Practice

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Hu. Shu-Chen. How to practice in an efficient wav. Master o f Music
Education, May, 1999, 114 pp., one appendix, bibliography, 89 titles.
Two major areas concerning the problems o f practice are discussed.
One is that poor practice often results from misunderstanding the nature o f
practice. Practicing often relegates itself to mindless repetition. The second
problem is that the student often has a vague definition of piano technique.
All technique should be a means of expression, not just an isolated physical
exercise. Therefore, the purpose o f this thesis was to understand the nature
o f practice and to develop a suggested practice routine which incorporates
both technical and musical aspects. Two recommendations, strategies toward
effective practice and an ideal practice sessions, serve as a practice outline
and reference for both piano teacher and student. An appendix presents a
collection o f the thoughts and viewpoints on practicing from forty-four
internationally acclaimed pianists.
HOW TO PRACTICE IN AN EFFICIENT WAY
Shu-Chen Hu, B.S.
APPROVED:
Minor Professor
------
Committee Member
Cnaip-ef the Diyisior

ision o f the Music Education
JL.
Dean o f the College o f Music
Dean o f the Robert B. Toulouse School o f Graduate

Studies
HOW TO PRACTICE IN AN EFFICIENT WAY
THESIS
Presented to the Graduate Council of the
University o f North Texas In Partial
Fulfillment o f the Requirements
For the Degree o f
MASTER OF MUSIC EDUCATION
By
Shu-Chen Hu, B.S.
Denton, Texas
May, 1999
UMI Number: 1395655
Copyright 1999 by
Hu, Shu-Chen
AH rights reserved.
UMI Microform 1395655

Copyright 1999, by UMI Company. All rights reserved.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Chapter
I. INTRODUCTION.................................................................. 1
II. RELATED STU D IES............................................................. 10
m . THOUGHTS AND VIEWPOINTS ON PRACTICING 17
The Nature o f Practice

The Definition o f Technique
The Definition o f Talent
IV. METHODS OF PRACTICING.............................................. 47
Concentration
Interest, Conscious Mind and Awareness
Mental Attitude
Time Management
V. CONCLUSION........................................................................ 58
Recommendations:
Strategies Toward Effective Practice
Five Stages o f an Ideal Practice Session
Implications for Teaching
APPENDIX:
GREAT PIANISTS: THOUGHTS AND VIEWPOINTS
ON PRACTICING........................................................... 75
BIBLIOGRAPHY.................................................................................. 107
C H A PT E R I
INTRODUCTION
Rationale
Pianist Vladimir Horowitz said . [piano] technique is know
how.” 1 However, as a piano student for many years, I have discovered that
most o f my fellow students do not know exactly how to achieve the
technique of practice. Rather, we spend hours and hours in the practice
room moving our muscles mechanically, but seldom think o f the nature o f
piano technique in terms o f practicing. Professor Nelita True, Chairperson
o f the Piano Department at the Eastman School o f Music, states:
I would hope that the student would learn how to use

practice time effectively, solidify technique, and develop aural
sensitivity. In addition, the student should learn what questions
to ask of the music to increase awareness, thus becoming
conscious o f not only what is on the page, but what is implied in
the score.2
1 Helen Epstein, Music Talks: Conversations with Musicians (New York:

Penguin Books, 1988) 12.
2 James W. Bastien, How to Teach Piano Successfully (California: Neil A. Kjos,
1988)318.
2
Wanda Landowska, the famous harpsichordist, has said that there is
too much moving o f the fingers - too much practicing and not enough
studying.
If everyone knew how to work, everyone would be a

genius! I hate the word PRACTICE. Practice breeds inurement.
Instead o f discovering, o f distinguishing traits that are deeply
hidden or merely veiled, one ends up seeing nothing anymore.
One ceases to be aware.
To be aware, to be conscious at all times is what appears to
me the worthiest in my thoughts and in my work. While
interpreting, even at the most impetuous moments when a musical
phrase overflows with passion I want to remain conscious. I may
forget a liberty I took at one place or another, but this does not
change in any way my state o f consciousness, which is always on
the alert.3
Students must recognize that the amount of time spent at an
instrument does not necessarily mean improvement will occur. Every time
a student sits down at the keyboard, practice moments must be filled with
musical rewards and pleasures, mentally, physically and musically. It is the
quality o f time spent that seems to dictate the quality and rate of progress.
Unfortunately, only a few students know how to make the most of their
practice sessions.
3 Wanda Landowska, Landowska on Music (New York: Stein & Day, 1963) 63.
The notion o f practice conjures up a variety o f compelling images and
feelings. For many students, practice arouses dread and memories o f long
hours spent confined in the practice room with books o f exercises. They
find practicing a constant challenge to their physical, mental, and emotional
capabilities. It is because they focus on the technical aspect o f practicing
more than the musical aspect o f practicing. They do learn about technique;
however, they do not know how to develop this technique into musical
sensitivity.
However well-intentioned, books alone cannot give recipes for how
to practice. Because practice experience depends on the ability to control
what happens consciously moment by moment, each person has to achieve
it on the basis o f his own individual efforts and creativity.
Indeed, there are innumerable books and dissertations on piano
technique. However, most o f the studies make an effort to compare the
different schools o f piano technique. Only a few o f them really deal with
piano technique in relation to practicing. An early study by Wicinski based
on interviews with ten musicians, clearly identified three separate stages in
the practice process. The first stage was devoted to obtaining knowledge o f
the music and developing preliminary ideas o f how the piece should be
4
performed. The next stage consisted in most instances o f “hard work” on
technical problems. The third stage focused on a fusion o f the ideas
elaborated at the first stage and the technical skill acquired at the second.
This study also indicates that all musicians may not approach the task of
practicing in the same way.
Manturzeska4 found that high and low achievers among pianists
(competition participants with different levels o f success and Academy o f
Music students with no international competition experience) differ
significantly in the way they report organizing their work. The prize winners
practice more efficiently and systematically even though they might spend
less actual time in the practice room, and schedule their daily and weekly
practice around other duties and leisure time.
Another study concerning the different stages of a practice session
was conducted by Miklaszewski.5 This case study focuses on a single
musician and highlights his way o f practice as a problem-solving activity.
The subject in the study has the tendency to practice longer compositions by
4 Maria Manturzewska, “Results o f Psychology Research on the Process o f

Music Practicing and Its Effective Shaping.” Council for Research in Music Education
Bulletin 54: 59-61.
5 Kacper Miklaszewski, “A Case Study o f a Pianist Preparing a Musical
Performance.” Psychology o f Music 17: 95-109.
5
dividing the works into short units. At the same time, more complex
textures lead him to select shorter fragments for separate practice, and to
make more divisions o f the musical material. However, this research study
casts no further light on the question o f individual diversity in practice
behavior.
The level o f expertise seems to have an effect on the efficiency o f
practice. Gruson6 examines differences in practicing between professional
and student musicians. This study found that the most expert musicians
repeated longer sections, spent more time practicing, played hands
separately and verbalized more often. The single most characteristic
behavior o f the more advanced players was repeating sections longer than a
measure. Ericsson, Tesch-Romer and Krampe7 further suggested that the
level o f expertise achieved is directly related to the amount o f practice
undertaken.
6 Linda M. Gruson, “Rehearsal Skill and Musical Competence: Does Practice

Make Perfect?” In J. A. Sloboda (ed.), Generative Process in Music: The Psychology of
Performance. Improvisation and Composition (New York: Oxford University Press,
1988)91-112.
7 Karl Ericsson, C. Tesch-Romer and R. Krampe, “The Role o f Practice and
Motivation in the Acquisition o f Expert-Level Performance in Real Life.” In Michael. J.
A. Howe (ed.), Encouraging the Development of Exceptional Skills and Talents
(Leicester: BPS Books, 1990) 58-72.
6
The notion o f mental practice means rehearsing a skill by “thinking it
through,” without the benefit o f physical activity. Mental practice has been
a favorite research topic in sports psychology. Ross8 explores the potential
o f mental rehearsal in music. He examined the relative effectiveness of
mental practice in improving trombone performance. The study suggests
that the use o f mental with physical practice can accrue many benefits for
the skilled trombonist. Undoubtedly, physical practice continues to play a
crucial part in muscular development. However, this study suggests that
mental practice, in combination with traditional physical practice, can be an
efficient and effective type o f experience.
Other studies are more concerned with playing skills than with
practice skills. Researchers have discovered that the majority of
professional pianists approached the task by reading musical patterns while
most o f the non-professionals read the music note-by-note.
According to the above studies, we understand that systematic
practice methods will lead to productive practice results. However,
although there have been many studies concerning the different methods o f
8 Stewart Ross, “The Effectiveness of Mental Practice in Improving the

Performance o f College Trombonists.” Journal o f Research in Music Education 22:
221-30.
Reproduced with permission o f the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
7
practice, there are no studies attempting to explore the nature o f practice.
The content o f practice needs to be adapted to fit the individual needs of the
student in terms o f both technique and musicianship. Consequently, the
nature o f practice should include both musical practice and technical
practice. The majority o f these studies, however, focus on the methods of
technical practice rather than those o f musical practice.
Purposes and Problems
Two major areas concerning the problems o f practice need to be
addressed. One is that poor practice often results from misunderstanding the
nature o f practice. Practicing often relegates itself to mindless repetition.
Practice must be achieved through concentrated mental activity, not
mechanical repetition. William Newman has said in his book, The Pianist’s
Problems, “Practice what and only what is needed.”9 Nonetheless, there are
many basic rules of what to practice. Teachers may tell students how long
they have to practice and what kinds of exercises they need to practice.
However, teachers fail to consider individual diversity in practicing
9 William Newman, The Pianist’s Problems (New York: Harper & Brothers,
1950) 109.
8
activities. Each student has different sized hands, different strengths and
weaknesses, different personalities, and different goals which need to be
achieved. The student has to be taught not only what to play but also how
to practice, how to think, and how to organize his process o f practicing.
The student needs to learn how to conceptualize the problem o f why, when
and how to practice.
The second problem is that the student often has a vague definition of
piano technique. Many parents, teachers, and students still believe that if
technique is repeated regularly, day in and day out for several years, the
piano student will wake up one morning a technically well-equipped
performer. This is because the real meaning o f piano technique has been
twisted. Piano technique should be mental work, not just an isolated
physical exercise. All technique ought to be a means o f expression. Hence,
the sum total of organized motions would be considered one o f the
important ingredients o f piano technique. Consequently, achieving a well-
balanced piano technique, mentally and physically, is the most crucial task
for all pianists.
The purpose o f this thesis, therefore, is twofold: 1) to identify the
problems o f practicing by understanding the nature o f practice, that is, to
conceptualize the problem o f why, when and how to practice, and 2) to
develop a suggested practice routine which incorporates both technical and
musical aspects.
C H A P T E R II
RELATED STUDIES
There have been numerous studies deal with the issue o f practice. In
this chapter, information about some o f these studies will be organized by
posing three questions and answering them.
1. How much time does the pianist really require for study?
A number of studies have suggested that to acquire expertise on a
musical instrument requires extensive time in practice. Bloom10, in research
investigating several areas o f expertise including music, suggested that
generally sixteen years of practice were required to achieve excellence.
Bloom found out that twenty-five hours o f weekly practice was typical
during adolescence; for those wanting to achieve a performance career,
weekly practice increased to as many as fifty hours. Ericsson, Tesch-Romer
and Krampe11 further suggested that the level o f expertise achieved is
directly related to the amount o f practice undertaken. However, caution is
10 B. Bloom, Developing the Talent in Young People (New York: 1985) 85-91.
11 Ericsson, Tesch-Romer and Krampe, 58-72.
10
11
required in interpreting these findings, as analysis has been restricted to
those successful in the field, not taking into account individuals who may
have undertaken extensive practice and yet been unsuccessful.
Further doubts regarding the notion that the amount of practice alone
is sufficient to predict the level o f expertise achieved comes from research
by Sloboda and Howe,12 who found that music students judged as ‘better’
than their peers had practiced less in childhood. Hallam 13 also
demonstrated that individual characteristics relating to specialized abilities
and motivation were crucial in determining whether a student persevered
sufficiently to enable the acquisition o f a high level o f expertise. So while
there is some consensus that time spent practicing is an important element
in the development o f expertise, it is not the sole factor in achieving a high
degree o f proficiency.
According to these research studies, however, there is also general
consensus that the optimum length o f practice time for a serious student is
sessions o f forty minutes to an hour, followed by a break. Most o f the
musicians felt that after this amount o f time concentration waned. There is
' 12 John Sloboda and Michael Howe, “Biographical Precursors o f Musical

Excellence: An Interview Study.” Psychology o f Music 19: 3-21.
13 Susan Hallam, “Professional Musicians’Orientations to Practice: Implications
for Teaching.” British Journal o f Music Education 12: 3-19.
12
another general consensus that three hours a day was the maximum that
would be beneficial.
2. What are the different stages o f a practice session?
A study by Wicinski was based on interviews with ten musicians.
Seven of them clearly identified three separate stages in their work. The
first stage was devoted to acquiring knowledge o f the music and developing
preliminary ideas regarding interpretation. The second stage generally
consisted o f practice designed to acquire technical mastery, while the third
stage integrated technical skills with musical ideas to arrive at the final
interpretation. The second group o f pianists was not able to separate any
stages in their work. They claimed to work in an almost undifferentiated
way from the beginning o f the process to its successful end. While very
limited, this research indicated that musicians may not all approach the task
o f practicing in the same way, but that a majority seems to work more
efficiently by using definite stages.
Manturzeska14 found that high achievers (competition participants
with different level o f success) and low achievers (Academy o f Music
students with no international competition experience) among pianists differ
14 Manturzewska, 59-61.
13
significantly in the way they report organizing their work. The forty-one
subjects chosen for investigation were entrants in an international Chopin
piano competition in Warsaw. Three control groups were included:
students o f the Academy of Music in Warsaw (pianists), students of
musicology, and students o f psychology and geography at Warsaw
University. Manturzeska discovered that prize winners seem to work much
more systematically but often not so intensively as other students. The
acknowledged performers . They seem to practice with much more
regularity in daily and weekly schedules and give practice priority over
other duties and leisure in their lives. This research indicates that although
perceptual musical abilities are indispensable to achieve success in piano
playing, they do not suffice to ensure such success. Next to musical
abilities there are personality traits (ability to concentrate, tolerance to
stress, persistence, meticulousness and achievement need), powerful music
motivations, intelligence, and early start o f music schooling that determine
success in piano playing.
Another research study concerning the different stages of a practice
session was done by Miklaszewski.15 In his study o f a single piano student
15 Miklaszewski, 95-109.
14
in the early stages o f learning Debussy’s Prelude, Feux d’Artifice, he found
that the student acquired a general overview o f the work while technical
practice was undertaken. Progress was continuously evaluated leading to
different passages from the music receiving attention at different times. In
the early stages o f practice, the sections worked on reflected the structural
complexity o f the music. The length o f the section was determined by the
complexity o f the texture, i.e., the more complex the music the shorter the
sections. As practice progressed, the observed activity included playing
alternatively in fast and slow tempi. This interesting observational study
highlighted the fact that practice is essentially a problem-solving activity.
However, focusing on a single musician, the research cast no further light
on the question o f individual diversity in practice behavior.
Gruson16 examined differences in practicing between professional and
student musicians. She recorded the practice o f forty piano students and
three concert pianists. This study indicates that there are changes in
practicing behavior as expertise develops. She found that the beginning
student tends to perceive a piece as an undefined form consisting o f a series
o f independent notes which, with practicing, he or she is able to execute in a
16 Gruson, 91-112.
15
more automated fashion. The expert musician, however, tends to approach
a piece from the top down. He or she is more likely to break the piece down
into hierarchically organized patterns, differentiating it, for example, into a
number o f independent but linked sections. The result o f this research
indicates that with increasing skill, on a cognitive level, pianists are able to
describe a wider variety o f practicing strategies and that these strategies are
more complex, more abstract, and more flexible.
3. Is a combination o f mental and physical practice as good or better than
physical practice alone?
Mental practice is a rehearsing skill of “thinking it through,” without
the benefit o f physical activity. The vast majority of mental practice
experiments have utilized skills found in a variety of sports, such as
basketball, volleyball, gymnastics, tennis, and swimming. In many cases,
musicians have the same problems as athletes; both are often guilty o f
failing to analyze their first mistakes and forming poor habits that may take
hours o f torturous practice to correct.
Stewart Ross 17 explored the potential o f mental rehearsal in music.
The study examined the relative effectiveness o f mental practice in
17 Ross, 221-30.
16
improving trombone performance. The experiment involved 30 trombonists
from three colleges. They were randomly assigned to one of five
experimental practice conditions: 1) all physical practice, 2) all mental
practice, 3) a combination of physical and mental practice, 4) mental
practice with simulated slide movement, and 5) no practice (control). The
results o f the study suggest that the use o f mental with physical practice can
accrue many benefits for the skilled trombonist. Based on the findings o f
this study, a combination of mental and physical practice was found to be
more useful than all-physical practice.
No doubt, maximizing the time spent in practicing, recognizing the
different stages of practice, facilitating memorization and utilizing mental
practice are very important issues in improving practice. However, a much
more significant issue deals with the students’ comprehension o f the nature
of practice. Understanding what practice involves and setting goals will
reduce the confusion about practice and improve the efficiency of time
spent in the practice room. Unfortunately, the reality is that students often
neglect to pay attention to the nature o f practice.
CHAPTER III
THOUGHTS AND VIEWPOINTS ON PRACTICING
The Nature o f Practice
Practice must precede performance. Piano performance is not just a
contest to determine how fast one can move the fingers, or make
tremendous sound. Indeed, piano performance should involve musical
understanding, appreciation, enjoyment and technical achievement to
present musical ideas. Preparing for a performance takes a great deal of
musical experimentation. In some ways it is like writing an essay; a writer
researches ideas, generates ideas from his research, and then selects,
organizes, expresses, edits and rewrites his ideas. Likewise, a piano
performer follows the same process: researching the ideas o f a composition
first, then organizing the research into his interpretation of the actions of
practicing by experimenting, adjusting, correcting, and refining various
parts of his performance. Therefore, practicing should not simply repeat the
movements until one “gets it right.”
17
18
Understanding the Nature o f Practice
The student who understands the nature o f practice is more likely to
practice efficiently. The teacher plays a major role in leading the student
toward understanding by developing awareness or consciousness o f the
practicing mode and comprehension o f the learning process as it relates to
practice. Therefore, to foster the pianist’s awareness o f how to practice, the
teacher should approach the student as a participant in an exploration, not as
a robot to be commanded. If the thought processes which lead to fine music
making are not included at lessons, they will not be characteristic o f
practice sessions.
During lessons, the teacher should discuss problems and solutions
and offer suggestions on efficient practice. Exploring music with the
student, the teacher should involve the student in experimentation by
suggesting alternatives and encouraging independent judgment and
decisions. During the exploration, goals should become evident.
The thinking role o f the student is emphasized time and again by
Tobias Matthay in his book Musical Interpretation: Its Laws and Principles,
and Their Application in Teaching and Performing.
19
Good teaching consists not in trying to make the pupil do

things so that the result o f his efforts shall seem like playing, but
consists in trying to make him think, so that it shall really be
playing . . .
Undoubtedly, one o f the first things we have to combat in
a pupil is the wish to be saved all trouble and effort, and to have
the “learning” done by the teacher. . . This attitude must be at
once kindly but firmly combated. With regard to the pupil, not
only is brain-use (i.e., reasoning) imperative during the practice-
hour when there is no help available from outside. How often
indeed do we find the pupil’s work brought back worse than at a
preceding lesson . . . And why is this so? Simply, because the
pupil in the interval, instead o f really practicing, has tried with
might and main to make him self (or herself) into an automatic
strumming-machine. Yes, often it is the pupil’s fault . . . But
believe me, far more often still, it is the teacher’s fault, owing to
his not having correctly shown the student how to use his brains
during practice . . .
The first thing to do then, is to give the pupil a clear idea of
what does constitute real practice . . . Realize that the average
student has a fixed idea that piano-practiceis a purely gymnastic
exercise —he lives in the hope that by going over the ground often
enough, the piece may at last “do itself’ without his thinking at
all —a mere exercising therefore o f the muscles concerned.18
Reverse role-playing can be useful in encouraging a student to think
during his practice time. At a lesson the teacher can demonstrate practicing
processes by assuming the role o f the student and, at the same time, offering
18 Tobias Matthay, Musical Interpretation: Its Laws and Principles and Their
Application in Teaching and Performing (Boston: Boston Music Co., 1913) 2-4.
20
explanations for what he is doing, i.e., exposing the thinking behind the
doing.
As a result o f the explorative discussions and the practice
demonstrations, a student should begin to internalize his teacher’s
approaches and attitudes. While practicing, he might play the role o f the
teacher, even talking to himself. If he is practicing well, he will not feel that
he is merely following his teacher’s dictates or imitating his teacher’s
gestures. He will be exploring possibilities for himself.
A student’s practice will benefit greatly from an understanding o f two
facts about the learning process: 1) that the progression toward a goal has
times of plateau and deterioration is unavoidable, and 2) that there is no
finish line marked “perfection.” It is not to be regretted that deterioration is
inevitable. When thoughtfully evaluated, falling back is actually desirable.
If a student believes that progress will always take place step-by-step, he is
bound to become frustrated. Learning, especially musical learning, calls
constantly for re-thinking, re-working, re-evaluation. The deterioration
provides the opportunity for fresh thought and approaches, and leads to a
more secure performance in the end. With the reinforcement necessitated
21
by deteriorating, musical goals become clearer and slippage becomes less
and less o f a problem. Gyorgy Sandor writes:
If we practice a new passage twelve times at the first

practice session, we may find that at the beginning o f the second
practice session it feels as if we had never seen it before. But
after five or six repeats it will go as well as it did at the end of the
twelve repetitions in the first practice session. The third session
will require two or three repetitions, and most likely you will
know the passage the fourth time you try it. But we want to
accomplish more than just this! The number o f repetitions
applies only to the basic learning processes; additional repetitions
should enable us to improve the passage interpretatively as well
as technically.19
The second factor in practice that the student and teacher must
address is the achievement of perfection. The student must realize that
perfection is not the goal. Instead, the student should be striving for an
advanced stage in the infinite search for musical communication. To
believe that perfection is a condition that can be reached and pinned down is
to place a limitation on one’s potential achievement. A work o f musical art
opens up infinitely as one searches for its message and the means to reveal
it to others. If the student aims only to package and preserve a fine
19 Gyorgy Sandor, On Piano Plaving (New York: Simon & Schuster Macmillan,
1995) 185.
22
performance, his interpretation will become stale, i.e., less convincing to
both himself and his listeners. The mind and the heart must remain alive to
the music’s demands and promises.
Misconceptions
The remark is often heard, from piano students who have just listened
to a piano recital: “I would give anything in the world to play like that!”
However, it is so often that students ignore the question o f what and how
the great pianist has done in his practice. That is because most students do
not quite understand the nature of practice. According to Donald Payne20
and some other sources, there are six misconceptions about practice.
Misconception 1:
Practice is essentially a physical activity.
Practice is both a physical and a mental activity. According to
Eugene Albulescu8, practicing demands at least fifty percent of the mind’s
effort. Students usually think that a beautifully controlled performance
20 Donald Payne, “Teaching Students to Practice,” The Piano Quarterly 132:

27-28.
21 Elizabeth Hintch, “Bringing Young Audiences to Classical Concerts,” Clavier
September 1997: 10.
23
requires a well-trained playing mechanism; they fail, however, to consider
that this training must be achieved through concentrated mental activity, not
merely mechanical repetition. Although the physical activity involved in
playing may become automated to a high degree, the conscious mind must
continue to monitor and direct it, and lead it to the service o f musical
conceptions.
In his book On Piano Playing. Gyorgy Sandor writes:
One never feels sure of the results o f purely mechanical

practice - one never “knows” the passage, and consequently one
easily forgets it. All practicing should be done consciously. One
could say that the worst practicing is no practice at all, but I am
not so sure about that! Mechanical practicing can form
detrimental habits that have to be eliminated sooner or later.22
Inefficient practicing often comes from mindless repetition o f
mistakes and from improper technical approaches. Hence, good practice
requires one to stop, think and identify, then resolve the problem. One must
make sure that he is communicating accurately and effectively.
22 Sandor, 184.
24
Misconception 2:
The most important goal o f practice is the elimination o f mistakes. A
mistake-free performance is, in fact, the “perfection” which practice is
presumed to produce.
Usually, students are content with a “mistake-free” performance. To
the student, “mistakes” may mean merely wrong notes or rhythms, and
these are likely to become his central, or even his exclusive, concern. He
tends to neglect the problem of what happens to music making, to the re
creation o f an expressive sound structure.
Vladimir Horowitz has said, “ . . . the music is behind the notes, not
under them .. . you can play these notes as you would a typewriter: but
where is the music?”23 Horowitz explained further:
You will go to a concert and the pianist will play passages,

every trill is so perfect. It is fine but in a few minutes you will be
bored. Everything will sound the same. Always there should be
a little mistake here and there —I am for it. The people who do
not make mistakes are cold like ice. It takes risk to make a
mistake. If you do not take risks, you are boring. These
youngsters who win a competition are like t h e . . . assembly line.24
23 Elvse Mach. Great Contemporary Pianists Speak for Themselves fNew York:
Dover Publications, Inc., 1988) 115.
24 Epstein, 20.
25
O f course, Horowitz does not mean that the student can produce
wrong notes carelessly. Rather, not only does a good performance need the
right notes and correct rhythms, but also it needs something more
meaningful than accuracy. Therefore, students need to strive for a
meaningful performance rather than a “mistake-free” performance.
Misconception 3:
Repetition provides a direct route to a fine performance.
Piano playing involves a lot o f mechanical repetition, but it cannot be
mindless repetition. Mechanical repetition leads to inefficient, mistake-
strewn playing. If the conscious mind is not involved, the precisely
controlled execution needed in piano playing cannot be achieved. Because
the pianist needs to practice, the practice has to be creative and intelligent;
otherwise, it is prone to be treated more like a mechanistic routine. The
student must be aware o f the importance o f the musical aspect o f repetition
in the practice room. That is to say, awareness is one o f the basic rules o f
piano playing: the pianist must know what he or she does —why, when and
how.
Horowitz feels that young pianists usually compulsively over-practice
- they practice too much and think too little. He said:
26
They may think, but often they think the wrong way. Just
to remember music one must think. And pianists are not stupid.
But they practice and practice, and repeat passages and parts a
hundred times over. Then, they go on the stage, and repeat them
for the hundred-and-first time . . . Performance must be more
than just the next repetition; it must live and breathe.25
Accordingly, repetition cannot provide a direct route to a fine
performance. It does not automatically lead to improvement. On the other
hand, it should provide the opportunities to plan the sound o f every note
mentally before beginning to play, and this will lead to endless
experimentation with phrasing and tonal color. Therefore, an editing
process must be applied during repetition.
Misconception 4:
Fingers should be the focus o f piano technique.
Piano playing is not always how fast one can wiggle his fingers, but
rather how the fingers are positioned and how clearly the brain, shoulders,
arms, wrists, and hands are working together to produce a musical activity.
The hands and fingers are not the main playing agents, but rather extensions
25 David Dubai, Reflections from the Keyboard: the World o f the Concert
Pianist (New York: Simon & Schuster, Inc., 1984) 205.
o f a more powerful, intricate playing apparatus consisting o f the arms and
shoulders, the brain, and indeed the entire body.
Because fingers provide the pianist’s contact with his instrument, one
can hardly ignore their important role. However, to focus on them at the
expense of the rest o f the mechanism leads, in fact, to their misuse. In his
book On Piano Playing, writes Gyorgy Sandor,
Our task is to determine what the position o f the various

components of the playing apparatus should be at activation, what
groups of muscles should be activated, and how these muscles
should function in order to achieve optimum results both
technically and musically.26
In essence, the fingers should not be the focus o f piano technique.
Strength derives mainly from the energetic muscular activity of the arms,
although the back and chest muscles may also be involved. The student
must understand that the key to power at the piano lies in transferring the
energy generated by motion, particularly that of the arms, hands, and wrists,
directly and naturally through the fingers onto the keys.
Pianists must learn to achieve finger firmness at the moment when a
finger activates a key lever, and to reduce or release finger tension instantly.
26 Sandor, 7.
28
But finger strength is not an issue. “The aim is not to strengthen muscles
but to learn to synchronize them in the most effortless way,”27 explains
Sandor.
Misconception 5:
The level of expertise achieved is directly related to the amount of
practice undertaken.
Students usually neglect the fact that the quality of practice is much
more important than the quantity of time spent. According to the studies
mentioned previously, in order to acquire expertise on a musical instrument
requires extensive practice. However, students misinterpret the meaning of
“extensive practice.” They think that the more hours they spend, the better
results they will achieve. Instead o f thinking o f what the amount o f practice
should be, students focus on how to make the most o f time and accomplish
the best results.
Misconception 6:
A good piano performance is possible and appropriate only for
special students, namely, the so-called talented.
27 Ibid., 6.
29
Not everybody can play the piano like Vladimir Horowitz or any
other great pianist. When a student enters music school, what is the
expectation for both teachers and students? Unfortunately, it seems that
teachers expect their students to play the piano like Horowitz. If they
cannot, the students will be labeled as less talented. At the same time, the
students want to play like Horowitz; if they cannot, they tend to label
themselves as less talented. It may sound arbitrary, but it is often true.
Shinichi Suzuki talks about the importance o f hard work in music rather
than relying on inborn talent. “Talent is not inborn, it has to be created.”28
Students need to be encouraged to use their own power to create talent.
Stop lamenting the lack o f talent and develop talent instead. He also
mentions that he had no illusions about his performing ability when he was
young. “But I did not know that my despair was brought about not because
I had no talent but because I did not know how to develop it.”29
David Elliot discusses this false assumption in his book Music
Matters:
• 28 Shinichi Suzuki, Nurtured by Love (New York: Exposition Press, 1983) 36.
29 Ibid., 76.
30
Knowing how to make music well (and knowing how to

listen artistically) is neither a gift nor a talent in the sense o f an
innate ability that some infants are bom with and others are not.
This needs saying out loud because many people in our society
have a special interest in perpetuating the romantic myth o f
“music-as-talent.”
Musicianship is not an accident o f birth. It is not
something that some people are bom with and others are not.
Excluding the presence o f congenital deficiencies, every person
has the conscious powers necessary to make music and the
opportunity to develop musicianship for their own self-growth,
self-knowledge, and enjoyment and, quite possibly, for the
enjoyment of future audiences who encounter the music making
of those among our students who may continue to make music as
amateurs or professionals after leaving school.30
Although good practice is important, it is not always well taught.
Teachers often seem to trust that students will acquire the necessary skills.
However, students often pay more attention to the quantity rather than the
quality o f practice, thus much valuable time is wasted. They must
understand that good practice leads to more practice; success breeds
success. Conversely, poor practice will lead to dissatisfaction through
reduced accomplishment and may possibly result in less practice.
30 David Elliot, Music Matters (New York: Oxford University Press, 1995)
234-235.
31
The Definition o f Technique
Pianist Russell Sherman writes the following passage in his book,
Piano Pieces:
The idea of technique is consistently misunderstood.

People think that piano technique is a matter o f double thirds, fast
octaves, and specialized tricks, analogous to the current
debasement o f figure skating into nothing more than a series of
triple axels and toe loops separated by long intervals o f coasting
and prayer. Technique, like poetry, is but a handmaiden to the
music, and should be entirely at the service o f the imagination.
Without imagination there is no technique, only facility.31
Too often, as Sherman points out, piano technique is narrowly
concerned with double thirds, fast octaves, or some specialized tricks.
However, learning how to play the piano is something like learning how to
speak a language. One does not learn a language by going to a language
lesson a half-hour a week and trying to memorize the words and rules o f
grammar. One must learn by understanding the culture that speaks the
language. Likewise, piano technique is not just a coordination o f different
motions; it also includes concerns about the texture and style of music. “If
you know Mahler and Wagner and Strauss, it becomes absolutely clear what
31 Russell Sherman, Piano Pieces (New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux,
1996) 6.
32
is Mozart. When I learned Stravinsky, it changed how I understood Bartok.
This is also technique,” explained Horowitz.
Elliot also argues that the common view o f technique usually is
concerned with the technology o f music making:
True, the procedural dimension o f musicianship includes

techniques, as well as routines, procedures, facilities, and
abilities. But in music making done well, the procedural essence
o f musicianship always involves several other forms o f thinking
and knowing linked to specific goals, ideas, and values o f musical
doing and making.32
Accordingly, piano technique must be a technique that enables the
performer to express musical thought and feeling. If technique is used in a
limited sense regarding fluency, rapid execution o f difficult passages, it is
only a tool. The legendary pianist Artur Schnabel once wrote what he
thought about piano technique:
Technique is never an end, and mere dexterity is not

sufficient. Every physical accomplishment should be achieved
with a minimum of effort. Any street boy can execute a glissando
at once, and if he has enough sitting capacity, he will thunder
octaves as rapidly as possible for a full hour. That has almost
nothing to do with music — it is athletics. The blending and
32 Elliot, 70.
J-J
articulation o f tones has to be directed by the inner ear. Great

physical efforts are not conducive to musical performance.33
Undoubtedly, we cannot separate technique from music. However, if
technique is without a musical sense, it will be like a faculty without a
purpose. When it becomes a purpose in itself it can never serve art. It is
only a tool.
Definitions
So, what is piano technique? It seems the word “technique,” when
applied to piano playing, usually is defined as a generic term, comprising
scales, arpeggios, chords, double notes, octaves, legato, and the various
staccato touches as well as the dynamic shadings. It is merely skill in using
the fingers, wrists, and arms. Indeed, these are the musical devices used to
train a piano player. Claudio Arrau remarks:
Being a “piano player,” no matter how brilliant, is never

enough. I believe in a complete development o f general culture,
knowledge, intuition, and in human integration in the Jungian
sense o f the term. All the elements, all the talents one possesses,
should go into the personality as an artist and into the music the
artist makes. Concentration should not be on technique alone; to
33 Dean Elder, “Schnabel’s Lessons with Leschetizky,” Clavier July/August

1994: 16-18.
34
better understand music the artist must embrace, as it were, the

total universe.34
Therefore, piano technique actually should go much further than
purely physical skill. Note the following descriptions and definitions of
piano technique from great pianists and musicians.
Leopold Godowsky:
Technique includes everything about a pianist’s
performance — the conception, the character, tempo —
everything that concerns the whole.
Clifford Curzon:
Technique must be linked to music because
technique flows from musical thought.
Leon Fleisher:
. . . the technical area is important, but it’s only one
aspect o f pianism, and it doesn’t include or account for the
fact that whatever one does physically —choreography, or
whatever you want to call it —is motivated by the musical
intention and monitored and controlled by your ear.
Technique is the ability to do what you want to do.
Therefore, you must want something, not just to do with
the instrument and then put down levers in a certain
succession at a certain speed. You must want a musical
idea. You must have a certain intention, and the ability to
do that is the index o f your technique.
34 Mach, 2.
35
Ivo Pogorelich:
Technique is the art o f variety, the art o f knowing
how to adjust your hand to a particular group o f notes to
produce a particular sound to fit the particular expectation
o f the ear.
Tobias Matthay:
Technique means the power o f expressing oneself
musically.
Technique is rather a matter o f the mind than o f the
“fingers”. . . To acquire technique therefore implies that
you must induce and enforce a particular mental-muscular
association and co-operation for every possible musical
effect.
Ferruccio Busoni:
NO, technique is not and never will be the Alpha and
Omega of pianoforte playing any more than it is with any
other art. Nevertheless, I certainly preach to my pupils:
provide yourselves with technique and thoroughly too.
Various conditions must be fulfilled in order to make a
great artist, and it is because so few are able to fulfill them
that a true genius is such a rarity.
Technique, perfect in and for itself, may be found in
any well-constructed pianola. Nevertheless a great pianist
must first o f all be a great technician; but technique, which
constitutes only a part o f the art o f the pianist, does not lie
merely in fingers and wrists or in strength and endurance.
Technique in the truer sense has its seat in the brain,
and it is composed o f geometry —an estimation o f distance
—and wise co-ordination.
Isidor Philipp:
Technique alone, however wonderful, does not make
a fine pianist.
Intellectual and technical developments should occur
simultaneously and to play well, pianists should
36
understand musical styles as well as the characteristics o f

a composer.
Vladimir Horowitz:
Technique is know-how.
For me, the intellect is always the guide but not the
goai o f the performance. Three things have be coordinated
and not one must stick out; not too much intellect because
it can become scholastic; not too much heart because it can
become schmaltz, not too much technique because you can
become a mechanic.
Claudio Arrau:
Technique is, to put it another way, the means to
the art o f interpretation.
John Browning:
Technique is not a matter o f how quickly you can
play the scales; it is the ability to produce many different
sounds. That constitutes the highest ideal o f technique.
Alicia De Larrocha:
Beyond the mere mechanics, you have the real
meaning o f technique. It is sound, interpretation, tone, and
musical line. It is phrasing, accent, melody, and musical
conception. In general, technique in the mechanical sense
will do nothing for you.
Heinrich Neuhaus:
A few words about technique. The clearer the goal
(the content, music, perfection o f performance), the clearer
the means o f attaining it. This is an axiom and does not
require proof. I shall have occasion to refer to it more than
once. The “what” determines the “how,” although in the
long run the “how” determines the “what.” M y method of
teaching, briefly, consists o f ensuring that the player
should as early as possible (after a preliminary
37
acquaintance with the composition and mastering it, if only

roughly) grasp what we call “the artistic image,” that is, the
content, meaning, the poetic substance, the essence o f the
music, and be able to understand thoroughly in terms o f
theory o f music (naming it, explaining it), what it is he is
dealing with. A clear understanding of this goal enables
the player to strive for it, to attain it and embody it in his
performance; and that is what “technique” is about.
From these masters’ points o f view, we understand that, without
technique there is no art. As Rudolf Serkin pointed out, “I do not think you
can kill musicality by emphasizing technique. On the contrary, I think you
cannot emphasize technique enough.”35 Thus, technique should mean the
accumulation o f musical knowledge combined with physical skill, for the
purpose o f achieving any interpretation the performer desires. Therefore,
technique is the ability to express music as completely as possible at every
moment o f playing - the projection o f a meaningful interpretation, the re
creation o f fine piano literature with heart and mind, as well as the physical
element.
Nevertheless, it is unfortunate that piano students and teachers seem
to focus on the physical aspect o f technique more than the intellectual
35 Dean Elder. Pianists At Plav: Interview. Master L essons and Technique

Regimes (Illinois: The Instrumentalist Company, 1982) 57.
aspect o f technique. They so often neglect the intellectual side o f piano
playing, the “thinking” as opposed to the “feeling” and “doing.” Piano
students must be persuaded to recognize the value of —indeed, the necessity
for —clear thinking in connection with their practicing and playing. It will
lead to precise, controlled physical action, and guided by a positive and
firmly held musical aim, to certainty in performance.
In essence, piano technique is not an abstract, unalterable notion.
But, in a broad sense, it is the sum of all the means a performer has for
realizing his purpose and his artistic musical idea. Therefore, piano
technique cannot be looked upon as something independent from the music
and from the personality of a performer.
The Limitation o f Technique and Its Purpose in the Practice Routine
The majority o f people think that one o f the most important aims in
piano playing is for the performer to acquire the necessary physical skill at
the keyboard for carrying out his musical intentions. Indeed, many books
have been written on the subject o f pianoforte technique. However, it
seems that they pay more attention to physical skills.
39
Therefore, it is important that we should help students not only to
understand the real definition o f piano technique, but also to grasp the
essentials o f piano technique and incorporate these essentials into musical
piano playing. There are three main points that need to be discussed:
1. How to approach the technical controversy.

2. How to get at essentials.
3. How to use these essentials in piano playing.
1. How to approach the technical controversy.
Students must remember that a method is not necessarily right
because it is new; nor is it likely that everything that has gone before is
entirely wrong. We must keep a fresh mind and use the powers o f criticism
while being open-minded to all new ideas and theories. It is necessary to
bear in mind that many new ideas may sound plausible; however, even the
most apparently scientific theories have weak spots. One should not
overlook the point that people learn purely by experience. Therefore,
students need to find out if those ideas could stand up to careful
investigation by experts.
Many o f our finest master teachers are empiricists. They all found
technical truth through practical, intuitive experience. One of Schnabel’s
students wrote o f his approach: “It was his constantly expressed belief that
40
if you knew exactly what you wanted, you would find —invent if necessary
—the means to achieve it.”36
Another Schnabel student, Leon Fleisher, puts it this way:
It is your musical ideas that form or decide for you what

kind o f technique you are going to use. In other words, if you are
trying to get a certain sound, you just experiment around to find
the movement that will get this sound. That is technique.37
2. How to get at essentials
Strategies o f technique are largely o f the mind. Hence, the first thing
is to try to simplify, to think clearly, and to get through and discard the
complex words that hide the essentials. Students must try to find which
method is nearest to a natural way o f playing, natural both in movements
and in muscular conditions, and they must also try to find fundamentals that
are common to all schools o f thought. The most important thing is that
students must know what they want to do.
Follow the empirical method —the method of observation and
experience. Find out, by listening to pianists o f all schools o f thought,
36 David Goldberger, “Artur Schnabel’s Master Classes,” The Piano Teacher

Vol. 5, No. 4, March-April 1963: 60.
37 Leon Fleisher, “About Practicing and Making Music,” Clavier Vol. II, No. 4,
September 1963: 12.
41
which school is most compatible with a musician’s taste and sensibility.
Above all, it is necessary that students need to experiment for themselves in
their own playing, listening intently to the kinds o f sounds they produce.
Students should not accept any method theoretically until they can prove it
for themselves both musically and muscularly. It is unwise of students to
follow one method slavishly. Think it all out in this way, taking the best
from several methods and considering other evidence as well as empirical
evidence.
3. How to use these essentials in piano playing
Technical training can be defined as that which is peculiar to our own
instrument, as distinct from musical training, which is similar for all
instruments and for voices.
Piano technique, as Hetty Bolton38 points out, consists of:
1. The way in which we use our instrument in order to produce the

kind o f sound we intend.
2. The power o f getting about the keyboard with agility and control.
3. All that we do physically to enable us to get the desired musical
result.
' 38 Hetty Bolton, On Teaching the Piano (London: Novello and Company
Limited, 1954) 56.
42
The importance of the first of these considerations is often
overlooked, as is also the word “musical” in the third heading.
Indisputably, students seem to focus on the physical side o f piano technique
too much, because they are so fascinated with those pianists who have
remarkable technique.
However, it is always a mistake to suppose that all the great pianists
such as Horowitz have some mysterious “tricks” for learning technique.
After an interview with Horowitz, Jan Holcman discovered Horowitz’s
position:
Despite long years spent with this instrument, he is not able

to explain how he attained his own stupendous mastery, “as I
can’t explain how I learned languages.” There are some hints,
however. While studying with Blumenfeld (who in turn studied
with Anton Rubinstein), Horowitz received no recipes for
technique. The way to technical perfection is led, in a significant
measure, through various purely musical approaches.39
Accordingly, students should not allow an analytical approach to spoil the
freedom, the spontaneity, the freshness o f the musical interpretation.
Although piano technique cannot compare with a cooking recipe,
which needs a step-by-step outline, a well-thought out method of technical
39 Jan Holcman, “An Interview with Horowitz,” The Saturday Review of

Literature Vol. XLIII, No. 18, April 30, 1960: 60.
43
training needs to be clearly expressed. The method may be derived from
several schools o f thought. However, students must have thought out their
technical method very clearly, and have proved it in their own practicing.
Nevertheless, while talking about piano technique, students tend to
think only o f the muscular side of technique. There is insufficient emphasis
given to the imaginative and mental side o f technique. Students must
clearly imagine the kind o f sounds they wish to make before they start
thinking about the way to make them. This mental pre-hearing in itself
helps them formulate the right muscular response, and this muscular
response can be imagined too. A difficult passage that after much practice
still seems impossible can often be mastered, even easily, by mental
practice. With these considerations in mind about piano technique, students
can proceed to a more detailed consideration o f problems on piano
practicing.
THE DEFINITION OF TALENT
As we know, the most important mission o f the piano teacher is to
guide the student toward the day when the student can become his own
teacher. The teacher should help the student meet his pianistic challenges
until eventually the student makes himself independent o f formal playing.
From the very beginning, the teacher should be a counselor who not only
questions fingering, rhythm, or interpretation, but also helps the student to
help himself mentally and psychologically.
Students need to meet themselves, recognizing their own capability,
then using their own power to create so-called talent, which is the first step
in knowing how to practice. Seymour Bernstein, the author of With Your
Own Two Hands, has said:
The real purpose of studying music is to unite ourselves

with our special gifts in such a way that one would add strength
to the other.40
It is our talent that gives us our special individuality and identity.
“The more fully one develops one’s talent, the greater one’s powers ought
to become in all the other aspects o f his life,” explains Bernstein.41
Unfortunately, nowadays, many teachers are more concerned about
what performance level the student has or how far the student must go to
reach the common standard, but not the unique quality of each individual
40 Seymour Bernstein, With Your Own Two Hands (New York: Schirmer,
1981)4.
41 Ibid., 4.
45
student. Consequently, the teacher must care not only about a student’s
practicing, but also about each student’s individual response to music.
Seymour Bernstein says:
For if I were to maintain my effectiveness as a teacher, I

would have to involve myself in the hearts and minds o f my
pupils and, in short, deal with their total personalities.42
Madeline Bruser also explains in her book, The Art o f Practicing,
All o f us know we need guidance in our musical journey.

When we go to a teacher we hope that he or she will appreciate
our sincerity of heart, and the discipline we learn will enable us
to express ourselves from the heart.43
Helping students to recognize their own strengths and weaknesses and to
know themselves, therefore, is a very important mission for the teacher.
Too often, we are preoccupied with the outside world and forget to
turn our attention inside the heart: who we are and what we can do. Buddha
has said that “We are what we think. All that we are arises with our
thoughts. With our thoughts we make the world.”44 Thus, we need to meet
ourselves, know ourselves, discover what struggle we have, and try to
42 Ibid., 18.
43 Madeline Bruser, The Art o f Practicing (New York: Bell Tower, 1997) 8.
44 Tack Komfield, ed., Teaching o f the Buddha (Boston: Shambhala, 1993) 96.
46
understand the strengths and weaknesses we have and what our ultimate
goal is of entering the music world.
It is not easy to train ourselves. Thus, students must expect to lead
themselves with the teacher’s guidance. Students need help to stop
lamenting the lack o f talent and to develop their own indivivual talent
instead. Developing ability depends on action and directing our attention to
doing things. And the preparation, time, and environment will come
together as stimulants. However, the most important thing is that we must
know exactly what we want, not just blindly follow other people’s
footsteps.
CHAPTER IV
METHODS OF PRACTICING
Practice means work. For anyone who wishes to learn to play the
piano there is no substitute for practice. Legendary pianist Ignaz
Paderewski has said:
It took me h alf o f my life to realize that there are two ways

o f using the piano. The one is to play, the other is to work! If
you use the one, you will never achieve anything. You are carried
away with your own emotions and with the emotion o f the
contents o f the work you are playing. And you might spend the
whole of your life in playing without learning anything.45
Practice is the most important part o f the learning process.
Furthermore, a sincere effort to learn by practicing at home accomplishes
much more than can be achieved in the short time spent in the teacher’s
studio. Students make themselves musicians by practicing what they were
taught. Their belief that it is only necessary to “take lessons” in order to
learn is a grievous error.
45 Julia Broughton, Success in Piano Teaching (New York: Vantage Press,

1956) 32.
47
48
Accomplishment is somewhat enlightened direction on the part o f the
teacher, and primarily intelligent understanding and application on the part
o f the student. Indeed, regular practice by the pianist is o f primary
importance. However, the problem is that most of the students still have
trouble achieving the best results from practicing even though they may
know the importance o f accomplishments in the practice room, all the rules
o f how to practice, and all the effort that must be exerted in the practice
room. This problem may arise from letting the student know what-to-do in
the practice room, but not know how-to-do it in an efficient manner.
Misha Dichter, the great concert pianist, once gave a comment about
practice:
. . . in practicing, never daydream. Never use the piano as

a vehicle for simply moving the fingers and passing time. If you
have only one moment when you’re not aware o f what you’re
doing musically or technically (and usually both), you’re wasting
your time.46
Accordingly, the chief aim of practicing is the quality not quantity.
One-half hour o f thoughtful practice is worth more than one hour of
'46 Linda J. Noyle. Pianists on Plaving: Interviews with Twelve Concert Pianists
(London: The Scarecrow Press, Inc., 1987) 59.
R e p ro du ced with permission o f the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
49
mindless practice. The most important thing is to learn to think clearly
before practicing. Walter Gieseking once said that the main factor in
technique is the brain; the main condition for technique is concentration.
CONCENTRATION
Music is different from any other type of art because musical works
are not only a matter o f sounds, they are also a matter o f actions performed
to elicit those sounds. Therefore, the musician must put his mind solely to
the music and to the physical actions necessary to make music, and
concentrate on what he is doing. Seymour Bernstein explains
In order to concentrate, you must first direct your attention

to something in particular. When practicing, for example, you
need to have a clear idea o f what it is you wish to accomplish.
You must have a specific goal in mind. By focusing your
attention on this, you will intensify your powers of
concentration.47
Accordingly, while practicing, one must be involved in not only
doing and making, but also thinking. “Think ten times and play once.”48
This saying was hung over Liszt’s piano for all his students to see. As
47 Bernstein, 39.
48 Hetty Bolton, How to Practice (London: Elkin & Co., 1954) 6.
50
mentioned previously, musical works are a matter of action, however, they
must be intentional actions and not involuntary physical movement. That
is, the actions must be informed and determined by a conscious purpose.
There are three essentials for concentration: interest, conscious mind
and awareness.
Interest
Concentration is an ability that can be improved by physical activity
and exercise, relaxation, imagination, communication, a sense o f a student’s
goals and, above all, the music he enjoys most. The best and most effective
motive for learning a piece o f music is to give oneself pleasure. It is never
easy to concentrate on something that is not enjoyable, and forcing students
to practice leads to resistance and an inability to focus on learning music.
Nevertheless, all too often when a student is told to practice or concentrate
he will do neither. Musical growth comes not from necessity or
requirement but through commitment. It should not be a forced choice, but
rather a consistent choice.
Conscious Mind
Physical actions do not originate within themselves. They are the
result o f a mental conception, in other words a conscious mind. According
51
to Gyorgy Sandor, the conscious mind is responsible for selecting,
analyzing and finding the best ways to assimilate the material or skill to be
acquired.49 The thought process is formed by the conscious mind, and is
the predominant influence for good or bad in piano practice and playing.
As logical and reasonable as are the thought processes employed in learning
to play the piano, just so logical and reasonable are the physical results.
Accordingly, the role o f the conscious mind is to make students aware of
the material, to understand it, and to enable them to master it.
Awareness
Reflecting upon these points, we must realize that know-how is the
key to achieving concentration. As Csikzentmihalyi explains, it is not that
people enjoy being in control o f their actions as much as that they enjoy
exercising control because o f their know-how. Awareness is the key
enjoyment and control because know-how enables people to meet the
challenges presented by a mountain to be climbed, a chess game to be
49 Sandor, 187.
52
played, or a musical work to be performed.50 In other words, a thoughtful
and conscious mind will serve the purpose of know-how well.
As Barry Green says in his book, The Inner Game of Music,
In order for us to reap the full benefits o f anything we are

doing, it is important for us to be aware o f three things: the
quality o f our experience while we are doing it, what we are
learning as we do it, and how close we are coming to achieving
our goals.51
Accordingly, consciousness, thought, and knowledge are very closely
interrelated. When students pay more attention to how they feel as they are
doing something (consciousness), it heightens their sensitivity to the
feedback they are receiving (thought). This increased sensitivity helps
students to learn more rapidly and allows them to adjust their performance
to help them achieve their goal (knowledge).
Therefore, to spend time at the piano without a definite logical and
reasonable knowledge in mind, without intelligently using systematic means
to attain that knowledge is futile and fruitless. Moreover, the ultimate
objective o f practicing is to prepare oneself so that performance can be
50 Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi, Flow: The Psychology o f Optimal Experience (New

York: Harper & Row Publishers, Inc., 1990) 61.
51 Barry Green, The Inner Game of Music (New York: Dobuleday Dell
Publishing Group, Inc., 1986) 27.
NOTE TO USERS
Page(s) not included in the original manuscript are

unavailable from the author or university. The manuscript
was microfilmed as received.
UMI
54
Accordingly, some philosophers profess that the best results are
achieved when someone masters a complex skill without being overly
attached to the results o f his effort. Where there is no struggle, practice
becomes a natural and creative process.
Time Management
The quality o f desire determines the quality o f our mind. If we have
clear goals and are focused on them, our conscious deliberation can inhibit
the natural ease of piano playing. Thus, setting goals is the most important
thing for a pianist who tries to get the best results from the practice routine.
Managing practice time well is another important factor because it is
necessary that one learns to accomplish as much as possible without
wasting a moment. According to Edward Strauman,54 there are seven
guidelines in terms o f managing practice time:
1. Planning.
Write out a daily practice schedule with particular emphasis on two or
three major things to accomplish for both short- and long-term goals. For
54 Edward Strauman, “Managing Practice Time,” The Music Teacher April,

1986: 25.
55
example, if one of the long-term goals is to improve technique, then spend
some time each day working toward that end by mastering x number of
measures of a technical exercise.
2. Reorganizing.
There are days and/or weeks when things happen to prevent students
from keeping to their daily practice routine. When this occurs do not get
frustrated; relax and be flexible, then focus all the attention on the piece o f
highest priority.
3. Concentrating.
Do not try to do too many things at once. Think about what you are
practicing now. If you need to work on technique, then do not work on
expanding the repertoire. Narrow down the technical area in the music, and
then practice to improve it.
4. Resting.
To work for hours on end without taking a break is crazy. The energy
level will drop, boredom will set in and physical stress and tension will
increase. Do not think o f resting as a waste of time. It will increase
efficiency and relieve tension.
56
5. Do not be a perfectionist.
There is a great deal o f difference between striving for excellence and
striving for perfection. With a good outlook and enough practice one can
achieve excellence. The feeling is gratifying and healthy. However, trying
to attain perfection is frustrating and neurotic. It’s also a terrible waste o f
time.
6. Stop procrastinating.
There is only one way to stop procrastination: by stopping it.
Students must force themselves to practice one thing they have been putting
off. Then begin each practice session by doing the most unpleasant task on
their schedule. This way they will be happy just to know they have gotten it
out o f the way and will look forward to more rewarding work.
7. Avoiding boredom.
In order to maintain a good attitude without getting bored, it is
necessary to start small and enjoy each task as it has been accomplished.
Even if that task is mastering one measure o f music, learn to appreciate the
feeling o f satisfaction you get after it is completed.
A good mental attitude should be established before the practice
period begins. Students must be quite clear in their mind and heart that
practice is what they want to do and not something else. They must believe
that the undertaking is worthwhile. Above all, students should consistently
remind themselves that if practice is worth doing it is worth doing properly.
CHAPTER V
CONCLUSION
Much critical feedback about practice is given concerning
interpretation, fingering, technical approach, note accuracy, and balance.
For certain students, this kind of information is all that is needed to ensure
consistent progress toward pianistic improvement. However, most students
need not only this type o f information but also specific information about
what kinds o f practice activities to follow in order to ensure consistent, high
quality progress. Therefore, students who understand the importance o f
developing practice strategies, organizing each practice session, and
monitoring their own progress will be much more likely to make consistent
improvement.
The following two recommendations, strategies toward effective
practice and an ideal practice session, will serve as a practice outline and as
a handy practice reference for both piano teachers and students.
58
59
RECOMMENDATIONS
Strategies Toward Effective Practice
1. Preparation
A. Examine the score away from the piano, mentally preparing
yourself to practice by reviewing the pieces you are rehearsing in this
practice session.
B. Evaluate the piece by playing through. Take a first, overall
assessment o f the piece determining the style and general sequence of
ideas, and noticing those places that present potential technical
difficulties.
2. Set Goals
A. Based on the evaluation, get a general idea o f what needs to be
accomplished and establish a set o f goals for each practice session.
B. Goals should be specific and realistic. Three types o f goals that
can be used in practicing are: long-term goals, short-term goals and
goals for the immediate task.
60
3. Practice Schedule
A. Budget your time and work on schedule. After the goals for the
particular practice session are established, map out a practice
schedule and develop all aspects of the preparation process.
B. Never practice more than two hours at a time, but do three to four
(sessions) every day. Two hours o f concentrated practice with the
mind fresh and the body rested is better than four hours o f continuous
practice with the mind stale and the body tired.
4. Practice Routines
A. Based on your initial evaluation, break down the piece into smaller
“learning sections.” For instance, take a manageable segment of the
work and develop it carefully for phrasing, type of touch, dynamics,
accents, fingering, division o f hands, and/or pedaling.
B. Repeat one section slowly several times, with all these things
included, maintaining complete mental concentration. Practice the
entire piece in small sections in this manner. Every time you
stumble, examine whether it was caused by a special technical
difficulty or whether you slipped in concentration.
61
C. If you find a special difficulty within the passage, isolate it for
even more intensive work. You might include an exercise in your
warm-up designed to develop the passage. Master the special
difficulty completely before going back to practice the section as a
whole.
D. Consolidate the sections. Make the technically correct first, but
use a slow play-through, then joining all the learning sections.
E. When the sections are consolidated, begin with a comfortable
metronomic setting and very gradually increase the speed o f the piece
to its correct tempo. This might include practicing a tempo somewhat
faster than marked and then relaxing back to the desired tempo.
F. If you found concentration waning or repetition becoming
mechanical, you can stop for five minutes or change to a different
style o f music for refreshment.
G. Even when working hands alone or slowly and carefully, keep in
mind the musical elements o f the work.
H. Carefully evaluate playing so as not to establish wrong habits.
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5. Problem Solving
A. Identify the root o f the problem. Is the problem musical or
technical?
B. Analyze what is the cause of the problem, then use the appropriate
methods o f dealing with the problem.
C. Make a conscious effort to correct the error at a tempo that makes
it possible.
D. Continually reinforce the correct rendition.
6. Repertoire Maintenance
A. Continue to play the pieces in your repertoire. Help them continue
to be part o f your hands, ears, eyes and mind even when working on
other music.
B. Perform in pressure situations. You could perform your repertoire
for small groups or prepare tapes in the manner o f an audition tape.
This is like “ try out.” Toughen yourself. Test performances will
reveal any weaknesses and will build endurance.
C. Be patient. Musical development is a slow, developmental
process with many ups, downs and plateaus.
63
There are two key points which should be retained from the suggested
practice approach. The first is to be aware o f what is happening, by paying
attention to what is happening during the practice session. You must not
only attend to what is right or wrong, good or bad, but also to the musical
presentation. If you know where you stand, where you are headed in both
the short- and long-term goals, then you can develop appropriate practice
strategies and organize reasonable practice sessions for yourself.
The second key point is that the student should understand that the
primary goal o f practice is to learn the music, not learn the notes. There is
a big difference between these two concepts. Technique is necessary to
make music from the written page. If the student focuses on the music and
such questions as “how does this sound?” and “how should this feel?” are
asked, a more meaningful practice session will result. In other words, if the
student focuses on technique and raises such questions as “what finger shall
I use?” “what notes should I play?” the student runs the risk o f producing
very dry, unfeeling music. Accordingly, if in the practice period the
student is focused on sensing how the music needs to sound and how he
needs to move in order to accomplish that, the student will be on a very
positive path and be able to monitor his or her own progress.
64
Five Stages o f an Ideal Practice Session
How much practicing is enough? O f course it should be daily,
because the hands and the mind need nourishment as regularly as the body
if they are to function well. However, according to the research studies
previously discussed, different people require different amounts of time. A
professional pianist probably will need four or five hours a day or more.
But a good honest session will yield more in two hours than a thoughtless
session will yield in several.
Just as it is important not to practice too little, so it is important to
avoid practicing too much. If the time is up, stop. If you are eager to play
more, let that desire begin again tomorrow. Practicing is, to a large degree,
a very personal activity and changes as playing proficiency improves.
Successful practicing will meet the needs and aspirations of each individual.
While it is not essential to practice in exactly the same fashion as someone
else, it is important to recognize the various states o f mind involved. Music
and development take place in time, so I recommend five stages to the
practice session. They need not, however, be practiced in the order
presented.
65
Warm-up:
Students should consider both the physical and mental aspects o f
warm-up. Young students usually think o f the warm-up simply as finger
exercises such as scales, arpeggios, octaves, double thirds, etc. The warm
up is a time for activating and preparing the brain and the muscles for
intense concentration and efficient coordination; also it is designed to
establish continuity with the goals o f the previous practice sessions and to
reestablish previously learned skills. It is true that, at the beginning of the
practice session, we need to warm up our muscles, brain, and mind.
Begin the session by playing some music - read through something
gently, slowly until your hands and mind are warmed up. Take time to
stretch the tendons, and to wake up the hands, the ears and the mind. After
that, you can do some exercises if that is what is in your regimen. Those
exercises should not only keep your technique in good overall shape, but
also should relate somehow to current repertoire. More strenuous activities
usually come later to prepare the brain and muscles for the next stage o f the
practice session.
66
Mental Assessment:
Establish the rehearsal strategies by mentally assessing the; music
being prepared for the trouble spots, phrasing, fingering and so on. One
needs to evaluate what problems exist in the music, and how the problems
can be solved. Define precisely where the difficulty lies, then work those
areas specifically. The goal for this period o f time is to identify what and
how we are going to practice.
Technical and musical development:
The purpose of this session is to work out the technical problems in
music being prepared for performance. Play the difficult passages in slow
motion; silently or aloud describe in the minutest detail every move made
by the fingers, the wrists, and the elbows.
This time is designed for the development of musical performance
and physical technique. The student needs to break the problem into its
smallest components. This is not a time for mindless repetition.
Musical sensitivity should be involved in every session of practice.
In this segment, the student can review a piece at the piano, listen to it in his
mind, or go through the printed score in an attempt to grasp its musical
nuances. This is the time to try different phrasing, look for harmonic
67
planning, seek to understand the composer’s intentions. Consider the
relationship between grand design and detail that will improve the musical
presentation. Ask yourself if listeners will be convinced o f the
interpretation through your playing, not through liner notes or concert
programs.
Take a break at this point. In fact, the balance o f work and rest are
important elements o f practice and motivation. Concentration cannot be
maintained for a long period time. By trying to keep that concentration for
a longer time, students may risk allowing mental mistake to occur and their
work will have been in vain. Therefore, it is important to set practice goals,
and then strive for their achievement in a relatively short amount of time.
Run-through:
After all the detail work, play the piece or section for musical and
technical unity. Concentrate on the music to see if it comes effortlessly.
Students always should be in this frame o f mind when practicing larger
segments. The goal is to make music from the entire segment without
stopping to fix errors. A tape recorder may be helpful to students for
evaluating mistakes, inconsistencies in a performance, or flaws in the
musical presentation that they might not otherwise notice. Afterward, try to
68
conduct an assessment. Have all the problems been solved, or at least
reduced? If not, what stood in their way? And resolve to try again until all
the problems are amended.
Performing time:
This is the time to integrate technical skills with musical ideas to
arrive at the final interpretation by running through the music again. The
goal is to concentrate on the act o f musical performance. Daniel Kohut, the
author o f Musical Performance, explains:
This stage o f practice is essential and must not be

neglected. No more analysis, no more stopping and going over
trouble spots at will. One must learn how to keep going despite
any technical problems that may occur. The focus of one’s
concentration should be on the musical gestalt, the total
performance goal.55
O f course, it is not necessary that every practice stage be included in
each practice session. For instance, at certain times it may be more
appropriate to go directly into interpreting time. The most important thing
is that the success o f practice session must be achieved through
concentration, discipline, and inspiration.
55 Daniel Kohut, Musical Performance (New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, Inc.,

1985) 126.
69
Implications for Teaching
A sincere effort to learn piano by practicing at home accomplishes
much more than can be achieved in the short time spent in the teacher’s
studio, as students make themselves better musicians by practicing what
they were taught. However, students often believe that it is only necessary
to “take lessons” in order to make progress in learning piano.
Musical accomplishment is somewhat enlightened direction on the
part o f the teacher, and primarily intelligent understanding and application
on the part o f the student. Indeed, regular practice is o f primary importance
in learning any musical instrument. Nevertheless, the reality is that most
students still have trouble achieving the best results when they practice even
though they may know the importance of practicing and all the rules o f what
to practice. On the other hand, the student often neglects the reality o f
recognizing his own unique talent when the teacher fails to be a guiding
figure.
The truth is that most students are not bom knowing how to practice,
the teacher must teach them how to do this. However, while giving students
the knowledge o f how to practice, teachers should be able to live with
students and to understand their potential. If they are ambivalent, teachers
70
need to choose the key element that may turn the whole thing around for the
students. In essence, one goal o f being a piano teacher is to know a
student’s strengths and weaknesses, and to do something about the latter.
That is to say, a teacher must care not only about a student’s playing, but
also about his/her individual response to music. If the teacher can succeed
in fusing together the student with the person, then it follows that
confronting music through practicing and performing is analogous to
confronting students themselves.
Teachers must understand that the finest teaching encourages a
dedication to practicing that leads toward self-realization. Motivated by a
love o f music and a clear understanding o f the reasons for practicing, music
students, regardless of their age or degree o f accomplishment, can establish
so deep an accord between their musical selves and their personal selves
that eventually music and life interact in a never-ending cycle o f fulfillment.
Truly, the most important goal o f a piano teacher is to discover and
cultivate students’ individual capabilities, not just to focus on whether
students have so-called talent or not. Teachers must allow the student to
have a love o f music and the desire to develop one’s own talent.
71
Traditionally, teaching piano is focused on teaching “how to play.”
In fact, “how to play” is not teachable, because how everyone can play a
piece is so different. Each hand is different, and that results not only in
different fingerings for the same passages but also different technical
approaches appropriate for different individuals. Therefore, the teacher
should try to develop ideas, without the need that students copy what
teachers do, and encourage different ways of enacting a composer’s
intention.
Once students understand their strengths and weaknesses and learn
how to practice, they no longer have the time or even the inclination to
dwell on their past. Some implications for teaching students how to
practice are as follows:
1. The level o f individual diversity exists in students’ approaches to
practice. Similar diversity will be exhibited in students. Teaching and
practice demands, therefore, need to be tailored to meet individual needs.
In order to meet individual needs, four abilities need to be cultivated:
The ability to define the problem
The ability to come up with effective solutions to problems
72
The ability to work on details or small problems
The ability to focus on the tasks
2. The content o f practice will need to be adapted to fit the individual needs
o f the student in terms of both technique and musicianship. A teacher needs
to identify students’ weaknesses and discuss and develop appropriate
strategies for overcoming them.
Not only does a teacher need to identify students’ strengths and
weaknesses, but also students themselves need to be aware of their strengths
and weaknesses. Three steps to help students acknowledge their musical
potentials are:
Recognizing their own strength, weaknesses and linitations.
Being themselves
Using their own power to create talent
3. Teachers need to be aware o f alternative strategies and provide
opportunities for students to explore and develop their preferred approach.
Ways to help students to develop their own approach might include:
Encourage students to come up with their own practice methods and

create their own exercises and practice strategies.
Suggest and advise them in their quest to develop a reliable practice

technique.
73
Motivate students to experiment with their own playing, listening

intently to the kinds o f sounds they produce.
4. Teachers need to tailor their teaching and the messages they
communicate regarding practice to the individual needs o f the student,
taking account o f physical, musical and motivational diversity.
Teachers can:
Encourage students to think instead o f just blindly follow whatever

teachers said.
Explore music with the student, and involve the student in

experimentation by suggesting alternatives and encouraging
independent judgment and decisions.
Lead students to understand the importance o f developing practice

strategies, organizing each practice session, and monitoring
their own progress in order to make consistent improvement.
Future research is needed to examine the problem o f individual
diversity in practice behavior. The present research study may have been
restricted to those successful in the field, not taking account o f individuals
who may have undertaken extensive practice and yet been unsuccessful.
Further research is also needed to examine the factors of successful practice
74
to determine if they are directly related to the student’s musical abilities or
to the teacher’s way o f teaching.
APPENDIX
GREAT PIANISTS: THOUGHTS AND VIEWPOINTS ON PRACTICING
75
76
The following charts collect thoughts and viewpoints on practicing
from forty-four internationally acclaimed pianists. In considering the central
points o f piano practice, three areas will be covered: how to practice,
technical exercises (warm-up), and memorization.
Pianists How to Practice Technical Memorization

Exercises
Wilhelm 1. Seldom practice 1. Practice the
Backhaus with great velocity, for scales and
(1844- 1969) it interferes with arpeggios in
clearness. legato, staccato
2. Prefer to play more and in other
slowly, giving the touches, but
greatest attention to mostly in legato.
clearness and good
tone.
3. Use of the
metronome just to see
the difference between
the mechanical rhythm
and the musical
rhythm.
4. Music always comes
first.
77
Ignaz 1. Everything should 1. Study scales

Paderewski be practiced slowly and arpeggios
(1860- 1941) with deep touch and with accents, for
with full, clear tone. example,
accenting every
third note, thus
enabling each
finger in turn to
make the accent
impulse: this
will secure
evenness of
touch.
2. Double
passages, such
as double thirds
and sixths,
should be
divided and
each half
practiced
separately, with
legato touch.
3. Octaves
should be
practiced with
loose wrists and
staccato touch.
Sergei 1. Practice two hours 1. Practice
Rachmaninoff in morning - scales scales, Hanon
(1873 - 1943) and other finger exercises and
exercises; then practice Chopin etudes
another two hours in every day.
the afternoon.
78
Josef 1. Divide the time into 1. Stress on 1. Memorization

Lhevinne two sections, one for scales and needs to be trained
(1874- 1944) technical exercises, arpeggios. every day.
one for the repertoire.
79
Josef 1. Play one hour in the 1. Advise that 1. Believes that “to
Hofmann morning on technical “strictly retain in one’s
(1876- 1957) studies and use one technical memory what does
hour for the difficult exercises should not interest one is
places in the works occur one difficult to
you are studying. quarter o f the everybody, while
2. In the afternoon play entire time you that which does
another hour, and this can give to your interest us is easy.
hour you devote to work. Two This interest usually
interpretation. quarters you comes with a
3. Practice self- should use for deeper
examination, and if the technical understanding o f
you notice that your preparation of music.”
interest is waning - the difficult
stop. passages you
4. “Attention, encounter in the
concentration, pieces you are
devotion, will make studying, and
unnecessary any during the last
inquiries as to how quarter these
much you ought to passages which
practice.” have been thus
prepared should
be arranged into
their proper
places in the
pieces, in order
that you may not
lose your view
o f the totality of
the pieces while
studying or
practicing
details.”
80
Rosina 1. Suggests that 1. one must

Lhevinne pianists must analyze and think
(1880- 1976) acquire of the length and
technique in climax o f a phrase,
early age. there must be an
awareness and
approach to
tonalities. I ask my
students, ‘how do
you memorize?’
Most say they play
it until they know
it. This is a very
insecure way. You
must live with it so
that you feel the
richness o f certain
colors.”
2. “ . .. memorize
away from the
piano, merely
holding the score in
front of m yself,. . .
I never play a piece
without playing it
away from the
piano.”
81
Artur 1. Believes that 1. Believes that

Schnabel technique is just the technical control
(1882- 1951) first stage o f playing a is gained
piece. through practice
2. The most important o f specific
thing is to confront the difficulties in a
emotion in music. constructive and
3. Music requires imaginative
thousands o f tones and way.
not one standard
sonority.
Arthur 1. Silent practice. 1. Doesn’t play 1. Photographic
Rubinstein 2. Believes that each any scales, memory.
(1886- 1982) pianist should have a arpeggios, etc.
different way o f 2. Practice the
practicing. difficult passage
3. Start working on the from the piece.
difficult spots. 3. Doesn’t
believe in
exercises.
Heinrich 1. The greater the part 1. Musical
Neuhaus played in this process development
(1888- 1964) by willpower (going should come
straight to the goal) before technical
and concentration, the development or
better the result. should at least
go hand in hand.
82
Walter 1. “Must not play with 1. Practice 1. Visual memory:

Gieseking your fingers but rather scales first with can memorize a
(1895- 1956) with your ear.” firm touch, then piece away from the
2. Practicing fluttery piano.
musically. pianissimo
3. Playing “exactly scales with very
what the composer small motions to
wrote as beautifully as quicken the
possible.” fingers.
4. Concentration: “do
not allow yourself to
wait until a second
time to play better.”
Guiomar 1. Practice four or five 1. Do the 1. Memorizing the
Novaes hours each day. technique in the structure, harmony,
(1895 - 1979) 2. Thinks about the passage. and fingering of the
inherent meaning o f 2. Practiced a lot piece, noting as
the composition, finds o f Philipp, many details as
its poetic, emotional Pischna, possible.
message, and is able to Cramer, Bach
present it with such when she was
convincing, young.
overwhelming,
conviction and appeal.
3. Believes that
“inspiration and
intuition are the most
important qualities o f
an artist.”
83
Robert 1. First comes the 1. 30 minutes of

Casadesus sound, not the pure technique —
(1899- 1972) technique. And then a scale, Philipp
the legato and the exercises and
evenness. arpeggios. Then
2. The pedal and the start to practice.
touch are very 2. Believes in
important. being able to
3. Being faithful to the acquire the
score. velocity o f the
fingers, the best
is Czerny.
3. Believes that
scales are
excellent for the
clarity of finger
passage, for
velocity, and for
the
independence of
each finger, but
has nothing to
do with
interpretation.
84
Claudio Arrau 1. Long hours in 1. Practice two 1. First, play

(1903 - 1991) practicing (nine hours or three hours a through the work
a day) when he was day on technical without thinking o f
young. exercises: memorizing, until
2. Never really double thirds, it’s in the muscles.
practices on the day o f double sixths, 2. Four kinds of
a concert. octaves, chords . memory: muscle,
3. The day before a .. etc. photographic,
concert, only practice 2. Encourage the sound, and analytic.
the difficulties but not young pianist to 3. Use analytic
too much. develop piano memory last,
4. Advise six to eight technique in the because the most
hours o f practice a day early stage. important memory
for anyone desiring to 3. Learn to is analytic.
become a pianist. enlarge his
5. Advise to practice technique by
difficult passage overcoming the
accurately with the difficulties in
eyes shut, thereby the works he
developing a sense o f played when he
direction after a long was fourteen
time. years old.
85
Rudolf Serkin 1. Long hours in 1. Practice 1. Memorizing by

(1903 - 1991) practicing. scales slowly remembering —
2. Begin to get warmed and rapidly — unconsciously.
up after five hours. never in- 2. Analyze pieces
3. Striving for the between —with consciously.
“utmost variety o f expression: 3. Finger memory is
tone, rhythm, of crescendo, a dangerous,
everything. I believe diminuendo, unreliable thing.
in a unity in music. I legato, leggiero,
don’t believe too much staccato, in all
in style. The words keys, and in
romantic or classic thirds and
never had much sixths; work for
meaning for me.” evenness,
control o f the
fingers, speed,
and accuracy.
2. Play a lot o f
Moscheles,
Hummel,
Thalberg,
Kalbrenner, and
Liszt, but very
little Czerny and
no Hanon.
86
Vladimir 1. “You must open the 1. “To be able to

Horowitz music, so to speak, and produce many
(1904- 1989) see what’s behind the varieties o f
notes because the sound, now that
notes are the same is what I call
whether it is the music technique. I
o f Bach or someone don’t adhere to
else.” any methods
2. “It is important for because I simply
the musician to learn don’t believe in
as much about the them.”
composer as possible
and to study the music
he has written.”
3. Piano playing must
be more than just the
next repetition; it must
live and breathe.
Adele Marcus 1. Two concepts of 1. A minimum
(1906 - 1995) playing the piano: o f an hour and a
a) playing “with” not half every day to
“at” the piano stretching
b) preparation of exercises,
sound, not only scales,
physically but how we arpeggios,
hear, feel, and think it scales in double
—it all has to work thirds and
together - is extremely double sixths,
important. octaves, and
chords.
87
Clifford 1. Play the sound o f 1. Believes

Curzon every note mentally scales and
(1907- 1982) before beginning to arpeggios are
play, believing this necessary for
should lead to endless pianists to have
experimentation with muscular
phrasing and tonal training,
color. Only then was however too
it time to go back and much
fix the technical work. mechanical
2. “the great danger o f practice is
beginning with harmful.
mechanics and saving 2. “Technique
the music for later is must be linked
that the music never to music
gets a fair chance. because
Phrases are learned technical
mechanically resources flow
themselves in terms o f from musical
technical difficulties.” thought.”
88
Lili Kraus 1. “I never think o f my 1. “My practice 1. “I want to

(1908- 1986) work as practice. includes remember with my
Practice somehow has technical work ears, not my eyes. I
the overtone o f going and hard don’t want to see
over and over things, drudging, drills the music but to
hoping to get the all the time, but hear it, to live it. I
tempo. My work is never divorced have to remember
not like that. I call from the text.” the sound and
what I am doing solid identify with the
work, and it consists o f harmonic, thematic,
many types of rhythmic, and
activities. First o f all, mechanical aspects
before I approach a so completely that I
piece on the piano, I don’t want to see
have lived with it for at the picture.”
least months and 2. Must know the
possibly years. The piece from every
literature is big enough aspect —
to allow for that. harmonically and
Secondly, there are rhythmically.
certain parts in a
composition which
immediately, long
before I materialize
them, are clear and
want to be played.
And that’s it.”
89
Rudolf 1. “When I say 1. Practice the 1. Aural memory.

Firkusny practicing, I do not scales and
(1912- 1994) only speak o f the arpeggios as a
purely technical aspect daily routine,
o f the work. I consider between half an
practicing everything, hour and an
not only slow-fast hour.
passages or the 2. Play some
difficult passages, but Bach everyday
also the melodic line, to get
the pedaling, all of concentration.
which are very 3. Believes that
important.” “technique is a
2. “Very often I combination o f
practice away from the many factors —
piano, sometimes control,
before I actually learn pedaling, touch,
the score.” phrasing.”
3. “I believe in
practicing slowly.”
90
Gyorgy 1. Practicing is that 1. Piano 1. Four elements in

Sandor phase o f learning in technique must the process o f
(1912- which we acquire be fused with memorization are:
motion habits through the musical a) visual memory
repetition. content; they b) acoustic or aural
2. As learning process must not be memory
improves, fewer separated. c) motoric or
repetitions are 2. “I don’t kinetic memory
necessary. believe in d) intellectual or
3. Stages of piano learning analytical memory.
learning: reading o f unnecessary
the piece, the search etudes. If you
for its meaning, and its want to study
memorization. octaves, learn
4. Slow practice most the Chopin
helpful. But not the ‘Octave Etude,’
goal. don’t learn
Czerny’s.”
91
Gina 1. Two phases of 1. Practice one

Bachauer learning a new piece: a) or two Hanon
(1913 - 1976) analyzing the score by exercises before
reading the music the real practice.
without playing. “To First, play the
analyze form, observing Hanon all the
similarities and way through
differences between
slowly, always
sections and cadenzas,
themes and transitions, holding the first
polyphony and melody, note. Then
and changes in themes continue to play
and motives; noting it through all the
beginnings and ends of keys
phrases, as well as the chromatically,
curve of phrases, and the always holding
character of the tempo the first note,
and analyzing the meter alternating each
through the rhythm of new key piano
harmonies and and forte, slow
melodies.” b) the and fast. Then
practice phase: working gradually faster
out the phrasing, and
and faster.
technical problems very
2. Scales,
slowly. “Throughout the
practice phase, the goal octaves,
was to establish the style arpeggios and
of the composer and the chords should
character of the work.” also be included.
2. Believes that “it is
not how long you
practice your exercises
and pieces but how
much you concentrate
when you practice.”
92
Jorge Bolet 1. Practice hands 1. No warm-up 1. Memorizing the

(1914- 1990) separately and slowly. exercises; start music away from
2. Getting anything up practicing the keyboard, “I
to tempo until really whatever is at look at the score,
know the piece well. hand and go on study it, go through
3. Practice musically. from there. it in my mind, and
4. Never solved a piece it all togther.”
major mechanical or
interpretive problem at
the keyboard, only
away from it.
Moura 1. “One should always 1. Do the
Lympany start practicing by stretching,
(1916- playing the piece thirds, sixths,
slower than written so and octaves as
that each note sounds daily routine.
quite clear in relation 2. Do a few
to the whole. Once all variants on
the problems have Hanon, some
been mastered — Chopin studies
tempos, accents, to keep the
phrasing, expression, fingers trim
dynamics — every day.
then it is possible to
increase the pace and
give a greater sense o f
style to the
interpretation.”
2. Having a break
between hours.
3. Believes that the
most one can practice
is four hours.
93
Abbey Simon 1. Practice no more 1. “As a boy I 1. “I have no idea,

(1922 - than two hours at a did do some no clue to how I
time because after that, Czerny and memorize.”
there is no d e m e n ti’s
concentration. Gradus ad
2. Practicing is the idea Pamassum and I
which is to get sixty had to learn
minutes of value out o f scales,
the sixty minutes you arpeggios,
spend at the piano. single notes,
3. Practicing sixths, tenths,
musically, “you can’t double thirds.
divorce or separate the But, now I never
technical demands use them.
from the musical
demands.”
94
Alicia de 1. Stretching exercises 1. Practice the 1. Five kinds of

Larrocha for small hands: technique in the memory:
(1923 - between the second work. a) natural memory.
and fifth fingers, b) memorize by
stretching the fingers analyzing the work
apart with the other - the phrases, the
hand, simply opening intervals, the
the hand on the piano cadences, the form,
mechanically. and so on.
2. Practice chords very c) the memory o f
slowly, staying on the the finger, which is
chord to feel the dangerous but
stretch. which can help.
d) the memory o f
the accents —the
memorization o f
rhythmical accent
which exists in
every musical
phrase.
e) the visual
memory o f the
keyboard —what
the hands and arms
have to do, the
distance to be here,
to get there.
2. Memory is
complex. It is
necessary to use all
these kinds o f
memory, and of
course the musical
ear.
95
Ruth 1. Three practice 1. Warm-up one

Slenczynska sessions per day, each hour every day.
(1925 - session lasts two and a
half hours.
2. Silent practice.
3. Slow practice.
4. Using tape recorder.
Walter Klien 1. Practice slowly, 1. Don’t practice
(1928 - without much pedal, a technical
trying to hear the regime,
piece, to have it new. exercises,
2. Do the research scales, but try to
about the composers find difficulties
and the compositions — in the works and
history, poets, politics transpose them.
and so on.
3. Try to avoid routine
feeling.
Bella 1. Practice around 1. Start 1. Photographic
Davidovich three hours a day. practicing some memory.
(1928 - 2. Make a little break Chopin Etudes, 2. Memorization
between hours. just to warm up goes in during
3. Before playing a the muscles. practice and stays
new piece, “I like to there.
look at the score to get
a sense in my mind of
what the piece will
involve, what the
important elements
are, and what I want to
be telling the audience
through this music.”
96
Leon Fleisher 1. “With a new piece 1. Doesn’t 1. Visual memory:

(1928 - one should sit down, believe in any “close my eyes and
probably in a chair exercises. see it on the screen
away from the piano, 2. “. . . the o f my eyelids, plus
and learn it, look at it, technical area is I have an
take it apart, try to important, but understanding o f
understand it it’s only one the harmonic form.”
structurally, aspect o f
harmonically, and in pianism, and it
all its elements as doesn’t include
much as possible.” or account for
the fact that
whatever one
does physically
—choreography,
or whatever you
want to call it —
is motivated by
your musical
intention and
monitored and
controlled by
your ear.”
Alexis 1. Learn a work first
Weissenberg by heart before going
(1929 - to the piano.
2. Practice relatively
little, about two hours
a day.
3. Two important
things about practice:
concentration and
thinking o f a piece.
4. Often to practice
away from the piano.
97
Alfred 1. Learning a new 1. Believes that

Brendel piece: we do not divide
(1931 - a) leam to look at each technique from
masterpiece as an music.
entity in itself. 2. “Technique is
b) look at each piece as only a tool.”
naively as possible; do
not try to analyze it
first; the analysis
should be the result o f
such acquaintance, not
the input.
2. Doesn’t believe in
working out a piece in
a slower tempo.
Instead, splitting up
passages into small
units, and playing five
notes up to tempo,
then continue with the
next five or six notes —
whatever was suitable
for that particular
phrase. After that put
the whole thing
together in the real
tempo.
98
Tamas Vasary 1. Practice differently 1. Used to have 1. “When I’m

(1932 - depending on whether a technical traveling I work on
just starting the piece, in regime when he visual memorizing.
the middle, or just before was young. On an airplane I try
a concert. Nowadays he to engrave every
2. First to learn a piece likes to play note into my
by heart, knowing it half difficult memory, literally
instinctively and half
technical works thinking every
consciously.
which are note.”
3. Then, comes the
“insurance company,” difficult for both 2. “I like to be able
which means to work to hands, for to play the two
learn every note away example the hands separately
from the piano. Rachmaninoff from memory.”
4. Then, practice starting concertos,
from various points so especially No. 3
that there are at least which has
eight signposts. This thousands of
kind of practice is vital notes for both
in preparing a Bach hands.
fugue and also less 2. Then, practice
complicated works. Chopin Etudes,
5. After all these
playing with the
processes, practicing in
left hand the
detail at slow and
medium tempos, same thing that
repeating things many is written for the
times. right.
6. Two weeks before a
concert, playing through
the whole program every
day in full tempo but not
with full expression.
99
John Browing 1. Learning new 1. “Certain 1. “Memorization is

(1933 - pieces: read through things are out-and-out hard
the pieces to get an difficult for work. It is a
idea o f where the some people and personal process,
problems are going to not for others, and each pianist has
lie. so we just have to find the way that
2. You have to give the to find out what suits him best.”
piano character, you is hard for 2. “The memory
have to give it the ourselves and has to be aural,
ability to sing, both work on it.” through the ear,
stylistically and in visual, tactile.”
terms o f sound.
3. Believes that mental
practice is crucial for
performers.
Philippe 1. Practice in a slow 1. Believes that 1. Visual as well as
Entremont tempo, always one can get aural and finger
(1934 - thinking o f the next plenty o f memory.
note. exercise in the
2. D idn’t work too repertoire.
much at the piano, 2. Emphasize
however think about the scales
music even when should be
sleeping. played pearly
and even.
Vladimir 1. Practice musically. 1. Coordination 1. “It’s a
Ashkenazy 2. Analyze the form. is very combination of
(1937 - 3. Do the research on important in the things: fingers,
the style, technique, piano technique. mind, visual, aural
meaning, and and so on.”
interpretation for each
piece.
100
Ralph 1. “Slow practicing is 1. “I always get 1. “If you

Votapek such an important part right down to concentrate when
(1939 - o f my life that I what I’m you’re practicing,
seldom sit down to practicing.” chances are nothing
work and play a piece 2. “I usually will go wrong with
up to tempo. start practicing memory.”
2. “Learning new slowly, so in a 2. “My memorizing
music by reading sense that’s my is mostly tactile.”
through the piece first, warm up.”
and then starting by
practicing very slow at
a tempo where one can
know it won’t go
wrong.”
3. “I don’t like to think
o f music like making a
soup, where you start
with the broth, then
after an hour you add
some more vegetable,
then finally add some
noodles. I like to have
it all there right at the
beginning, but to do
that it has to be slow.”
101
Stephen 1. Practice five or six 1. Practice 1. “Memory for me

Bishop hours a day. scales only if is completely
(1940 - 2. Start the practice necessary. unconscious,
routine by playing coming as a result
something not too fast, of practice. I
a prelude or slow wouldn’t know how
movement o f Bach, for to memorize phrase
example, to get the by phrase.”
fingers going. Then,
working on the
difficult spots in each
piece.
3. After knowing a
piece very well, then
practice in sections.
For example, if it is a
sonata, practice the
Exposition, the
Development, or the
Recapitulation.
4. Practice until one
gets the feeling of the
actual construction of
the work.
102
Aleskander 1. Practices six and a 1. No special

Slobodyanik half hours a day when regimen for
(1941- a recital is coming. technique.
2. Mostly plays the
whole piece through; if
there is something
wrong, then repeats
some places.
3. Believes that the
quality o f sound comes
from the heart, the
brain and from the
hand, too. Also the leg
comes into it a little
bit, also intuition.
Misha Dichter 1. Learning a new 1. Begins 1. Memorizing a
(1945 - piece: play through a practicing each piece by breaking
complete work a few day by playing down the form o f
times to get an idea of several pieces the piece into its
the overall shape o f it. that please him, larger structural
Then, single out the such as a group sections. Then,
places that are the of memorizing
most awkward Rachmaninoff intervallic
technically, and make transcriptions, relationships and
a daily exercise o f a Bach, harmonic blocks
given passage if it’s Mendelssohn’s that are common
really a stickler. Midsummer throughout the
Night’s Dream, entire movement o f
The Flight o f the the complete piece.
Bumblebee, or
other works that
sharpen his
skills.
103
Murray 1. Play accurately: “the

Perahia idea o f accuracy to me
(1947- suggests first o f all an
attempt on the part o f
the pianist to
understand the
indications o f the
composer, trying to
understand the moods,
the ideas, not in the
intellectual sense o f
idea; it involves an
understanding o f the
composer’s total
message, grasping
everything he wants to
say.
Garrick 1. “I believe you 1 .“ . . . at
Ohlsson should practice with twelve I
(1948 - your head rather than completely
just your rear end on stopped playing
the piano bench. It is scales and
very important to arpeggios. I’ve
concentrate and to always taken the
know what you’re technical work
doing.” directly out of
the materials
I’m working
55
on.
104
Andre Watts 1. “Practicing is really 1. No warm-up 1. No specific way

(1948 - up in your head and exercises. of memorizing: “if I
this comes first.” work on a piece,
2. “I do a lot o f slow after a couple of
practicing. I don’t days half of it is
spend too much time memorized.”
practicing above
speed, above the
tempo o f what I think
it should be, but
sometimes I do a little
bit just to see how it’s
going.
3. “ . . . basically, first
I play a new piece
more for the
architectural
viewpoint, just to see
how this piece is going
to be put together.
Then I just go back
and I start learning the
notes, start planning to
play.”
105
Janina 1. Put all important 1. Practice the 1. Three kinds of

Fialkowska practicing in the difficulties in memory: visual,
(1951 - morning dissecting the pieces. “It’s harmonic and
some old pieces you better than digital memory.
need to re-leam in the exercises.” Digital memory
afternoon. means to know
2. Learning a piece: what chords are
think it out, think involved and the
“where the climactic fingering.
points were, and where
you let down a bit, and
where the exposition
lay, and the recap, and
finally how it all ties
together.”
3. The idea o f
projection: aware o f
the audience at all
times, aware, that is, o f
what they are hearing,
not what I am
hearing.”
106
Andre-Michel 1. “In starting out a 1. “When I was 1. No specific way

Schub new piece, I try to play younger, to memorize,
(1952 - through the piece to pianistically, I simply just working
see the overall did a lot of on it.
structure and find out scales and
where hard spots are.” Czerny’s school
2. “Practice sections as o f finger
much as possible.” dexterity.”
2. “In terms o f
what I do to
keep the
equipment
going, the level
o f difficulty o f
the piece I work
on is enough as
opposed to
doing scales or
etudes.”
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INFORMATION TO U SER S

Oversize materials (e.g., maps, drawings, charts) are reproduced by sectioning

Photographs included in the original manuscript have been reproduced

Bell & Howell Information and Learning

Page(s) not included in the original manuscript

This reproduction is the best copy available.

Education, May, 1999, 114 pp., one appendix, bibliography, 89 titles.

Two major areas concerning the problems o f practice are discussed.

practice. Practicing often relegates itself to mindless repetition. The second

All technique should be a means of expression, not just an isolated physical

o f practice and to develop a suggested practice routine which incorporates

both technical and musical aspects. Two recommendations, strategies toward

effective practice and an ideal practice sessions, serve as a practice outline

collection o f the thoughts and viewpoints on practicing from forty-four

internationally acclaimed pianists.

Shu-Chen Hu, B.S.

Cnaip-ef the Diyisior

Dean o f the Robert B. Toulouse School o f Graduate

Presented to the Graduate Council of the

University o f North Texas In Partial

Fulfillment o f the Requirements

For the Degree o f

MASTER OF MUSIC EDUCATION

Shu-Chen Hu, B.S.

UMI Microform 1395655

This microform edition is protected against unauthorized

II. RELATED STU D IES............................................................. 10

m . THOUGHTS AND VIEWPOINTS ON PRACTICING 17

The Nature o f Practice

IV. METHODS OF PRACTICING.............................................. 47

Pianist Vladimir Horowitz said . [piano] technique is know­

most o f my fellow students do not know exactly how to achieve the

technique of practice. Rather, we spend hours and hours in the practice

piano technique in terms o f practicing. Professor Nelita True, Chairperson

o f the Piano Department at the Eastman School o f Music, states:

I would hope that the student would learn how to use

1 Helen Epstein, Music Talks: Conversations with Musicians (New York:

Wanda Landowska, the famous harpsichordist, has said that there is

If everyone knew how to work, everyone would be a

Students must recognize that the amount of time spent at an

musical rewards and pleasures, mentally, physically and musically. It is the

find practicing a constant challenge to their physical, mental, and emotional

capabilities. It is because they focus on the technical aspect o f practicing

However well-intentioned, books alone cannot give recipes for how

to practice. Because practice experience depends on the ability to control

what happens consciously moment by moment, each person has to achieve

it on the basis o f his own individual efforts and creativity.

Indeed, there are innumerable books and dissertations on piano

technique. However, most o f the studies make an effort to compare the

piano technique in relation to practicing. An early study by Wicinski based

on interviews with ten musicians, clearly identified three separate stages in

performed. The next stage consisted in most instances o f “hard work” on

technical problems. The third stage focused on a fusion o f the ideas

practicing in the same way.

Manturzeska4 found that high and low achievers among pianists

(competition participants with different levels o f success and Academy o f

Music students with no international competition experience) differ

practice around other duties and leisure time.

Another study concerning the different stages of a practice session

was conducted by Miklaszewski.5 This case study focuses on a single

Pianist Vladimir Horowitz said . [piano] technique is know