Effects of Rate Limiting Elements in Flight Control Systems -

A New PIO-Criterion

Holger Duda
Deutsche Forschungsanstalt fiir Luft- und Raumfahrt e.V
Institut fiir Flugrnechanik
Lilienthalplatz 7
D-38 108 Braunschweig
Germany
Downloaded by Indian Institute of Technology on September 22, 2012 | http://arc.aiaa.org | DOI: 10.2514/6.1995-3204

time
Abstract input amplitude
linear system 1 and 2 input signals
The purpose of this paper is to demonstrate and help to rate limiting element input signal
understand the effects of rate saturation in flight closed loop system input signal
control systems by using the describing function complex Fourier coefficients
technique. The rate limiting element describing closed loop system output gignal
function is calculated with the help of the Fourier elevator deflection
transformation. An iterative method is derived to commanded elevator deflection
calculate the closed loop system describing function of pitch attitude angle
aircraft with high order flight control systems commanded pitch attitude angle
including rate limiters. The effects of rate saturation in frequency
closed loop systems are demonstrated by application of rate limiting element onset frequency
the method to two characteristic aircraft systems: a crossover frequency
typically unstable highly augmented aircraft and the closed loop rate limiting element
YF-12 PIO-configuration were analysed. This leads to onset frequency
a phenomenon called jump resonance, a sudden change PI0 frequency
in aircraft system dynamics (trigger for pilot-induced
oscillations, PIO). A new PI0 criterion is proposed
considering rate limiters in flight control systems.
Pilot-induced oscillations (PIO) have been experienced
throughout the complete aviation's history beginning
with a mild longitudinal oscillation of the Wright Flyer
and still present in the latest aircraft with advanced
open loop frequency response flight control systems (YF-22, JAS-39). PI0 can occur
closed loop frequency response when the pilot attempts to perform a precise control
closed loop frequency response from task and can, therefore, be treated as a closed loop
the closed loop system input to the instability of the pilot-aircraft system1.
rate limiter input For the understanding of PI0 three elements must be
open loop describing function considered, which can be identified from all published
open loop system describing function PIO-cases2: the linear aircraft dynamics, the pilot
calculated from the closed loop behaviour and the trigger, figure 1. In this context the
system describing function aircraft dynamics include the unaugmented aircraft, the
pilot gain flight control laws, tbe sensors, actuators, notch filters,
closed loop describing function etc.. The pilot behaviour is a factor for PI0 due to a
rate limiting element describing misadaptation to the aircraft dynamics, for example by
function a too high pilot gain. The trigger can have different
pitch rate forms, for example a nonlinear effect in the flight
commanded pitch rate control system or a transition in the pilot behavioural
pitch rate feedback signal pattern, but always causes a sudden change in the
maximum rate

Copyright 1995 by Holger Duda. Published by the American

Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics, Inc. with permission.
 closed loop dynamics of the pilot-aircraft system. The application of the triangle function provides the
Strong interactions exist between the three elements. following equation for the describing function of a rate
The central element in a PI0 is the poor aircraft limiting element12
dynamics characterized mainly by a high-frequency
phase rolloff caused by time delays and filters in the
flight control system3. With the help of numerical
criteria the linear aircraft dynamics were identified as
PIO-prone for nearly all published PIO-cases, for valid for
example YF- 164,YF-225.
The well-known theories for the analysis of PI0 only
consider linear aircraft dynamics in the frequency
domain, for example the criteria by Neal-Smith6,
Gibson7, Smith-Geddes8 and Hoh9. The consideration Figure 2 shows the Bode plot of the rate limiting
of nonlinear effects in the frequency domain analysis element describing function for an onset frequency of
requires the use of the describing function technique 1 radl sec . The transition region between no saturation
and is, therefore, labour-intensive. This leads to the and fully developed saturation is calculated by a spline
fact that for the numerical PI0 investigations only interpolation in the frequency domain. The Bode plot
linear aircraft dynamics are considered. A
demonstrates the strong increase in phase delay and the
representative example for this is the work on the slight decrease in amplitude in the transition region.
handling qualities assessment of the EuroFighter 2000
Downloaded by Indian Institute of Technology on September 22, 2012 | http://arc.aiaa.org | DOI: 10.2514/6.1995-3204

prior to first flightlo. . .

Closed-J . Function
It seems to be true that all recent PIOs have exhibited
rate saturation. Its effects are commonly described by
Figure 3 shows two typical positions, where rate
the words additional lag, but this does not address its
nonlinear character. Therefore, the main goal of this limiters are installed in highly augmented aircraft
paper is the investigation of the nonlinear effects of systems. The limiters in the aircraft stabilisation loop
rate saturation in flight control systems regarding pilot have the task to protect the actuators. Otherwise the oil
induced oscillation triggering. supply could break down with the resuh of a system
failure. The limiters in the forward path of the flight
. .. .. control system are installed to protect the system
Rate J .lmitlug Element D e s c n b ~Function against too high input rates by the pilot preventing a
saturation of rate limiters in the aircraft stabilisation
A nonlinear system can be represented by a quasi-
loop. This is particularly important for unstable highly
linear system using the describing function and the
augmented aircraft.
remnant". The describing function can be interpreted
A PI0 analysis requires the closed loop describing
as the quasi-linear frequency response for sinusoidal
function of the pilot-aircraft system. Hence, the forward
inputs. The remnant is a high frequency signal, which
path limiters are also involved in a closed loop.
can be neglected if the linear part of the system has low
For the calculation of the closed loop system describing
pass character. function including rate limiters the usual equation for
The rate limiting element describing function is
the calculation of the closed loop frequency response is
derived using the onset frequency12:
not valid:

In a fully developed rate limiting situation the

Therefore, an iterative method has been derived to
describing function can be calculated using the Fourier
determine the closed loop system describing function
series:
N,( j w , % ) for the generalised system in figure 412.
The two different rate limiter positions (figure 3) can
be considered in the analysis:

A. limiters in the forward path:

with the complex Fourier coefficients linear system L1 includes the pilot model and
feel system dynamics.
linear system L2 includes the complete aircraft
system dynamics.
B. limiters in the aircraft stabilisation loop:
linear system L1 includes the dynamics of the
feedback path.
 linear system L2 includes the actuator and basic following investigations a maximum rate of
aircraft dynamics. R = 60°/sec and a pilot input amplitude of 100% are
assumed.
The method is verified by means of a comparison with The determination of the closed loop onset frequency
the results of nonlinear simulations in time domain12. bi,, for this system is shown in figure 6. The system
Graham and McRuerl' also demonstrated a becomes rate saturated at a frequency of approximately
semigraphical method for the calculation of the closed 5.1 radlsec for those specified conditions. It is obvious
loop describing function of simple systems. For a that for a higher maximum rate or lower input
saturating amplifier they identified an effect called amplitude this frequency is increased. The calculation
jump resonance. of the describing function can be splitted into two parts:
below the closed loop onset frequency the closed loop
describing function is equal to the closed loop
frequency response; above this frequency the describing
The describing function of the rate limiter is dependent function has to be calculated using the described
on the onset frequency won,,,, Eq. (1). This frequency method.
will further be called local onset frequency of the rate Figure 7 shows the Nichols chart of the describing
limiter. The closed loop onset frequency i3,,,,, is function and the linear frequency response. A dramatic
dependent on the input amplitude of the closed loop phase jump can be identified at the onset of the rate
system u,,, the local onset frequency won,,, and the limiter. This is the same phenomenon as the jump
Downloaded by Indian Institute of Technology on September 22, 2012 | http://arc.aiaa.org | DOI: 10.2514/6.1995-3204

frequency response of the linear closed loop system resonance described by Graham1'. The phase jump has
from the input of the closed loop system to the input of the effect thaT the describing function curve gets close
the rate limiter F,: (jh,,,,): to the critical point in the Nichols chart (-180°,0 dB).
This indicates the potential for an instability, which
can be verif~ed by a nonlinear simulation in time
domain. For this purpose the system is stimulated by a
sinusoidal input signal with a frequency jumping from
4 to 6 radl sec including the closed' loop onset
The calculation of 6on,,, means the determination of frequency.
the intersection of the amplitude of F.~(jhonrc,) and a Figure 8 shows the input signal and the time responses
of the nonlinear and linear simulations: after 3.14
straight line with a slope of 20 dBIdecade, which seconds the rate limiter is activated because of the
crosses the 0-dB line at the local onset frequency worn,,, increased frequency. Although the demanded rate is
in a Bode plot. only minimal higher than the maximum rate of the
limiter the rate saturation leads to an instability of the
closed loop system, as it was indicated by the frequency
domain investigation. Therefore, the describing
Two characteristic aircraft systems are chosen to function technique has been demonstrated as a valid
demonstrate the effects of rate saturation on handling tool for stability analysis of rate saturated systems.
qualities. The results are discussed using the Nichols
charts of the open loop system. For this purpose the
open loop system describing function No,,,( jw,uo) is The YF- 12 aircraft was the prototype of the delta-wing,
calculated from the closed loop system describing high Mach number aircraft SR-71. During aerial
function N, (jw, u,) using the following equation: refuelling two types of longitudinal PIOs were
reported13. The first type is a high frequency small-
amplitude PI0 (0, 2 lHz). It is characterized by a
bobbling motion at the cockpit caused by the flexible
modes of the aircraft (pitch bobble). The second type of
This open loop system describing function includes the
nonlinear effects due to loop closure. -
PI0 experienced is associated with large amplitudes
and rate saturation (w,, 3 to 4 radl sec).
The handling qualities parameters evaluated from the
linear system dynamics including the bending mode in
Figure 5A shows the idealised structure of a typically terms of the commonly used criteria are presented in
unstable highly augmented aircraft system. It has to be table 1.
recognised that real flight control systems can contain
additional feedback loops (AoA, load factor) and
control surfaces (canards, inboard and outboard flaps).
However, this simple model is suitable to demonstrate
the nonlinear effects due to rate saturation. In the
 performance without rate saturation. The destabilising
criterion parameter level effects of rate saturation are demonstrated by means of
a stimulation of the pilot-aircraft system by an input
Smith- w, =4.8 radlsec, 2 signal with increasing frequency from 2.8 to 4 radlsec:
Geddes a severe pilot induced oscillation builds up and persists
Q(w,) = -137 deg during the rest of the simulation interval although the
d@ / dw(o,, ) = -78 deg / Hz 1 commanded pitch attitude angle was set to zero after
Gibson six seconds of simulation time.
Hence, it follows that the applied describing function
analysis predicts the possibility of PI0 appearance in
Neal- A,, = 2.5 dB, Q, = 28 deg 112 flight.
Smith

Table 1: Evaluated criteria for the YF-12 PIO-

configuration The describing function technique has proven as a
suitable tool to show the dramatic effects of rate
saturation in flight control systems on closed loop
system dynamics. Jump resonances in a closed loop
Hence, no PI0 is predicted on basis of the linear
Bode plot or phase jumps in a Nichols chart can be
Downloaded by Indian Institute of Technology on September 22, 2012 | http://arc.aiaa.org | DOI: 10.2514/6.1995-3204

aircraft dynamics. To explain the in-flight PI0

occurrence the nonlinear effects due to rate saturation observed. These effects can lead to the loss of stability
of the aircraft (example A) or the pilot-aircraft system
have to be considered. Figure 5B shows the simplified
(example B). Further investigations have shown that
flight control system for the following describing
the main parameter for the stability of a rate saturated
function analysis. The system contains a rate and
position limited pitch damper. In the following analysis closed loop system is the location of the onset point in
a maximum rate of R = 15Olsec and an input the Nichols chart12. The primary effect caused by the
activation of a rate limiter is a strong inpease in phase
amplitude of 6, = 5.73 deg are assumed. The position delay and a slight decrease in amplitude (figure 2). If
limiting is not considered. the onset point is located above 0 db the phase delay
The Nichols chart of the describing function and the causes an increase in the closed loop amplitude, figure
linear frequency response is shown in figure 9. A 12. This increase in amplitude provokes a stronger rate
strong phase jump with the consequence of a sudden saturation and, therefore, a further increasing phase
change in system dynamics can be observed. The phase delay. This mechanism can lead to a closed loop
angle does not reach -180°, therefore, the stability of instability. For an onset point located clearly below
the closed loop aircraft system is not endangered as in 0 db the increasing phase delay does not cause an
example A. However, this does not mean that the increase in closed loop amplitude, so the rate limiting
stability of the closed loop pilot-aircraft system is effects are less dramatic.
secure. A PI0 is always characterized by a stable For that reason several configurations with different
aircraft system and a misadaptation of the pilot to the locations of the onset point in the Nichols chart were
aircraft dynamics. investigated12. The results show that even unstable
Figure 10 shows the Nichols chart of the describing highly augmented aircraft systems remain stable during
function and the linear frequency response of the pilot- rate saturation, if the onset point is located clearly
aircraft system of figure 5B. A crossover frequency of below 0 db. But in order to achieve this condition a
approximately 4.1 radl sec is used to determine the very large maximum rate is required for systems with
gain of the synchronous pilot model K,. This is a high feedback gain. The investigations have lead to the
realistic value for a high gain task (aerial refuelling) suggestion of a new handling qualities criterion with
and it is consistent with the recorded PIO-frequency of respect to the consideration of rate saturation in flight
approximately 3 to 4 rad/sec13.Physically, it means that control systems12, figure 13. For its application the
the pilot has adapted himself to the linear aircraft following rules have to be considered:
dynamics. This leads to a strong misadaptation of the
pilot after the sudden change in system dynamics due 1. Determination of the closed loop onset frequency
to rate saturation as demonstrated in figure 10: the using Eq. (7).
describing function reaches the critical point in the
Nichols chart (-180°,0 dB), which means an 2. Calculation of the open loop frequency response at
instability of the closed loop pilot-aircraft system. the closed loop onset frequency F,(j&,,,,) and division
This effect can be demonstrated by time domain into amplitude and phase (onset point).
investigations using an input signal with increasing
frequency. Figure 11 shows the time histories of the 3. Plotting of the onset point on the criterion graph in
pilot aircraft system (w, = 4.1 radlsec). The time figure 13 and comparison with the proposed limit.
histories on the left side demonstrate the tracking
 The proposed limit has been verified by evaluation of Smith, J.W., "Analysis of a Lateral Pilot-Induced
several configurations with different onset points in the Oscillation Experienced on the First Flight of the
Nichols chart for systems with rate limiters in the YF-16 Aircraft", NASA TM 72867, Edwards,
aircraft stabilisation loop12. It has to be considered that California, 1979
the YF-12 case, which lies in the unstable region, only
becomes unstable with the pilot in the closed loop. Dornheim, M.A., "Report Pinpoints Factors lea-
The criterion can also be applied for systems with rate ding to YF-22 Crash", AVIATION WEEK &
limiters in the forward path (figure 3) in connection SPACE TECHNOLOGY, Vol. 137, No. 19, pp.
with pilot in the loop analysis. For this case more 53-54
numeric calculations and experiments are required to
confirm the proposed limit. Neal, T.P., Smith, R.E., "A Flying Qualities Cri-
terion for Design of Fighter Flight-Control Sy-
stems", AIAA Paper 70-927, 1971

The effects of rate saturation in flight control systems Gibson, J.C., "The Development of Alternate
have been analysed using the describing function Criteria for FBW Handling Qualities", AGARD-
technique. Two characteristic examples are used to CP-508, 1990
Downloaded by Indian Institute of Technology on September 22, 2012 | http://arc.aiaa.org | DOI: 10.2514/6.1995-3204

demonstrate sudden changes in closed loop system

dynamics (jump resonance). This phenomenon can lead Smith, R.H., "Notes on Lateral-Directional Pilot
to a strong instability of the closed loop system, which Induced Oscillations", AFWAL-TR-8 1-3090, 1982
is demonstrated for a typical highly augmented aircraft
system. The well documented YF-12 PI0 can also be Hoh, R.E., Hodgkinson, J., "Bandwidth - A
explained by a sudden change in closed loop system Criterion for Highly Augmented Airplanes",
dynamics caused by rate saturation, which leads to a AGARD-CP-333,1982
strong misadaptation of the pilot. 1

Therefore, it is recommended that the rate limiters Marchand, M., Koehler, R., Duda, H., Buchacker,
should be included in the handling qualities assessment E., Elbel, K., "EFA Flying Qualities Specification
of new aircraft. A new PI0 criterion is proposed And Its Utilisation", AGARD-CP-54& 1993
regarding the onset point of the limiter in a Nichols
chart. The use of the criterion requires no describing Graham, D., McRuer, D., "Analysis of Nonlinear
function technique. Several configurations with Control Systems", New York, London: John Wiley
different onset points in the Nichols chart have been & Sons, Inc., 1961
used to verify the criterion, but in-flight or ground
based simulations are required to confirm the proposed Duda, H., "Frequency Domain Analysis of Rate
limit. Limiting Elements in Flight Control Systems",
Rate limiting in flight control systems is not avoidable, DLR-FB 94-16, Braunschweig, 1994 (in German)
but its effects can be reduced by the use of low gain
flight control systems without an increase of the Smith, J.W., Berry, D.T., "Analysis of
maximum rate. The goal is to move the rate limiting Longitudinal Pilot Induced Oscillation Tendencies
onset point clearly below 0 db in the Nichols chart. of the YF-12 Aircraft", NASA TND-7900,
Further investigations in this area are required. Edwards, California, 1975

References
1. Ashkenas, I.L., Jex, H.R., McRuer, D.T., "Pilot-
Induced Oscillations: Their Cause and Analysis",
NORAIR Report No. NOR-64- 143,1964

2. McRuer, D.T., "Human Dynamics and Pilot-

Induced Oscillations", The Massachusetts Institute
of Technology, 1992

3. Mitchell, D.G., Hoh, R.H., Aponso, B.L. Klyde,

D.H., "The Measurement and Prediction of Pilot-
In-The-Loop Oscillations", AIAA-Paper 94-3670,
1994
 linear

Fig. 1: Three elements of a P I 0

no saturation transition fully developed

0
Downloaded by Indian Institute of Technology on September 22, 2012 | http://arc.aiaa.org | DOI: 10.2514/6.1995-3204

Amplitude
[dB1
-10-

1 10
frequency [radlsec]
Fig. 2: Rate limiting element describing function

4- sensors +
Fig. 3: Typical implementation of rate limiters in flight control systems

4
"nc
LI "* A L2 -, Ync

linear system rate limiter linear system

Fig. 4: General system for closed loop describing function analysis

 -*-
A. Typically unstable highly augmented aircraft:

5.21(-57.36)
(4.26)
(.55) qc
- 11 -10.524(1.562)(.038)(0.)
13.68
(.442,22.85)
(1.16)
(0.) (212.,088)(3.75)(-1.44)
forward gain control laws rate limiter aircraft
I I

B. YF-12, pilot in the loop (without bending mode):

- --
Downloaded by Indian Institute of Technology on September 22, 2012 | http://arc.aiaa.org | DOI: 10.2514/6.1995-3204

@C 6, = q c I1c 1.0067.50.551 q -6.0(.8) q 1 . 0

-
7KP
+r 705.6 (.638,39.6)
(33.9)
(33.9) Y,375.2.0)
L

(0.)
w

pilot gain gain actuators aircraft

I A=
position limiter
-+ rate limiter
+-
(4.0)
,375(8.0)

pitch damper

where [& 01 = (s2+ 2 o s + m2),(s) = (S + a)

Fig. 5: System structure of the examples

Amplitude

5.1
frequency [radls] 02
Fig. 6: Determination of the closed loop onset frequency, system A
Downloaded by Indian Institute of Technology on September 22, 2012 | http://arc.aiaa.org | DOI: 10.2514/6.1995-3204

Fig. 7: Nichols chart of aircraft stabilisation loop, system A

linear Simulation:
I I I I I I

simulation with rate limiter:

Fig. 8: Time domain analysis, system A

 I ------
Describing function
Frequency response ... .,
101-* Onset point ...-
.... .

Amplitude
Downloaded by Indian Institute of Technology on September 22, 2012 | http://arc.aiaa.org | DOI: 10.2514/6.1995-3204

Phase [deg]
Fig. 9: Nichols chart of aircraft stabilisation loop, system B (YF-12)

Open Loop Frequency Response and Describing Function Pilot Aircraft 0/0,
151
------
I I

Describing function
Frequency response
10 - Crossover frequenc
Amplitude
[dB1
5-

0
,
I
L
I
I
I
h
,I
.
/7

-1 50 -100 -50
Phase [deg]
Fig. 10: Nichols chart of pilot-aircraft loop, system B (YF-12)
 5
- 8 [deg] - - Q, [deg]
I

-5 1 I
10 6, [deg] I

-101 I
10 - q, [deglsec] -- q,,~, [deglsec]
I

0 5 10 15
Downloaded by Indian Institute of Technology on September 22, 2012 | http://arc.aiaa.org | DOI: 10.2514/6.1995-3204

t [secs] t [secs]

a) frequency constant at 2.8 radlsec b) increasing frequency from 2.8 to 4 radlsec

Fig. 11: Time domain investigations of the pilot-aircraft loop, system B (YF-12)

Amplitude
[dB1
15

-200 -1 80 -160 -140 -120

Phase [deg]
Fig. 12: Initial effects after rate limiting onset
 10 System stable 1 db 0.1 db
Amplitude Svstem unstabl .. .
:

[dB1
5

0
Downloaded by Indian Institute of Technology on September 22, 2012 | http://arc.aiaa.org | DOI: 10.2514/6.1995-3204

-5

-10

-200 -180 -160 -140 -120 -100 -80

Phase [deg]

Fig. 13: Proposed P I 0 criterion12