non-uniformity in the tooth loading: and the dynamic factor,
which compensates for the increase in tooth load caused by
dynamic effects, as the teeth enter and leave the meshing
zone. The AGMA report contains a description of how each of
these factors should be chosen or calculated. In this book, we
will describe only the calculation of the static stresses,
since the subject of the book is the tooth geometry, and it is
the static stresses, rather than the actual stresses, which
are determined by the geometry.
There are two distinct types of stress which are
calculated in the design of a gear pair, because each of these
types can cause damage to the teeth, and eventual failure.
First, there is the contact stress which occurs at the points
where the meshing teeth are in contact. If the contact stress
is too high, the tooth surface becomes pitted with small
holes. This pitting may not be harmful, so long as the pits
remain small, but if they become larger, the tooth surface is
eventually destroyed. The second type of stress which is
often responsible for tooth damage is the tensile stress in
the fillet, caused by a tooth load on the face of the tooth.
If the tensile stress is too large, fatigue cracks will be
formed in the fillet, and the tooth will eventually fracture.
It is clear that both the contact stress and the fillet stress
must always be calculated, and compared with values which the
gear material can sustain without damage.
Contact Force Intensity 243
(11.1)
(11.2)
(11.3)
w (11.4)
When there are two pairs of teeth in contact, the total tooth
force W is shared between both the contacting tooth pairs, so
the load intensity is halved. Since the maximum stresses in
spur gears always occur when the load intensit~ is a maximum,
we need consider only the period of single-tooth contact, and
the load intensity that is given by Equation (11.4).
Contact Stress
c
Figure 11.2. Tooth prof ile radi i of curvature.
246 Tooth Stresses in Spur Gears
(11.8)
Rb 1 tan q, + s (11.9)
(11.11)
(11.12)
(11.13)
(11.14)
find the maximum contact stress in the gear pair, the factor
kc is first calculated, and the contact stress is then given
by Equation (11.13). This contact stress acts on the teeth of
both gears, at the lowest point of single-tooth contact in the
pinion, and at the highest point of single-tooth contact in
the gear.
In the case of a rack and pinion, there is no center
distance C, and therefore Equation (11.14) cannot be used. To
calculate the contact stress, we first put Equation (11.5)
into the following form,
a
c
(11.15)
(11.16)
Fillet Stress
c 'Yw x
radius Rw' The profile angle at Aw, the coordinates of Aw, and
the angle between the tangent at Aw and the tooth center-line
are given by Equations (2.18, 2.35 and 2.38),
Rb
cos ~w (11.17)
Rw
ts
9w 2R + inv ~s - inv ~w (11.18)
s
Xw Rw cos 9w (11.19)
Yw Rw sin 9w (11.20)
Yw ~
w - 9w (11.21)
(11.22)
°bending
w sin Yw
°radial (1 )(2y)
Kf (~)k2(..ll....)k3
k1 + rf (11.23)
xo-x
(11.27)
( 11.28)
(11.29)
(11.31)
(11.32)
(11.34)
(11.35)
I (11.36)
J (11.37)
Examples 255
Numerical Examples
Example 11.1
A gear pair has the following specification: module
10 mm, pressure angle 20°, tooth numbers 28 and 75, center
distance 525.0 mm, face-width 35.0 mm, tooth thicknesses
18.51 mm and 20.10 mm, blank diameters 307.8 mm and 782.2 mm.
The gears are cut by a hob with addendum 12.5 mm and tooth tip
radius 3.8 mm. Calculate the static contact stress, and the
static fillet stress in gear 1, if the torque applied to
gear 1 is 2500 N-m, and the material constant Cp is
190.3 (MPa)0.5.
RSl = 140.000 mm
Rs2 375.000
Rb 1 = 13 1 • 557
Rb2 = 352.385
, = 22.810°
Pb = 29.521 mm
mc = 1.558 (4.9)
W = 19003 N (11.1)
W
Fm = 54.295 MPa
Pl 50.341 (11.11)
P2 = 153.191 (11.12)
kc = 0.5137 (11.14)
o c = 720.4 MPa (11.13)
Xw 145.865 (11.19)
Yw = 7.033 (11.20)
Yw = 22.968° (11.21)
xn = 142.884 mm (11.22)
e 1 = 3.849 (6.1)
a r - e 1 - rrT = 4.851
r f = 3.962 (10.15)
h 10.000 (5.40)
x~ = - 8.700 (5.43)
y~ =- 0.644 mm (5.44)
kl 0.180 (11.24)
k2 0.150 (11.25)
k3 0.450 ( 11.26)
Kf 2.011 (11.23)
kt 1.982 (11.30)
ot = 107.6 MPa (11.29)
Examples 257
Example 11.2
m = 0.4000 inches
RSl = 7.2000
Rbl = 6.7658
t/I = 20.000° (4.10 )
Pb 1.1809
mc = 1.8366 (4.13 )
Introduction
(12.1)
(12.2)
(12.3)
C (12.4)
( 12.5)
(12.6)
(12.7)
(12.8)
(12.9)
(12.10)
Rb
cos tPR (12.11)
R
(12.12)
~s (12.13)
7rm (12.14)
(12.15)
Internal Gears 265
For an internal gear, the tooth shape is the same as the tooth
space of an external gear, so the tooth thickness of the
internal gear is equal to the space width of the external
gear. Hence, the tooth thickness of an internal gear is
related to its profile shift in the following manner,
ts
2Rs - inv "'s + inv "'R ( 12.17)
( 12.18)
c x
( 12.19)
(12.20)
Line of
action
=
268 Internal Gears
cos ~P2
(12.22)
(12.23)
the pitch point. When the gears are in these positions, their
angular positions can be read from the diagram,
(12.24)
(12.25)
where tP1 and tP2 are the tooth thicknesses at the pi tch
circles. After rotations AP1 and AP 2 , the new angular
positions are as follows,
P1 -~ + AP 1 (12.26)
2Rp1
P2 ~+ AP 2 (12.27)
2Rp2
Rp1 w1 Rp2 w2
o (12.29)
Contact Ratio
Interference
> (12.31)
(12.32)
(12.33)
(12.34)
(12.35)
Tip Interference
Path followed by
point AT1 of the pinion~
ts1
- - + (inv tP - inv tP T1 ) (12.36)
2Rs1 s
274 Internal Gears
ts2
- [ - - - (inv ~ - inv ~T2)] (12.37)
2Rs2 s
where ~T1 and ~T2 are the profile angles at the tip circles.
The value of 8T2 is negative, because point AT2 lies on the
lower face of the tooth, and the polar angle is defined as
positive when it is counter-clockwise.
Figure 12.7 shows the gear pair, at the instant when
point AT1 is crossing the tip circle of the internal gear. The
angles ~1 and ~2 are the angular positions of the two gears,
and 8 2 is the polar angle, relative to the internal gear, of
the position of AT1 • By considering triangle C1C2AT1 , we can
write down two relations between the various angles,
(C 2
+R2 2
T1 -RT2 )
2CRT1 (12.38)
(12.39)
c
Figure 12.7. Checking for tip interference.
Axial and Radial Assembly 275
(12.40)
(12.41)
(12.43)
(12.45)
(12.47)
(12.49)
(12.50)
( 12.51 )
(12.52)
(12.53)
Path followed by
point A hc of the cutter
(12.54)
t/lc (12.57)
P
Rbg-R bc
(12.58)
cos t/lc
(12.59)
The distances s' and s, from P to A~ and Ac' are found from
284 Internal Gears
s' (12.62)
s s' + r (12.63)
cT
(...§...) t , (12.64)
s' ~
1/ (12.65)
a - 8' (12.66)
c
(12.67)
R (12.68)
R
a arccos (R~c) - ~c (12.70)
c
a o (12.71)
-1 1 - -1)
-(- (12.72)
sin q, Rpl Rp2
(12.73)
1 1
-c- - -c- (12.74)
Rpc Rpg
We substitute for R~g and R~c' using Equations (12.49
and 12.50), and we obtain the following expression for RO'
NgNCC C
(12.75)
(N g -N c )2
(12.76)
Fillet Radius of Curvature 287
tan q, (12.77)
s
_E_ (12.78)
sin q,
(12.79)
E RTc _ RC
pc
11 0
q, 90 0
s R - RC
Tc pc
(RTC-Rpc-rCT)2
rf r cT + c (12.80)
RO + (RTC-Rpc-rCT)
Since the value of RO is generally quite large, the
fillet radius of curvature r f is only slightly greater than
288 Internal Gears
the cutter tooth tip radius r cT • If the cutter tooth tip has
no rounded section, the value of r CT is zero, and we obtain a
very small fillet radius of curvature in the gear. It is for
this reason that a pinion cutter with rounded tooth tips is
recommended for cutting internal gears.
Undercutting
where the involute meets the fillet, is cut when the cutting
point lies at Hc' which is the end of the path of contact
furthest from the interference point. Hence, no matter how
large the cutter addendum is, there is no danger of
conventional undercutting at the tooth fillets of an internal
gear.
There is, though, a possibility of undercutting at the
tooth tips of the gear. The correct involute profile in a
tooth of the gear is cut by the involute part of the cutter
tooth. The profile of the cutter tooth can only coincide with
the involute down to the base circle, and the tooth may be
designed so that the fillet starts slightly outside the base
circle, since the involute radius of curvature becomes zero
at the base circle. The involute part of the tooth, therefore,
ends at the fillet circle, which is either larger than the
base circle, or the same size. On any particular cutter, the
radius Rfc of the fillet circle can be measured.
In Figure 12.15, the fillet circle of the cutter is
shown, intersecting the line of action at Fc. The involute
section of the cutter tooth profile lies outside the fillet
Undercutting 289
(12.81)
If the tip circle radius RTg required for the gear is smaller
than the minimum value given by this condition, then it is
necessary to use a cutter wi th more teeth.
There is a second manner in which internal gears may be
undercut, and this is caused by tip interference between the
pinion cutter and the gear. This phenomenon can occur either
when the cutting center distance is equal to CC , or during the
initial cutting period while the cutter is being fed into the
gear, when the center distance is less than Cc • We therefore
consider the possibility of tip interference at a center
290 Internal Gears
Rbc
cos ~Tc RTc (12.82)
tsc
9'
Tc - - + inv ~s - inv ~Tc (12.83)
2Rsc
if-
Tc
sin (fJ
g
+9 )
g
(12.85)
( 12.87)
(12.89)
Rubbing
a' (12.90)
(12.91)
t 2
ts2 R [~- 2(inv4>p- inv 4>s)] (12.94)
s2 Rp2
. 4>cp2 1 (12.95)
lnv inv 4>s + ---c-(ps-t s2 -t sc )
2C s2
4>c c (12.96)
2 4>P2
Rb2 -R bc
CC2 ( 12.97)
cos 4>~
t:J.C c
2 Cc2 - Ccs2 (12.98)
b s2 a sc + t:J.C c2 (12.99)
The tip circle radius RT2 of the internal gear is then found
from Equation (12.32),
(12.102)
(12.105)
Measurement of Tooth Thickness 297
M 2R' - 2r (12.108 )
Numerical Examples
Example 12. 1
An internal gear pair with D.P. 4 and pressure angle 20°
is to be designed for a center distance of 0.765 inches. Use
the procedure described in Chapter 12 to spec ify the gear
pair, using the following information. The pinion has 35
teeth, and is to be cut by a hob with addendum 0.333 inches
and tooth tip radius 0.107 inches. The internal gear has 41
teeth, and is to be cut by a pinion cutter with 20 teeth,
tooth thickness 0.395 inches, and tip circle diameter 5.632
inches. In choosing the tooth thicknesses, assume a backlash
of 0.013 inches, and use a value of 0.12 inches for the
quantity Atp' After the design is completed, calculate the
working depth and the contact ratio, and check that there is
no tip interference.
m = 0.2500 inches
Rsl = 4.3750
Rs2 = 5.1250
Ps = 0.7854
Rbl = 4.1112
Rb2 = 4.8159
Pb = 0.7380
~ = 22.888° (12.21)
Rpl = 4.4625 (12.5)
Rp2 = 5.2275 (12.6)
Pp = 0.8011 (12.23)
~ = 22.888° (12.22)
P
0.1200
0.5141 (12.92)
0.2741 (12.93)
2.6250 (12.54)
(2.16,2.17)
(12.96)
mc = 1.458 (12.30)
300 Internal Gears
(12.43)
Example 12.2
The cutter specified in Example 9.3 is to be used to cut
an internal gear with 35 teeth, a tooth thickness of 6.168 mm,
and a tip circle whose diameter is 205.968 mm. Calculate the
cutting center distance, and check that there is no tip
interference during the cutting feed-in process. Determine
also the angle at which the cutter should be displaced during
the return strokes.
Rsg 105.000 mm
Rsc 48.000
ps = 18.850
Rbg 98.668
Rbc = 45.105
CC
s = 57.000 (12.54)
. c
lnv ~p = 0.031979 (12.56)
~c 25.516° (2.16,2.17)
p
CC = 59.351 mm (12.58)
Cf = 52.818 mm
Tc = 37.297°
~' (12.82)
eTc = 0.015971 radians = 0.915° (12.83)
~c 38.894° = 0.678828 radians (12.86)
~g = 0.400081 radians = 22.923° (12.87)
302 Internal Gears
R~ = 55.200 mm (5.32)
'hc = 36.454° (5.33)
Rhc = 56.078 (5.34)
a' 17.271° (12.90)
,c = 25.5160 (12.48)
Example 12.3
Determine the inspection length M for the measurement
between pins, when a 49-tooth internal gear with D.P. 8,
pressure angle 25° and tooth thickness 0.150 inches, is
measured using pins of diameter 0.240 inches.
m 0.1250 inches
Rs 3.0625
Rb 2.7756
inv'R' = 0.026365 (12.106)
'R' = 24.004° (2.16,2.17)
R' = 3.0383 ( 12.107)
M = 5.8336 inches (12.109)
PART 2
HELICAL GEARS
Chapter 13
Tooth Surface of a Helical Involute Gear
Introduction
1/
Y
nn
nz X
y
n~ 0 n
~n,
Lnt {
and ny will obviously change. The other set, n~, n~ and n S'
are said to be fixed in space, which simply means that their
directions do not change. The unit vector n~ is chosen
perpendicular to the plane formed by the tips of the rack
teeth, in the direction from the gear towards the rack. The
remaining two unit vectors are perpendicular to n~, with nS
parallel to the lines of the rack teeth, and n~ at right
angles to them. When a spur gear is meshed with a rack, the
axis of the gear is parallel with the teeth of the rack, so
the two unit vectors n z and nS are parallel. It should be
noted that a unit vector is used only to specify a direction.
Since the rack does not rotate, it makes no difference whether
we regard a unit vector as fixed in space, or as fixed in the
rack. Hence, the three vectors n~, n~ and n S' which we
originally described as fixed in space, can equally well be
thought of as fixed in the rack.
The two vectors n z and nS are shown in Figure 13.2 by
counter-clockwise circular arrows, and these are used in
conformi ty with the right-hand rule from the theory of
vectors. According to this rule, a vector can correspond to a
sense of rotation, using the following convention. The right
hand is held so that the fingers point in the required sense
308 Tooth Surface of a Helical Involute Gear
I I nTJ
0 )
()
I
Figure 13.3.
I
A spur gear and rack.
The Basic Helical Rack 309
(13.1)
,\-Reference line
I,
'LDirection. of
, gear aXIs
----
--.~n z f\
n /: Transverse
~ section
(13.2)
(13.3)
and the modules are then related in the same manner as the
pitches,
(13.4)
(13.5)
(13.6)
(13.8)
(13.9)
Pnr
(13.10)
cos Wr
tan ~nr
tan ~tr (13.11)
cos Wr
(13.12)
(13.13)
(13.14)
( 13.15)
314 Tooth Surface of a Helical Involute Gear
rjJtr
R
s
r-
I Rack pitch plane
Rack reference plane
(13.16)
Basic Rack pi tch Plane 315
~ -
~I~~~~~I ~z ~n~
Section
z=o Section z
I. z .1
Figure 13.8. Transverse sections through the basic rack.
The Tooth Surface of a Helical Gear 317
When the gear is meshed with its basic rack, the pitch circle
coincides with the standard pitch circle, so the pitch circle
radius Rp in the expression for I),,~ can be replaced by the
standard pitch circle radius Rs'
I)"u r
( 13.17)
Rs
1),,9
z tan
Rs
"'r (13.18 )
r
---n x
kz (13.19)
kL (13.20)
211'Rs
L (13.23)
tan I/J r
Transverse
l-;n,
section Transverse
z=Q section z
-----.----._11--.----'Z=---------.j·1
v~ Ao
27TR
A-
Developed helix
~V (13.24)
~V Rkz (13.25)
tan WR Rk (13.26)
The Helix and the Involute Helicoid 321
(13.27)
(13.28)
Since we have now proved that the gear helix angle ~ is equal
s
to the basic rack helix angle, the relation between the
modules can be expressed in terms of the gear helix angle,
(13.29)
(13.30)
L
...:::-_--.-:--_________--,'1_ n z
27TR
Developed helix
Base Cylinder
Rb tan ~r
tan ~b (13.32)
(13.33)
(13.34)
(13.35)
Tooth pi tches
2rrR
l--~Z
Direction of
gear axis
~ (13.36)
N
211'R
N
(13.37)
PnR
Pz (13.39)
sin "'R
211' Rs
N
(13.40)
326 Tooth Surface of a Helical Involute Gear
We can also write down the relation between the axial pitch
and the normal pitch at the standard pitch cylinder,
corresponding to Equation (13.39),
(13.42)
211'Rb
Ptb N
(13.43)
Pnb
Pz (13.45)
sin "'b
ny
!n~n~ t
I
I
Cylinder of radius R
I
I
\
\
A A Rb A AO
R cos e nx + R sin e ny + tan ..pb (e -e )n z (13.46)
(13.49)
and from the triangle shown in Figure 13.14, we can write down
expressions for the sine and cosine of ..pR' which can be used
to simpiify Equation (13.48). We then obtain the final
expression for n~,
328 Tooth Surface of a Helical Involute Gear
(13.52)
Rb
cos ~tR R
(13.54)
arc EB EA (13.56)
Transverse profile
angle <PtA
Base cylinder
tan "'b
(13.59)
tan "'R
(13.60)
ieCYlinder
Figure 13.16. Transverse section at plane z.
The Generator Through Point A 331
( 13.61 )
(13.62)
Base cylinder
(13.63)
(13.65)
EA - E'A' (13.66)
Transverse plane
z=o
Transverse plane z
Coordinates of Point G
( 13.67)
eG eA - ~tR (13.68)
Rb tan ~tR
z - (13.69)
tan ~b
Properties of Point G
(13.70)
(13.71)
Rb tan 9>tR
(13.73)
tan 1/Ib
(13.74)
(RbCoseGn x + RbSineGn y + zG nz )
n:
the unit vector nG, which gives the direction of the helix
/J
tangent at G. The expression for is obtained from
Equation (13.50), if we replace A and R by G and Rb •
(13.77)
Direction of the Normal to the Tooth Surface at A 337
c
E (and G)
/\~n~
Lse
Figure 13.19.
cylinder
t )n z
Transverse section through point A.
338 Tooth Surface of a Helical Involute Gear
n: x n~ (13.78)
Normal Section at A
Normal at A
__ __
nA
_~ -=~~====~~~R~ --------~It~::~-;.;::-~Normal
C profile
angle
Tangent at A
Line perpendicular to CA
cos ~nR
340 Tooth Surface of a Helical Involute Gear
cos 'nR cos "'b cos "'R cos(BA-B G) + sin "'b sin "'R
(13.79, 13.53)
cos 'nR cos "'b cos "'R cos 'tR + sin "'b sin "'R
(13.68)
tan "'b
cos 'nR cos "'b cos "'R tan + sin "'b sin "'R
(13.59) "'R
sin "'b
cos 'nR (13.80)
sin "'R
sin 'nR
tan 'nR
tan 'nR
(13.82)
Tooth Surface of a Helical Involute Gear 341
(13.84)
(13.85)
sin "R
sin "R
sin "R
2
sin "R sin -Ji R y'( 1 - cos 'tR)
(13.59)
Independent Angles
sin "'b
sin "'R (13.88)
cos ~nR
(13.89)
f(~nR''''b)
(13.90)
cos 4>nR
tan "'b
cos 4>tR tan "'R
and we now use Equations (13.88 and 13.90) to express cos ~tR
in terms of ~nR and "'b'
sin 4>nR
sin 4>tR (13.92)
cos "'b
(13.93)
cos 4>nR cos IPb
(13.94)
(13.99)
cylinder is equal to the basic rack helix angle, and that the
transverse and normal pressure angles of the gear are equal to
those of the basic rack. We will now prove that a similar set
of relations exist between the pitches of the gear and those
of the basic rack.
I n Chapter 2, we showed f or a spur gear that the circular
pitch at the standard pitch circle is equal to the pitch of
the basic rack, and that the base pitches of the gear an? the
basic rack are also equal. The same statements can therefore
be made in relation to the transverse pitches and the
transverse base pi tches of a helical gear and its basic rack,
( 13.100)
(13.101)
Since the transverse pitches and the helix angles are equal,
as we showed in Equations (13.100 and 13.28), it is evident
that the normal pi tches are also equal.
( 13.102)
PnR
sin "'R
Pnb
sin "'b
346 Tooth Surface of a Helical Involute Gear
(13.104)
(13.105)
( 13.106)
Base cylinder
measured around the base circle. We then showed that the base
pitch is equal to the distance between adjacent tooth
profiles, measured along a common normal.
The normal base pitch of a helical gear was defined
earlier in this chapter, as the distance between
corresponding points of adjacent teeth, measured on the
developed base cylinder in a direction perpendicular to the
lines of the teeth. We will now show that the normal base
pitch, defined in this manner, is also equal to the distance
between adjacent tooth surfaces, measured along a common
normal.
Figure 13.21 shows the base cylinder of a gear, with the
base helices of two adjacent teeth. We consider two points, A
on one tooth and A' on the other, with generators starting at
points G and G', and we will determine what conditions must be
satisfied if there is to be a common normal at A and A'.
A first condition, necessary for the existence of a
common normal, is that the normals to the tooth surfaces at A
and A' should be parallel. This condition can be written as
follows,
(13.107)
eG' (13.109)
and when the last two equations are combined, it is clear that
the length AA' in Figure 13.22 is equal to the normal base
pitch,
AA' (13.111)
Tooth Thickness
(13.112)
21TR
( 13. 113)
( 13.114)
Profile Shift
when the distance between the gear axis and the reference
plane of the basic rack is equal to (Rs+e). Due to the
equivalence between the tooth thickness of a spur gear and the
transverse tooth thickness of a helical gear, we can
immediately write down an equation corresponding to
Equation (13.115), relating the profile shift of a helical
gear, and its transverse tooth thickness.
( 13.116)
(13.117)
Normal helix
21TR
dn~ - sin ~R de A n~
R
(13.118)
sin2~R
The normal tooth thickness at any radius R is measured along a
helix known as the normal helix, which is shown in
Figure 13.24 as a line perpendicular to the teeth. Its helix
angle is (?r/2-~R)' and its radius of curvature PnR can
therefore be found from Equation (13.118),
R (13.119)
354 Tooth Surface of a Helical Involute Gear
Span Measurement
t nsch
-::~~~_----l~ Chordal tooth
thickness
S (13.122)
(13.123)
356 Tooth Surface of a Helical Involute Gear
R (13.125)
(13.126)
We follow the same procedure that was used in the case of spur
gears. We express Rb in terms of Rs ' and expand the expression
for S as a power series in (e/R s )' retaining only the first
two terms,
( 13.127)
1 N'ts
N' '2+-71'-+
(seCYlinder
n
80
Ao ~
nx
x
/
Figure 13.27. Transverse section at plane z=O.
(13.131)
(13.132)
( 13. 134)
---.~nD
R
( 13.135)
(13.138)
COA A A Rb A AO
P =Rcos9nx+Rsin9n + (9-9)n (13.139)
y tan ~b z
o (13.140)
The expressions given above for the position vectors and the
unit vector are substituted into Equation (13.140), and we
obtain the following equation for (9 A_e D),
Calculation of R 361
( 1.3. 142)
x~
C A C D
(p 0 _ pO) R sin (eA-e D) (13.144)
cos 1/I R,
R (13.145)
362 Tooth Surface of a Helical Involute Gear
R ( 13.146)
R (13.147)
(13.148)
(13.149)
Rb Rs cos tP ts (13.152)
21rRs
L ( 13.153)
tan IPs
Rb tan IPs
tan IPb ( 13. 154)
Rs
Rb
cos tPtR ( 13.155)
R
R tan IPs
tan IPR ( 13.156)
Rs
Numerical Examples
Example 13.1
A helical gear with 24 teeth has a transverse diametral
pitch of 2, a transverse pressure angle of 20°, and a helix
angle of 23°. Calculate the following quantities: normal
module, normal pressure angle, standard pitch cylinder
radius, base cylinder radius, lead, axial pitch, base helix
angle, and normal base pitch. Also, calculate the generator
inclination angle at the tip cylinder, if the addendum is
equal to the normal module.
as = 0.4603 inches
RT = Rs + as = 6.4603
Example 13.2
A 78-tooth gear has a normal module of 8 mm, a normal
pressure angle of 20D, a helix angle of 30.176°, and a normal
tooth thickness of 12.35 mm. First, determine the axial
pi tch, and then calculate the span measurement, and the
normal tooth thickness at the tip cylinder, if the addendum is
equal to the normal module.
Examples 365
RS = 360.908 mm (13.150)
~ts = 22.832° ( 13.151)
Rb = 332.629 ( 13. 152 )
L = 3900.0 ( 13.153)
Pz = 50.000 mm (13.36)
tts =
14.286 (13.113)
RT = Rs as = 368.908
+
~tT = 25.623° ( 13.155)
ttT = 7.311 (13.114)
"'T = 30.725° (13.156)
tnT = 6.285 mm (13.112)
Chapter 14
Helical Gears in Mesh
Introduction
P~r (14.1)
cos ~~
A Pinion Meshed wi th a Rack 367
tan ¢~r
(14.2)
cos "'~
(14.3)
(14.4)
(14.5)
(14.6)
(14.7)
(14.8)
(14.9)
368 Helical Gears in Mesh
Pnp
sin .pp (14.12)
(14.13)
(14.14)
(14.15)
(14.17)
For a rack with helix angle I/I~, the value of this relative
displacement is equal to (z tan I/I~), as we can see in
Figure 14.1. We therefore substitute this expression for ~ur
in Equation (14.18), and it is immediately clear that the rack
helix angle must be equal to the operating helix angle of the
gear,
1/1'r (14.19)
Plane Plane z
z=Q
Since we have just proved that I/Itp and "'p are equal to I/I tr
and ",~, it is clear that the two normal pressure angles must
also be equal,
(14.20)
Again, we have shown that the transverse pi tches and the helix
angles are equal, so the normal pi tches must also be equal,
(14.21)
= (14.22)
Minimum Condi tions for Correct Meshing 371
and since we have already proved that the normal pitches and
the normal pressure angles are equal, a compar i son of the last
two equations shows that the normal base pitches of the gear
and the rack must be equal,
(14.23)
sin ~~r
P~r cos ~~r Ptr tan ~i:r
We equate the two expressions for the normal base pitches, and
since we have already shown that the transverse pitches and
the transverse pressure angles are equal, we have proved that
the normal pressure angles are also equal. Finally, by
comparing Equations (14.22 and 14.3), we show that the
operating normal pitch of the gear is equal to the normal
pitch of the rack, and we use Equations (14.9 and 14.2) to
prove that the operating helix angle of the gear is equal to
the helix angle of the rack.
In summary, we have shown that when the transverse and
normal base pitches of the gear and the rack are equal, the
other five rack parameters Ptr' P~r' ~tr' ~~r and 1/1~ are equal
to the corresponding quantities of the gear, measured at the
pitch cylinder. Since the transverse base pitches are equal,
we know that the gear and the rack will mesh correctly in the
transverse section at plane z=O. We also proved, in
Equation (14.19), that we obtain the correct relative
displacement of the rack teeth between the transverse
sections at plane z=O and at plane z, if the rack helix angle
is equal to the operating helix angle of the gear. We have now
shown that this condition is satisfied, provided that the
Plane of Act ion 373
transverse base pitch and the normal base pitch of the rack
are equal to those of the gear. We have therefore proved that
the gear and the rack will mesh correctly in the transverse
section at any plane z, and hence throughout the axial length
of the gear.
Plane of Action
(14.24)
Operating transverse
pressure angle <Pt
Plane of action
-1- p
L;Jez
I I
z=O Transverse
~s (14.25)
(14.27)
Rb1
cos ¢tp1 (14.31)
Rp1
376 Helical Gears in Mesh
(14.33)
(14.34)
tan IP121
~81 = z (14.35)
Rp1
tan IP122
~82 z (14.36)
RP2
In Equation (3.55), we gave the relation between the
rotations ~1J1 and ~1J2 of a pair of spur gears,
We have proved that the operating helix angles are equal and
opposite, and that the operating transverse pressure angles
are equal, so a comparison of these equations shows that the
base helix angles are also equal and opposite,
(14.39)
Again, we write down this relation for each gear, making use
of the results already proved, and we show that the normal
base pi tches of the two gears are equal,
(14.40)
Ptp cos Wp
Pnp
sin Wp
tP np1 ( 14.41 )
(14.42)
- Pz2 (14.43)
Imaginary Rack
( 14.44)
(14.45)
From the results proved earlier, we know that the other rack
parameters Ptr' P~r' tP tr ' tP~r' and "'~ are equal to the
corresponding parameters of gear 1, measured at its pitch
cylinder. The same is true of gear 2, except that the helix
angles "'~ and "'p2 are equal and opposite, and thi.s is because
the two gears lie on opposite sides of the imaginary rack
tooth surface.
Imaginary Rack 379
Operating transverse
pressure angle cPt
Plane of action
c
Figure 14.4. Transverse section through a gear pair.
380 Helical Gears in Mesh
Pns (14.48)
Pz sin ~s
Pnb (14.49)
sin ~b
Pz
'ns' 'ts and 1/I s whenever the pitch cylinder radius Rp is equal
to the standard pitch cylinder radius Rs' or in other words,
whenever C is equal to Cs • And in other cases, the values of
'np' 'tp and 1/I p are approximately equal to 'ns' 'ts and 1/I s • In
addition, the operating transverse pressure angle tfl t of the
gear pair, which we showed in Equation (14.34) is equal to the
operating transverse pressure angle 'tp of each gear, is
either equal or approximately equal to 'ts' depending on
whether or not C is equal to Cs •
There is one small difference between spur gears and
helical gears, in regard to the standard center distance. The
values of Cs for a spur gear pair and a helical gear pair are
given by the following two equations,
1
'2(N 1+N 2 )m (14.54)
(N 1+N 2 )mn
2 cos 1/I s (14.55)
Contact Ratio
(14.56)
of the gears in the pair, and ~9p is the angular pitch of the
same gear. We proved in Chapter 4 that we obtain the same
value for the contact ratio, whichever gear we consider.
For a helical gear pair, the contact ratio is defined in
exactly the same manner, but due to the helical nature of the
teeth, the angle of contact ~f3c is found by a different
procedure from that used for spur gears. The ends of the
helical gear are formed by the transverse sections at plane
z=O and plane z=F, where F is the face-width of the gear. We
consider first the contact in the transverse section at plane
z=F. The symbol ~f3p is introduced to represent the rotation of
the gear during one meshing cycle in this transverse section,
and the calculation of ~f3p is therefore identical with the
calculation of ~f3c for a spur gear. However, when the contact
ends for the tooth section at plane z=F, the meshing cycle at
any other transverse section through the same tooth is not yet
finished, due to the helical rotation of the teeth. The tooth
remains in contact until the meshing cycle is completed in the
transverse section at the other end of the gear, in the plane
z=O. I f ~f3F is the angle through which the gear rotates
between the end of the meshing cycle at plane z=F, and the end
of the meshing cycle at plane z=O, the angle ~f3F is equal to
the helical rotation ~9 between the two sections. The value of
~9 between the sections at plane z=O and at plane z was given
by Equation (13.65),
(14.57)
The contact period for one tooth lasts from the initial
contact at plane z=F until the final contact at plane z=O, and
the angle of contact ~f3c is therefore equal to the sum of the
two rotations ~f3p and ~f3F'
( 14.58)
384 Helical Gears in Mesh
(14.59)
and the two terms in this expression are used to define two
new quantities. These are called the profile contact ratio mp
and the face contact ratio mF ,
(14.60)
(14.61)
(14.62)
(14.65)
Contact Ratio 385
211 (14.66)
N
211Rb
(14.67)
N
F tan "'b
(14.68)
Ptb
In Chapter 4, when we discussed the contact ratio of a
pair of spur gears, we suggested that the positions of the
contact points could be pictured as a series of points moving
up the line of action, with those points within the path of
contact representing the contact points. A similar analogy is
possible for the case of a helical gear pair. We imagine a
series of lines moving upwards in the plane of action. Each
line makes an angle "'b with the z axis, as shown in
Figure 14.5, and the vertical spacing between the lines is
equal to the transverse base pitch Ptb. The region of contact
is a rectangle of width F and height ~sc. The lines within
this region represent the contact lines of the gear pair.
The diagram in Figure 14.5 shows the rectangular contact
region, and in addition we have constructed a triangle
T 10 T 1F T', whose sloping side is parallel to the contact
lines, so that the length of the side T 1F T' is equal to
(F tan "'b). This diagram can be used to explain the
significance of the various contact ratios.
The profile contact ratio mp is equal to the length ~sc
divided by the transverse base pitch Ptb' as we showed in
Equation (14.63). It can therefore be interpreted as the
average number of contact lines passing between T2F and T 1F ,
or in other words, the average number of contact points in any
transverse section. The face contact ratio mF , which we
showed in Equation (14.68) is equal to (F tan "'b) divided
386 Helical Gears in Mesh
T'- - - - - - - , -
Region of
=X
contact
lb
Backlash
B (14.69)
Imaginary rack 1
n~ n
Ir-------.I
Ir+-------+-,
Imaginary rack 2
Imaginary rack 1
p
np - t
np1 - t
np2 (14.70)
(14.71)
Backlash 391
E'1
Plane z
Figure 14.9. Common tangent plane
to the base cylinders.
showed that all the generators of a gear make the same angle
"'b with the .gear axis. The plane shown in Figure 14.9 is
tangent to both base cylinders, and it therefore intersects
the tooth surfaces along two parallel straight lines, which
pass through A; andAi. We will show, later in this chapter,
that the normals to the tooth surfaces at A; and Ai lie in
this plane, and that they are perpendicular to the
generators. Hence, the backlash B' along the common normal,
which is defined as the shortest distance between the tooth
surfaces, is equal to the perpendicular distance between the
two generators in Figure 14.9.
If as is the distance between points Ai and Ai in the
transverse section shown in Figure 14.8, then in Figure 14.9,
as is the vertical distance between the two generators. We can
therefore express the backlash along the common normal in
terms of as,
We now consider holding one gear fixed, and rotating the other
to close the gap between Ai and Ai. The relation between the
displacement as and the corresponding rotation ap was given
by Equation (3.60),
Position and Orientation of the Contact Line 393
(14.74)
(14.75)
B' (14.76)
B' (14.77)
B' (14.78)
have been left to the end of the chapter. However, they will
be used in the next chapter, when we discuss the meshing of a
crossed helical gear pair.
We start by specifying the exact directions of the
various sets of unit vectors that will be used in the
analysis. The vectors n x ' ny and n z are fixed in the pinion,
with n z along the gear axis, and nx in the direction of the x
coordinate axis, which coincides with a tooth center-line in
the transverse section z=O, as shown in Figure 14.10. The
vectors n~, nT/ and nS are fixed in the rack, with n~
perpendicular to the rack pitch plane, in the direction from
the pinion towards the rack. The vectors nT/ and nS form a
plane parallel to the pitch plane, and their directions are
perpendicular to and parallel wi th the rack teeth, as shown in
Figure 14.11. We define a new set of fixed unit vectors,
nx(O), ny(O) and nz(O), as the directions of n x ' ny and n z
when the pinion is in the reference position, from which the
angle ~ is measured. For a spur gear, the angular position ~
was defined as the angle between the line CP and the x axis.
In order to remain consistent with that definition, we now
Pitch cylinder
Base cylinder
(14.79)
(14.81)
Tooth
centerline
(14.82)
(14.83)
(14.84)
(14.86)
(14.87)
nnr - cos .pb [sin <l>tp nx(O) + cos <l>tp ny(O)] + sin .pb nz(O)
(14.90)
- fJ - <l>tp (14.91)
G
n", . .1.
- SIn 'l'b sIn
• eG nx + sIn 'l'b cos eG ny + cos .1.'l'b n z (14 • 92)
• .1.
G z=o E z=F
(14.95)
POCO (14.96)
P
~.
2R + lnv cP tp (14.98)
p
(14.99)
(14.100 )
Rb (ttn s nG
-=..I;;.+/J)n + ( 14.101 )
tan "'b 2Rp z sin "'b jJ
(14.103)
Numerical Examples
Example 14. 1
A helical gear pair has a normal module of 8 mm, a normal
pressure angle of 20°, and a helix angle of 30°. The tooth
numbers are 36 and 75, with the pinion having the right-handed
helix. The normal tooth thicknesses are 12.847 mm and
12.750 mm; the tip cylinder diameters are 350.0 mm and
710.0 mm; the face-width is 60.0 mm, and the gears are to
operate at a center distance of 514.0 mm. Calculate the
operating pressure angles, the operating helix angle, the
various types of contact ratio, and the three types of
backlash.
1.400 (14.64)
1.194 (14.68)
2.594 (14.62)
404 Helical Gears in Mesh
Example 14.2
Find the pressure angles, the helix angle, and the
pitches for the imaginary rack which could mesh with the gear
pair specified in the previous example. Also determine the
angle that the contact lines would make with the tooth tips of
the imaginary rack.
Introduction
(15.1)
sin ~~ (15.3)
(1T/2)-"'~
normal section, and the helix angle "'~ between the pinion axis
and the rack teeth is the same in each case, so for each rack
and pinion, the tooth shapes in the regions of the contact
I ines are ident ical.
In order to determine the velocity of the rack in
Figure 15.2, we compare the motions of the two racks when the
pinions have the same angular velocity. The velocity of the
rack in Figure 15.2 can be resolved into two
non-perpendicular components v~ and v~, the first in the
direction perpendicular to the pinion axis, and the second
parallel to the rack teeth, as shown in Figure 15.2. A motion
of the rack in the direction of its teeth would cause no
rotation of the pinion, so the only component of the rack
velocity related directly to the pinion angular velocity
is v~. The value of v~ for the rack in Figure 15.2 is
therefore equal to the velocity of the rack in Figure 15.1,
and the other component v~ must be such that the resultant
velocity is in the direction allowed by the guides. Since the
angle between the component directions is fixed, the
components· v~ and v~ remain in a constant ratio, and a
constant angular velocity of the pinion will therefore
produce a constant velocity of the rack.
To distinguish between the two types of rack shown in
Figures 15.1 and 15.2, we regard each rack as the limiting
case, when the number of teeth becomes infinite, of a gear
whose axis is perpendicular to the direction of motion of the
rack. In the case of Figure 15.1, the axis of this gear is
parallel to the pinion axis, so the rack and pinion can be
thought of as a special case of a parallel-axis gear pair. On
the other hand, the rack in Figure 15.2 is the limiting case
of a gear whose axis is not parallel to the pinion axis, and
the angle between these two axes is shown in the diagram as t.
Since the axes are not parallel, the rack and pinion can be
regarded as a crossed helical gear pair. The two types of rack
and pinion will be referred to as either a parallel-axis, or a
crossed helical, rack and pinion.
The conclusion reached in the earlier discussion,
relating to the velocity of the crossed helical rack, can now
be stated in a more general manner. In a crossed helical rack
and pinion, the relation between the rack velocity and the
Transverse Direction in the Rack 409
We cannot use the same equation for the pinion in Figure 15.2,
because the transverse pitches of the two racks are
different. We therefore use Equation (14.1) to express the
transverse pitch of the rack in Figure 15.1, in terms of its
Pinion pi tch Cylinder 411
normal pitch and its helix angle. We then obtain the following
expression for the pitch cylinder radius,
(15.4)
271' cos I/I~
(15.5)
4>np (15.6)
1/1'r (15.7)
v'r (15.8)
412 Crossed Helical Gears
211' cos("'~-~) W
(15.10)
Chapter 14, and we showed that the normal base pitch and the
transverse base pitch of the rack must be equal to those of
the pinion. The equivalent parallel-axis rack was defined as
a rack with the same normal section as the crossed helical
rack, so their normal base pitches must be equal, and the
normal base pitch of the crossed helical rack must therefore
be equal to that of the gear,
(15.11)
The transverse sections of the two racks are not the same, so
their transverse base pitches are different, and there is no
relation between the transverse base pitch of the crossed
helical rack, and that of the pinion. However, the equivalent
parallel-axis rack was also defined as having the same helix
angle as the crossed helical rack, and we showed that the
helix angle of a parallel-axis rack must satisfy
Equation (15.3). Hence, the helix angle of the crossed
helical rack must satisfy the same equation,
sin 1/Ib
sin 1/1~ (15.12)
cos I/I~r
Axis of
gear 2
(15.17)
416 Crossed Helical Gears
( 15.18)
sin ~~1
(15.19)
sin ~b1
Equations (15.17 and 15.19) can now be solved to give the rack
helix angles,
sin ~b1 sin 2:
tan ~~ 1 (15.20)
(sin ~b1 cos 2: + sin ~b2)
and the normal pressure angle ~~r is then found from Equations
(15.14 or 15.16),
note that they are not parallel. This means that the gears are
in contact at one point only, which is the point where the two
lines intersect.
pi tch Cylinders
Special Solution
(15.28)
sin "'s1
(15.31)
sin "'b1
(15.32)
(15.33)
(15.34)
(15.35)
Pitch cylinder
Imaginary rack of gear 1
(15.36)
(15.38)
(15.39)
(15.40)
(15.41)
nxi (15.44)
n.
yl (15.45)
(15.46)
CO2
--.-----+-+ - - - - - - + - - -+---,-
r Axis of gear 2
Rp2
/,"Pitch plane 2 of
C ---"'----r-'---t--:.;::.......,-----"-....<'---~I imagi nary rack
Pitch plane 1 of
/
Axis of gear 1
imaginary rack
\
Pitch cylinder of gear 1
( 15.47)
(15.48)
Path of Contact
s1 G1
+ . ,t, n (15.50)
Sln "'b1 /.11
( 15.51 )
(15.52)
(15.57)
+ s2 flC p
(15.59)
cos ~b2 sin tP np
s1 s2
cos ~b1 tan ~p1 cos ~b2 tan 1/I P2
cos tP np 1
tan 1/1 ('2 t np1 + RP1 cos 1/I P1 ~ 1 )
p1
cos tP np 1
tan 1/1 ('2 t np2 + RP2 cos 1/I P2 ~2) (15.60)
p2
The first of these three equations gives the relation
between the angular positions ~1 and ~2 of the two gears. The
equation is exactly comparable with Equation (3.56), which
gave the corresponding relation for a pair of spur gears. If
we differentiate the equation with respect to time,
o (15.61)
Ni Pnpi
Rpl. cos 1/1 pl• 2 'IT
The operating normal pitches Pnp1 and Pnp2 are each equal to
the normal pitch of the imaginary rack, and are therefore
equal to each other, so that Equation (15.61) can be
simplified to the following form,
o (15.62)
cos "'b2
1
cos "'b2 + "2t np2 + Rp2 cos "'p2 fj2) (15.68)
AC 1 sl
(. ~ cos'" b1 ) nnr + tan ~np tan "'p1 nS (15.69)
(15.71)
Path of contact
Pitch plane 1 of
imaginary rack Pitch plane 2 of
imaginary rack
flp (15.72)
(15.73)
C01 A1
P (R p1 + sl sin I/Itp1) n x1 (0) + sl cos I/Itp1 ny 1(0)
~C1
(15.74)
I/I np sin 1/I p1 - sl tan 1/Ib1)n z1 (0)
+ (tan
<Ptp1
Path of contact
2 2 (15.75)
v'(R 1-R b1 ) - Rbl tan 4>tpl
(15.76)
(15.77)
(15.78)
(15.79)
Path of contact
{in,,(o)
n y1 (O)
( n,,(O)
Contact Ratio
(15.81)
271')
(if'" Rb1 cos wb1
1
The denominator in this equation is equal to the normal
base pitch of gear 1, as we can see from Equations (13.43
and 13.44),
(15.82)
(15.83)
cos lPb1 Pnb
In this relation, s~l and s~2 are the values of sl at the ends
of the path of contact, or in other words, at the points where
the path of contact intersects the two tip cylinders. The
contact ratio can be calculated most easily if it is expressed
in terms of RT1 and RT2 , the radii of the tip cylinders. In
order to do so, we first use Equation (15.59) to relate s~2
and 52T2 ' resulting in the following expression for mc '
T1 T2
1 sl s2
-( + (15.84)
Pnb cos lPb1 cos lPb2
We then use Equations (15.75 and 15.79) to express sT1 and sT2
1 2
in terms of the tip cylinder radii, and we obtain the final
expression for the contact ratio,
2 2 2 -R 2 )
v(R T2
1 v(R T1 -R b1 ) b2
mc -[ +
Pnb cos lPb 1 cos lPb2
Rb1 tan 4>tE1 Rb2 tan 4>tE2 ACE
] (15.85)
cos lPb1 cos lPb2 sin 4>np
Interference
exactly as they are in the case of a spur gear pair. The first
condition for no interference is that the ends of the path of
contact should lie between E1 and E2 • The end point T2 of the
path of contact is the point where line E1E2 intersects the
tip cylinder of gear 2. The value of s2 at this point is given
by Equation (15.79),
(15.86)
(15.87)
> 0 (15.89)
(15.90)
(15.91)
of gear 1.
It is not generally necessary to carry out this
procedure, since the exact shape of the locus is not
important. The only coordinate which we will need is z~l, and
this can be obtained immediately as the coefficient of n z1 (O)
in Equation (15.77),
Backlash
Imaginary rack 1
Imaginary rack 2
(15.94)
Pitch plane of
imaginary rack 1 Pitch plane of imaginary rack 2
dC p
d<t>~r=<t>np
t nTJ
'n !"'n t 0
p p2 n
:
n(
Imaginary rack 2
(15.96)
(15.97)
The reason for the use of the symbol B1 , rather than simply B,
will be explained shortly. We know, from Equation (14.17),
that the product (Rp1 a p 1 ) is equal to the displacement aU r1 of
an imaginary rack, provided it is only free to move in the
direction perpendicular to the gear axis. Hence, the quantity
B1 is also equal to the imaginary rack displacement,
B1 (15.9B)
cos IPP1
Bn
(15.99)
Backlash 441
(15.100)
B' (15.101)
Sliding Velocity
(15.102)
(15.108)
(15.109)
Numerical Examples
Example 15. 1
A crossed helical gear pair has a shaft angle of 64° and
a center distance of 320.3 mm. The gears have the following
spec i f icat ions: normal module 4 mm; normal pressure
angle 20°; tooth numbers 42 and 95; helix angles 35° and 28°;
tip cylinder diameters 216.3 and 440.3 mm; and normal tooth
thicknesses 7.342 and 6.874 mm. Calculate the contact ratio,
the angle between the two generators which are in contact, and
the backlash.
RS 1 = 102.545 mm
Rs2 = 215.188
~ts1 23.957°
~ts2 = 22.403°
Rb 1 = 93.711
Rb2 198.948
~b1 = 32.615°
~b2 = 26.178°
Pnb = 11.809 (13.105)
tts1 8.963 (13.113)
tts2 = 7.785 (13.113)
Example 15.2
Suppose it is required to increase the contact ratio for
the gear pair specified in Example 15.1. Determine how much
the tip cylinder radius of each gear can be enlarged, without
causing interference, and calculate the new contact ratio.
Assume the gears are cut by a hob with an addendum of 5.40 mm,
and a tooth tip radius of 1.52 mm. Then calculate the minimum
face-width of each gear, assuming the gears may rotate in
either direction.
h = 4.400mm (5.40)
e1 1.455 (13.117)
e 2 = 0.812 (13.117)
Rf1 = 99.820 (5.48)
Rf2 211. 779 (5.48)
RL1 = 99.920
RL2 = 211.879
- 12.080 (15.90)
(15.87)
s~l = - 18.926
T1
sl = 9.838
RT1 = 109.474 mm
(15.85)
- 2.014 (15.65)
- 0.800 (15.92)
2 [ I z 1 Imax + O. 1 mn ] 30.451 mm
1.413 (15.93)
( 16. 1)
In this chapter, we will use the symbol ~Sg for the helix
452 Gear Cutting I I, Helical Gears
Cutting faces
(16.3)
- ~sg (16.4)
(16.5)
. c
lnv 'tp (16.6)
c (16.7)
'tp
Rbg+R bc
(16.8)
cos 'i
where Rbg and Rbc are the two base cylinder radi i.
I~-----,I
I~--I
Figure 16.2. Shaping a helical gear with a rack cutter.
sin "'b
(16.9)
cos I/l nr
and this relation can be used to give the base helix angle "'b
that will be cut in the gear, when the cutter is set at an
angle "'r'
Since the rack cutter has the same shape as the basic
rack, it is an immediate consequence that a gear cut by the
rack cutter is conjugate to the basic rack, and the cutting
pitch cylinder of the gear coincides with its standard pitch
cylinder. The gear parameters Pns and I/l ns are therefore equal
to Pnr and I/l nr on the cutter, and the gear helix angle "'sg is
456 Gear Cutting II, Helical Gears
(16.10)
2 cos "'s
Robbing
Lead angle
~angle
Ash
!/Ish
(16.13)
- 90 0 ( 16.14)
- '"
sh
Hob
Figure 16.4. A hob cutting a gear.
NhWh
Integer closest to (--) (16.15)
Wg
462 Gear Cutting II, Helical Gears
,
,,
A'g,',
,
,,
,, ,
,,
,,
~-------. '
, ,/ Aog
/..,'
0,'
.$,'
-..;,
..... '
Cl)"
0/
.;r,'
af'
.:t,/
A A'
9 9
A A'
19 9
The time interval required for the hob to rotate through one
angular pitch can be expressed in terms of the hob angular
velocity,
T' - T
A A' - A A'
19 9 9 9
tan l/IRg
211'R ( 16.18)
464 Gear Cutting II, Helical Gears
tan IP Rg
l(NhWh - Ng
) ( 16.19)
f Wg
_1_ l(NhWh - Ng
) (16.21 )
f Wg
Pzg
(16.22)
~s (16.23)
(16.24)
(16.25)
and all the other quanti ties are defined on the pitch
cylinders, as indicated by the notation.
We are considering, at present, a hob cutting a gear
blank when the shaft angle ~ is set equal to the standard
value ~s. In this case the cutting pitch cylinders coincide
with the standard pitch cylinders, as we proved in Chapter 15.
If we replace RP1 and Rp2 in Equation (16.25) by Rsg and Rsh '
and set the backlash in Equation (16.24) equal to zero, these
two equations give an expression for the normal tooth
thickness cut in the gear,
(16.26)
horizontal.
The standard shaft angle was defined by
Equation (16.23), as the sum of the gear and the hob helix
angles. We express the helix angle of the hob in terms of its
lead angle, by means of Equation (16.13 or 16.14), and we
obtain the following expression for the standard shaft angle,
,f,
"'sg -
+ 90° - A
sh (16.27)
(16.28)
NhWh
Integer closest to (----) (16.29)
Wg
470 Gear Cutting II, Helical Gears
sin I/I sg l(NhWh )
f - Ng (16.30)
Wg
(16.31)
(16.32)
Index Wg Table
change
gears
Hob
(16.33)
f (16.34)
C·1
k."1 (16.35)
NhC.
Integer closest to ( _ _l) (16.36)
ki
{16.37l
f
Cf (16.38)
(16.40)
(16.41)
Table
Feed
Hob
Wh k 1w1 (16.42)
vh k2kik4kfw3 (16.44)
w2 k2kik4kfkd(-k6)w3 (16.45)
f (16.46)
wh k 1w1
Wg k2k3kiw3
(16.47)
476 Gear Cutting II, Helical Gears
k1
C.
1 k2 k 3 k7
k3 k 7Cf
k1k4 k6 kS
(16.4S)
(16.50)
(16.51)
k. (16.52)
1
Cd sin IPsg
(16.53)
Nh '/I'mn
(16.54)
k. (16.55)
1
(16.56)
(16.57)
Hob
Approximately llT
Tooth profile cut 1- __ _
Approximately llf
by a straight-sided J !
hob
Tooth profile of
involute gear
(16.58)
C (16.59)
(16.60)
(16.61)
Geometric Design of a Helical Gear Pair 485
tan tl>ns
(16.62)
cos "'s
(16.63)
(16.64)
B (16.68)
1
2"(Ptp-B) + tlttp (16.69)
1
2"(Ptp -B) - tlttp (16.70)
e1 1 1 (16.72)
2 tan tI> (tts1- 2"1Tm t )
ts
b s1 ar - e1 (16.73)
486 Gear Cutting II, Helical Gears
b + R - R (16.74)
sl p1 sl
1
mn + 2(b p1 - bp2 ) (16.76)
(16.77)
(16.78)
Once the dimensions of the gear pair are all chosen, the
designer should of course check, as in the design of a spur
gear pair, that there is no interference or undercutting, and
that the contact ratio, the root cylinder clearances, and the
tip cylinder tooth thicknesses are all adaquate.
Gear Cutting II, Helical Gears 487
Numerical Examples
Example 16. 1
A 55-tooth helical gear with normal module 4 mm, normal
pressure angle 20 0 and helix angle 30 0 , is to be cut with a
normal tooth thickness of 6.915 mm. Calculate the cutting
center distance, and the radius of the root cylinder in the
gear, if it is cut by a 32-tooth pinion cutter with a normal
tooth thickness of 6.40 mm, and a tip cylinder diameter of
158.12mm.
Rsg = 127.017 mm
~ts 22.796 0
Rbg = 117.096
ttsg = 7.985 (13.113)
73.901
68. 129
7.390 (13.113)
(16.7)
201.932 mm (16.8)
122.872 mm
Example 16.2
A hobbing machine has an index constant C. of 24, and a
1
differential constant Cd of 25 mm. Calculate the change gear
ratios required to cut a 49-tooth gear with a normal module of
5 mm and a l)elix angle of 23 0 , using a 2-thread hob.
C.=24,
1
Cd =25, Ng =49, Nh =2, mn =5, ~
s
=23 0
488 Gear Cutting II, Helical Gears
40.201 mm (16.20)
Example 16.3
When lead screws and other transfer mechanisms are
converted from inches to mms, it is sometimes necessary to
introduce a factor of 25.4 into their drives. This factor
requires a gear with 127 teeth, which is difficult to cut
using conventional change gear ratios, because 127 is a prime
number, and most sets of change gears do not contain gears
with more than 120 teeth. Use Equations (16.55 and 16.56) to
choose the ratios to cut a 127-tooth spur gear wi th a
single-thread hob, when the hobbing machine has a feed rate of
0.020 inches, and the machine constants Ci and Cd are 24 and
0.5 inches.
(24/41) x (31/96)
- (1/31) (16.55)
0.8064516 (16.56)
Introduction
w (17.1)
n~ = cos "'b [sin t/ltp nx(O) + cos t/ltp ny(O)] - sin "'b nz(O)
(17.2)
(17.3)
(17.4)
(17.5)
Contact Length
Plane of action
Tip cylinder of gear 1 Base cylinder
of gear 2
Base cylinder
of gear 1
_1_ (17.6)
Ptb F tan "'b
Contact Length 493
T 20 T2
I I
z=O Plane z
I. F
(17.8)
Ptb
n int(f) (17.9)
n int(m-e) (17.10)
e
(17.11)
n int(mc-e) (17.12)
ce
(17.13)
(17.14)
(17.15)
< 2 (17.16)
T10 "'b
(m p -1)Ptb T1F
Q'0 Q'F
(2 - mp)Ptb
A~mFPtb
QO QF
(mp -1)Ptb
T201 •
F
.I T2F
Figure 17.5. Minimum contact length for gear pairs
wi th mF S; 2 - mp
(17.17)
F
L . (17.18)
cmln cos "'b
Minimum and Maximum Values for Lc 497
(1 - mF)Ptb
T 10 "'b
T1F
!
r
Ptb
00
T2°1.
-t-
0 (2- mp)Ptb
O'F AF
OF
t2F
mFPtb
(m F + mp - 2)Ptb
< (17.19)
L .
F + Ptb (m +m -2)
cmln cos 1/I b sin 1/Ib F P
L .
cmln (17.20)
> (17.21)
Gear pairs that fall within this category are known as normal
helical gear pairs, since most helical gear pairs are
designed with a face contact ratio larger than 1.
The region of contact for a gear pair of this type is
shown in Figure 17.8, with the contact lines in the positions
(17.22)
(17.23)
L .
cmln
(17.25)
2F (17.26)
cos IItb
~
T O...--------r----",T1F
mFPtb 1 0'0 O'F
Ptb!
-----..:::::....---'f
00
T20 1,.....
OF--hm p -1 )Ptb
2F-f
< (17.27)
F '" (17.28)
mF cos b (mc -1)
(17.29)
(m F -n FP -l)pz
I' 'I
T 10 ,-----r------r-----..,.,T, F
0 /0 O/F
T201:-.
QO QF=*m p -l)ptb
--"-----.T=I---~~f2F
(m F - mp)pz mppz
Contact Stress
(itA
----.~nz
/ G
/ np' /"(3lPcl
.Y-~"""'::"~ ~
Pt2W
/ Pc2
~--".L:"""""'~~ A cos r/lb
Ptl~e~
-+--- COSr/lb
Pel
Transverse section
G E
I
Transverse plane z
(17.32)
Plane of action
cPt
c
Figure 17.13. Radii of curvature in the transverse section.
(17.35)
C sin 'np
Cp v' [ w ( P P )] (17.36)
t 1 t2
Contact Stress 505
(17.38)
s (17.39)
(17.40)
(17.41)
(17.42)
Contact Stress 507
(17.43)
(17.44)
C v[w(--1-- + __1__ )]
P Pc 1 Pc 2
(17.45)
(17.46)
(17.47)
cos 21/1 p
and the radii of the root circle and the tip circle are then
found as follows,
Rroot,e (17.48)
Rd e + a p (17.49)
N
(17.50)
cos 31/1 p
The base pitch Pbe of the equivalent spur gear is equal
to (Pde cos ~de)' and since Pde and ~de are chosen equal to
Pnp and ~np' the base pitch is equal to the normal base pitch
Pnb of the helical gear,
(17.51)
the standard pitch circle, and the radius Rbe of the base
circle, are then given by Equations (2.30 and 2.20), where the
module and the pressure angle now have the values mn and q,ns'
(17.52)
(17 .53)
(17.54)
(17.55)
(17.56)
cos 31/1 p
The radius Rsce of the standard pitch circle in the equivalent
cutter is given by Equation (2.30),
(17.57)
and the radius RTce of the tip circle is found by adding the
addendum of the helical cutter,
(17.58)
R
root,e + R
Tce (17.59)
(17.60)
(17.61)
O.Smn tan Yw
--.:..:....-----"-) ]max (17.64)
y
R2 R2 [v'(R2_R2) - 2
w b
+
T b (m p -1)ptb 1 (17.66)
T1F
Q';)m p - 1lPtb
( 17 • 68)
When mF > 1,
F
Lc Lcmax mF cos ~b [m p (n FP +2) + (mF-nFP-2)(nF-nFP)]
(17.69)
518 Tooth Stresses in Helical Gears
(17.70)
(17.71)
0.5mn tan Yw
----'''----.!!.) ] max (1 7 • 72 )
Y
Numerical Examples
Example 17.1
The pinion described in Example 16.1 is meshed with a
124-tooth gear at a center distance of 415.0 mm. Calculate the
normal tooth thickness of the pinion at its pitch cylinder.
Then determine the parameters of the equivalent spur gear for
the pinion, and calculate the tooth thickness tde of this spur
gear at its defining circle.
RS1 = 127.017 mm
~ts 22.796°
Rb 1 = 117.096
ttS1 = 7.985 (13.113)
Rp 1 = 127 • 5 14
qltp = 23.321° (13.155)
~ = 30.097° (13.156)
P
ttp1 = 7.592 (13.114)
t np1 = 6.569 mm (13.112)
269.693 (17.59)
20.585° (5.11)
268.678 (5.16)
Example 17.2
Two helical gears are cut by a hob with normal diametral
pitch 4, normal pressure angle 20°, addendum 0.333 inches,
and tooth tip radius 0.107 inches. The gears are cut with
helix angles of 25°, and the face-width of each gear is 1.2
inches. The tooth numbers are 65 and 136, the profile shift
values are 0.1797 and 0.0872 inches, and the tip cylinder
diameters are 18.8 and 38.2 inches. The gears are meshed at a
Examples 521
mn = 0.2500 inches
Rs1 = 8.9649
Rs2 = 18.7574
..
"'ts = 21 . 880 0
Rb1 = 8.3192
Rb2 = 17.4062
~b = 23.399 0 ( 13. 154 )
Ptb = 0.8042 (13.43)
~t = 23.254 0 (14.30)
mF 0.6457 (17.6)
mp 1.4736 (17.7)
mc 2. 1194 (17.8)
RP1 = 9.0547
Rp2 = 18.9453
~p = 25.219 0
tP tp 23.254 0
.."'np = 21 • 244 0
ktl = 1.4134
0tl = 30850 psi (17.71)
kt2 = 1.5515
0t2 = 33870 psi (17.71)
Example 17.3
Repeat the calculation shown in Example 17.2, with the
following differences. The face-width is increased to 2.4
inches, and the torque applied to the pinion is increased to
100000 lb-inches.
F=2.4, Ml =100000
mF = 1.2914 (17.6)
mc = 2.7651 ( 17.8)
Lcmin = 3.5741 inches (17.24)
Lcmax 4.1643 inches (17.30)
Pt1 = 3.5749 (17.41)
Pt2 = 7.4797 (17.42)
kc = 0.2524 (17.44)
W 13098 lbs ( 17.3)
Fm = 21829 psi
-.!L
n
kt2 = 1.4336
O't2 = 31290 psi (17.71)
Addendum c i rc Ie 45
Addendum, measured from the standard pitch circle 45
measured f rom the pi tch c i rc Ie 76
Addendum modification 168
Angle of contact 83
Angles of approach and recess 89
Angular pi tch 83
Axial assembly of internal gear pairs 275
Axial contact ratio 386
Backlash, in a spur gear pair 97
in a helical gear pair 387
in a crossed helical gear pair 437
Balanced strength design 162
Base cylinder, of a spur gear 28,78
of an internal gear 262
of a hel ical gear 323
Base helix 335
Base helix angle 323
Base pitch, of a spur gear 35
transverse, normal 326,346
Basic rack, for gears in general 23
for involute gears 24
for helical gears 309
Bearing reactions, crossed helical gears 445
Center distance, in a spur gear pair 20
in a crossed helical gear pair 414
Chordal addendum 193
Chordal tooth thickness, of spur gears 193
of helical gears 352
Clearance 77
Close-mesh operation 100
Conjugate profiles 23
528 Index
Fillet 48
Fillet circle 91,138
Fillet shape, cut by a rack cutter 212
of an undercut gear 216
cut by a pinion cutter 221
of internal gears 283
Fillet stress, in spur gears 248
in helical gears 508
Form cutting 110
Form diameter 177
Gear-tooth vernier caliper 192
Generating cutting 112,122
Generator 331
Generator inclination angle 341
Geometric design, of spur gear pairs 155
of internal gear pairs 294
of helical gear pairs 483
Geometry factor kc 247,507
Geometry factor k t 252,518
Geometry factors I and J 254,518
Helical factor 513
Helical gears 303
Helix 318
Hel ix angle, of a gear 321
of a rack 309
of a crossed helical rack 408
Highest point of single-tooth contact 174
Hobbing machine gear train layout 469
Hobbing, of spur gears 128
of helical gears 457
Imaginary rack 72,378
Interference, in a spur gear pair 91
in an internal gear pair 271
in a helical gear pair 387
in a crossed helical gear pair 434
Interference points 97
Internal gears 9,259
Inverse involute function 32
Involute 27
Involute function 30
530 Index
Spur gears 7
Standard center distance, of a spur gear pair 74
of a helical gear pair 381
of a crossed helical gear pair 419
Standard cutting center distance 120
Standard pi tch cyl inder, of a spur gear 25,78
of a helical gear 313
Standard shaft angle 419
Stress concentration factor 249
Swivel angle 130,467
Threads on a hob 128,479
Tip circle 44
Tip interference 272
Tip relief 220
Tooth thickness 41
transverse, normal 350
Tooth thickness measurement, of spur gears 191
of internal gears 297
of helical gears 352
Total contact ratio 384
Transverse section, through a gear 312
through a rack 309
through crossed helical gears 409
Undercut circle 142,179
Undercutting, in a spur gear 140
in an internal gear 288
in a helical gear 387
Vectors, use of 306
Very low face contact ratio gear pairs 496
Whole depth of teeth 45
Working depth 77