Mathematics
Mathematics
Mathematics
Technical Training
Training Manual
Fundamentals
Mathematics
IR Part 66 CAT B1 M1
Lufthansa Resource
Technical Training Ltd For Training Purposes Only
Book No: IR Part 66 CAT A M1 E Cwmbran S. Wales Lufthansa 1995
For training purposes and internal use only.
Copyright by Lufthansa Technical Training GmbH.
All rights reserved. No parts of this training
manual may be sold or reproduced in any form
without permission of:
M1 MATHEMATICS
1. ARITHMETIC
1.1. General
Just as studying a new language begins with learning basic words, the study of to the tens column. Adding this we have 1 and 7 is 8 and 4 is 12 and 6 is 18. Place
When adding whole numbers whose total is more than nine, it is necessary to ar-
range the numbers in columns so that the last digit of each number is in the same
column. The ones column contains the values zero through nine, the tens column
contains multiples of ten, up to ninety, and the hundreds column consists of mul-
tiples of one hundred.
Example:
To add the sum of the above, first add the ones column, 8 and 3 make 11 and 2
makes 13. Place the 3 in the ones column of the answer and carry the 1 forward
1.1.2. Subtraction
The process of finding the difference between two numbers is known as subtrac-
tion and is indicated by the minus (--) sign. Subtraction is accomplished by taking
the quantity of one number away from another number. The number which is being
subtracted is known as the subtrahend (smaller number), and the number from
15 -- 8 = 7
1.1.4. Division
Just as subtraction is the reverse of addition, division is the reverse of multiplica-
tion. Division is a means of finding out how many times a number is contained in
another number. The number divided is called dividend, the number you are divid-
ing by is the divisor, and the result is the quotient. With some division problems,
To check a divsion problem for accuracy, multiply the quotient by the the divisor
and add the remainder (if any). If the operation is carried out properly, the re-
sult equals the dividend.
Subtraction Division
i. 27.3 -- 4.36 i. 233.1 ÷ 18.5
Example:
Subtract 48 from --216
Step 1: Set up the subtraction problem --216 -- 48
Step 2: Change the operation sign to a plus sign and change the sign of the
subtrahend. Now add.
--216 + --48 = --264
Question 3.
viii. 4 x (--3) x (--2) A machinist makes 3 parts in 15 minutes. How many parts can he produce in
an 8 hour shift allowing 20 minutes for starting and 10 minutes for finishing the
ix. (--3) x (--4) x 5 shift.
Question 4.
x. --16 ÷ (--2) x (--4) The length of a metal plate is 891mm. Rivets are placed 45mm apart and the
distance between the centres of the end rivets and the edge of the plate is
xi. 15 x (--3) x 2 ÷ (--5) x (--6) 18mm. How many rivets are required.
Question 5.
xii. 3 + 5 x 2 32 pins each 61mm long are to be turned in a lathe. If 2mm is allowed on each
pin for parting off. what total length of material is required to make the pins.
xiii. 7 x 5 -- 2 + 4 x 6
xiv. 7 x 5 -- 12 ÷ 4 + 3
xv. 11 -- 9 ÷ 3 + 7
= 29
35
Example:
Subtract 3 from 5
4 6
The lowest common denominator is 12
5 3 = 10 9
6 4 12 12
(10 9)
=
12
= 1
12
Multiplication of Fractions
Multiplication of fractions is performed by multiplication the numerators of each Mixed numbers must be converted into improper fractions before multiplying.
fraction to form the product numerators, and multiplying the individual denomina-
tors to form the product denominator. The resulting fraction is then reduced to its Example:
lowest terms. Multiply 1 3 × 2 1
2 × 5 × 21 = (1 × 5 × 1)
3 7 32 (1 × 1 × 16)
= 5
16
Division of Fractions
Division of common fractions is accomplished by inverting, or turning over, the div-
isor and then multiplying. However, it is important that you invert the divisor only
and not the dividend. Once the divisor is inverted, multiply the numerators to obtain
a new numerator, multiply the denominators to obtain a new denominator, and re-
3÷7 = 3×8
5 8 5 7
(3 × 8}
=
(5 × 7)
= 24
35
325.25
2. When the divisor is a decimal fraction, it should first be converted to a whole
-- 30.75 number by moving the decimal point to the right. However, when the decimal in
294.50 the divisor is moved, the decimal in the dividend must also move in the same direc-
tion and the same number of spaces.
Multiplying Decimals
When multiplying decimals, ignore the decimal points and multiply the resulting Example:
whole numbers. Once the product is calculated, count the number of digits to the
right of the decimal point in both the multiplier and multiplicand. This number repre- Divide 37.26 by 2.7
sents the number of places from the left the decimal point is placed in the product.
Move the decimal in the divisor to the right to convert it to a whole number.
Example:
27 ) 37.26
26.757 3 decimal
x 0.32 2 decimal Move the decimal in the dividend the same number of places to the right.
53514
80271 27 ) 372.6
856224 count 5 decimal places to the left of the digit 4
8.56224 13.8
Divide: 27 ) 372.6
27
102
81
216
1.1.8. Conversions
Converting Decimals to Fractions Converting Fractions to Decimals
Although decimals are typically easier to work with, there are times when the use
of a fraction is more practical. For example, when measuring something, most To convert a fraction into a decimal we divide the denominator into the numerator.
scales are fractional increments. For this reason it is important that you know how
Examples:
27 = 27 ÷ 32
32
0.800 = 800 = 4
1000 5
= 0.84375
6.250 = 6+ 250 = 6 1
1000 4
0.037 = 37
1000
When we have mixed numbers to convert into decimals we need only deal with
the fractional part. Thus to convert 2 9 into decimals we only have to deal with 9
16 16
9 = 9 ÷ 16
16
= 0.5625
8% as a fraction = 8% = 8 = 2
100% 100 25
Examples:
4% of 60 = 4 × 60 = 240 = 12 = 2 2
100 100 5 5
Express:
i. 30 as a percentage of 50
ii. 24 as a percentage of 16
iii. 0.5 as a percentage of 12.5
iv. 3.2 as a percentage of 2.4
v. 0.08 as a percentage of 0.72
Length of AC = 2 x 2 = 4m
Length of BC = 3 x 2 = 6m
Express the following ratios as fractions reduced to their lowest terms; Two shafts are to rotate at 150 and 250 rev/min respectively. A 120mm diameter
pulley is fitted to the slower shaft and by means of a belt it drives a pulley on the
faster shaft. What diameter pulley is required on the faster shaft.
i. 15g to 2 kg ii. 30p to £5 iii. 20cm to 100mm iv. 400m to 3km v.21ft to 9inches
Five men build a wall take 20 days to complete it. How long would it take 4 men
to complete it.
4 people can clean an office in 6 hours. How many people would be needed to
clean the office in 4 hours.
8 people take 5 hours to change an engine. How long would it take 4 people to do
this work.
A train travels 200km in 4 hours. If it travels at the same rate, how long will it take
to complete a journey of 350km.
A motor running at 400 rev/min has a pulley of 125mm diameter attached to its
shaft. It drives a parallel shaft which has a 1000mm diameter pulley attached to
it. Find the speed of this shaft.
A gear wheel having 40 teeth revolves at 120 rev/min. It meshes with a wheel hav-
ing 25 teeth. Find the speed of the 25tooth wheel.
1.1.11. Indices
Base, Index & Power
The quantity 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 may be written as 2 4. Now 2 4 is called the fourth
power of the base 2.
4 2
3 3
v. z 4 × z 2 × z vi. 3 2 × 3 ÷ 33 vii. 9 3 viii. t × t 3
ix. 1
73
1.1.12. Tranposition of Formulae iii. Transpose the formula V = 2R to make R the subject.
(R r)
The formula y = ax + b has y as its subject. By rearranging this formula we
could make x the subject. We are then said to have transposed the formula to Step 1. Since there are no roots get rid of the fraction by multiplying both sides
make x the subject. of the equation by (R r).
The rules for transforming a formula are: V(R r) = 2R
C = d for d C= E for E
(R + r)
S = dn for d
x = ay for y
P = RT for T
V
S = ts for t
T
M=E for R
I R
GY = T for J
l J
v = u + at for t
n = p + cr for r
y = ax + b for x
y = x + 17 for x
5
Triangle
Rectangle
Trapezium
Sector of a Circle
Circle
Area = r2
Circumference = 2 r = d = 3.142 or 22
7
1.1.14. Volumes
The volume of a solid figure is found by seeing how many cubic units it contains.
1 cubic metre is the volume contained inside a cube having an edge 1 metre long; Cylinder
1 cubic centimetre is the volume contained inside a cube having an edge 1 centi-
metre long, etc. The standard abbreviations for units of volume are as follows:
Cone
Volume = Cross--sectional area x Length of solid
Frustum of a Cone
Pyramid
Sphere
Volume = 4 r 3
3
Surface Area = 4 r 2
v. A triangle has sides which are 8cm , 12cm and 14cm long. Determine the
area ofthe triangle.
vi. The area of a triangle is 40ft2. Its base is 8ft long. Calculate its vertical
height.
vii. Find the area of a trapezium whose parallel sides are 45mm and 73mm
long if the distance between them is 42mm.
viii. An annulus has an outer diameter of 10cm and an inner diameter of 6cm.
calculate its area.
ix. Find the area and length of arc of the sector of a circle, with an angle of
150 and a radius of 21mm.
x.Calculate the volume of a metal pipe whose inside diameter is 6cm and
whose outside diameter is 8cm, if it 20cm long.
1.1.15. Conversions
Length Mass
1in. = 2.54cm 1 amu = 1.66 x 10--27kg
1m = 39.37in. or 3.281ft. 1000kg = 1 metric tonne = 0.984 tons
Time
1 year = 365 days
1 day = 24hr = 1,440 min
Pressure
1 atm = 76.0 cmHg
1 atm = 760 mmHg
1 atm = 29.92 inHg
1 atm = 14.7 lb/in2
1 Pa = 0.000145 lb/in2
1 bar = 14.5 lb/in2
1 bar = 100,000 Pa
Fundamental Constant
g = 32 lb./slug
g = 9.8 N/kg
i. Convert 6m to feet.
1. 7 + 4 x 3 =
14. Remove the backets from the following
3. 10 -- 12 ÷ 6 + 3 (8 -- 3) =
15. Solve the equation 7x + 3 = 5x + 17 for the value of x.
4. 53 =
5. 2 + 3 =
5 7
16. A triangle has length of sides 3cm and 4cm. Using pythagros theorem
calculate the missing length.
6. 5 3=
6 4
7. 3 × 5 =
8 7
8. 3 ÷ 7 =
5 8
2. ALGEBRA
2.1. Introduction
The methods of algebra are an extension of those used in arithmetic. In algebra Knowing what the symbols A, l and b stand for, this statement conveys as much
A = l x b = 50 x 30 = 1500mm2
2.1.1. Use of Symbols
A technician often has to indicate that certain quantities or measusrements have Many verbal statements can be translated into symbols as the following state-
to be added, subtracted, multiplied or divided. Frequently this has to be done with- ments show:
out using actual numbers.
The statement: The difference of two numbers = x -- y
Two numbers multiplied together = a x b
Area of a rectangle = length x breadth One number divided by another = p ÷ q
A=lxb
2.1.2. Substitution
The process of finding the numerical value of an algebraic expression for given
values of the symbols that appear in it is called substitution.
Example:
(3y + 2z)
= (3 × 4) + (2 × 5)
(x + z)
3+5
(12 + 10)
= 22 = 2.75 or 2¾.
8 8
2.1.3. Addition & Substraction of Algebraic Terms 2.1.4. Multiplication & Division Signs
When using symbols multiplication signs are nearly always omitted and l x b be-
Like terms are numerical multiples of the same algebraic quantity. comes lb. Of course the same scheme cannot apply to numbers and we cannot
write 9 x 6 as 96. The multiplication sign can, however, be omitted when a symbol
and a number are to be multiplied together. Thus 5 x m is written 5m. The system
7x, 5x and --3x
7x -- 5x + 3x = (7 -- 5 + 3) x = 5x The division sign ÷ is seldom used in algebra and it is more convenient to write
p
P ÷ q in the fractional form q
3b2 + 7b2 = (3 + 7) b2 = 10b2
Example:
--3y -- 5y = (--3 --5) y = --8y
(lp)
= lp ÷ 2 R
(2 R)
q -- 3q = (1 -- 3) q = --2q
8x + 3y -- 4z -- 5x + 7z -- 2y + 2z
= 3x + y + 5z
(x)( y) = (xy) = xy
pq (p × q)
p = p =q
(2x)( 3y) = (2x)(3y) = 6xy
(3p 2q) (3 × p × p × q) 3p p
2
= = =
( 4x)(2y) = (4x)(2y) = 8xy (6pq ) (6 × p × q × q) 6q 2q
( 5x)( 6y) = + 5x = 5x 4x = 4x
6y 6y ( 3y) 3y Thus
2x 2+ 12x4 3x 4 ÷ 3x 2 x 2 = 2x2 + 9x4 ÷ 3x2 x2
When multiplying expressions containing the same symbols, indices are used: = 2x 2+3x2 x2
2
m×m = m = 5x 2 x2
= 4x 2
2
3m × 5m = 3 × m × 5 × m = 15m
( m) × m 2 = ( m) × m × m = m3
i. 7x + 11x ii. 7x -- 5x iii. 3x -- 6x iv. --2x --4x i. 12x ÷ 6 ii. 4a ÷ (--7b) iii. (--5a) ÷ 8b iv. 4a÷ 2b v. 4ab ÷ 2a
v.--8x + 3x vi. --2x + 7x vii. 5m + 13m -- 6m vi. 12x2yz2 ÷ 4xz2 vii. (--12a2b) ÷ 6a viii. 8a2bc2 ÷ 4ac2
xii. 3x -- 2y + 4z -- 2x -- 3y + 5z + 6x + 2y -- 3z
...........................................................................................
vi. (--3a) x (--2b) vii. 8m x (--3n) viii. (--4a) x 3b ix. 8p x (--q) x (--3r)
xiv. 7ab x (--3a2) xv.m2n x (--mn) x 5m2n2 xvi. 5a2 x (--3b) x 5ab
............................................................................................
2.1.6. Brackets
Brackets are used for convenience in grouping terms together. When removing When simplifying expressions containing brackets first remove the brackets and
brackets each term within the bracket is multiplied by the quantity outside the then add the like terms together.
bracket:
3(x+y) = 3x+3y (3x+7y) (4x+3y) = 3x+7y 4x 3y = x+4y
When a bracket has a minus sign in front of it, the signs of all the terms inside the
bracket are changed when the bracket is removed. The reason for this rule may
be seen from the following examples:
(m+n) = m n (p q) = p+q
2(p+3q) = 2p 6q
i. 3(x + 4) ii. 2(a + b) iii. 3(3x -- 2y) iv. ½(x -- 1) v. 5(2p -- 3q) i. (x + 4) (x + 5) ii. (2x + 5) (x + 3) iii. (5x + 1) (2x + 3)
vi. 7(a -- 3m) vii. --(a + b) viii. --(a -- 2b) ix. --(3p -- 3q) x. --4(x + 3) iv. (7x + 2) (3x + 2) v. (x -- 4) (x -- 2) vi. (2x -- 1) (x -- 4)
xv. 4xy(ab -- ac + d) xvi. 3x2(x2 -- 2xy + y2) xvii. --7p(2p2 -- p + 1) x. (3x + 4y) (2x -- 3y) xi. (2x + 3)2
iv. 4(1 -- 2x) -- 3(3x -- 4) v. 5(2x -- y) -- 3(x + 2y) vi. ½(y -- 1) + ¾(2y -- 3)
xiv. 4ax + 6ay -- 4bx -- 6by xv. 3mx + 2nx -- 3my -- 2yn
Now 120 = 8 × 15. It can now be seen that the two integers are 8 and 15.
Since 23x = 15x + 8x
Example:
Factorise 8x 2 34x + 21
Here a = 8, b = 34 and c = 21.
ac = 168 and b = 34
The two integers whose sum is --34 and whose product is 168 are --6 and --28.
8x 2 34x + 21 = 8x 2 6x 28x + 21
= 2x(4x 3) 7(4x 3)
= (4x 3)(2x 7)
Factors which are common to both numerator and denominator may be cancelled.
it is important to realise that this cancelling means dividing the numerator and de-
nominator by the same quantity.
Example:
8ab × 9mn 2 = (8 × a × b × 9 × n × n × m)
3mn 4ab 2 (3 × m × n × 4 × a × b × b)
= 6n
b
2 y 3
x. 6a2 × b 2 xii. 9x 2 × 3 xiii.
6pq 8s 2
× xiv. 6ab ad 8cd 2
b 3a 6y x 4rs 3p c × 2b × 4bc
2 2 3
xv. 2z 2 × 6a 2 × 10c3
3ac 5zy 3y
2 2 2 3pq p2
xvi. ab2 ÷ a 3 xvii. 6ab ÷ 4a xviii. ÷
bc bc 5cd 7bd 5rs 15s 2
x2 = x × x
and x km = 1000 x m
Example:
Solve the equation x = 3
6
Example:
Solve the equation x 4=8
The operation of adding 4 to each side is the same as transferring --4 to the
RHS but in so doing the sign is changed from a minus to a plus.
x 4=8
x=8+4
x = 12
Example;
7x 5x = 17 3
2x = 14
x = 14
2
x=7
(4 x) (2x 1)
Solve the equation =4
3 2
In solving equations of this type remeber that the line separating the numerator
and denominator act as a bracket. The LCM of the denominators 3 and 2 is 6.
Multiplying each term of the equation by gives:
(4 x) (2x 1)
×6 ×6 =4×6
3 2
2(x 4) 3(2x 1) = 24
2x 8 6x + 3 = 24
4x 5 = 24
4x = 24 + 5
4x = 29
x = 29
4
x = 29 = 7.25
4
(x + 3) (x 3)
xvii. =
2 3
i. 2x -- 3y = --8
x + 3y = 14
iii. 3x + 4y = 26
x +y =7
iv. 5x -- 7y = 1
2x + 5y = 16
y
v. x + = 5
2 5
2x + 3y = 19
3 2
A quadratic equation has two solutions (often called the roots of the equation). Factorising, (x + 4)(x + 3) = 0
It is possible for one of the roots to be zero or for the two solutions to be the
Either x + 4 = 0, giving x = 4 or x + 3 = 0, giving x = 3
same.
The roots are x = 4 and x = 3.
Solving Quadratic Equations
A quadratic equation can be solved by factorisation. We make use of the fact iii. Solve x2 6x = 0
that if the product of two factors is zero, then one of those factors must be
zero. Thus if mn = 0 then either m = 0 or n = 0. To solve a quadratic equa-
tion by this method the expression ax 2 + bx + c is written as the product of two Factorising x(x 6) = 0
factors. Either x = 0 or x 6 = 0, giving x = 6.
The roots are x = 0 and x = 6
(Note that it is incorrect to say that the solution is x = 6. The solution x = 0
must also be stated).
Factorising (x 9)(x 1) = 0 The square root of a negative quantity has no arithmetic meaning and it is
called an imaginary number. The reason is as follows:
Either (x 9) = 0, giving x = 9 or x 1 = 0, giving x = 1
2
The roots are x = 9 and x = 1. ( 3) = 9
2
(+ 3) = 9
9= 3
2
( 8) ( 8) 4×3×2
x=
(2 × 3)
8 64 24
x=
6
8 40
x=
6
(8 + 6.325) (8 6.325)
x= or x=
6 6
x = 2.39 or 0.28
Rules of Logarithms
There are three rules of logarithms, which apply to any base. Rule 3. To raise a number to a power
log A n = n log A
Rule 1. To multilply two numbers
The following may be checked using a calculator
Hence ln 5 = ln 5 -- ln 2.
2
1x8=8
+1 x 2 = 2
+1 X 0.25 = 0.25
So
1010.01 2 = 10.25 10
Line up the numbers as shown, and add each column starting from the left (as
you would when adding decimal numbers). When two 1’s are added, this would
normally be 2. But 2 is not allowed in binary, so write 0 and carry 1 to the next
column to the left and include it in the addition of the next column.
1100010
+ 1000111
10101001
Example:
Convert 11010010 to octal.
1. Take the 3 most right bits, 010 and find the corresponding octal value in the
above lookup table. The octal value is 2.
2. Take the next 3 bits, 010. The corresponding octal value from the lookup
table is 2 again.
3. Now only 2 bits, 11 of the binary number remain. Pad the left hand side with
a 0 to get 011. The corresponding octal from the lookup table is 3.
Hexadecimal
Every number that can be written in decimal can also be written in another sys- Hexadecimal is also a place value system which means that each place repre-
tem called hexadecimal. Hexadecimal is the last of the three main number sys- sents a power of 16, just as the place represents a power of 10 in the decimal
tems used by computer scientists. system:
The hexadecimal number system is a base 16 number system which uses the
2.1.14. Test
Solve the following examples:
Binary Hexadecimal
Convert the following Binary numbers to Decimals Convert the following Binary bits to Hexadecimal code
i. 1101.1 ii. 1001110.11 iii. 100100.1 i. 11100001 ii. 101110001111 iii. 11111100
Add the following Binary numbers Convert the folloing Hexadecimal codes to Decimal
i. 111 and 100 ii. 10010 and 1101 iii. 10110001 and 11100010 i. 2D ii. 1AF iii. 21A iv. 1AE
Octal
Convert the following Decimal numbers to Hexadecimal codes
Convert the following Binary numbers to Octal
i. 1632 ii. 494 iii. 5174 iv. 67
i. 101010100 ii. 011110100000 iii. 111101001
3. Geometry
3.1.
Example:
5cm
c2
12cm
c By pythagoras c2 = 122 + 52
b b2
= 144 + 25
= 169
a
c = 169
= 13cm
a2
Example:
Find the height of an isosceles triangle which has sides of length 13cm and base
13cm 10cm
h2 = 132
-- 52
= 169 -- 25
h2 = 144
13cm 13cm
h = 12cm
13cm
Note now that the base is 13cm long, whereas before 10cm long. The height will
also be a different length, so there is not one height for one triangle, it all depends
on which side you use as your base.
5cm 5cm
10cm
Note: The height is always drawn at right angles to the base and goes to the oppo-
site apex. We can draw the height from any side providing it meets the above re-
quirement, i.e it cuts the chosen base at right angles and goes from the base to
the opposite apex.
In our second triangle, the lengths of all the sides are the same as our first triangle,
i.e it is the same triangle and therefore has the same area. We can use this fact
to calculate the new height that corresponds to have a base of 13cm. Base
Area = ½ x base x height
Area = 60 = ½ x base x height = ½ x 3 x 4
60 = ½ x 13 x height = 6cm2
h = 60
6.5
h = 9.23cm Obviously, we could tip the triangle on its side. The 4cm side now becomes the
base and the 3cm side becomes the height. Note, no difference in size of area.
i. In a right angled triangle, the length of the shorter sides are 8cm and 15cm.
Calculate the length of the hypotenuse.
iii. A right angled triangle has sides of 30cm and 40cm. If the third side is the longest
what is the length.
iv. All the sides of a triangle are 6cm length. What is the vertical height of the
triangle.
v. A triangle has sides which are 12.5cm, 30cm and 32.5cm in length. Is it a right
angled triangle.
3.1.2. Trigonometry
Trigonometrical ratios
By using pythagoras, you are now able to partially solve right--angled triangles, i.e
you can find the third side of a right--angled triangle when given its other 2 sides.
This chapter is concerned with establishing the basic trigonometrical concepts
Similar triangles, are triangles which are the same shape, one is simply an enlarge-
ment of the other. Two important properties of similar triangles are:
Now consider the following similar triangles, In both cases side ’c’ is the hypoten-
i. their corresponding angles are equal use.
ii. their corresponding sides are proportional
Taking angle A as the reference:
Consider the triangles:
i. side ’a’ is the side opposite
ii. Side ’b’ is the adjacent
Since the triangles are similar, the ratios of corresponding sides are constant,
i.e, the ratios ac , bc and a are the same for all similar right--angled triangles.
The above triangles are similar since they are equiangular and the ratios of their b
corresponding sides are constant, i.e.
i. BC = 3 = EF = 6 = 3
AB 5 DE 10 5
ii. AC = 4 = DF = 8 = 4 iii. BC = 3 = EF = 6 = 3
AB 5 DE 10 5 AC 4 DF 8 4
ii. Side adjacent to the angle is called the Cosine of the reference angle
hypotenuse
adjacent
cos A = = bc
hypotenuse
opp
iii. Side opposite the angle is called the Tangent of the angle i. sin B = = 3 = 0.6
hyp 5
Side adjacent that angle
ajd
ii. cos B = = 4 = 0.8
opposite hyp 5
tan A = =a
adjacent b
opp
iii. tan B = = 3 = 0.75
The above are the fundamental trigonometrical ratios for right--angled triangles adj 4
and must be remembered. A convenient method to help you to remember them
is SOHCAHTOA, where S = sin, C = cos and T = tan.
We will now calculate the values for 30 and 60 . Consider the equilateral triangle Thus in a right angled triangle ABD:
ABC of sides 2 units.
opp 3
i. sin 60 = = = 1.7321 = 0.8660
hyp 2 2
Line BD bisects ABC and is perpendicular to AC
opp 3
iii. tan 60 = = = 1.732
adj 1
opp
iv. sin 30 = = 1 = 0.5000
hyp 2
opp
vi. tan 30 = = 1 = 0.5774
adj 3
side d = 2 (given)
Side b = 1 (half of AC)
Side a2 = 22 -- 12
a2 = 3
Angle A
b
5
opp
Since = tan, this is the ratio we use
adj
opp
tan A =
adj
tan A = 12
5
tan A = 2.4
Side c
by pythagoras,
c2 = a2 + b2
c = 12 2 + 5 2
c = 169 = 13
Along the x and y axes we can mark off units of measurement (not necessarily the
same on both axes). The origin takes the value zero on both axes. The x axis takes
positive values to the right of th origin and negative values to the left of the origin.
The y axis takes positive values above the origin and negative values below the
origin.
Any point on this diagram can be defined by its coordinates (consisting of two
numbers). The first, the x coordinate, is defined as the horizontal distance of the
point from the y axis, the second, the y coordinate, is defined as the vertical dis-
tance of the point from the x axis.
In general, a point is defined by its coordinates which are written in the
form (a, b).
x: 0 1 2 3 4 5
2x 0 2 4 6 8 10
+1 1 1 1 1 1 1
y: 1 3 5 7 9 11
We then plot the points obtained, each point being defined by its x coordinate and
its corresponding y coordinate. The points are then joined together to the graph. The value of y therefore depends on the value allocated to x. We therefore call y
the dependent variable. Since we can give x any value, we call x the indepen-
dent variable. It is usual to mark the values of the independent variable along the
horizontal axis (x). The dependent variable values are marked off along the vertical
axis (y).
Equations of the type y = 2x + 1, where the highest powers of the variables, x and
y, are the first are called equations of the first degree. All equations of this type
give graphs which are straight lines and hence they are often called linear equa-
tions. In order to draw graphs of linear equations we need only take two points,
however three points are adviseable.
Draw graphs of the following functions taking values of x between --3 and
4.
i. y = 2x + 5
As c = 6, we know that this line cuts the y axis at y = 6 (this can be verified by substi-
tuting x = 0 into the equation of the line, as x = 0 along the y axis)
Similarly, as y = 0 along the x axis, we can substitute y = 0 into the equation of the
line to find where the intersects with the axis (the intercept).
we have, when
y=0
6 -- 3x = 0
3x = 6
Note: in this example m = 2 and c = 0, whenever c = 0 the line will pass through x =2
the origin. Hence the line cuts the x axis at x = 2. We can now say that the y intercept = 6 and
the x intercept = 2.
0 = --2 + 4
4x = 2
x = 0.5
Hence the x intercept is x = 0.5.
y = mx + c
4=m+c (1)
y -- y1 = m (x -- x1)
Example:
Here are some examples of angles and their degree measurements. Convert them
to radians.
Many different names exist for the same angle. For the angle below, PBC,
PBW, CBP and WBA are all names for the same angle.
Right Angles
A right angle is an angle measuring 90 . Two lines or line segments that meet at
right angle are said to be perpendicular. Note that any two right angles are supple-
mentary angles (a right angle is its own angle supplement).
Note that these two angles can be “pasted” together to form a right angle.
Note that these two angles can be “pasted” together to form a straight line.
Example:
The central ray on the right is the angle bisector of the angle on the left.
3.1.6. Circles ii. In a circle or in congruent circles, if two chords are the same distance from the
centre, then they are congruent.
Chords & Radii Using these theorems in action is seen in the example below.
All the “parts” of a circle, such as the radius, the diameter, etc, have a relationship Find CD.
with the circle or another “part” that can always be expressed as a theorem. The
two theorems that deal with chords and radii (pulral raduis) are outlined below.
OC = radius
AB = chord
Given: circle R is congruent to circle S.
chord AB = 8
RM = SN
ii. For a circle or for congruent circles, if two central angles are congruent then their
arcs are congruent.
Example:
x
In the last problem, you noticed that angle P is inscribed in semicircle QPR and
angle P = 90 . This leads to our next theorem, which is stated below.
Any angle inscribed in a semicircle is a right angle.
Solution:
By the theorem stated above, angle D and angle F are supplementary. Therefore,
angle F equals 95 . The first theorem discussed in this section tells us the arc is
twice that of its inscribed angle. With that theorem, arc GDE is 190 .
Also, you can find the length of any arc when you know its angle and the radius the length of the arc is 2 cm, or 2.1 cm
3
with the following formula.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
M1 MATHEMATICS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 2.1.3. Addition & Substraction of Algebraic Terms . . . . 43
2.1.4. Multiplication & Division Signs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
1. ARITHMETIC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 2.1.5. Muliplication & Division of Algebraic Quantities . 44
1.1. General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 2.1.6. Brackets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
1.1.1. Addition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 2.1.7. Factorisation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
1.1.2. Subtraction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 2.1.8. Factors of Quadratic Expressions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
1.1.3. Multiplication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 2.1.9. Algebraic Fractions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
1.1.4. Division . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 2.1.10. Linear Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
1.1.5. Signed Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 2.1.11. Quadratic Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
1.1.6. Common Fractions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 2.1.12. Logarithms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
1.1.7. Decimals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 2.1.13. Number Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
1.1.8. Conversions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17 2.1.14. Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
1.1.9. Ratio & Proportion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
3. Geometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
1.1.10. Power and Roots . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
1.1.11. Indices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26 3.1. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
1.1.12. Tranposition of Formulae . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30 3.1.1. Triangles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
1.1.13. Areas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32 3.1.2. Trigonometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
1.1.14. Volumes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34 3.1.3. The Sine Curve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
1.1.15. Conversions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37 3.1.4. Coordinates & Graphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
1.2. Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40 3.1.5. Geometry -- Angles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
3.1.6. Circles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
2. ALGEBRA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
2.1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
2.1.1. Use of Symbols . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
2.1.2. Substitution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
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