CAPPADOCIAN  LEGACY

A  Critical  Appraisal

Edited  by

Doru  Costache  and  Philip  Kariatlis

St  Andrew’s  Orthodox  Press

Sydney,  2013

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 Text  copyright    ©  2013  remains  with  the  authors

All  rights  reserved.  Except  for  any  fair  dealing  permitted  under  the  Copyright  Act,  
no  part  of  this  book  may  be  reproduced  by  any  means  without  prior  permission.  
Inquiries  should  be  made  to  the  publisher.

National  Library  of  Australia  Cataloguing-­‐in-­‐Publication  entry

Title:   Cappadocian  legacy  /    Doru  Costache  and  Philip  Kariatlis  (eds).

ISBN:             978-­‐0-­‐9775974-­‐9-­‐9  (paperback)

Notes:     Includes  bibliographical  references  and  index.

Subjects:   Gregory,  of  Nazianzus,  Saint.

  Basil,  Saint,  Bishop  of  Caesarea,  
  approximately  329-­‐379.
  Gregory,  of  Nyssa,  Saint,  
  approximately  335-­‐approximately  394
                                          Theology-­‐-­‐Early  works  to  1800
                                          Christian  saints-­‐-­‐Biography-­‐-­‐Early  works  to  1800.

 Other  Authors/Contributors:
                                       Costache,  Doru,  editor.
                                       Kariatlis,  Philip,  editor.

Dewey  Number:              230

St  Andrew’s  Orthodox  Press

242  Cleveland  Street,  Redfern,  NSW,  2016
www.standrewsorthodoxpress.com.au

StAndrewsBook2013_R.indd 2 5/09/13 12:10 AM

 Contents

PREFACE  ..................................................................................................................................................5

1.  THE  CAPPADOCIANS  WITHIN  TRADITION  

The  Cappadocian  Fathers  as  Founders  of  Byzantine  Thought  
David  Bradshaw  .....................................................................................................................................11
Were  the  Fathers  Proponents  of  a  Familial  Imago  Trinitatis?  
Adam  G.  Cooper  ..................................................................................................................................23

2.  THE  LEGACY  OF  ST  BASIL  THE  GREAT  

St  Basil  the  Great’s  Exposition  of  Nicene  Orthodoxy  
John  Anthony  McGuckin  ......................................................................................................................47
Why  Didn’t  St  Basil  Write  in  New  Testament  Greek?  
John  A.  L.  Lee  ............................................................................................................................................61
Light  (ɔᛟɑ/ɔȽᛒɐɇɑ)  and  its  Liturgical  Foundation  in  the  Teaching    
of  St  Basil  the  Great    
Adrian  Marinescu  ..................................................................................................................................77
Christian  Worldview:  Understandings  from  St  Basil  the  Great    
Doru  Costache  .........................................................................................................................................97
St  Basil’s  Trinitarian  Doctrine:  A  Harmonious  Synthesis  of    
Greek  Paideia  and  the  Scriptural  Worldview  
Philip  Kariatlis  .....................................................................................................................................127
The  Recapitulation  of  History  and  the  “Eighth  Day”:    
Aspects  of  St  Basil  the  Great’s  Eschatological  Vision  
Mario  Baghos........................................................................................................................................151
St  Basil  the  Great  as  Educator:  Implications  from  the  Address  to  Youth  
Dimitri  Kepreotes  ................................................................................................................................169

3.  THE  LEGACY  OF  ST  GREGORY  THE  THEOLOGIAN  

The  Teachings  of  Gregory  of  Nazianzus  on  the  Trinity  

Archbishop  Stylianos  of  Australia  ................................................................................................187
Self-­‐Knowledge  and  Knowledge  of  God    
according  to  St  Gregory  the  Theologian    
Georgios  Mantzarides  .......................................................................................................................203

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 Gregory  the  Theologian  –  A  Spiritual  Portrait  
Archbishop  Stylianos  of  Australia  ................................................................................................215
Seeking  Out  the  Antecedents  of  the  Maximian    
Theory  of  Everything:  St  Gregory  the  Theologian’s  Oration  28.  
Doru  Costache  ......................................................................................................................................225
“What  then?  Is  the  Spirit  God?  Certainly!”  St  Gregory’s  Teaching    
on  the  Holy  Spirit  as  the  Basis  of  the  World’s  Salvation  
Philip  Kariatlis  .....................................................................................................................................243
Scripture  in  the  Works  of  St  Gregory  the  Theologian  
Margaret  Beirne  ..................................................................................................................................261
St  Gregory  the  Theologian’s  Existential  Metanarrative  of  History  
Mario  Baghos........................................................................................................................................275
Features  of  the  Theandric  Mystery  of  Christ  in    
the  Christology  of  St  Gregory  the  Theologian  
Anthony  Papantoniou  .......................................................................................................................299

4.  THE  LEGACY  OF  ST  GREGORY  OF  NYSSA  

Divine  Providence  and  Free  Will  in  Gregory  of  Nyssa    

and  his  Theological  Milieu  
Bronwen  Neil  ........................................................................................................................................315
“Dazzling  Darkness”  The  Mystical  or  Theophanic    
Theology  of  St  Gregory  of  Nyssa  
Philip  Kariatlis  .....................................................................................................................................329
Approaching  An  Apology  for  the  Hexaemeron:    
Its  Aims,  Method  and  Discourse  
Doru  Costache  ......................................................................................................................................349
Spiritual  Enrichment  through  Exegesis:  St  Gregory  of  Nyssa    
and  the  Scriptures  
Margaret  Beirne  ..................................................................................................................................373
Reconsidering  Apokatastasis  in  St  Gregory  of  Nyssa’s    
On  The  Soul  and  Resurrection  and  the  Catechetical  Oration  
Mario  Baghos........................................................................................................................................387

INFORMATION  ABOUT  THE  CONTRIBUTORS  .................................................................. 417

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 Reconsidering  Apokatastasis  in  St  Gregory  of  Nyssa’s  
On  the  Soul  and  Resurrection  and  the  Catechetical  
Oration

Mario  Baghos

Abstract:  This  article  addresses  St  Gregory  of  Nyssa’s  notion  of  apo-­‐
katastasis,  aiming  at  distinguishing  it  from  the  concept  of  universal  
salvation  imputed  onto  it  by  modern  scholarship.  Refuting  the  con-­‐
sensus  that  the  saint  claimed  the  inevitable  eschatological  salvation  
of  everyone,  it  will  focus  on  two  of  the  Nyssen’s  works  –  On  the  Soul  
and   Resurrection   and   the   Catechetical   Oration   –   maintaining   that  
whilst  he  did  express  the  legitimate  Christian  hope  that  all  things  will  
be  restored  to  God,  nevertheless  he  emphasised  the  free  cultivation  
of  virtue  in  the  here  and  now  as  having  an  impact  on  our  experience  
of  the  afterlife.  Moreover,  this  article  will  demonstrate  that  the  saint  
contextualised   apokatastasis   within   the   person   of   Christ   and   his  
Church,  meaning  that,  whilst  in  the  ages  to  come  all  will  be  given  the  
’‘••‹„‹Ž‹–›–‘”‡–—”–‘
‘†ǡ‹–‹•‡•’‡…‹ƒŽŽ›•‹‰‹ϐ‹…ƒ––Šƒ–™‡„‡‰‹
this  process  hic  et  nunc  within  the  ecclesial  context.

St   Gregory   of   Nyssa   used   the   term   apokatastasisȋᙳɎɍɈȽɒəɐɒȽɐɇɑȌ‘”Ǯ”‡•-­‐

toration’  in  different  ways  and  in  a  variety  of  contexts,1  but  it  predominantly  
appears  in  his  writings  with  reference  to  the  eschatological  restoration  of  
humanity’s  God-­‐intended  state,  through  the  general  resurrection.2  Insofar  
as  it  is  related  to  the  eschatological  experience  –  which,  it  will  be  shown,  
‹•‘–‡š…Ž—•‹˜‡Ž›…‹”…—•…”‹„‡†„›–Š‡ǮŽƒ•––Š‹‰•ǯȂ–Š‹•ƒ”–‹…Ž‡™‹ŽŽ”‡ˆ‡”
to  apokatastasis,  the  eschaton,  the  life  or  ages  to  come,  and  so  on,  as  mu-­‐

  Article  reprinted  with  minor  revisions  from  Phronema  27:2  (2012).  I  am  deeply  grateful  to  
Fr  Dr  Doru  Costache  (St  Andrew’s)  for  his  pertinent  suggestions  and  guidance  in  the  formu-­‐
lation  of  this  article,  and  to  the  Phronema  reviewers.  Any  remaining  shortcomings  belong  
exclusively  to  me.  

1  
ˆǤ
‹—Ž‹‘ƒ•’‡”‘ǡǮ’‘…ƒ–ƒ•–ƒ•‹•ǡǯ‹The  Brill  Dictionary  of  Gregory  of  Nyssa,  ed.  Lucas  
Francisco  Mateo-­‐Seco  and  Giulio  Maspero,  trans.  Seth  Cherny  (Leiden:  Brill,  2010),  55-­‐
56.
2    
Ibid,  56.

387

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 tually   inclusive   terms   for   the   same   state   of   being   often   expressed   by   the  
Nyssen   with   reference   to   the   complete   eradication   of   evil   when   God   will  
reconcile   all   things   to   himself.   The   resurgence   of   interest   in   St   Gregory’s  
writings  since  the  Second  World  War  is  in  fact  directly  related  to  his  treat-­‐
ment  of  these  themes,  a  treatment  which  unfolds  in  response  to  the  Man-­‐
‹…Š‡ƒ „‡Ž‹‡ˆ –Šƒ– ‡˜‹Ž Šƒ• ƒ ‘–‘Ž‘‰‹…ƒŽ •‹‰‹ϐ‹…ƒ…‡ǡ ™Š‹…Š Š‡ ƒˆϐ‹”‡†
compromised  God’s  goodness.  Taking  up  this  general  track,  many  scholars,  
vexed  by  the  profound  evils  that  took  place  in  the  twentieth  century,  came  
to  see  in  St  Gregory’s  writings  a  view  of  universal  salvation,  the  belief  that,  
since  God  is  entirely  good  and  evil  must  cease  to  exist,  at  the  eschaton  all  
people  will  inevitably  be  saved.3  On  the  surface,  all  of  this  seems  consonant  
with  Christian  tradition.  But  just  because  the  saint  shared  in  the  legitimate  
Christian   hope   that   all   will   be   saved   and   evil   entirely   destroyed   when   God  
will   be   “all   in   all”   (1   Cor   15:28),4   this   does   not   necessarily   mean   that   he  
believed  that  this  would  take  place  regardless  of  our  freedom  or  apart  from  
the   ecclesial   experience;   both   of   which   are   devalued   in   the   doctrine   of   a  
strict   universalism   put   forward   by   modern   scholarship.5   For   this   reason,  
in  this  article  apokatastasis  will  be  distinguished  from  universal  salvation  
in  an  attempt  to  positively  evaluate  the  contribution  of  theodicy  and  free  
will  along  with  the  roles  of  Christ  and  the  Church  in  St  Gregory’s  approach  
–‘™ƒ”†•Ǯ–Š‡Žƒ•––Š‹‰•Ǥǯ‘”†‡”–‘†‘•‘ǡ‹–™‹ŽŽ‡šƒ‹‡–™‘‘ˆŠ‹•ƒŒ‘”
–‡š–•ƒ††”‡••‹‰–Š‡•‡–Š‡‡•ǤŠ‡ϐ‹”•–‘ˆ–Š‡•‡‹•On  the  Soul  and  Resurrec-­‐
tion,  which  is  often  regarded  as  providing  the  most  comprehensive  account  

3  
Not  surprisingly,  the  tragedies  of  World  War  Two  compelled  some  scholars  to  explore  
 

–Š‡ƒ˜‡—‡‘ˆ—‹˜‡”•ƒŽ‹•Ǥ ‘Š‹…ƒˆϐ‹”‡†–Šƒ–‹ˆ

‘††‘‡•‘–ϐ‹ƒŽŽ›”‡…‘…‹Ž‡ƒŽŽ
people  to  himself,  this  would  impede  his  ultimate  goodness.  Thus,  he  asserted  “the  ul-­‐
timate  salvation  of  all  God’s  children.”  John  Hick,  Evil  and  the  God  of  Love  (Great  Britain:  
Palgrave  McMillan,  2007),  345,  361.  But  Hick’s  pluralistic  views  on  religion  detract  from  
–”ƒ†‹–‹‘ƒŽ’ƒ–”‹•–‹…–Š‡‘†‹…›ǡƒƒ––‹–—†‡–Šƒ–ƒ›Šƒ˜‡‹ϐŽ—‡…‡†–Š‡ˆ‘”‡‘•–‡š’‘-­‐
nent  of  universalism  in  the  writings  of  St  Gregory,  Morwena  Ludlow,  who  demonstrates  
a  familiarity  with  Hick’s  work.  Cf.  Morwena  Ludlow,  Gregory  of  Nyssa:  Ancient  and  (Post)
Modern  (Oxford:  Oxford  University  Press,  2007),  143,  287.  Other  the  scholars  who  claim  
that   St   Gregory   espoused   universalism   are   referred   to   in   the   Brill   Dictionary   of   Gregory  
of  Nyssa—†‡”Ǯ’‘…ƒ–ƒ•–ƒ•‹•ǡǯ‘’ƒ‰‡ͷ͹Ǥ
4  
This  Pauline  verse  is  the  basis  of  an  eponymous  treatise  by  the  saint,  translated  with  
 

ƒ Ž‡‰–Š› ‹–”‘†—…–‹‘ „› ”‘–Š‡” ƒ•‹‹”ǡ ǤǤǤǡ ǮŠ‡ ȋ–Š‡ ƒ–Š‡”Ȍ ™‹ŽŽ •—„Œ‡…– ƒŽŽ
things  to  (the  Son),  then  (the  Son)  himself  will  be  subjected  to  him  (the  Father)  who  sub-­‐
jects  all  things  to  him  (the  Son)  –  A  Treatise  on  First  Corinthians  15:28  by  Saint  Gregory  
of  Nyssa,’  Greek  Orthodox  Theological  Review  28:1  (1983):  1-­‐25.  This  title  omits  the  last  
phrase  “so  that  God  may  be  all  in  all.”  
5  
—…Šƒ•ǡˆ‘”‹•–ƒ…‡‹Š‘ƒ•ƒŽ„‘––ǡǮ‹˜‡”•ƒŽ‹•ǡǯ‹The  Oxford  Handbook  of  Escha-­‐
 

tology,  edited  Jerry  L  Walls  (Oxford,  NY:  Oxford  University  Press,  2008),  452,  455-­‐57.  

388

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 of  the  saint’s  doctrine  of  universal  salvation.6  The  second  is  the  Catechetical  
Oration,   which   is   not   only   notable   for   its   references   to   apokatastasis   but  
provides   a   comprehensive   outline   of   Christian   faith   and   history;   thereby  
acting  as  a  holistic  lens  through  which  to  view  the  dialogue,  which  is  nar-­‐
rower  in  scope.7  

I  will  begin  by  contextualising  St  Gregory’s  views  on  apokatastasis  in  
On  the  Soul  and  Resurrection  in  light  of  his  reaction  against  the  Maniche-­‐
an  worldview  that  prompted  him  to  engage  with  the  problem  of  evil  and  
ˆ”‡‡ ™‹ŽŽǤ Š‡•‡ ƒ•’‡…–•ǡ Š‡”‡–‘ˆ‘”‡ ”‡ƒ‹‹‰ ‹•—ˆϐ‹…‹‡–Ž› ƒ††”‡••‡† ‹
scholarship   in   relation   to   the   Nyssen’s   views   of   apokatastasis,8   will   con-­‐
–”‹„—–‡ –‘ › …‘–‡–‹‘ –Šƒ– –Š‡ •ƒ‹– †‹† ‘– ƒˆϐ‹” –Š‡ ‹‡˜‹–ƒ„‹Ž‹–› ‘ˆ
universal   salvation.   Rather,   and   despite   some   inconsistencies,   he   posited  
–Šƒ–ƒŽ–Š‘—‰Š‹–‹•’‘••‹„Ž‡–‘„‡’—”‹ϐ‹‡†‹–Š‡ˆ—–—”‡Ž‹ˆ‡ǡ‡˜‡”–Š‡Ž‡••‹–‹•
important  to  strive  freely  for  virtue  in  the  here  and  now.  I  will  then  turn  to  
his  Catechetical  Oration,  where  it  will  be  demonstrated  that  whilst  the  saint  
was   preoccupied   with   the   same   Manichean   challenge   as   in   the   dialogue,  
Š‡‘…‡ƒ‰ƒ‹‡’Šƒ•‹•‡†‘—”ˆ”‡‡†‘ƒ†‘”‡‘˜‡”ƒˆϐ‹”‡†–Šƒ–’—”‹ϐ‹-­‐
cation-­‐salvation   in   the   life   to   come   remained   only   a   possibility   –   and   not   a  
certainty  –  for  the  unbaptised.  However,  in  stark  contrast  to  On  the  Soul  and  
Resurrection   which   seldom   mentions   Christ   in   relation   to   the   eschaton,9   in  
the  Catechetical  Oration  St  Gregory  ingeniously  framed  apokatastasis  with-­‐
in   the   person   of   Christ   and   his   Church;   claiming   that   although   all   things  
have   already   been   restored   eschatologically   within   the   person   of   Jesus,  

6  
Harmon   noted   that   this   dialogue   is   a   “key   expression   of   Gregory’s   eschatology.”   Steven  
 

Ǥƒ”‘ǡǮŠ‡—„Œ‡…–‹‘‘ˆŽŽŠ‹‰•‹Š”‹•–ǣŠ‡Š”‹•–‘…‡–”‹…‹˜‡”•ƒŽ‹•‘ˆ
Gregory  of  Nyssa,’  in  “All  Shall  be  Well”:  Explorations  in  Universalism  and  Christian  Theol-­‐
ogy,  from  Origen  to  Moltmann,  ed.  Gregory  Macdonald  (Eugene,  Oregon:  Cascade  Books,  
2011),  50.  Ramelli  spoke  of  the  dialogue  as  “one  of  the  main  works  in  which  he  discusses  
–Š‡“—‡•–‹‘‘ˆƒ’‘ƒ–ƒ•–ƒ•‹•ǤdzˆǤŽƒ”‹ƒǤǤƒ‡ŽŽ‹ǡǮŠ”‹•–‹ƒ‘–‡”‹‘Ž‘‰›ƒ†Š”‹•-­‐
tian  Platonism:  Origen,  Gregory  of  Nyssa,  and  the  Biblical  and  Philosophical  Basis  of  the  
Doctrine  of  Apokatastasis,’  Vigiliae  Christianae  61  (2007):  324.
7  
The  precedent  for  selecting  and  relating  these  two  texts  has  been  established  in  Georges  
 

ƒ””‘‹•ǯƒ”–‹…Ž‡ǡǮŠ‡ŽŽ‡‰‡†”‹‰‡‹•‘ˆ–
”‡‰‘”›‘ˆ›••ƒǡǯSt  Vladimir’s  Theological  
Quarterly  30:1  (1986):  12.  
8  
I  am  grateful  to  Fr  Dr  Doru  Costache  for  suggesting  that  Manichaeism  may  have  trig-­‐
 

gered  St  Gregory’s  reaction  that  led  to  his  view  of  apokatastasis.  Indeed,  apart  from  the  
broader  Hellenistic  background,  few  attempts  have  been  made  to  contextualise  St  Greg-­‐
‘”›ǯ•˜‹‡™„‡›‘†‹–•…‘‡…–‹‘™‹–Š”‹‰‡ǡ™Š‘ǡƒ……‘”†‹‰–‘—†Ž‘™ǡ™ƒ•–Š‡ϐ‹”•–
–‘•›•–‡ƒ–‹…ƒŽŽ›†‹•…—••–Š‡†‘…–”‹‡Ǥ‘”™‡ƒ—†Ž‘™ǡǮ‹˜‡”•ƒŽ‹•‹–Š‡‹•–‘”›‘ˆ
Christianity,’  in  Universal  Salvation?  The  Current  Debate,  ed.  Robin  A.  Parry  and  Christo-­‐
pher  H.  Patridge  (Grand  Rapids,  MI:  William  B.  Eerdmans  Publishing  Co.,  2004),  191.  
9  
Š‹•’”‘„Ž‡Šƒ•„‡‡‹†‡–‹ϐ‹‡†„›ƒ”‘‹ǮŠ‡—„Œ‡…–‹‘‘ˆŽŽŠ‹‰•‹Š”‹•–ǡǯ
 

50.

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 ‡˜‡”–Š‡Ž‡••™Šƒ–”‡ƒ‹•‹•ˆ‘”—•–‘ƒ…–‹˜‡Ž›’ƒ”–‹…‹’ƒ–‡‹–Š‹•Ǯ”‡ƒŽ‹•‡†ǯ  
apokatastasis  through  our  free  imitation  of  –  and  communion  with  –  Christ  
within  the  Church.  In  this  way,  it  will  be  shown  that  the  Catechetical  Oration  
constitutes  the  proper  lens  through  which  to  read  and  understand  the  Nys-­‐
sen’s  references  to  apokatastasis  in  On  the  Soul  and  Resurrection;  for  it  is  in  
the  former  that  the  saint  places  these  references  within  the  sacred  ecclesial  
context  anchored  in  the  person  of  Christ.

Evil,  Free  Will  and  Apokatastasis  in  On  the  Soul  and  Resurrection

Written  just  after  the  death  of  his  older  brother  St  Basil  in  379,  On  the  Soul  
and   Resurrection   unfolds   as   a   dialectic   discussion   between   St   Gregory   and  
his   dying   sister   St   Macrina,   whom   he   used   as   a   mouthpiece   to   espouse   his  
views.10   The   dialogue   begins   with   a   concrete   set   of   circumstances   that   are  
ƒ†˜‡”•‡Ž› ƒˆˆ‡…–‹‰ –
”‡‰‘”›ǯ• …‘ϐ‹†‡…‡ ‹ –Š‡ •—”˜‹˜ƒŽ ‘ˆ –Š‡ •‘—Ž ƒˆ-­‐
ter  death;  circumstances  which  are  revealed  as  both  the  recent  passing  of  
his   brother   and   his   sister’s   ailing   health.   Taken   at   face   value,   in   this   text  
the   Nyssen   transformed   his   personal   grief   into   a   positive   pretext   for   ad-­‐
dressing   contemporary   challenges   facing   the   Church,   which   is   evident   in  
the   contrary   propositions   that   he   makes   to   his   sister,   who,   in   her   role   as   a  
spiritual  Mother  and  guide,  deftly  refutes  them  in  order  to  establish  the  ve-­‐
racity   of   the   Christian   approach   towards   the   nature   of   the   soul,   death,   and  
the  resurrection.  Having  established  the  survival  of  the  soul,  its  nature,  and  
–Š‡‡‘–‹‘•‹–Š‡ϐ‹”•––Š”‡‡…Šƒ’–‡”•…‘•‡…—–‹˜‡Ž›ǡ11  the  concept  of  the  
apokatastasisƒ’’‡ƒ”•ˆ‘”–Š‡ϐ‹”•––‹‡‹…Šƒ’–‡”ˆ‘—”™Š‡ǡ‹†‹•…—••‹‰
the   condition   of   the   soul   after   death,   St   Gregory   asks   his   sister   whether   or  
not  Hades  should  be  considered  topographically.  St  Macrina  suggests  that  
Hades  is  a  state  of  being,  only  to  be  met  with  the  following  question  by  St  
Gregory:
10    
An  attempt  not  unlike  that  of  Plato,  who  consistently  employed  his  master  Socrates  as  
the   principal   exponent   of   his   own   ideas.   In   fact,   Catharine   P.   Roth   noted   that   the   dia-­‐
logue   shows   many   parallels   with   Plato’s   Phaedo   as   well   as   his   Symposium.   For   more   in-­‐
ˆ‘”ƒ–‹‘•‡‡ƒ–Š‡”‹‡Ǥ‘–ŠǡǮ–”‘†—…–‹‘ǯ‹On   the   Soul   and   Resurrection,   Popular  
Patristic   Series   12   (Crestwood,   NY:   St   Vladimir’s   Seminary   Press,   1993),   11.   For   a   com-­‐
prehensive  account  of  the  philosophical  background  to  St  Gregory’s  writings,  see  Antho-­‐
ny  Meredith,  S.J.,  Gregory  of  Nyssa,  The  Early  Church  Fathers  Series  (London:  Routledge  
1999),  59-­‐75.
11  
These  chapters  correspond  to  the  English  translation  by  Roth  (cited  above)  used  in  this  
 

article.  They  do  not  appear  in  the  Greek  text  from  the  Patrologia  Graeca  referenced  in  
this  article.  Unless  otherwise  stated,  all  references  to  On  the  Soul  and  Resurrection  will  be  
from   Roth’s   translation   and   will   include   the   chapter   and   page   numbers.   The   Patrologia  
Graeca  will  be  referenced  only  when  I  have  included  the  Greek  text,  or  have  translated  it  
myself.

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 ǮDzŠƒ––Š‡ǡdz•ƒ‹†ǡDzˆ–Š‡‘’’‘‡–•Š‘—Ž†…‹–‡–Š‡ƒ’‘•–Ž‡™Š‘•ƒ›•
that  all  rational  creation  at  the  restoration  of  the  universe  looks  to-­‐
ward  the  Governor  of  the  whole?  [ɎᙽɐȽɋɉɚɀɍɋɒȽɒ᚝ɋɉɍɀɇɈ᚝ɋɈɒɜɐɇɋ
ᚌɋɒᚪɒɍᛒɎȽɋɒᛂɑᙳɎɍɈȽɒȽɐɒəɐɂɇɎɏᛂɑɒᛂɋɒɍᛒɎȽɋɒᛂɑᚏɌɄɀɍɠɊɂɋɍɋ
ȾɉɚɎɂɇɋȐ‘‰–Š‡”ƒ–‹‘ƒŽ…”‡ƒ–‹‘Š‡‡–‹‘•…‡”–ƒ‹•—„–‡””ƒ-­‐
nean  beings,  saying  in  his  Epistle  to  the  Philippians  that  to  Him  every  
knee  shall  bend  of  heavenly,  earthly,  and  subterranean  creatures.”12

The  paraphrase  of  Philippians  2:10  appears  in  connection  with  St  Gregory’s  
views   on   the   apokatastasis   and   ostensibly   implies   universal   salvation.   St  
ƒ…”‹ƒǯ•”‡•’‘•‡ƒŽ•‘•‡‡•–‘…‘ϐ‹”–Š‹•ǡ‹•‘ˆƒ”ƒ••Š‡…Žƒ‹•–Šƒ–ǡ
in  seeing  the  “harmony  of  all  the  rational  nature  in  the  good  which  at  some  
time  will  come  into  existence,”13  St  Paul  was  inspired  to  designate  the  three  
cosmic   realities   (the   heavenly,   earthly,   and   subterranean),14   going   as   far   to  
say   that,   at   the   apokatastasis,   “the   confession   of   Christ’s   lordship   will   be  
unanimous  even  from  the  demons.”15  In  the  following  chapter,  however,  the  
saint  contradicts  any  notion  of  universal  salvation  within  the  context  of  an  
interpretation   of  the  parable   of  the  rich  man   and   Lazarus  (Lk   16:19-­‐31),  
™Š‡”‡ǡ‹Š‡”‡š‡‰‡•‹•ǡŠ‹••‹•–‡”ƒˆϐ‹”•–Šƒ––Š‡’ƒ”ƒ„Ž‡†‹•…Ž‘•‡•ƒ‰”‡ƒ–
doctrine  concerning  humanity’s  original  participation  in  “the  good  things  
of   paradise”16   that   was   revoked   by   the   “impulse   of   the   free   will”17   towards  
evil  and  resulted,  providentially,  in  death.18  This  death,  continues  St  Macri-­‐
na,   divided   human   life   into   two   parts;   the   part   inside   the   body   of   a   limited  
duration,  and  the  part  outside  the  body  (i.e.  the  soul),  of  an  eternal  dura-­‐
tion.19  Nevertheless,

The  divine  Providence  gave  us  power  because  of  His  love  for  mankind  
to   have   each   of   these   (I   mean   the   good   and   the   evil)   in   whichever  
we   wish   [ᚌɋ ᛨ ɒɇɑ ȾɍɠɉɂɒȽɇȐ,   either   in   this   short   and   transient   life  

12  
On  the  Soul  and  Resurrection  4,  at  62-­‐63  (PG  46,  69C).  
 

13  
On  the  Soul  and  Resurrection  4,  at  63.
 

14  
Cf.  On  the  Soul  and  Resurrection  4,  at  63.
 

15  
On  the  Soul  and  Resurrection  4,  at  64.
 

16  
On  the  Soul  and  Resurrection  5,  at  70.
 

17  
Ibid.
 

18  
Cf.  On  the  Soul  and  Resurrection  5,  at  71-­‐72.
 

19  
Cf.  On  the  Soul  and  Resurrection  5,  at  71.  Although  this  may  sound  like  a  Platonic  musing,  
 

the  saint  does  frequently  maintain  the  truth  of  the  resurrection  of  the  body  throughout  
the  dialogue,  as  will  be  shown  below.  For  more  on  the  relationship  between  the  soul  and  
„‘†›‹–Š‡›••‡ǡ•‡‡ ‘ŠǤ”—”›ǡǮ
”‡‰‘”›‘ˆ›••ƒǯ•‹ƒŽ‘‰—‡™‹–Šƒ…”‹ƒǣŠ‡
Compatibility   of   Resurrection   of   the   Body   and   Immortality   of   the   Soul,’   Theology   Today  
62  (2005):  210-­‐222.

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 ‘”‹–Š‘•‡‡†Ž‡••ƒ‰‡•™Š‘•‡Ž‹‹–‹•‹ϐ‹‹–›ȏɒɍᛑɑᙳɒɂɉɂɓɒɛɒɍɓɑ
ᚌɈɂɜɋɍɓɑȽᚫᛟɋȽɑǡᛜɋɎɚɏȽɑᚘ  ᙳɎɂɇɏɜȽᚌɐɒɜɋȐ.20

The   unavoidable   conclusion   that   can   be   drawn   from   this   passage   is   that  
free  will  helps  to  secure  a  human  being’s  participation  in  good  or  evil  either  
in  this  age,  or  in  the  apokatastasis  (i.e.  “the  endless  ages”).  St  Macrina  then  
goes  on  to  explain  the  existential  difference  between  those  who  “store  up  
good  for  the  subsequent  age,”21  and  those  who  do  not.  The  former,  she  as-­‐
serted,   manage   their   present   “life   with   critical   reasoning   and   self-­‐control,”  
whereas  the  latter,  having  neglected  to  train  their  reasoning,  and,  failing  to  
examine  what  is  better,  “save  up  nothing  for  the  life  hereafter.”22  Then,  in  
remarking  upon  the  chasm  separating  the  rich  man  and  Lazarus  in  the  par-­‐
able,  she  highlighted  the  extent  to  which  our  free  will  affects  our  experience  
of  the  eschaton,  stating

So   this   is   the   gulf   [ɒᛂ ɖəɐɊȽȐ,   in   my   opinion,   which   does   not   come  
from  the  opening  of  the  earth  but  is  made  by  the  decisions  of  human  
Ž‹˜‡• †‹˜‹†‡† –‘™ƒ”†• ‘’’‘•‹–‡ …Š‘‹…‡•Ǥ ‡ ™Š‘ Šƒ• †‡ϐ‹‹–‡Ž› ’—”-­‐
sued  pleasure  for  this  life  and  has  not  cured  his  misguided  choice  by  
repentance   makes   the   land   of   the   good   inaccessible   to   him   hereaf-­‐
ter  [ᙴȾȽɒɍɋᚏȽɓɒ᛫ɊɂɒᙼɒȽᛒɒȽɒ᚝ɋɒᛟɋᙳɀȽɅᛟɋɖɣɏȽɋᚌɏɀəɃɂɒȽɇȐ.  
He   digs   for   himself   this   impassable   necessity,   like   an   immense   pit  
which  cannot  be  crossed  [ɒ᚝ɋᙳɁɇəȾȽɒɍɋɒȽɠɒɄɋᙳɋəɀɈɄɋǡɈȽɅəɎɂɏ
ɒɇȾəɏȽɅɏɍɋᙳɖȽɋɚɑɒɂɈȽᚷ  ᙳɎȽɏɟɁɂɓɒɍɋɈȽɅឪ  ᚏȽɓɒɍᛒɁɇɍɏɠɌȽɑȐ.23

This   claim,   that   the   unrepentant   will   be   separated   from   the   “land   of   the  
good,”  precludes  any  notion  of  universalism  transposed  onto  St  Gregory  by  
modern  scholarship.  Instead,  the  saint  (through  Macrina)  emphasised  the  
need  to  become  “athlete[s]  of  patience”  (ɒ᚞ɑᛉɎɍɊɍɋ᚞ɑᙳɅɉɄɒɛɋȌ24  in  the  
present  so  that  we  may  be  granted  admission  into  the  “bosom  of  Abraham”  
(ɈɟɉɎɍɋɒɍᛒ  ᗸȾɏȽəɊȌ25  in  the  life  to  come.  Conversely,  those  who  have  not  
cultivated  “the  life  of  virtue”  (ɒ᚞ɑɈȽɒᙼ  ᙳɏɂɒ᚝ɋɃɘ᚞ɑȌ26  in  the  here  and  now  
will  experience  “another  death”  (ᙴɉɉɍɓɅȽɋəɒɍɓȌ27  where
20    
On  the  Soul  and  Resurrection  5,  at  71  (PG  46,  81C).
21    
On  the  Soul  and  Resurrection  5,  at  71.
22    
Ibid.
23    
On  the  Soul  and  Resurrection  5,  at  71  (PG  46,  84B).
24  
Here  I  have  translated  ᛉɎɍɊɍɋ᚞ɑƒ•Dz’ƒ–‹‡…‡ǡdz™Š‡”‡ƒ•–Š‡‰Ž‹•Š–”ƒ•Žƒ–‹‘”‡ƒ†•
 

“endurance.”  On  the  Soul  and  Resurrection  5,  at  72  (PG  46,  84B).
25    
Ibid.
26    
On  the  Soul  and  Resurrection  6,  at  76  (PG  46,  88A).
27    
Ibid.  

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 …   the   deprivation   of   the   things   which   they   consider   good   becomes  
ƒϐŽƒ‡„—”‹‰–Š‡•‘—ŽȏɒᛟɋǥᙳɀȽɅᛟɋɐɒɚɏɄɐɇɑɔɉᛂɌɀɜɋɂɒȽɇɒ᚝ɋ
ɗɓɖ᚝ɋɁɇȽɐɊɠɖɍɓɐȽȐ,  which  needs  but  does  not  obtain  a  drop  from  
that  sea  of  good  things  which  surges  around  the  holy  ones.28

ƒ•‡†‘–Š‹•ǡ–Š‡Š‘Ž›ƒ†–Š‡—Š‘Ž›•‡‡–‘„‡’‡”ƒ‡–Ž›–”ƒ•ϐ‹š‡†
on  either  side  of  an  eschatological  divide,  with  the  latter  prevented  from  
partaking  in  the  “good  things”  surging  around  the  former.  Surprisingly,  in  
chapter  six  there  occurs  a  discussion  on  whether  or  not  the  desiring  im-­‐
’—Ž•‡‹•Ž‡ˆ–‹–Š‡•‘—Žƒˆ–‡”‹–•’—”‹ϐ‹…ƒ–‹‘ˆ”‘–Š‡’ƒ••‹‘•ǡ™‹–Š–ƒ-­‐
crina  suggesting  that  the  soul  can  be  freed  from  irrational  emotions  either  
„›ƒ•…‡–‹…‡ˆˆ‘”–‹–Š‹•Ž‹ˆ‡‘”‹–Š‡’—”‹ϐ‹…ƒ–‹‘Š‡”‡ƒˆ–‡”ǡ29  that   is,  the  es-­‐
chatological  state.  In  contrast,  therefore,  to  the  chasm  that  he  posited  be-­‐
–™‡‡–Š‡DzŠ‘Ž›‘‡•dzƒ†–Š‡—”‡’‡–ƒ–ǡ–
”‡‰‘”›†‹†‹ˆƒ…–ƒˆϐ‹”–Š‡
’‘••‹„‹Ž‹–›‘ˆ’—”‹ϐ‹…ƒ–‹‘‹–Š‡ˆ—–—”‡Ž‹ˆ‡ǡ™Š‹…ŠŠ‡‰”ƒ†—ƒŽŽ›‡—…‹ƒ–‡†
as  the  dialogue  progresses  to  its  end.

‡ˆ‘”‡‘˜‹‰–‘ƒƒ••‡••‡–‘ˆ–Š‡ƒ–—”‡ƒ†•…‘’‡‘ˆ–Š‹•’—”‹ϐ‹…ƒ-­‐
tion,  it  is  important  to  account  for  this  seeming  inconsistency  by  analysing  
ƒ ˆ‡ƒ–—”‡ –Šƒ– ’”‡ϐ‹‰—”‡• –Š‡ ›••‡ǯ• ‡–‹”‡ †‹•…—••‹‘ ‘ˆ apokatastasis.  
Carefully  illustrating  the  ontological  difference  between  the  soul  and  God  
‹ …Šƒ’–‡” •‹šǡ –
”‡‰‘”› ƒˆϐ‹”‡† –Šƒ– †‡•’‹–‡ –Š‡‹” Ž‹‡‡•• ȋ‡š’”‡••‡†
here  in  terms  of  beauty),30  our  nature,  being  impoverished  of  the  beautiful,  
constantly  strives  towards  what  it  needs,  that  is,  goodness,31  whereas  the  
divine  nature,  which  “surpasses  every  good,”32‹•…‘’Ž‡–‡Ž›•‡ŽˆǦ•—ˆϐ‹…‹‡–ǡ
with  nothing  outside  it

…   except   evil   only,   which   (paradoxical   though   this   may   be),   has   its  
being  in  non-­‐being  [ᚌɋɒ᛫Ɋ᚝ɂᚮɋȽɇɒᛂɂᚮɋȽɇᚍɖɂɇȐ;  for  there  is  no  other  
origin  of  evil  but  the  deprivation  of  being  [ɍᛅɀᙼɏᙴɉɉɄɒɜɑᚌɐɒɇɈȽᚷ
ɈȽɈɜȽɑɀɚɋɂɐɇɑǡɂᚫɊ᚝ɒɍᛒ   ᚼɋɒɍɑɐɒɚɏɄɐɇɑȐ.   That   which   may   properly  
be   said   to   exist   is   the   nature   of   the   good.   So   that   which   is   not   in   true  
existence  must  be  in  non-­‐existence.33

28    
On  the  Soul  and  Resurrection  5,  at  72  (PG  46,  84C).
29    
Cf.  On  the  Soul  and  Resurrection  6,  at  77.
30    
Ibid.
31    
Cf.  On  the  Soul  and  Resurrection  6,  at  78.
32    
On  the  Soul  and  Resurrection  6,  at  79.
33    
On  the  Soul  and  Resurrection  6,  at  79  (PG  46,  93B).

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 For  St  Gregory,  evil  does  not  exist  in  “nature  outside  of  free  choice”34  mean-­‐
ing  that  “it  really  has  no  being”35  but,  as  something  outside  of  the  wholly  
good  creator,  paradoxically  subsists  in  non-­‐existence.36  Interestingly,  from  
this  point  onwards  the  text  manifests  more  and  more  of  a  preoccupation  
with  theodicy  and  the  problem  of  evil;  a  preoccupation  that  could  only  be  
prompted  by  the  immediate  challenges  faced  by  the  Church  in  this  epoch.  
Since  the  Nyssen  rhetorically  assumed  the  guise  of  the  Church’s  opponents  
in   the   dialogue,   we   can   infer   that   the   only   group   he   mentioned   by   name  
(with  the  exception  of  some  generalisations)37  would  constitute  the  main  
source  of  these  challenges,  that  is,  the  Manicheans,38  whose  cosmology  po-­‐
•‹–‹‘‡†–Š‡Ǯ ƒ–Š‡”‘ˆ
”‡ƒ–‡••ǯȋ
‘†Ȍƒ†–Š‡Ǯ ƒ–Š‡”‘ˆƒ”‡••ǯȋƒ–ƒȌ
as   mutually   opposed   “co-­‐eternal   natures”39   and   the   creation   of   materiality  
ƒ•ƒ‘—–…‘‡‘ˆ–Š‡‹”˜‹‘Ž‡–…‘ϐŽ‹…–Ǣƒ”‡ˆƒ•Š‹‘‹‰‘ˆ–Š‡„‘†‹‡•‘ˆ†‡-­‐
mons  slain  by  the  agents  or  demiurges  of  God  into  a  series  of  heavenly  and  
material  worlds.40  According  to  Baker-­‐Brian,  the  demiurges  responsible  for  
this  refashioning  were  essentially  positive  entities.41  However,  this  does  not  
detract  from  the  fact  that,  for  the  Manicheans,  

…   evil   existed   independently   of   the   good   within   its   own   realm,   al-­‐
though  it  was  co-­‐eternal  with  it:  like  the  good  it  was  a  nature  (some-­‐
times   also   called   a   principle)   which   ruled   over   a   territory   populated  
with  companion  worlds.42  

In  the  dialogue,  St  Gregory  openly  criticised  the  Manicheans  for  asserting  
that   there   existed   “some   material   [i.e.   evil]   nature   outside   the   divine   Es-­‐
sence  […]  equal  with  God  in  unbegottenness  because  its  being  would  also  

34  
On  the  Soul  and  Resurrection  7,  at  85.  The  Greek  text  reads:  ᚍɌɘɒ᚞ɑɎɏɍȽɇɏɚɐɂɘɑᚘɈȽɈɜȽ
 

ɂᚮɋȽɇɔɠɐɇɋɍᛅɈᚍɖɂɇǤ  PG  46,  101A.

35    
‡”‡Šƒ˜‡‹…Ž—†‡†›‘™–”ƒ•Žƒ–‹‘‘ˆ–Š‡
”‡‡–‡š––Šƒ–”‡ƒ†•ǣɒᛂ  ᚼɋɒɘɑɊ᚝  ᚽɋǤ
The  English  translation,  on  the  other  hand,  reads  that  evil  “does  not  really  exist.”  Ibid.
36    
ˆǤŽ†‡Ǥ‘••Šƒ‡”ǡǮ‘Ǧ‡‹‰ƒ†˜‹Ž‹
”‡‰‘”›‘ˆ›••ƒǡǯRecent  Studies  in  
Early  Christianity:  A  Collection  of  Scholarly  Essays,  ed.  Everett  Ferguson  (New  York:  Gar-­‐
land  Publishing,  Inc.,  1999),  141-­‐42.  
37    
Cf.  On  the  Soul  and  Resurrection  4,  at  61,  63,  and  ch.  9,  at  98.
38    
Cf.  On  the  Soul  and  Resurrection  9,  at  98.
39  
Nicholas   J.   Baker-­‐Brian,   Manichaeism:   An   Ancient   Faith   Rediscovered   (New   York:   T&T  
 

Clark  International,  2011),  110.

40    
Cf.  Ibid,  113.
41    
Ibid.
42    
Baker-­‐Brian,  Manichaeism:  An  Ancient  Faith  Rediscovered,  106.

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 be   eternal.”43   Opposing   this   dualism,   the   saint   exhibited   the   traditional  
Christian  response  against  Gnosticism;  that  the  source  of  the  creation  lies  
in   God’s   will   and   not   in   some   external   agent   that   would   have   compelled  
him   to   organise   it;   for   this   would,   it   is   implied,   compromise   his   absolute  
freedom  to  create.  Indeed,  the  followers  of  Mani  had  been  accused  by  Chris-­‐
tian   authors   of   disparaging   human   freedom   on   account   of   their   belief   that  
matter  impeded  the  will  from  pursuing  goodness.44  Although  recent  schol-­‐
arship   has   demonstrated   that   for   the   Manicheans   this   did   not   lead   to   an  
absolute  determinism,45  nevertheless  their  belief  in  the  body’s  natural  ten-­‐
dency   towards   evil   opened   up   the   possibility   for   unethical   behaviour,   as  
ƒ––‡•–‡†–‘„›–—‰—•–‹‡ǡƒ‡šǦƒ‹…Š‡ƒǮŠ‡ƒ”‡”ǡǯ‹Š‹•Confessions.46  It  
was  this  threat  of  libertarianism  –  coupled  with  their  belief  in  the  ontologi-­‐
cal  existence  of  evil  –  that  compelled  St  Gregory  to  criticise  their  erroneous  
belief  that  “the  Creator  of  human  nature  is  evil.”47  This  reference  appears  in  
his  Catechetical  Oration,  where  the  Nyssen  refuted  the  Manicheans  on  sev-­‐
eral  occasions;48  and  although  it  seems  that  St  Gregory  has  here  confused  
–Š‡”‡•’‘•‹„‹Ž‹–›‘ˆ–Š‡†‡‹—”‰‹…ƒ‰‡–•‘ˆ–Š‡Ǯ ƒ–Š‡”‘ˆ‹‰Š–ǯ™‹–Š–Š‡
Ǯ ƒ–Š‡”‘ˆƒ”‡••ǯȋˆ‘”–Š‡ˆ‘”‡”ǡƒ•…”‡ƒ–‘”•‘ˆ–Š‡—‹˜‡”•‡ǡƒ”‡‹ˆƒ…–
entirely  good  according  to  Manichaean  tradition),  this  accusation  is  a  logi-­‐
cal  outcome  of  his  position  on  theodicy,  which,  although  inexplicit,  is  infer-­‐
able  from  the  text  and  can  be  construed  as  follows:  since  evil  does  not  exist  
(outside  of  human  free  will)  because  God,  being  entirely  good  (and  beyond  
the  good),  cannot   be   responsible   for  anything   apart   from   goodness,  then  
any  theological  system  that  posits  the  ontological  existence  of  evil  must,  by  
™ƒ›‘ˆ‹ˆ‡”‡…‡ǡƒ––”‹„—–‡–Š‡•‘—”…‡‘ˆ‡˜‹Ž–‘‹–•…”‡ƒ–‘”ϐ‹‰—”‡ȋ•ȌǤ49  The  
ˆƒ…––Šƒ–ˆ‘”–Š‡ƒ‹…Š‡ƒ•–Š‡™‘”Ž†™ƒ•…”‡ƒ–‡†ˆ”‘–Š‡ϐŽƒ›‡†•‹•‘ˆ

43  
On  the  Soul  and  Resurrectionͻǡƒ–ͻͺǤŠƒ––Š‹•‹•–Š‡‡˜‹Žƒ–—”‡‹•…Žƒ”‹ϐ‹‡†‘–‘Ž›ˆ”‘
 

Baker-­‐Brian’s  summary  above,  but  also  from  St  Augustine,  Confessions  5.10,  trans.  R.  S.  
‹‡Ǧ‘ˆϐ‹ǡ‡†Ǥ‡––›ƒ†‹…‡ȋ‘†‘ǣ‡‰—‹
”‘—’ǡͳͻ͸ͳȌǡƒ–ͳͲͶǤ
44    
Cf.  Baker-­‐Brian,  Manichaeism:  An  Ancient  Faith  Rediscovered,  117.
45    
Ibid,  116-­‐117.
46    
Cf.  St  Augustine,  Confessions  5.10,  at  103.
47  
The  Great  Catechism  7  [i.e.  the  Catechetical  Oration]  in  Gregory  of  Nyssa:  Selected  Works  
 

and  Letters,  trans.  William  Moore  and  Henry  Austin  Wilson,  The  Nicene  and  Post-­‐Nicene  
Fathers,  2nd  Series,  vol.  5  (Grand  Rapids,  Michigan:  WM.  B.  Eerdmans  Publishing  Compa-­‐
ny,   1979),   at   481-­‐82.   Unless   otherwise   stated,   all   quotations   from   the   Catechetical   Ora-­‐
tion,  referenced  throughout  as  The  Great  Catechism,  will  be  from  this  translation  and  will  
include  the  chapter  and  page  numbers.  The  Patrologia  Graeca  will  be  referenced  only  
when  I  have  included  the  Greek  text,  or  have  translated  it  myself.
48    
Cf.  The  Great  CatechismǮ”‘Ž‘‰—‡ǡǯƒ–Ͷ͹͵ǡͶ͹Ͷǡƒ†…ŠǤ͹ǡƒ–ͶͺͳǤŽ–Š‘—‰ŠŠ‡‘Ž›‡-­‐
–‹‘‡†–Š‡‡š’Ž‹…‹–Ž›‹–Š‡•‡’ƒ••ƒ‰‡•ǡ–Š‡–‡š–”‡ϐŽ‡…–•ƒ…‘•‹•–‡–‡‰ƒ‰‡‡–™‹–Š
the  problems  raised  by  the  Manichean  worldview.
49    
The  argument  was  in  fact  made  explicit  in  the  The  Great  Catechism  7,  at  481-­‐82.  

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 demons  would  have  only  contributed  to  the  saint’s  resolve  in  asserting  that  
God  will  annihilate  every  trace  of  evil  in  the  ages  to  come.  

All  of  this  is  relevant  to  our  topic,  for  although  the  saint  distinguished  
between  the  respective  eschatological  experiences  of  the  righteous  and  the  
unrighteous,   the   challenges   put   forward   by   the   Manicheans   –   namely,   that  
God  is  the  cause  of  evil  and  that  human  beings,  enslaved  by  materiality,  are  
—ƒ„Ž‡–‘•—ˆϐ‹…‹‡–Ž›‡š‡”…‹•‡–Š‡‹”ˆ”‡‡†‘Ȃ•‡‡–‘Šƒ˜‡‹ϐŽ—‡…‡†–
Gregory’s   view   of   apokatastasis,   which   he   rarely   addressed   apart   from   the  
problem  of  evil  and  the  freedom  of  the  will,  both  of  which  are  pertinently  
inter-­‐related  in  the  following  statement:

…  evil  must  be  altogether  removed  in  every  way  from  being,  and,  as  
we  have  said  before,  that  which  does  not  really  exist  must  cease  to  ex-­‐
ist  at  all.  Since  evil  does  not  exist  by  its  nature  outside  of  free  choice,  
when   all   choice   is   in   God,   evil   will   suffer   a   complete   annihilation  
[ᘖɎɂɇɁ᚝ɀᙼɏᚍɌɘɒ᚞ɑɎɏɍȽɇɏɚɐɂɘɑᚘɈȽɈɜȽɂᚮɋȽɇɔɠɐɇɋɍᛅɈᚍɖɂɇǡᚿɒȽɋ
ɎᙽɐȽɎɏɍȽɜɏɂɐɇɑᚌɋɒ᛫ȣɂ᛫ɀɚɋɄɒȽɇǡɂᚫɑɎȽɋɒɂɉ᚞  ᙳɔȽɋɇɐɊᛂɋᚘɈȽɈɜȽ
Ɋ᚝ɖɘɏɛɐɂɇȐ  because  no  receptacle  remains  for  it.50

It  is  clear  for  St  Gregory  that  God  and  evil  cannot  co-­‐exist,  but  the  latter’s  
“complete   annihilation,”   which   the   saint   asserted   will   occur   when   “all  
choice  is  in  God”  at  the  apokatastasis,51  is  complicated  by  his  description  
‘ˆ–Š‡’—”‹ˆ›‹‰ϐ‹”‡‹–Š‡ƒ‰‡•–‘…‘‡Ǥƒƒ‡”…‘•‘ƒ–™‹–ŠŠ‹•
‹–‡”’”‡–ƒ–‹‘ ‘ˆ –Š‡ —ƒ ’ƒ”ƒ„Ž‡ǡ Š‡ †‡•…”‹„‡† –Š‹• ϐ‹”‡ ƒ• Dz•Ž‡‡’Ž‡••dz  
ȋɒ᛫  ᙳɈɍɇɊɛɒᛠɎɓɏɜ),  lasting  both  “for  an  age”ȋɒ᛫ȽᚫɘɋɜᛠɎɓɏɜ)52  and  “the  
entire  age”ȋᛨɎɏᛂɑᚿɉɍɋȽᚫᛟɋȽȌǤ53‘…‡”‹‰–Š‡ϐ‹”•––™‘’Š”ƒ•‡•ǡ„‘–Š
ᙳɈɍɇɊɛɒᛠƒ†Ƚᚫɘɋɜᛠƒ”‡‹••‹‰ˆ”‘–Š‡‘•–”‡…‡–‰Ž‹•Š–”ƒ•Žƒ–‹‘
of  the  dialogue.54  These  omissions  may  have  been  deliberate;  as  any  faithful  
translation  of  his  above  remarks  would  contradict  the  scholarly  consensus  
–Šƒ–—’Š‘Ž†•–Š‡›••‡ǯ•—‹˜‡”•ƒŽ‹•–‹…˜‹‡™‘ˆ•ƒŽ˜ƒ–‹‘ǡ™Š‹…Š‹•†‹ˆϐ‹…—Ž–
–‘ƒ‹–ƒ‹‹ˆŠ‡‹••‡‡–‘„‡ƒˆϐ‹”‹‰–Š‡’‡”ƒ‡–‡š‹•–‡…‡‘ˆ–Š‡’—-­‐
”‹ˆ›‹‰ϐ‹”‡Ǣ‹’Ž›‹‰ƒ•‹–†‘‡•–Šƒ–•‘‡’‡”•‘•ǡ‹•–‡ƒ†‘ˆ…Š‘‘•‹‰
‘†ǡ
may  choose  to  reside  in  evil  at  the  eschaton.

50    
On  the  Soul  and  Resurrection  7,  at  85  (PG  46,  101A).
51    
Cf.  On  the  Soul  and  Resurrection  7,  at  86-­‐87.
52    
PG  46,  100A.
53    
PG  46,  101AB.
54    
Cf.  On  the  Soul  and  Resurrection  7,  at  84.

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 When  taken  at  face  value  the  saint  seems  to  be  contradicting  himself  
in   these   passages;   on   the   one   hand   he   asserted   the   salvation   of   all   and   the  
…‘’Ž‡–‡‡”ƒ†‹…ƒ–‹‘‘ˆ‡˜‹Žǡƒ†ǡ‘–Š‡‘–Š‡”ǡ–Šƒ––Š‡ϐ‹”‡‡‡†‡†–‘’—”‰‡
‡˜‹Ž‹•Ǯ•Ž‡‡’Ž‡••ǡǯ–Šƒ–‹•ǡ‡˜‡”Žƒ•–‹‰ǤŠ‡‘Ž›•‘Ž—–‹‘–‘–Š‹•‹…‘•‹•–‡…›
is  to  view  any  allusion  to  universal  salvation  in  St  Gregory  as  an  expression  
of  God’s  intention  for  humanity,  which  is  in  fact  attested  to  when  his  holy  
sister   Macrina   states   that   God   has   “one   goal   […]   some   straightway   even   in  
–Š‹•Ž‹ˆ‡’—”‹ϐ‹‡†ˆ”‘‡˜‹Žǡ‘–Š‡”•Š‡ƒŽ‡†Š‡”‡ƒˆ–‡”–Š”‘—‰Šϐ‹”‡ˆ‘”–Š‡ƒ’-­‐
propriate  length  of  time.”55  That  we  can  choose  to  either  accept  or  ignore  
–Š‹•’—”‹ϐ‹…ƒ–‹‘‹•…‘ϐ‹”‡†„›–Š‡•ƒ‹–ǯ•ƒ›‡šŠ‘”–ƒ–‹‘•–Šƒ–™‡ˆ”‡‡-­‐
ly  undertake  the  virtuous  path.  Hence,  although  the  nature  and  scope  of  pu-­‐
”‹ϐ‹…ƒ–‹‘ƒ›„‡—‹˜‡”•ƒŽ‹•‘ˆƒ”ƒ•
‘†‹–‡†•–Šƒ–ƒŽŽ„‡•ƒ˜‡†ǡ™Š‡–Š‡”
or  not  this  will   happen  depends  entirely   upon   our  free  will;56   denoting   a  
synergetic  dimension  to  salvation  that  may  preclude  it  as  a  possibility  for  
those  who  do  not  willingly  cultivate  virtue.57  This  means  that  although  the  
•ƒ‹–…Ž‡ƒ”Ž›†‹†‘–’”‡…Ž—†‡–Š‡’‘••‹„‹Ž‹–›‘ˆ–Š‡’—”‹ϐ‹…ƒ–‹‘‘ˆƒŽŽŽ‡ƒ†‹‰
to   a   universal   salvation   at   the   eschaton,   neither   did   he   assert   it   with   abso-­‐
lute  certainty;  perhaps  on  account  of  his  awareness  of  the  vicissitudes  of  
the  human  will  affected  by  the  passions.  

‡Žƒ–‡†–‘–Š‡›••‡ǯ•˜‹‡™•‘’—”‹ϐ‹…ƒ–‹‘ǡ–Šƒ–™Š‹…Š™‹ŽŽ‹‡˜‹–ƒ„Ž›
take  place  at  the  apokatastasis  for  all  people  (that  is,  universally),  in  St  Greg-­‐
ory’s  mind,  was  the  resurrection  from  the  dead,58  which  he  articulated  in  
various  ways  throughout  the  dialogue,  depending  on  the  challenge  present-­‐
‡†ǡ„—–™Š‹…Š™ƒ•’”‡†‘‹ƒ–Ž›•‹‰‹ϐ‹‡†„›Dz–Š‡”‡•–‘”ƒ–‹‘‘ˆ‘—”ƒ–—”‡
–‘‹–•‘”‹‰‹ƒŽ…‘†‹–‹‘dzȋɒᛂᙳɏɖȽᚸɍɋɒ᚞ɑɔɠɐɂɘɑᚘɊᛟɋᙳɎɍɈȽɒȽɐɒəɐɇɑȌǤ59  
Š‹•”‡–—”–‘ƒDz‘”‹‰‹ƒŽ…‘†‹–‹‘dz‹•‘–‡…‡••ƒ”‹Ž›…Žƒ”‹ϐ‹‡†‹–Š‡†‹ƒ-­‐
Ž‘‰—‡Ǥ••‡••‹‰–Š‡•‹‰‹ϐ‹…ƒ…‡‘ˆ–Š‡‹ƒ‰‡‘ˆ
‘†‹—•‹–
”‡‰‘”›ǯ•On  
the  Making  of  Man,  Daley  suggested  that  this  original  state  was  conditioned  

55    
On  the  Soul  and  Resurrection  10,  at  115-­‐16.
56  
On  more  than  one  occasion  Morwena  Ludlow  implied  that  St  Gregory’s  notion  of  syn-­‐
ergeia   anticipated   Pelagianism.   Cf.   Morwena   Universal   Salvation:   Eschatology   in   the  
Thought  of  Gregory  of  Nyssa  and  Karl  Rahner,  The  Oxford  Theological  Monographs  Series  
(Oxford,  NY:  Oxford  University  Press,  2000),  253,  268.  As  this  article  progresses  we  will  
see  that  the  opposite  is  true,  for,  according  to  the  saint,  although  we  must  actively  and  
freely  strive  to  imitate  Christ  within  the  ecclesial  context,  this  is  only  possible  because  of  
the   Lord’s   divine   initiative;   in   his   realisation   (and   divinisation)   of   all   things   –   including  
our  humanity  –  within  himself,  and  in  the  grace  which  he  freely  distributes  within  the  
ecclesial  context  (PG  45,  85D-­‐88A;  97B).
57    
Cf.  On  the  Soul  and  Resurrection  7,  at  85.
58    
Cf.  On  the  Soul  and  Resurrection,  at  103.
59    
On  the  Soul  and  Resurrection  10,  at  113  (PG  46,  143A).

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 by  the  teleological  mark  imprinted  on  human  beings  from  the  outset.  Thus  
it  is  precisely  this  image  that  is  

ǥ…”‡ƒ–‡†ƒ•–Š‡ϐ‹ƒŽ”‡ƒŽ‹–›‘ˆŠ—ƒ‡š‹•–‡…‡„›–Š‡•ƒ‡†‹˜‹‡
ƒ…––Šƒ–…”‡ƒ–‡†–Š‡ǮƒŽ‡ƒ†ˆ‡ƒŽ‡ǡǯ„—–‘™ƒ””‡†„›–Š‡–‡-­‐
•‹‘•ƒ†ƒ„‹‰—‹–‹‡•‘ˆϐŽ‡•ŠŽ›‡š‹•–‡…‡ȋDe  Hom  Opif  16).60  

In  other  words,  for  the  saint  protology  conditioned  teleology  and  vice-­‐versa,  
so  that  the  goal  for  which  humanity  was  created,  lost  after  the  fall  from  the  
paradisial  life,  was  to  be  reconstituted  at  the  eschaton.  Ludlow  was  there-­‐
fore  right  in  claiming  that  “Gregory’s  idea  of  the  perfection  of  humankind  is  
more  a  forward-­‐looking  attainment  of  an  ideal  than  a  retrospective  resto-­‐
ration   to   an   actual   previous   state.”61   In   other   words,   this   restoration   is   not  
entirely  cyclical,  but  neither  is  it  merely  circumscribed  by  the  two  points  –  
the  beginning  and  the  end  –  of  the  historical  continuum.  For,  in  addition  to  
St  Gregory’s  aforementioned  emphasis  on  cultivating  virtue  in  the  here  and  
‘™ǡŠ‡†‹†‡–‹‘‹–Š‹•†‹ƒŽ‘‰—‡ǡŠ‘™‡˜‡”„”‹‡ϐŽ›ǡ–Š‡•‹‰‹ϐ‹…ƒ…‡‘ˆ–Š‡
present  ecclesial  experience  with  reference  to  apokatastasis.  
This  discussion  unfolds  in  relation  to  the  following  allegorical  inter-­‐
pretation   of   Hebrews   8-­‐10.   The   approach   is   based   on   St   Paul’s   typologi-­‐
cal  depiction  of  the  tabernacle  in  Hebrews  9:11  as  signifying  “the  greater  
and  perfect  tent”  (ɁᚷȽɒ᚞ɑɊɂɜɃɍɋɍɑɈȽᚷɒɂɉɂɇɍɒɚɏȽɑɐɈɄɋ᚞ɑ),  which  is  re-­‐
lated  by  the  Nyssen  to  God’s  appearance  as  the  “true  tabernacle”  (ᚘᙳɉɄɅ᚝ɑ
ɐɈɄɋɍɎɄɀɜȽȌ62  in  the  person  of  Christ,  who,  at  the  eschaton,  will  “inaugu-­‐
rate  for  human  nature  the  feast  of  the  tabernacle  of  our  destroyed  dwelling  
which  would  again  be  covered  with  a  body  when  the  elements  should  come  
back   together.”63   After   relating   this   feast   once   again   to   Psalm   117:27,  the  
resurrection  is  described  by  St  Macrina  as  a  universal  celebration  “estab-­‐
lished  for  all  the  rational  creation.”64  This  feast  is  contrasted  to  the  current  
spiritual   circumstances,   which   Macrina   delineates   with   reference   to   the  
conditions  of  entry  into  the  temple  mentioned  in  Hebrews,  which  is  a  type  
of  the  Church.  Those  who  adhere  to  false  beliefs  remain  outside  its  enclo-­‐
sures,  whereas  

60  
Brian  E.  Daley,  S.J.  The  Hope  of  the  Early  Church:  A  Handbook  of  Patristic  Escha-­‐
 

tology  (Wiltshire,  Great  Britain:  Cambridge  University  Press,  1993),  86.  

61    
Ludlow,  Universal  Salvation,  49.
62    
On  the  Soul  and  Resurrection  10,  at  104  (PG  46,  132B).
63    
Ibid,  105.
64    
On  the  Soul  and  Resurrection  10,  at  105.

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 …  among  those  who  have  come  inside  by  the  strength  of  their  confes-­‐
•‹‘ǡ–Š‘•‡™Š‘Šƒ˜‡…Ž‡ƒ•‡†–Š‡•‡Ž˜‡•‹ƒ†˜ƒ…‡„›’—”‹ϐ‹…ƒ–‹‘•
and  chastity  are  honoured  more  than  others;  and  among  these,  those  
who  have  dedicated  themselves  to  this  life  already  have  fullness,  so  
that  they  are  counted  worthy  to  enter  into  the  inner  mysteries  [ɈȽᚷ
ɒɍɠɒɘɋɍᚯ  ᙳɔɇɂɏɘɅɚɋɒɂɑᚕɁɄɒᛂɎɉɚɍɋᚍɖɍɓɐɇɋǡᛚɐɒɂɒ᚞ɑᚌɐɘɒɂɏɇɈ᚞ɑ
ᙳɌɇɍᛒɐɅȽɇɊɓɐɒȽɀɘɀɜȽɑ].65

It  is  later  made  clear  that  these  inner  mysteries,  which  pertain  to  the  in-­‐
ner  life  of  the  Church  –  its  sacraments,  liturgical  rhythms,  and  so  on  –  are  
in  fact  reserved  “only  for  those  who  are  cleansed  by  the  purifying  bath.”66  
Š‹•‡ƒ•–Šƒ–™Š‹Ž•–’—”‹ϐ‹…ƒ–‹‘•ǡ…Šƒ•–‹–›ǡƒ†–Š‘•‡ƒ•’‡…–•’‡”–ƒ‹‹‰
to   a   virtuous   life   are   necessary   to   experience   these   mysteries,   neverthe-­‐
less   initiation   into   the   sacred   ecclesial   context   through   baptism   remains  
a  prerequisite.  What  is  strange  is  that  St  Gregory  then  jumped  to  further  
ruminations  on  the  annihilation  of  evil  in  the  future  life  and  the  union  of  
all  creatures  in  “one  and  the  same  joy,”67  without  describing  how  initiation  
into  the  Church  and  the  cultivation  of  virtue  contributes  to  our  experience  
of  the  apokatastasis.  Even  his  culminating  ruminations  on  the  resurrection  
as   restoring   us   to   the   “passionless   beatitude”   (ᙳɎȽɅ᚞ ɊȽɈȽɏɇɟɒɄɒȽ)68   of  
our   original,   God-­‐intended   state   –   before   the   onset   of   evil   –   fail   to   address  
how   it   is  that   we   might   anticipate,   in   the  here  and   now,   this  eschatological  
experience   within   the   Church,   which   is   Christ’s   body.   In   fact,   in   this   text  
–Š‡”‡‹•ƒ…‘•’‹…—‘—•Žƒ…‘ˆ…Š”‹•–‘Ž‘‰‹…ƒŽ”‡ϐŽ‡…–‹‘™‹–Š”‡ˆ‡”‡…‡–‘–Š‡
apokatastasis,  made  all  the  more  surprising  by  the  fact  that  it  is  precisely  
Christ’s  resurrection  that  remains  the  basis  for  the  general  resurrection  at  
the  eschaton.69  It  is  my  suggestion  that  this  lack  of  Christ-­‐centered  eschato-­‐
Ž‘‰‹…ƒŽ”‡ϐŽ‡…–‹‘‹•ƒ‘—–…‘‡‘ˆ–Š‡›••‡ǯ•’”‡’‘†‡”ƒ–…‘…‡”ˆ‘”
the  problem  of  evil  and  free  will;  for,  as  we  have  demonstrated,  it  is  mainly  
‹Ž‹‰Š–‘ˆ–Š‡•‡–‘’‹…•–Šƒ–Š‡”‡ϐŽ‡…–‡†—’‘–Š‡apokatastasis.  His  claim,  
appearing  just  before  the  above  interpretation  of  Hebrews,  that  “the  mys-­‐
tery  of  the  resurrection  is  being  proclaimed  to  the  Church,”70  hence  remains  
unsubstantiated  in  this  particular  work.  For  this  reason,  we  must  now  turn  
to  his  Catechetical  Oration,  where,  after  addressing  similar  themes  to  those  

65    
On  the  Soul  and  Resurrection  10,  at  105-­‐6  (PG  46,  133B).
66    
On  the  Soul  and  Resurrection  10,  at  106.
67    
Ibid.  
68    
On  the  Soul  and  ResurrectionͳͲǡƒ–ͳͳͶȋ
Ͷ͸ǡͳͶͺȝȌǤ  
69  
Harmon  noted  the  “paucity  of  references  to  the  person  and  work  of  Christ  in  connection  
 

™‹–Š•‘‡‘ˆ
”‡‰‘”›ǯ•…Ž‡ƒ”‡•–ƒˆϐ‹”ƒ–‹‘•‘ˆ–Š‡—‹˜‡”•ƒŽ”‡•–‘”ƒ–‹‘Ǥdzƒ”‘ǡǮŠ‡
Subjection  of  All  Things  in  Christ,’  50.
70    
On  the  Soul  and  Resurrection  10,  at  104.

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 in  the  dialogue,  he  thoroughly  contextualised  the  apokatastasis  within  both  
the  person  of  the  Son  of  God  incarnate  –  Jesus  Christ  –  and  his  Church.

Evil,  Free  Will,  and  Apokatastasis  in  the  Catechetical  Oration

The  purpose  of  St  Gregory’s  Catechetical  Oration‹•”‡ϐŽ‡…–‡†‹‹–•’”‘Ž‘‰—‡ǡ

which   is   addressed   to   the   catechists   to   assist   them   in   their   systematic   for-­‐
mation  of  God’s  people.71  Composed  after  On  the  Soul  and  Resurrection,  it  is  
impossible  to  ascertain  a  precise  date  for  the  treatise.  It  could  be  that  the  
role  conferred  on  the  Nyssen  by  the  second  ecumenical  council  in  Constan-­‐
tinople   to   re-­‐establish   order   in   the   churches   of   Pontus,72   may   have   com-­‐
pelled  him  to  formulate  a  comprehensive  guide  to  ingrain  the  Church’s  cat-­‐
echists  in  the  main  tenets  of  Christianity,  thus  facilitating  an  inner  renewal  
of  both  clergy  and  laity  conducive  towards  the  stability  and  growth  of  the  
people  of  God.  This  would  place  the  composition  of  the  text  sometime  in  the  
380’s.  In  any  case,  the  Catechetical  Oration  begins  with  a  demonstration  of  
–Š‡—‹–›ƒ††‹˜‡”•‹–›™‹–Š‹‘Ž›”‹‹–›ȋ™‹–Šƒ•’‡…‹ϐ‹…ˆ‘…—•‘’”‡Ǧ‹-­‐
carnational  christology,  as  well  as  pneumatology)  and  progresses  to  an  il-­‐
lustration  of  the  God-­‐intended  paradisial  state  of  humanity,  its  fall  from  this  
state   and   its   subsequent   salvation   in   the   incarnation   of   the   Son   and   Logos  
as  Christ  Jesus;  and  the  method  by  which  we  may  interiorise  this  salvation  
within  the  Church.  Moreover,  the  text  is  interspersed  with  –  and  culminates  
in  –  nuanced  ruminations  on  the  apokatastasis.  

Without  having  this  as  its  focus,  the  general  scheme  of  the  Oration  en-­‐
compasses   all   of   creation   history   from   beginning   to   end.   But   it   soon   be-­‐
comes   clear   that   as   the   saint   moved   from   one   topic   to   another,   his   abiding  
…‘…‡”•™‡”‡’”‡…‹•‡Ž›–Š‡•ƒ‡ƒ•–Š‘•‡”‡ϐŽ‡…–‡†‹On  the  Soul  and  Res-­‐
urrection;  to  address  the  problem  of  evil  in  light  of  God’s  goodness  and  to  
maintain  the  freedom  of  humanity  created  in  God’s  image.73  Concluding  his  
exposition  on  God  the  Logos  at  the  end  of  chapter  four  and  the  beginning  
‘ˆ…Šƒ’–‡”ϐ‹˜‡ǡ–
”‡‰‘”›‘—–Ž‹‡†–Š‡…‘’ƒ–‹„‹Ž‹–›„‡–™‡‡
‘†ƒ†Š—-­‐
manity,  manifested  in  the  fact  that  the  latter  was  “born  for  the  enjoyment  of  
the  divine  good”  (ᚌɎᚷɒᚪɒᛟɋɅɂɜɘɋᙳɀȽɅᛟɋᙳɎɍɉȽɠɐɂɇɀɂɋɟɊɂɋɍɋȌ74  which  

71    
Cf.  The  Great  Catechism  Ǯ”‘Ž‘‰—‡ǡǯƒ–Ͷ͹͵Ǥ
72  
Cf.  Anthony  Meredith,  The  Cappadocians  (Crestwood,  NY:  St  Vladimir’s  Seminary  Press,  
 

1995),  53.
73    
Cf.  The  Great  Catechism  5,  at  479.
74    
The  Great  Catechism  5,  at  479  (PG  45,  21D).

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 is  an  outcome  of  the  desire  to  reach  “divine  eternity.”75  Goodness  and  divine  
eternity  are  here  two  complementary  ways  of  expressing  participation  in  

‘†ǯ•Ž‹ˆ‡Ž‡ƒ†‹‰–‘†‡‹ϐ‹…ƒ–‹‘ǡƒŽ–Š‘—‰Š–
”‡‰‘”›†‹†‘–—•‡–Š‡–‡”
(that   is,   Ʌɚɘɐɇɑ   or   its   derivatives)   in   this   context.76   Instead,   in   this   chapter  
he   framed   this   desire   and   enjoyment   within   the   paradisial   narrative,   re-­‐
lated  by  Moses  in  “a  style  more  in  the  way  of  history”77  which  –  as  can  be  
seen  from  his  interpretation  –  is  not  to  be  understood  literally.  Instead,  it  
is  a  metaphor  denoting  that  human  nature,  being  a  “summary  of  all  things  
that  characterise  Deity”78  –  including  life,  thought,  skill,  and  “all  those  ex-­‐
cellences  that  we  attribute  to  God”79  –  was  at  its  beginnings  good  and  “in  
the  midst  of  good.”80  St  Gregory  then  immediately  opposed  those  who,  bas-­‐
ing   their   assumptions   on   the   present   conditions   of   life   (after   the   fall),   cast  
doubt  upon  the  paradisial  experience  and  its  related  aspects.81  For  him,  this  
was  tantamount  to  doubting  God’s  goodness  and  to  suggesting  that  human-­‐
ity  was  being  made  by  its  creator  “in  the  midst  of  evil.”82  This  assertion  ini-­‐
–‹ƒ–‡•ƒ•‡”‹‡•‘ˆ”‡ϐŽ‡…–‹‘•ƒ‹–ƒ‹‹‰
‘†ǯ•‰‘‘†‡••„›ƒˆϐ‹”‹‰–Šƒ–
Š‡Šƒ•ƒ†‡Š—ƒ„‡‹‰•ˆ‘”ƒ•’‡…‹ϐ‹…’—”’‘•‡ǡ–‘’ƒ”–‹…‹’ƒ–‡‹Š‹•’ƒ”-­‐
ticular   good,83   which   he   enables   them   to   do   by   endowing   them   with   the  
“most   excellent   and   precious   of   all   goods”   (ɒɍᛒɈȽɉɉɜɐɒɍɓɈȽᚷɒɇɊɇɘɒəɒɍɓ
ɒᛟɋᙳɀȽɅᛟɋȌ,84  namely  the  gift  of  free  will.85  So,  of  all  those  aforementioned  
attributes  of  the  deity  which  are  imparted  by  God  to  human  beings,  for  St  
Gregory   free   will  was   the   most   important;   for   it   is   this   freedom   which   not  
‘Ž› –‡•–‹ϐ‹‡• –Šƒ– Š—ƒ „‡‹‰• ƒ”‡ …”‡ƒ–‡† ‹ –Š‡ ‹ƒ‰‡ ‘ˆ –Š‡‹” ƒ‡”
(alternately   expressed   in   On   the   Soul   and   Resurrection   with   reference   to  
ǮŽ‹‡‡••ǯȌǡ„—–™Š‹…Š‡ƒ„Ž‡•–Š‡‹”Dz’ƒ”–‹…‹’ƒ–‹‘‘ˆ–Š‡‰‘‘†–‘„‡–Š‡”‡-­‐

75  
„‹†ǤŠ‡
”‡‡”‡ƒ†•ɒ᚞ɑɅɂɜȽɑᙳɝɁɇɟɒɄɒɍɑɂᚬɄǡ™Š‹…ŠŠƒ˜‡–”‹‡†–‘”‡†‡”‘”‡ƒ……—-­‐
 

rately  above.  The  English  translation  reads  the  “divine  and  eternal  life.”  
76  
‘”‘”‡‘–
”‡‰‘”›ǯ•ƒ’’”‘ƒ…Š–‘†‡‹ϐ‹…ƒ–‹‘ǡ•‡‡‘”ƒ—••‡ŽŽǡThe  Doctrine  of  
 

‡‹ϔ‹…ƒ–‹‘‹–Š‡
”‡‡ƒ–”‹•–‹…”ƒ†‹–‹‘,  The  Oxford  Early  Christian  Studies  Series  (Ox-­‐
ford,  NY:  Oxford  University  Press,  2004),  226.    
77  
The  Great  Catechismͷǡƒ–Ͷ͹ͻǤŠ‡‘”‹‰‹ƒŽ”‡ƒ†•ᚯɐɒɍɏɇɈɣɒɂɏɍɋᚾȧɘɡɐ᚞ɑɁɇɂɌɚɏɖɂɒȽɇǡ
 

ᚌɋɁɇɄɀɛɐɂɘɑ(PG  45,  24A).  At   the   suggestion  of  Fr  Dr  Doru  Costache,  I   would   prefer  to  
render  the  original  Greek  here  as  “in  a  more  sublime  way  of  history.”  
78    
The  Great  Catechism  5,  at  479.
79    
Ibid.
80    
Ibid.
81  
These  aspects  are  the  divine  resemblance  in  the  soul,  freedom  from  suffering,  and  eter-­‐
 

nal  life.  Ibid.

82    
Ibid.
83    
Cf.  Ibid.
84    
The  Great  Catechism  5,  at  479  (PG  45,  24C).
85    
Ibid.

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 ward   of   virtue.”86   But   since   this   life   of   goodness   or   the   paradisial   experi-­‐
ence,   as   a   reward   for   the   cultivation   of   virtue,   does   not   characterise   the  
present  circumstances  –  which  are  described  as  evil  –  it  was  important  for  
St  Gregory,  in  upholding  God’s  goodness,  to  identify  the  source  of  evil  not  in  
the  divine  will,  but  as  engendered  within  the  will  of  human  beings  “at  that  
moment  when  there  is  a  retrocession  of  the  soul  from  the  beautiful,”87  i.e.  
God.  Therefore,  reiterating   a  theme  that   we  have  seen  was  prevalent   in   On  
the  Soul  and  Resurrectionǡ–
”‡‰‘”›ƒˆϐ‹”‡†–Šƒ–‹–‹•‘–
‘†™Š‘‹•–Š‡
“author  of  the  present  evils.”88  

That  all  of  this  is  once  again  directed  against  the  Manicheans  is  evi-­‐
denced  in  the  text.  For  although  St  Gregory  explicitly  referred  to  them  only  
once   in   relation   to   the   problem   of   evil,89   he   continued   to   readdress   this  
topic  throughout  the  treatise,  grouping  the  Manicheans  amongst  the  oppo-­‐
nents  of  the  Church  on  several  occasions  in  its  prologue.90  The  Nyssen  then  
moved  to  an  emphasis  of  the  non-­‐existence  of  evil  in  a  further  attempt  to  
demonstrate  that  since  God  is  the  creator  of  things  that  are,  he  cannot  be  
the  creator  of  that  which  does  not  exist  apart  from  the  “motion  of  our  self-­‐
will”  which  has  contracted  “a  fellowship  with  evil.”91  In  order  for  this  evil  
to  be  eradicated,  death  was  permitted  by  God  to  affect  human  nature  in  an  
external  manner  with  reference  to  the  body;  for  internally  the  soul  remains  
destined  for  immortality.92  Even  so,  the  dissolution  of  the  body  is  not  per-­‐
manent,  and  St  Gregory  continued  that  when  evil  is  altogether  removed  by  
the  resurrection  at  the  apokatastasis,  then  human  beings  will  be  restored  to  
their  original  beauty;  the  God-­‐intended  state.  But  that  this  restoration  does  
‘–‡“—ƒ–‡–‘—‹˜‡”•ƒŽ•ƒŽ˜ƒ–‹‘‹•…‘ϐ‹”‡†„›–Š‡•ƒ‹–ǯ•‡•—‹‰”‡ϐŽ‡…-­‐
tions   on   the   healing   of   the   soul,   which,   when   not   undertaken   in   this   life  
–Š”‘—‰Š–Š‡Ǯ‡†‹…‹‡ǯ‘ˆ˜‹”–—‡ǡ‹•Dz†‹•’‡•‡†‹–Š‡Ž‹ˆ‡–Šƒ–ˆ‘ŽŽ‘™•–Š‹•Ǥdz93  
This  assertion  echoes  a  similar  statement  concerning  purgation  in  his  On  
the  Soul  and  Resurrection,94  and,  just  as  was  the  case  in  that  text,  there  is  
no  indication  here  as  to  whether  or  not  the  future  healing  of  the  soul,  de-­‐
scribed  as  a  painful  purgation,  will  automatically  be  applicable  to  all  people  

86    
The  Great  Catechism  5,  at  479.
87    
Ibid.
88    
Ibid,  at  480.
89    
Cf.  The  Great  Catechism  7,  at  481.
90    
Cf.  The  Great  CatechismǮ”‘Ž‘‰—‡ǡǯƒ–Ͷ͹͵ǡͶ͹ͶǤ
91    
The  Great  Catechism  8,  at  482.
92    
Cf.  The  Great  Catechism  8,  at  483.
93    
The  Great  Catechism  8,  at  483.
94    
Cf.  On  the  Soul  and  Resurrection  10,  at  115-­‐16.

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 –   thereby   resulting   in   universal   salvation.   Concluding   that   this   purgation  
does  in  fact  lead  to  universal  salvation,  Ludlow  asserted  that  this  “experi-­‐
ence  of  revelation/punishment  [will  be]  a  passive  one  …  its  effect  will  be  
that  humans  will  have  no  freedom  to  choose  between  good  and  evil.”95  This  
assertion  is  however  compromised  both  by  St  Gregory’s  silence  concerning  
the  nature  of  the  will  in  the  future  life  as  well  as  his  insistence,  appearing  
elsewhere   in   the   text,   that  the   prize   of   goodness   (or   the   paradisial   experi-­‐
ence)  in  this  life,  reached  through  virtue,  would  be  impossible  if  God  had  
compelled  human  beings  to  behave  according  to  his  ordinances.96  Given  the  
saint’s  belief  that  God  will  not  compel  us  to  accept  him  in  the  here  and  now,  
there  is  no  reason  to  presume  that  he  will  do  so  in  the  hereafter.  

We  have  seen,  on  the  one  hand,  that  in  On  the  Soul  and  Resurrection  the  
Manichean  disparagement  of  God’s  goodness  and  human  freedom  clearly  
‹ϐŽ—‡…‡† –
”‡‰‘”›ǯ• ˆ‘”—Žƒ–‹‘• ‘ˆ apokatastasis,   which   only   appear  
in  relation  to  these  themes.  On  the  other  hand,  although  it  is  clear  that  the  
same  themes  addressed  in  the  Oration  are  similarly  in  response  to  the  Man-­‐
ichean  threat,  nevertheless  the  references  to  the  apokatastasis,  whilst  of-­‐
ten   taking   place   within   the   scope   of   an   assessment   of   evil   and   free   will,  
are  thoroughly  contextualised  within  the  person  of  God  the  Son,  who,  after  
waiting  for  “long  periods  of  time”  (ɊȽɈɏᙼɑɎɂɏɇɚɏɖɂɒȽɇɎɂɏɇɟɁɍɓɑȌ97  sub-­‐
mits   himself   to   “the   condition   of   a   human   body”98   for   our   salvation.   It   is   to  
the  christological  context  of  apokatastasis  that  I  now  turn.

The  Christological  Context  of  Apokatastasis  in  the  Catechetical  Oration

ˆ–‡”Š‹•ƒ„‘˜‡”‡ϐŽ‡…–‹‘•‘–Š‡  apokatastasis  with  reference  to  the  pu-­‐

”‹ϐ‹…ƒ–‹‘ ‘ˆ –Š‡ •‘—Žǡ –Š‡ •ƒ‹– „”‹‡ϐŽ› ”‡‹–‡”ƒ–‡† –Š‡ ’‘•‹–‹‘ ‘ ’”‡Ǧ‹-­‐
carnational  christology  outlined  at  length  at  the  beginning  of  the  Oration,  
before  turning  to  a  lengthy  illustration  of  the  incarnation,  life,  death,  and  
resurrection  of  Christ  (i.e.  incarnational  christology);  through  which  he  af-­‐
ϐ‹”‡†–Šƒ––Š‡‘”†Šƒ•ƒŽ”‡ƒ†›”‡…ƒŽŽ‡†Š—ƒ‹–›–‘–Š‡Dz‘”‹‰‹ƒŽ•–ƒ–‡Ǥdz99  
Acting   as   a   pretext   for   this   is   a   refutation   of   those   who   would   deny   the   di-­‐
vine   economy   of   God   in   the   person   of   the   incarnate   Son   and   Logos   –   his  
birth,   death,   and   resurrection.   But   of   immediate   interest   to   us   is   the   end  

95    
Ludlow,  Universal  Salvation,  110.
96    
Cf.  The  Great  Catechism  7,  at  482.
97    
The  Great  Catechism  15,  at  487  (PG  45,  48C).
98    
The  Great  Catechism  15,  at  487
99    
Ibid  8,  at  484-­‐85.

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 ‘ˆ–Š‡–™‡–›Ǧϐ‹ˆ–Š…Šƒ’–‡”ǡ™Š‡”‡–
”‡‰‘”›†‡ϐ‹‡†–Š‡‹…ƒ”ƒ–‹‘ƒ†
–Š‡”‡•—””‡…–‹‘‹–‡”•‘ˆƒǮ”‡ƒŽ‹•‡†ǯ‡•…Šƒ–‘Ž‘‰›ǡ™Š‡”‡–Š‡ˆ—ŽŽ‡••‘ˆ
God’s  presence  expected  at  the  last  things  of  the  historical  continuum  have  
already  taken  place:

For  all  things  depend  on  Him  Who  is,  nor  can  there  be  anything  which  
has  not  its  being  in  Him  Who  is.  If,  therefore,  all  things  are  in  Him,  and  
He  in  all  things,  why  are  they  scandalised  at  the  plan  of  Revelation,  
when  it  teaches  that  God  was  born  amongst  people,  that  same  God  
whom  we  are  convinced  even  now  is   not   outside  humankind.   For  al-­‐
though  this  last  form  of  God’s  presence  amongst  us  is  not  the  same  as  
that  former  presence,  still  His  existence  amongst  us  equally  both  then  
and  now  is  evidenced;  only  now  He  Who  holds  together  Nature  in  ex-­‐
istence  is  transfused  in  us;  while  at  that  other  time  He  was  transfused  
throughout  our  nature,  in  order  that  our  nature  might  by  this  transfu-­‐
sion  of  the  Divine  become  itself  divine,  rescued  as  it  was  from  death,  
and  put  beyond  the  reach  of  the  caprice  of  the  antagonist.  For  his  re-­‐
turn  from  death  becomes  to  our  mortal  race  the  commencement  of  
our  return  to  the  immortal  life.100

Not   only   is   God   the   Logos   ever-­‐present   in   all   things   that   have   come   into  
being  through  him,  but  at  the  present  time  he  remains  within  human  be-­‐
ings  because  by  his  incarnation  “he  was  transfused  throughout  our  nature”  
through   which   he   destroyed   death,   rescued   us   from   the   devil,   and   made  
—• †‹˜‹‡Ǥ ‘” –Š‹• ”‡ƒ•‘ǡ ‹– ‹• ’‡”Šƒ’• ’‡”–‹‡– –‘ •’‡ƒ ‘ˆ ƒ Ǯ”‡ƒŽ‹•‡†ǯ
apokatastasis,   insofar   as   all   those   aspects   pertaining   to   the   eschaton,   the  
resurrection  of  the  dead,  the  defeat  of  Satan,  the  divinisation  of  humanity  
–  in  other  words,  the  return  to  the  God-­‐intended,  paradisial  experience  –  
have  already  taken  place  in  the  person  of  Jesus.  However,  it  does  not  follow  
that  the  universal  salvation  that  modern  scholarship  imputes  on  the  saint’s  
vision  of  the  last  things  has  already  happened  for  all  people.  On  the  con-­‐
trary,  the  Nyssen’s  concluding  statement  above  that  Christ’s  “resurrection  
from   the   dead   initiates   our   journey   towards   eternal   life”   –   as   well   as   his  
persistent  emphasis  on  human  freedom  –  imply  an  existential  process  that,  
beginning  in  the  here  and  now  (and  culminating  in  the  hereafter),  should  
be  undertaken  as  a  willing  response  to  Christ’s  divine  initiative.  

–‹Ž‹•‹‰Š‹•ˆƒ˜‘—”‡†‘–‹ˆ•‘ˆŠ‡ƒŽ‹‰Ȁ’—”‹ϐ‹…ƒ–‹‘ǡ–
”‡‰‘”›†‡Ž‹-­‐
‡ƒ–‡† –Š‹• ‹‹–‹ƒ–‹˜‡ „‡‰‹‹‰ ™‹–Š Š”‹•–ǯ• †‡…‡’–‹‘ ‘ˆ ƒ–ƒǡ ƒˆϐ‹”‹‰
that  it  was  not  by  pure  deity  alone  “but  by  Deity  veiled  in  a  human  nature,  

100    
The  Great  Catechism  25,  at  495.

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 [that]  God,  without  the  knowledge  of  His  enemy,  got  within  the  lines  of  him  
who  had  man  in  his  power,”101  so  that

‡™Š‘ϐ‹”•–†‡…‡‹˜‡†ƒ„›–Š‡„ƒ‹–‘ˆ•‡•—ƒŽ’Ž‡ƒ•—”‡‹•Š‹•‡Žˆ
deceived  by  the  presentment  of  the  human  form.  But  as  regards  the  
aim   and   purpose   of   what   took   place,   a   change   in   the   direction   of   the  
nobler  is  involved;  for  whereas  he,  the  enemy,  effected  his  deception  
for  the  ruin  of  our  nature,  He  Who  is  at  once  the  just,  and  good,  and  
wise  one,  used  His  device,  in  which  there  was  deception,  for  the  salva-­‐
–‹‘‘ˆŠ‹™Š‘Šƒ†’‡”‹•Š‡†ǡƒ†–Š‹•‘–‘Ž›…‘ˆ‡””‡†„‡‡ϐ‹–‘
the  lost  one,  but  on  him,  too,  who  had  wrought  our  ruin.102

Ǯ‡…‡‹˜‹‰ǯ–Š‡†‡…‡‹˜‡”„›˜‹”–—‡‘ˆŠ‹•—’”‡…‡†‡–‡†ƒ••—’–‹‘‘ˆ–Š‡
human  nature  –  which  as  we  have  seen  recapitulates  the  whole  of  humanity  
Ȃ–Š‡‘‘ˆ
‘†„‡•–‘™•„‡‡ϐ‹–•‘–‘Ž›‘–Š‡Š—ƒ”ƒ…‡ǡ‹•‰—‹†‡†
by  the  devil’s  machinations,  but  on  the  tempter  also.  Before  explaining  just  
Š‘™–Š‡•‡„‡‡ϐ‹–•Šƒ˜‡„‡‡„‡•–‘™‡†ǡ–
”‡‰‘”›„”‘ƒ†‡‡†–Š‡•…‘’‡
‘ˆ–Š‹•†‹•…—••‹‘„›ƒˆϐ‹”‹‰–Šƒ––Š‡Š”‹•–‡š’‡”‹‡…‡ˆƒ…‹Ž‹–ƒ–‡•ƒ‰‡-­‐
eral  transition  from  “death  to  life,”  “darkness  to  light,”  and  “corruption  to  
incorruption”  which  results  in  “an  obliteration  of  what  is  worse,  and  a  pass-­‐
ing   away   of   it   into   nothing.”103   In   other   words,   the   “approach   of   the   Divine  
power”   (ᚾɎɏɍɐɂɀɀɇɐɊᛂɑɒ᚞ɑɅɂɜȽɑɁɓɋəɊɂɘɑȌ104   in   the   incarnation,   acting  
Ž‹‡ϐ‹”‡ǡ’—”‰‡•‡˜‹Žin  toto  from  both  the  nature  of  Satan  and  the  human  
nature  with  which  it  has  been  mixed.105  Both  natures,  created  pure  but  de-­‐
ϐ‹Ž‡†–Š”‘—‰Š•‹ƒ”‡…‘’ƒ”‡†–‘‰‘Ž†–Šƒ–Šƒ•„‡‡‹š‡†™‹–ŠƒŽ‡••‡”ǡ
…‘””—’–‹‰‡–ƒŽǤ–‹•‘–—–‹Ž–Š‡‰‘Ž†Ǧ”‡ϐ‹‡”•„—”—’–Š‡Dzˆ‘”‡‹‰ƒ†
”‡ˆ—•‡’ƒ”–‹–Š‡…‘•—‹‰ϐ‹”‡dzȋɒᚪɁɇᙼɒɍᛒɎɓɏᛂɑɁȽɎəɋ᚟ɒᛂᙳɉɉɟɒɏɇɟɋ
ɒɂɈȽᚷᙳɎɟȾɉɄɒɍɋȌ106–Šƒ–‹–‹•”‡–—”‡†–‘‹–•‘”‹‰‹ƒŽŽ—•–‡”ǤŠ‡†‹ˆϐ‹…—Ž–›
posed  by  this  particular  chapter  is  obviously  the  possibility  of  the  salvation  
of  the  devil,  which  we  have  seen  was  implied  in  On  the  Soul  and  Resurrec-­‐
tion  with  St  Gregory’s  statement  concerning  the  potential  salvation  of  the  
demons,107   not   to   mention   his   insistence   on   the   complete   eradication   of  
evil.  St  Gregory  repeated  this  at  the  end  of  the  twenty-­‐sixth  chapter:

101    
Ibid  26,  at  495.
102    
Ibid.
103    
Ibid.  
104    
The  Great  Catechism  26,  at  496  (PG  45,  69A).
105    
Cf.  The  Great  Catechism  26,  at  495-­‐96.
106    
The  Great  Catechism  26,  at  495  (PG  45,  69A).
107    
Cf.  On  the  Soul  and  Resurrection  4,  at  64.

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 Š‡•‡ƒ†–Š‡Ž‹‡„‡‡ϐ‹–•–Š‡‰”‡ƒ–›•–‡”›‘ˆ–Š‡‹…ƒ”ƒ–‹‘„‡-­‐
stows.  For  in  those  points  in  which  He  was  mingled  with  humanity,  
passing   as   He   did   through   all   the   accidents   proper   to   human   nature,  
such  as  birth,  rearing,  growing  up,  and  advancing  even  to  the  taste  of  
death,  He  accomplished  all  the  results  before  mentioned,  freeing  both  
man  from  evil,  and  healing  even  the  introducer  of  evil  himself.108  

Although  many  scholars  take  for  granted  the  Nyssen’s  belief  that  even  Sa-­‐
tan  will  be  saved  at  the  apokatastasis,109  here  the  devil’s  healing  is  clearly  
articulated  with  reference  to  the  incarnation,  which,  we  have  seen,  can  be  
described  as  a  realised  apokatastasis.  However,  in  an  earlier  passage  in  the  
same   chapter   St   Gregory   remarked   hypothetically   that   the   healing   of   the  
†‡˜‹Ž™‘—Ž††‡’‡†—’‘‹–•ˆ”‡‡ƒ……‡’–ƒ…‡‘ˆ–Š‡„‡‡ϐ‹–•‘ˆ–Š‡‹…ƒ”ƒ-­‐
tion;  just  as  the  healing/salvation  of  human  beings  presupposes  an  existen-­‐
tial  process  whereby  one  freely  cultivates  the  virtuous  path.  Hence  we  may  
‹ˆ‡”–Šƒ–ƒŽ–Š‘—‰Š‹–•Š‡ƒŽ‹‰™ƒ•ƒ†‡’‘••‹„Ž‡„›–Š‡–”ƒ•ϐ‹‰—”ƒ–‹‘‘ˆ
all  things  in  Christ’s  incarnation,  it  was  not  in  fact  actualised  because  Satan  
has  never  willingly  accepted  the  Lord  or  his  exhortations  to  virtue.110  

In  On  the  Soul  and  Resurrectionǡ–Š‡’—”‰ƒ–‹‘‘ˆϐ‹”‡™ƒ•‘Ž›†‹•…—••‡†

with  reference  to  the  eschaton.111  In  the  Oration,  we  see  that  the  purgation  
‹•ϐ‹”•–†‹•…—••‡†™‹–Š”‡ˆ‡”‡…‡–‘–Š‡‹…ƒ”ƒ–‹‘ƒ†Ž‹ˆ‡‘ˆŠ”‹•–ǡ™Š‘
‹Š‹•‘™’‡”•‘’—”‰‡•–Š‡ƒ……”‡–‹‘•‘ˆ‡˜‹ŽƒˆϐŽ‹…–‹‰„‘–Š–Š‡†‡‘‹…
and  the  human  natures.    All  of  this  reinforces  our  contention  of  a  realised  
apokatastasis  in  the  incarnation  that  has  yet  to  be  worked  out  on  a  personal  
level  in  the  lives  of  human  beings,  and  indeed  will  not  become  universal-­‐
Ž›ƒ˜ƒ‹Žƒ„Ž‡—–‹Ž–Š‡ǮŽƒ•––Š‹‰•ǡǯ™Š‹…Š–Š‡•ƒ‹–™‡–‘–‘†‡•…”‹„‡‹ƒ
ƒ‡” –Šƒ– ”‡•‘ƒ–‡• ™‹–Š Š‹• ƒƒŽ‘‰‘—• ”‡ϐŽ‡…–‹‘• ‹ On   the   Soul   and  
Resurrection  (see  above)

…  when  after  long  periods  of  time  [ɒȽᚸɑɊȽɈɏȽᚸɑɎɂɏɇɟɁɍɇɑ],  the  evil  

of   our   nature,   which   now   is   mixed   up   with   it   and   has   grown   with   its  

108    
The  Great  Catechism  26,  at  496.
109    
Ludlow  claimed  that  “the  salvation  not  only  of  sinners  but  also  of  devils  accords  with  
the   direction   of   the   rest   of   Gregory’s   eschatology”   and   that   “Gregory   asserts   that   the  
devil  will  be  saved.”  Ludlow,  Universal  Salvation,  96.  Meredith  also  mentioned,  however  
„”‹‡ϐŽ›ǡ–Šƒ––Š‡Catechetical  Oration  speaks  of  “the  ultimate  salvation  even  of  the  devil.”  
Meredith,  Gregory  of  Nyssa,  22.
“Therefore,  even  the  adversary  himself  will  not  be  likely  to  dispute  that  what  took  place  
110    

[i.e.  the  incarnation]  was  both  just  and  salutary,  that   is,  if  [ɂᚬɎɂɏȐhe  shall   have  attained  
to  a  perception  of  the  boon.”  The  Great  Catechism  26,  at  496  (PG  45,  69AB).
111    
PG  46,  100A;  101AB.

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 growth,   has   been   expelled,   and   when   there   has   been   a   restoration  
ȏᙳɎɍɈȽɒəɐɒȽɐɇɑȐ‘ˆ–Š‘•‡‘™Ž›‹‰‹•‹–‘–Š‡‹”’”‹ƒŽ•–ƒ–‡ȏɒᛂ
ᙳɏɖȽᚸɍɋȐǡƒŠƒ”‘›ƒ†–Šƒ•‰‹˜‹‰™‹ŽŽƒ”‹•‡ˆ”‘ƒŽŽ–Š‡…”‡ƒ–‹‘
as   well   as   those   who   in   the   process   of   the   purgation   have   suffered  
chastisement,  as  from  those  who  needed  not  any  purgation  at  all.112

The  restoration  of  our  original,  God-­‐intended  state,  whilst  already  having  
been  inaugurated  in  Christ’s  person,  has  nevertheless  not  yet  taken  place  
on  a  universal  scale,  and  will  not  take  place  until  the  “long  periods  of  time”  
initiated  by  the  eschaton  ‡–‹‘‡†ƒ„‘˜‡Ǥ–
”‡‰‘”›™ƒ•‘–Š‡”‡ƒˆϐ‹”-­‐
ing  universal  salvation,  but  instead  he  was  pointing  to  two  possible  exis-­‐
–‡–‹ƒŽ…‘†‹–‹‘•‹–Š‡ƒ‰‡•–‘…‘‡ǡƒŽ„‡‹–‹ƒ‡‰ƒ–‹˜‡•‡•‡ǤŠ‡ϐ‹”•–
‹• ƒ”‡† „› –Š‡ ‡‡† ˆ‘” ’—”‹ϐ‹…ƒ–‹‘ ‹ ‘”†‡” ˆ‘” –Š‹• ”‡•–‘”ƒ–‹‘ –‘ „‡
completed,  and  the  latter  is  not.  Recalling  his  statement  in  On  the  Soul  and  
Resurrection–Šƒ–Dz•‘‡•–”ƒ‹‰Š–™ƒ›‡˜‡‹–Š‹•Ž‹ˆ‡ȏ™‹ŽŽ„‡Ȑ’—”‹ϐ‹‡†ˆ”‘
evil,”113‹–Š‡–Š‹”–›Ǧϐ‹ˆ–Š…Šƒ’–‡”‘ˆ–Š‡Oration  St  Gregory  went  beyond  his  
emphasis   on   the   life   of   virtue   as   the   means   by   which   one   can   immediately  
and   directly   participate   in   the   eschatological   state,   thereby   obviating   the  
‡…‡••‹–›‘ˆ’—”‹ϐ‹…ƒ–‹‘‹–Š‡Ž‹ˆ‡–‘…‘‡Ǥ ‘”‹–‹•‹–Š‡•‡ϐ‹ƒŽ…Šƒ’–‡”•
that  St  Gregory  addressed  the  relationship  between  apokatastasis  and  the  
ecclesial  experience  as  facilitated  by  baptism114  and  gradually  interiorised  
through  an  imitation  of  Christ  and  participation  in  the  Eucharist,  thereby  
placing  it  in  its  proper  context,  which  is  the  experience  of  the  Church,  the  
body  of  the  Lord.

The  Ecclesial  Context  of  Apokatastasis  in  the  Catechetical  Oration

–
”‡‰‘”›„‡‰ƒ–Š‡–Š‹”–›Ǧϐ‹ˆ–Š  chapter  of  the  Oration  with  an  exposition  
on  the  mystery  of  baptism,  which  he  described  as  a  thrice  immersion  in  wa-­‐
–‡”ǡƒ‹‰‹–…Ž‡ƒ”–Šƒ–ƒǮ‘„Œ‡…–‹˜‡ǯ”‡•–‘”ƒ–‹‘ǡŠ‡”‡‡š’”‡••‡†‹–‡”•
‘ˆ†‡‹ϐ‹…ƒ–‹‘ǡŠƒ•ƒŽ”‡ƒ†›‘……—””‡†‹–Š‡’‡”•‘‘ˆ ‡•—•‘ƒ……‘—–‘ˆŠ‹•
incarnation

But  the  descent  into  the  water  and  the  triple  immersion  of  the  per-­‐
son  in  it,  involves  another  mystery.  For  since  the  method  of  our  sal-­‐
vation  was  made  effectual  not  so  much  by  His  precepts  in  the  way  of  
teaching  as  by  the  deeds  of  Him  Who  has  realized  an  actual  fellow-­‐
ship   with   man,   and   has   effected   life   as   a   living   fact,   so   that   by   means  
112    
The  Great  Catechism  26,  at  496  (PG  45,  69B).
113    
On  the  Soul  and  Resurrection  10,  at  115-­‐16.
114    
On  the  sacramental  dimension  of  apokatastasisǡ•‡‡ƒ•’‡”‘ǡǮ’‘…ƒ–ƒ•–ƒ•‹•ǡǯ͸͵Ǥ

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 ‘ˆ –Š‡ ϐŽ‡•Š ™Š‹…Š ‡ Šƒ• ƒ••—‡†ǡ ƒ† ƒ– –Š‡ •ƒ‡ –‹‡ †‡‹ϐ‹‡†ǡ
everything  kindred  and  related  may  be  saved  along  with  it  [ᚰɋȽɁɇᙼ
ɒ᚞ɑ ᙳɋȽɉɄɔɅɂɜɐɄɑ ɎȽɏǯ Ƚᛅɒɍᛒ ɈȽᚷ ɐɓɋȽɎɍɅɂɘɅɂɜɐɄɑ ɐȽɏɈᛂɑ ᙸɎȽɋ
ɐɓɋɁɇȽɐɘɅᚪ ɒᛂ ɐɓɀɀɂɋᚓɑ Ƚᛅɒᚪ ɈȽᚷ ᚾɊɟɔɓɉɍɋȐ,   it   was   necessary  
that  some  means  should  be  devised  by  which  there  might  be,  in  the  
„ƒ’–‹•ƒŽ’”‘…‡••ǡƒ‹†‘ˆƒˆϐ‹‹–›ƒ†Ž‹‡‡••ȏɐɓɀɀɚɋɂɇəɒɂɈȽᚷ
ᚾɊɍɇɟɒɄɑ]   between   him   who   follows   and   Him   Who   leads   the   way.  
Needful,  therefore,  is  it  to  see  what  features  are  to  be  observed  in  the  
Author  of  our  life,  in  order  that  the  initiation  on  the  part  of  those  that  
follow   may   be   regulated,   as   the   Apostle   says,   after   the   pattern   of   the  
Captain  of  our  salvation.115

–‹•‘–‘Ž›Š—ƒƒ–—”‡™Š‹…Š‹•ƒŽ”‡ƒ†›•ƒ˜‡†‘”†‡‹ϐ‹‡†ǡ„—–Dz‡˜‡”›-­‐
thing   kindred   or   related   to   it,”   which,   when   read   in   light   of   the   Nyssen’s  
description  of  the  human  person  as  a  microcosm  –  a  “commixture  of  the  
intellectual  and  sensible”  (ᚌɈɋɍɄɒɍᛒɒɂɈȽᚷȽᚫɐɅɄɒɍᛒǥɊɜɀɊȽȌ  116  worlds  
–  in  chapter  six,  points  to  the  entire  created  universe.  Nevertheless,  and  to  
repeat   a   point   stressed   often   in   this   article,   although   the   Lord   has   effected  
–Š‡ ”‡•–‘”ƒ–‹‘ ‘” †‡‹ϐ‹…ƒ–‹‘ ‘ˆ ƒŽŽ –Š‹‰• ‹ Š‹•‡Žˆǡ –Š‹• †‘‡• ‘– ‡ƒ
that  we  automatically  participate  in  this  restoration,  either  in  this  age  or  
in  the  age  to  come.  On  the  contrary,  St  Gregory  once  again  highlighted  the  
•‹‰‹ϐ‹…ƒ…‡‘ˆ‘—”ˆ”‡‡†‘ǡƒˆϐ‹”‹‰–Šƒ–™‡…ƒ‘Ž›„‡‰‹–‘’ƒ”–‹…‹’ƒ–‡
‹–Š‹•†‡‹ϐ‹…ƒ–‹‘„›‡ƒ•‘ˆ„ƒ’–‹•ǡ™Š‹…Š‡•–ƒ„Ž‹•Š‡•Dzƒ‹†‘ˆƒˆϐ‹‹–›
and  likeness”  between  Christ’s  followers  and  the  Lord  himself.  The  act  of  
following  Christ  is  highlighted  as  a  necessary  outcome  of  baptism,  which,  in  
this  instance,  consists  of  an  ensuing  imitatio  Christi  that  the  saint  described  
as  follows

…  it  is  imperative  on  all  those  who  have  an  equally  earnest  desire  for  
the  Good  as  He  has  to  be  followers  by  the  path  of  an  exact  imitation  
ȏɊɜɊɄɐɇɑȐ‘ˆ‹Š‘Ž‡ƒ†•–Š‡™ƒ›‹–‘•ƒŽ˜ƒ–‹‘ǡƒ†–‘…ƒ””›‹–‘
action  what  He  has  shown  them.117

Š‹•‡ƒ•–Šƒ–ˆ‘”–Š‡•ƒ‹–ǡ„ƒ’–‹•‘‹–•‘™†‘‡•‘–•—ˆϐ‹…‡Ǣ”ƒ–Š‡”ǡ‹–
is  to  be  followed  by  our  free  cultivation  of  good  works  based  on  the  example  
given  in  Christ,  which  he  expressed  as  an  exact  imitation  of  “Him  Who  leads  
the  way  into  salvation,”  including  his  burial  and  resurrection.  The  latter  is  
accomplished  through  the  thrice  immersion  in  the  water,  which  Nyssen  de-­‐

115    
The  Great  Catechism  35,  at  502  (PG  45,  85D-­‐88A).
116    
The  Great  Catechism  6,  at  480  (PG  45,  25D).
117    
The  Great  Catechism  35,  at  502  (PG  45,  88AB).

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 scribed  as  an  element  akin  to  that  of  earth,  a  metaphor  meant  to  point  out  
the  need  for  our  personal  connection  with  Christ  though  baptism.  

‘™‡ƒ”–Šƒ†™ƒ–‡”Šƒ˜‡ƒ—–—ƒŽƒˆϐ‹‹–›ȏɒ᚝ɋɐɓɀɀɚɋɂɇȽɋᚍɖɂɇɀ᚞
ɒɂɈȽᚷᛊɁɘɏȐǤŽ‘‡‘ˆ–Š‡‡Ž‡‡–•–Š‡›Šƒ˜‡™‡‹‰Š–ƒ†‰”ƒ˜‹–ƒ–‡
downwards;   they   mutually   abide   in   each   other;   they   are   mutually  
…‘ϐ‹‡†Ǥ‡‡‹‰ǡ–Š‡ǡ–Š‡†‡ƒ–Š‘ˆ–Š‡—–Š‘”‘ˆ‘—”Ž‹ˆ‡•—„Œ‡…–‡†
Him  to  burial  in  earth  and  was  in  accord  with  our  common  nature,  the  
imitation  which  we  enact  of  that  death  is  expressed  in  the  neighbour-­‐
ing  element.  And  as  He,  that  Man  from  above,  having  taken  deadness  
on  Himself,  after  his  being  deposited  in  the  earth,  returned  back  to  
life   the   third   day,   so   every   one   who   is   knitted   to   Him   by   virtue   of   his  
bodily   form,   looking   forward   to   that   same   successful   issue,   I   mean  
this  arriving  at  life  by  having,  instead  of  earth,  water  poured  on  him,  
and   so   submitting   to   that   element,   has   represented   for   him   in   the  
three  movements  the  three-­‐days-­‐delayed  grace  of  the  resurrection.118

ƒ˜‹‰ƒŽ”‡ƒ†›‡š’‘—†‡†–Š‡ƒˆϐ‹‹–›‡•–ƒ„Ž‹•Š‡†„‡–™‡‡—•ƒ†Š”‹•–
„›Š‹•ƒ••—’–‹‘‘ˆŠ—ƒƒ–—”‡ǡ–
”‡‰‘”›‡Žƒ„‘”ƒ–‡†‘–Š‡ƒˆϐ‹‹–›
between   the   natural   elements   of   earth   and   water   in   order   to   explain   the  
manner  in  which  we,  through  baptism,  imitate  and  actually  participate  in  
the  death  and  resurrection  of  the  Lord.  Christ  submitted  himself  to  the  for-­‐
mer   element,   that   is,   the   earth,   and,   on   account   of   the   natural   relationship  
between  the  two  –  expressed  by  St  Gregory  in  terms  of  their  weightiness  
and  downward  gravitation  –  we  are  called  to  submit  ourselves  to  the  latter,  
that  is,  water,  so  that  by  submerging  and  rising  from  it  we  might  partake  
of   the   “three-­‐days-­‐delayed   grace   of   the   resurrection.”   The   saint   went   on   to  
explain  that  in  Christ’s  death,  not  only  were  things  that  were  once  together  
put   asunder   –   i.e.   the   soul   and   the   body   –   but   things   “that   had   been   dis-­‐
united  were  again  brought  together.”119  In  other  words,  in  the  separation  of  
Christ’s  soul  and  body  sin  was  destroyed,  so  that  upon  their  reunion  in  his  
resurrection  the  “foreign  admixture”120  of  sin  might  have  no  place.  In  this  
way,  the  incarnate  One’s  resurrection  constitutes  the  basis  for  the  general  
resurrection  at  the  eschaton.  St  Gregory  continued  that  divine  providence  
introduced  death  into  human  nature  for  precisely  this  purpose,  so  that  sin  
ƒ†‡˜‹Ž™Š‹…Šƒˆˆ‡…–„‘–Š•‘—Žƒ†„‘†›ǡDzŠƒ˜‹‰ϐŽ‘™‡†ƒ™ƒ›ƒ––Š‡†‹••‘-­‐
lution”  of  the  two,  might  be  eliminated  when  we  are  refashioned  as  “sound,  
passionless,   stainless,   and   removed   from   any   touch   of   evil.”121   In   Christ,  

118    
The  Great  Catechism  35,  at  503  (PG  45,  88CD).
119    
The  Great  Catechism  35,  at  503.
120    
Ibid.
121    
The  Great  Catechism  35,  at  503.

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 therefore,  humanity,  and  “everything  kindred  and  related  to  it,”  is  restored.  
The  apokatastasis  has  already  taken  place.  But  the  saint  explained  that  al-­‐
though  in  Christ’s  resurrection  we  have  already  been  restored,  this  process  
has  not  yet  been  consummated  for  the  rest  of  humanity:

But   as   regards   those   who   follow   this   Leader,   their   nature   does   not  
admit  of  an  entire  and  exact  imitation,  but  it  receives  now  as  much  as  
it  is  capable  of  receiving,  while  it  reserves  the  remainder  for  the  time  
–Šƒ–…‘‡•ƒˆ–‡”ȏɒ᛫ɊɂɒᙼɒȽᛒɒȽɒȽɊɇɂɠɂɒȽɇɖɏɟɋᛠȐǤ™Šƒ–ǡ–Š‡ǡ
does  this  imitation  consist?  It  consists  in  effecting  the  suppression  of  
–Šƒ–ƒ†‹š–—”‡‘ˆ•‹ǡ‹–Š‡ϐ‹‰—”‡‘ˆ‘”–‹ϐ‹…ƒ–‹‘–Šƒ–‹•‰‹˜‡„›–Š‡
water,  not  certainly  a  complete  effacement,  but  a  kind  of  break  in  the  
continuity  of  evil,  two  things  concurring  to  this  removal  of  sin  –  the  
penitence  of  the  transgressor  and  his  imitation  of  death.122

‡”‡ǡ–Š‡•ƒ‹–”‡‹–‡”ƒ–‡†™Šƒ–Š‡™”‘–‡‹…Šƒ’–‡”–™‡–›Ǧϐ‹˜‡…‘…‡”‹‰
our  restoration  as  taking  place  after  long  periods  of  time.  But  whilst  the  res-­‐
toration  to  our  intended  condition  as  participants  in  God’s  life,  beginning  
hic  et  nunc,  will  not  be  consummated  until  “the  time  that  comes  after”  or  the  
ƒ‰‡•–‘…‘‡ǡ•–‹ŽŽ–Š‡•ƒ‹–ƒ†‡ƒ‹’‘”–ƒ–“—ƒŽ‹ϐ‹…ƒ–‹‘Ǣ–Šƒ––Š‹•”‡•-­‐
toration  will  only  occur  in  those  who  “follow  this  Leader,”  Jesus  Christ.  This  
means  that  although  Christ  has  inaugurated  the  apokatastasis  –  the  escha-­‐
tological   state   –   in   his   very   person,   our   participation   in   this   state   depends  
upon  our  willing  acceptance  and  assimilation  of  this  profound  mystery,  ex-­‐
pressed   by   St   Gregory   as   beginning   with   both   penitence   and   the   imitation  
of  death  in  baptism.  

This  immediate  participation  in  Christ  through  baptism,  effectuating  a  

kinship  with  his  death  and  resurrection  and  a  break  with  evil,  is  an  outcome  
of  faith  that  resides  within  the  will.  Drawing  on  the  bipartite  constitution  
of  the  human  being,  St  Gregory  explained  that  although  the  blessing  that  
springs  from  these  two  things  –  i.e.  the  “faith  and  water”123  –  constitutes  the  
soul’s  union  with  God,  nevertheless  the  body  needs  an  antidote  to  “undo  
the  mischief  introduced”  to  it  “by  the  poison”124  of  evil.  This  antidote  is  the  
“immortal  body”  (ᙳɅəɋȽɒɍɋɐᛟɊȽȌ125  of  Christ  in  the  Eucharist,  which,  “by  
being  within  that  which  receives  it,  changes  the  whole  to  its  own  nature.”126  

122    
The  Great  Catechism  35,  at  503  (PG  45,  89AB).
123    
The  Great  Catechism  36,  at  504.
124    
Ibid  37,  at  504.
125    
The  Great  Catechism  37,  at  505  (PG  45,  93C).
126    
The  Great  Catechism  37,  at  505.

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 In  explaining  how  the  fullness  of  the  body  of  Christ  is  disseminated  to  myri-­‐
ads  of  the  faithful  but  never  diminished,  the  Nyssen  embarked  on  a  lengthy  
analogy   between   the   human   body   and   its   main   sources   of   nourishment,  
namely   bread   and   wine,   which,   when   consumed,   become   identical   with  
the  one  who  consumed  them.  In  a  similar  manner,  the  body  which  God  the  
Logos   assumed   as   Christ   Jesus,   “by   partaking   of   the   nourishment   of   bread  
[and  wine]  was,  in  a  certain  measure,  the  same  with  it.”127  The  fact  that  the  
Son   and   Logos   assumed   a   human   body,   which   was   sustained   by   bread   and  
wine  and  is  thus  likened  to  them,  makes  it  possible  even  now  for  this  same  
Logos  to  consecrate  both  the  bread  and  the  wine  for  the  purposes  of  our  
†‡‹ϐ‹…ƒ–‹‘ǡ128  so  that

…   by   dispensation   of   His   grace,   He   disseminates   Himself   in   every  

„‡Ž‹‡˜‡”–Š”‘—‰Š–Šƒ–ϐŽ‡•Šǡ™Š‘•‡•—„•–ƒ…‡…‘‡•ˆ”‘„”‡ƒ†ƒ†
wine,  blending  Himself  with  the  bodies  of  believers,  to  secure  that,  by  
this  union  with  the  immortal,  man,  too,  may  be  a  sharer  in  incorrup-­‐
tion.129

The  Christian  journey  for  St  Gregory  is  thus  properly  contextualised  within  
the  ecclesial  experience.  Indeed,  it  remains  nothing  other  than  a  participa-­‐
–‹‘‹Š”‹•–Ž‡ƒ†‹‰–‘†‡‹ϐ‹…ƒ–‹‘ǡ„‡‰‹‹‰™‹–Š„ƒ’–‹•ƒ†…‘–‹—ƒŽŽ›
sustained  by  both  the  imitation  of  Christ  mentioned  above  and  the  partak-­‐
ing  of  the  Eucharist,  which  happens  in  the  liturgical  assembly.  In  relating  
„‡‰‹‹‰•–‘–Š‡‹”ϐ‹ƒŽ’—”’‘•‡•‘”‡†•ǡ–Š‡•ƒ‹–™‡–‘–‘•—‰‰‡•––Š‡
impact  of  this  journey  upon  the  way  human  beings  will  experience  the  apo-­‐
katastasis  at  the  end  of  the  present  age,  with  reference  to  baptism:  

…  the  great  resurrection,  essentially  vaster  though  it  be,  has  its  be-­‐
ginnings  and  causes  here;  it  is  not,  in  fact,  possible  that  that  should  
take  place  [i.e.  the  resurrection  at  the  eschaton],  unless  this  had  gone  
before;   I   mean,   that   without   the   laver   of   regeneration   [baptism]   it   is  
impossible  for  the  man  to  be  in  the  resurrection;  but  in  saying  this  
I   do   not   regard   the   mere   remoulding   and   refashioning   of   our   com-­‐
posite   body;   for   towards   this   it   is   absolutely   necessary   that   human  
nature  should  advance,  being  constrained  thereto  by  its  own  laws  ac-­‐
cording   to   the   dispensation   of   Him   Who   has   so   ordained,   whether   it  
have  received  the  grace  of  the  laver,  or  whether  it  remains  without  
that  initiation.130

127    
Ibid.
128    
Cf.  The  Great  Catechism  37,  at  505-­‐6.
129    
The  Great  Catechism  37,  at  506  
130    
Ibid  35,  at  503-­‐4.

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 At  the  great  resurrection  or  the  eschaton,  the  end  to  which  all  things  are  in-­‐
herently   disposed,   the   restoration   that   has   already   occurred   in   the   person  
of  Jesus  will  be  distributed  to  all  people.  In  other  words,  there  will  occur  
a  general  restoration  or  apokatastasis  of  all  of  humanity,  baptised  and  un-­‐
baptised.  But,  according  to  the  Nyssen,  not  all  people  will  be  “in  the  resur-­‐
rection”  in  precisely  the  same  way.  St  Gregory  went  on  to  explicate  that  the  
manner  in  which  we  will  experience   this   apokatastasis  will  differ  depend-­‐
ing  on  whether  or  not  we  have,  in  the  present  age  (or  this  life),  been  bap-­‐
tised  and  have  freely  undertaken  the  required  imitation  of  Christ:  

For  not  everything  that  is  granted  in  the  [great]  resurrection  a  return  
to  existence  will  return  to  the  same  kind  of  life.  There  is  a  wide  inter-­‐
˜ƒŽ„‡–™‡‡–Š‘•‡™Š‘Šƒ˜‡„‡‡’—”‹ϐ‹‡†ǡƒ†–Š‘•‡™Š‘•–‹ŽŽ‡‡†
’—”‹ϐ‹…ƒ–‹‘Ǥ ‘”–Š‘•‡‹™Š‘•‡Ž‹ˆ‡Ǧ–‹‡Š‡”‡–Š‡’—”‹ϐ‹…ƒ–‹‘„›–Š‡
laver  [baptism]  has  preceded,  there  is  a  restoration  to  a  kindred  state.  
Now,  to  the  pure,  freedom  from  passion  is  that  kindred  state,  and  that  
in   this   freedom   from   passion   blessedness   consists,   admits   of   no   dis-­‐
pute.  But  as  for  those  whose  weaknesses  have  become  inveterate,  and  
–‘™Š‘‘’—”‰ƒ–‹‘‘ˆ–Š‡‹”†‡ϐ‹Ž‡‡–Šƒ•„‡‡ƒ’’Ž‹‡†ǡ‘›•–‹…
water  [baptism],  no  invocation  of  the  Divine  power,  no  amendment  
by  repentance,  it  is  absolutely  necessary  that  they  should  come  to  be  
in  something  that  is  proper  to  their  case,  -­‐  just  as  the  furnace  is  the  
proper  thing  for  gold  alloyed  with  dross  -­‐  in  order  that,  the  vice  which  
has   been   mixed   up   in   them   being   melted   away   after   long   succeed-­‐
‹‰ƒ‰‡•ȏɊȽɈɏɍᚸɑᛊɐɒɂɏɍɋȽᚫᛟɐɇȐǡ–Š‡‹”ƒ–—”‡ƒ›„‡”‡•–‘”‡†’—”‡
ƒ‰ƒ‹–‘
‘†Ǥ‹…‡ǡ–Š‡ǡ–Š‡”‡‹•ƒ…Ž‡ƒ•‹‰˜‹”–—‡‹ϐ‹”‡ƒ†™ƒ–‡”ǡ
–Š‡›™Š‘„›–Š‡›•–‹…™ƒ–‡” Šƒ˜‡™ƒ•Š‡†ƒ™ƒ›–Š‡†‡ϐ‹Ž‡‡– ‘ˆ
•‹Šƒ˜‡‘ˆ—”–Š‡”‡‡†‘ˆ–Š‡‘–Š‡”ˆ‘”‘ˆ’—”‹ϐ‹…ƒ–‹‘ǡ™Š‹Ž‡–Š‡›
who  have  not  been  admitted  to  that  form  of  purgation  must  needs  be  
’—”‹ϐ‹‡†„›ϐ‹”‡Ǥ131

It  is  here  that  St  Gregory  made  clear  the  fact  that  the  ecclesial  context  is  the  
proper  framework  for  apokatastasis.  This  is  something  altogether  missed  
by   some   scholars   in   their   assessment   of   the   Nyssen’s   views,   perhaps   on  
account   of   a   lack   of   ecclesial   awareness   and   circumscription   of   the   apoka-­‐
tastasis  to  the  end  of  the  historical  continuum.  Indeed,  the  ecclesial  experi-­‐
ence  is  explicitly  devalued  in,  for  example,  Ludlow’s  assertion  that  the  reve-­‐
lation  in  the  afterlife  “is  much  more  effective  than  God’s  teaching  in  this  life  
and  that  it  will  eventually  leave  humans  in  no  doubt  as  to  what  true  good  
is.”132  Undoubtedly  this  arises  from  a  universalistic  presupposition,  but  in  
St  Gregory  we  see  that  although  all  of  humanity  will  experience  this  resto-­‐
131    
The  Great  Catechism  35,  at  504  (PG  45,  92BC).
132    
Ludlow,  Universal  Salvation,  110.

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 ”ƒ–‹‘ƒ––Š‡‡†‘ˆ–Š‡ƒ‰‡ǡ’—”‹ϐ‹…ƒ–‹‘‹–Š‡Š—”…Šȋ‹’Ž›‹‰•ƒ–—”ƒ–‹‘
in   its   teachings)   remains   the   necessary   prerequisite   for   a   positive,   deify-­‐
ing  experience  in  the  apokatastasis.  Those  who  have  been  baptised  and,  as  
‹†‹…ƒ–‡† ƒ„‘˜‡ǡ Šƒ˜‡ „‡‡ ’—”‹ϐ‹‡† „‘–Š –Š”‘—‰Š –Š‡ ƒ…– ‘ˆ „ƒ’–‹•ǡ –Š‡
ensuing  imitation  of  Christ  in  virtue  and  the  partaking  of  the  Eucharist,  will  
attain,  according  to  the  saint,  to  an  immediate  freedom  from  passion  and  a  
state   of   blessedness;   which   is   none   other   than   a   restoration   to   the   God-­‐in-­‐
tended,  paradisial  experience.  As  for  those  who  have  neither  been  baptised  
nor   pursued   Christ   in   the   present   age,   St   Gregory   repeated   an   analogy  
that  he  used  earlier  with  reference  to  the  incarnation,  that  of  purgation  by  
ϐ‹”‡ǡ™Š‹…Š™‹ŽŽ–ƒ‡’Žƒ…‡ˆ‘”DzŽ‘‰•—……‡‡†‹‰ƒ‰‡•dz—–‹Ž–Š‡›ƒ”‡ϐ‹ƒŽŽ›
restored  to  God.  Nowhere,  however,  does  he  claim  that  this  will   result  in  
the   negation   of   freedom,   as   Ludlow   has  suggested.133   To  this  end,  the   saint  
brought   this   treatise   to   a   close   by   highlighting   the   dissimilarity   between  
our  own  experience  of  goodness  and  punishment,  and  that  which  awaits  
the  godly  and  sinners  respectively  in  the  life  to  come.  Concerning  the  latter,  
Š‡Œ—š–ƒ’‘•‡•‘—”‹‡†‹ƒ–‡‡š’‡”‹‡…‡‘ˆƒϐ‹”‡–Šƒ–…ƒ„‡‡š–‹‰—‹•Š‡†
–‘–Šƒ–ϐ‹”‡™Š‹…Š‹•Dz‡˜‡”“—‡…Š‡†dzȋɍᛅɐȾɚɋɋɄɒȽɇȌ134  thereby  echoing  
his  interpretation  of  the  parable  of  the  rich  man  and  Lazarus  in  On  the  Soul  
and  Resurrection™Š‹…Š‹’Ž‹‡•–Š‡’‡”‡‹ƒŽ‡š‹•–‡…‡‘ˆ–Š‡…Ž‡ƒ•‹‰ϐ‹”‡Ǥ
But  far  from  intending  to  instil  fear  in  his  readers,  and  in  contrast  to  his  own  
frequent  suggestions  that  the  eradication  of  evil  will  inevitably  take  place  at  
the  apokatastasis  –  which  we  saw  above  were  articulated  in  direct  response  
to   the   problems   of   theodicy   and   free   will   –   the   saint   instead   encouraged  
them  to  actively  and  freely  

…  lay  down  the  foundations  for  that  unspeakable  blessedness  during  

–Š‹••Š‘”–ƒ†ϐŽ‡‡–‹‰Ž‹ˆ‡ǡƒ†„›ƒ‰‘‘†…Š‘‹…‡–‘™‡ƒ–Š‡•‡Ž˜‡•
from   all   experience   of   evil,   now   in   their   lifetime   here,   hereafter   in  
eternal  recompense.135  

Conclusion

Far  from  espousing  a  belief  in  an  inevitable  universal  salvation,  St  Gregory  
of  Nyssa’s  view  of  apokatastasis  was  incredibly  nuanced  and  complex;  the  
result  of  the  immediate  challenges  that  he  faced  as  a  bishop  of  the  Chris-­‐
tian  Church,  inspired  by  and  to  an  extent  responsible  for  its  eschatological  

133    
Cf.  Ibid.
134    
The  Great  CatechismͶͲǡƒ–ͷͲͻȋ
ͶͷǡͳͲͷȜȌǤ
135    
The  Great  Catechism  40,  at  509.

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 tradition.   In   regards   to   the   former,   we   saw   in   his   On   the   Soul   and   Resur-­‐
rection   that   he   responded   to   the   worldview   of   the   Manicheans   by   refuting  
–Š‡‹” ’‘•‹–‹‘ ‘ –Š‡ ‘–‘Ž‘‰‹…ƒŽ ‡š‹•–‡…‡ ‘ˆ ‡˜‹Žǡ ƒˆϐ‹”‹‰ ‹•–‡ƒ† –Šƒ–ǡ
at  the  apokatastasis,  our  entirely  good  God  will  become  “all  in  all”  (1  Cor  
15:28).  Moreover,  insofar  as  the  same  worldview  posited  evil’s  impediment  
to  human  freedom,  St  Gregory  asserted  that  the  cultivation  of  virtue  in  the  
here  and  now  will  directly  impact  upon  our  experience  of  the  apokatastasis;  
some  will  be  granted  immediate  entry  into  paradise,  with  others  needing  
–‘„‡’—”‹ϐ‹‡†ϐ‹”•–Ǥ—–‘™Š‡”‡†‹†–Š‡›••‡…Žƒ‹–Šƒ––Š‹•’—”‹ϐ‹…ƒ–‹‘
will   take   place   automatically   and   apart   from   our   freedom,   and   whilst   he  
does   remain   silent   on   the   concept   of   the   free   will   in   the   eschaton,   we   can-­‐
not  infer  its  annihilation.  In  fact,  the  inconsistency  that  appears  in  this  text  
–  and  which  reappears  in  the  Catechetical  Oration  –  between  the  complete  
eradication   of   evil   at   the   eschaton   and   the   eternal   existence   of   the   puri-­‐
ˆ›‹‰ϐ‹”‡ȋ™‹–Š”‡ˆ‡”‡…‡–‘–Š‡—ƒ’ƒ”ƒ„Ž‡Ȍ”‡•—Ž–•ˆ”‘ƒ–‡•‹‘‹
–Š‡›••‡ǯ•ƒ’’”‘ƒ…Š–‘–Š‡•‡…ŠƒŽŽ‡‰‡•Ǣ–Š‡ϐ‹”•–„‡‹‰–Š‡‡’Šƒ•‹•‘
God’s  goodness,  and  the  other  being  his  emphasis  on  the  need  to  freely  cul-­‐
–‹˜ƒ–‡˜‹”–—‡–‘ƒ˜‘‹†–Š‹•ϐ‹”‡Ǥƒ›…ƒ•‡ǡ‰‹˜‡–Š‡•›‡”‰‡–‹…†‹‡•‹‘
of   salvation   we   can   presume   that   St   Gregory   here   expressed   the   hope   that  
whilst  God  desires  everyone  to  be  saved,  whether  or  not  this  will  take  place  
depends  upon  our  free  will.  But  for  St  Gregory,  this  synergy  must  take  place  
within  a  certain  context  that,  whilst  not  clearly  formulated  in  the  dialogue,  
‹•’‡”•‹•–‡–Ž›ƒˆϐ‹”‡†‹Š‹•Catechetical  Oration,  which  should  act  as  the  
proper  lens  through  which  to  read  the  former.  Manifesting  his  formation  in  
the  ecclesial  tradition,  the  Catechetical  Oration  clearly  exhibits  the  saint’s  
view   of   apokatastasis   as   part   of   an   eschatological   experience   which   has  
„‡‡ˆ—Žϐ‹ŽŽ‡†‹–Š‡’‡”•‘‘ˆŠ”‹•–ȋƒǮ”‡ƒŽ‹•‡†ǯapokatastasis)  and  must  
be  partaken  of  freely,  but  which  has  not  yet  been  consummated  on  a  univer-­‐
•ƒŽ•…ƒŽ‡ǤŠ‹•‹••‹‰‹ϐ‹…ƒ–„‡…ƒ—•‡ƒ›•…Š‘Žƒ”•ǡ‹–Š‡‹”ƒ––‡’––‘‹ˆ‡”
an  inevitable  universal  salvation  from  St  Gregory’s  works,  have  often  done  
so  in  a  simplistic  manner  which  not  only  circumscribes  St  Gregory’s  vision  
of  apokatastasis  to  the  last  things  of  the  historical  continuum  (i.e.  an  exclu-­‐
•‹˜‡Ž›Ǯˆ—–—”‡ǯ‡•…Šƒ–‘Ž‘‰›Ȍǡ„—–™Š‹…Š…‘’”‘‹•‡•‘—”ˆ”‡‡’ƒ”–‹…‹’ƒ–‹‘
in  the  saving  work  of  Christ;  a  saving  work  which,  the  Nyssen  frequently  
emphasised,   must   be   actively   interiorised   through   virtue   in   the   ecclesial  
context   beginning   with   baptism   and   participation   in   the   Eucharist.   Hence,  
the   ostensible   necessary   universalism   in   St   Gregory’s   works   seems   to   be   a  
construct  advocated  by  those  unable  to  reconcile  the  eschatological  hope  
that  God  will  be  “all  in  all”  and  the  reality  of  synergy  within  the  ecclesial  
context.  But  this  conclusion  should  not  be  interpreted  as  exclusivist  –  for  al-­‐
–Š‘—‰Š–Š‡•ƒ‹–ƒˆϐ‹”‡†–Š‡Š—”…Šƒ•–Š‡’”‘’‡”…‘–‡š–ˆ‘”‘—”’‡”•‘ƒŽ
apokatastasis  ‹–Š‡‘”†ǡ•–‹ŽŽ–Š‘•‡™Š‘Šƒ˜‡‘–’—”‹ϐ‹‡†–Š‡•‡Ž˜‡•‹

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 the  here  and  now  will  be  given  an  opportunity  to  do  so  in  the  future  life;  an  
‘’’‘”–—‹–›™Š‹…Š•‹‰‹ϐ‹‡•–Š‡‹ϐ‹‹–‡”‹…Š‡•‘ˆ
‘†ǯ•‡”…›ƒ†Ž‘˜‡ˆ‘”ƒ
humanity  that  he  desires  to  save  in  its  entirety.

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