Electrical Machines 2 A-C Machines PDF

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ELECTRICAL
MACHINES – II
(AC MACHINES)
Presented by
C.GOKUL
AP/EEE
Velalar College of Engg & Tech,Erode
EMAIL: [email protected]
www.Vidyarthiplus.com
Syllabus
EE6502 Electrical Machines -II
BOOKS Reference
LOCAL AUTHORS: {For THEORY use this books}

1.Electrical Machines-II by “Gnanavadivel” – Anuradha Publication
2. Electrical Machines-II by “Godse” – Technical Publication
For Problems:
 Electric Machines by Nagrath & Kothari {Refer Solved Problems}

 Electric Machinery by A.E.Fitgerald {Refer Solved Problems}
Important Website Reference
 Electrical Machines-II by S. B.
Sivasubramaniyan -MSEC, Chennai
 http://yourelectrichome.blogspot.in/
 http://www.electricaleasy.com/p/electri
cal-machines.html
NPTEL Reference
• Electrical Machines II by Dr. Krishna
Vasudevan & Prof. G. Sridhara Rao
Department of Electrical Engineering , IIT
Madras.
• Basic Electrical Technology by Prof. L.
Umanand - IISc Bangalore {video}
BASICS OF
ELECTRICAL
MACHINES
Electrical Machine?
Electrical machine is a device which
can convert
 Mechanical energy into electrical
energy (Generators/alternators)
 Electrical energy into mechanical
energy (Motors)
 AC current from one voltage level to
other voltage level without changing its
frequency (Transformers)
Presented by C.GOKUL,AP/EEE Velalar College of Engg & Tech , Erode
Fundamental Principle..
 Electrical Machines (irrespective of

AC or DC) work on the fundamental
principle of Faraday’s law of
Electromagnetic Induction.
Faraday’s Law
 Faraday’s Law of Electromagnetic

Induction states that an EMF is
induced in a coil when the magnetic
flux linking this coil changes with time
or
 The EMF generated is proportional to
the rate at which flux is changed.
dψ dϕ
e=
− =
−N
dt dt
Faraday’s Law – Illustration
Two forms of Induced EMF !
 The effect is same if the magnet is

moved and the coil is made stationery
 We call it as statically induced EMF
 The previous case is referred to as

Dynamically induced EMF
Governing Rules
 It becomes evident that there exists a

relationship between mechanical energy,
electrical energy and magnetic field.
 These three can be combined and precisely
put as governing rules each for generator
and for motor
Fleming’s Right hand rule
 For Generator
Fleming's Right hand rule(for Generator)
Fleming’s Left hand rule
 For Motor
Fleming's left hand rule (for motors)
 First finger - direction of magnetic field (N-S)

 Second finger - direction of current
(positive to negative)
 Thumb - movements of the wire
Maxwell’s Corkscrew rule
 If the electric current is moving away from the

observer, the direction of lines of force of the
magnetic field surrounding the conductor is
clockwise and that if the electric current is
moving towards an observer, the direction of
lines of force is anti-clockwise
Corkscrew (Screw driver) rule -

Illustration
Coiling of Conductor
 To augment the effect of flux, we coil the conductor

as the flux lines aid each other when they are in the
same direction and cancel each other when they are
in the opposite direction
 Many a times, conductor is coiled around a magnetic
material as surrounding air weakens the flux
 We refer the magnetic material
as armature core
Electromagnet
 The magnetic property of current carrying

conductor can be exploited to make the
conductor act as a magnet – Electromagnet
 This is useful because it is very difficult to

find permanent magnets with such high field
 Also permanent magnets are prone to ageing
problems
AC Fundamentals
AC Fundamentals - continued
Whenever current passes through
a conductor…
 Opposition to flow of current

 Opposition to sudden change in current
 Opposition to sudden change in voltage
 Flux lines around the conductor
Inductive Effect
 Reactance EMF
 Lenz Law
An induced current is always in such a
direction as to oppose the motion or
change causing it
Capacitive effect
Q
C =
V
q (t ) 1
V=
(t ) =
C C ∫ i (t ) dt
dq (t ) dv (t )
⇒ i (t )= = C
dt dt
Resistive Network – Vector diagram
Inductive Network – Vector Diagram
Capacitive Network – Vector Diagram
Inductive & Capacitive effects -

combined
Pure L & C networks – not at all

possible!
 R-L network
Pure L & C networks – not at all

possible! – contd.
 R-C network
Current & Flux
 As already mentioned,
As the current, so the flux
3 phase AC
Star and Delta
Star connection
V = 3V ph
L
I L = I ph
Delta Connection
V = V ph
L
IL = 3I ph
Maxwell's Right Hand Grip
Rule
Right Handed Cork Screw
Rule
Generators
 The Generator converts mechanical power into
electrical power.
 Synchronous generators (Alternator) are
constant speed generators.
 The conversion of mechanical power into
electrical power is done through a coupling field
(magnetic field).
Input Magnetic Electrical Output

Mechanical
Electric Generator
Mechanical Electrical
Energy
G Energy
Stationary magnets - rotating magnets - electromagnets

Motor
 The Motor converts electrical power into
mechanical power.
Electrical Mechanical
Energy M Energy
Input Magnetic Output

Mechanical
Electrical
Basic Construction
Parts
Stationary Part
Stator Armature
Mechanical Electrical
Field
Rotor
Rotating Part
AC MACHINES
 Two categories:
1.Synchronous Machines:
 Synchronous Generators(Alternator)
 Primary Source of Electrical Energy
 Synchronous Motor
2.Asynchronous Machines(Induction Machines)
UNIT-1
Synchronous
Generator
(Alternator)
UNIT-1 Syllabus
Synchronous Generators
Generator
Exciter
View of a two-pole round rotor generator and exciter.
(Westinghouse)
Synchronous Machines
• Synchronous generators or alternators are used to convert

mechanical power derived from steam, gas, or hydraulic-turbine
to ac electric power
• Synchronous generators are the primary source of electrical
energy we consume today
• Large ac power networks rely almost exclusively on synchronous
generators
• Synchronous motors are built in large units compare to induction
motors (Induction motors are cheaper for smaller ratings) and
used for constant speed industrial drives
Construction
 Basic parts of a synchronous generator:

• Rotor - dc excited winding
• Stator - 3-phase winding in which the ac emf is generated
 The manner in which the active parts of a synchronous machine

are cooled determines its overall physical size and structure
Armature Windings (On Stator)
• Armature windings connected are 3-phase and are
either star or delta connected
• It is the stationary part of the machine and is built up of
sheet-steel laminations having slots on its inner
periphery.
• The windings are 120 degrees apart and normally use
distributed windings
Field Windings (on Rotor)
• The field winding of a synchronous machine is always
energized with direct current
• Under steady state condition, the field or exciting

current is given
Ir = Vf/Rf
Vf = Direct voltage applied to the field winding
Rf= Field winding Resistance
Rotor
• Rotor is the rotating part of the machine
• Can be classified as: (a) Cylindrical Rotor and (b) Salient

Pole rotor
• Large salient-pole rotors are made of laminated poles

retaining the winding under the pole head.
Various Types of ROTOR
 Salient-pole Rotor
 Cylindrical or round rotor
a. Salient-Pole Rotor
1. Most hydraulic turbines have to turn at low speeds
(between 50 and 300 r/min)
2. A large number of poles are required on the rotor
d-axis
N Non-uniform
air-gap
D ≈ 10 m
q-axis S S
Turbine
N
Hydro (water)
Hydrogenerator
• Salient pole type rotor is used in low and medium speed
alternators
• This type of rotor consists of large number of projected
poles (called salient poles)
• Poles are also laminated to minimize the eddy current
losses.
• This type of rotor are large in diameters and short in
axial length.
Salient-Pole Synchronous Generator
Stator
b. Cylindrical-Rotor(Non-Salient Pole)
Turbine D≈1m
L ≈ 10 m
Steam d-axis
Stator winding
 High speed N
Uniform air-
 3600 r/min ⇒ 2-pole gap
Stato
 1800 r/min ⇒ 4-pole r
q-axis Rotor winding
 Direct-conductor cooling (using
hydrogen or water as coolant) Roto
r
 Rating up to 2000 MVA
S
Turbogenerator
• Cylindrical type rotors are used in high
speed alternators (turbo alternators)
• This type of rotor consists of a smooth and
solid steel cylinder having slots along its
outer periphery.
• Field windings are placed in these slots.
Cylindrical-Rotor Synchronous Generator
Stator
Cylindrical rotor
Working of Alternator &

frequency of Induced EMF
Working Principle
• It works on the principle of Electromagnetic induction
• In the synchronous generator field system is rotating and armature
winding is steady.
• Its works on principle opposite to the DC generator
• High voltage AC output coming from the armature terminal
Working Principle
• Armature Stator
• Field Rotor
• No commutator is
required {No need for
commutator because
we need AC only}
Frequency of Induced EMF
Every time a complete pair of poles crosses the conductor, the
induced voltage goes through one complete cycle. Therefore, the
generator frequency is given by
p n pn
f = . =
2 60 120
N=Rotor speed in r.p.m
P=number of rotor poles
f=frequency of induced EMF in Hz
No of cycles/revolution = No of pairs of poles = P/2

No of revolutions/second = N/60
No of cycles/second {Frequency}= (P/2)*(N/60)=PN/120
Advantages of stationary
armature
• At high voltages, it easier to insulate
stationary armature winding(30 kV or more)
• The high voltage output can be directly
taken out from the stationary armature.
• Rotor is Field winding. So low dc voltage
can be transferred safely
• Due to simple construction High speed of
Rotating DC field is possible.
Winding
Factors( K , Kd) p
K = cos
α
p
2
 m
sin 
 β

=  2 
Kd
m sin 
  β

 2 
Pitch factor (Kp)

 Consider 4 pole, 3 phase machine having 24
conductors
 Pole pitch = 24 / 4 = 6 slots
 If Coil Pitch or Coil Span = pole pitch, then it
is referred to as full-pitched winding
 If Coil Pitch < pole pitch, it is referred to as
short-pitched winding
 Coil Span = 5 / 6 of pole pitch

 If falls short by 1 / 6 of pole pitch
or
 180 / 6 = 30 degrees
This is done primarily to
 Save copper of end connections
 Improve the wave-form of the generated emf
(sine wave)
 Eliminate the high frequency harmonics
There is a disadvantage attached to it

 Total voltage around the coil gets reduced
because, the emf induced in the two sides of
the coil is slightly out of phase
 Due to that, their resultant vectorial sum is less
than the arithmetic sum
 This is denoted by a factor Pitch factor, Kp or Kc
Pitch factor – Kp
Vectorsum
Kp =
Arithmaticsum
Pitch factor – contd.
 Arithmatic sum
 Vector sum
Vector _ sum
Kp =
Arithmatic _ sum
α
2 Es cos
= 2
2 Es
α
= cos
2
Pitch factor - Problem
Distribution factor (Kd)

 As we know, each phase consists of
conductors distributed in number of slots to
form polar groups under each pole
 The result is that the emf induced in the
conductors constituting the polar group are
not in phase rather differ by an angle equal
to angular displacement of the slots
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For a 3 phase machine with 36 conductors, 4 pole,
no. of slots (conductors) / pole / phase is equal to 3
 Each phase consists of 3 slots
 Angular displacement between any two adjacent
slots = 180 / 9 = 20 degrees
 If the 3 coils are bunched in 1 slot, emf induced is
equal to the arithmetic sum (3Es)
 Practically, in distributed winding, vector sum has to
be calculated
 Kd = Vector sum / Arithmetic sum
emf _ with _ distributed _ winding

Kd =
emf _ with _ concentrated _ winding
0 0
180 180
β =
no.of _ slots _ per _ pole n
 For calculating Vector sum
 mβ 
2 r sin  
Kd =  2 
 β 
m 2 r sin  
 2 
 mβ 
sin  
Kd =  2 
 β 
m sin  
 2 
Problem:
Distribution factor /Breadth factor
EMF Equation
of Alternator
Equation of Induced EMF
 Average emf induced per conductor = dφ / dt

Here, dφ = φP
 If P is number of poles and flux / pole is φ Weber
dt = time for N revolution = 60 / N second
Therefore,
 Average emf = dφ / dt = φP / (60 / N)
ϕ NP
=
60
Equation of Induced EMF – contd.
We know,
 N = 120 f / P
Substituting, N we get
 Avg. emf per conductor = 2 f φ Volt
 If there are Z conductors / ph, then
Avg. emf induced / ph = 2 f φ Z Volt
 Ave emf induced (in turns) / ph = 4 f φ T Volt
Equation of Induced EMF – contd.
 We know, RMS value / Avg. Value = 1.11

 Therefore,
 RMS value of emf induced / ph = 1.11 (4 f φ T) V
= 4.44 f φ T Volt
 This is the actual value, but we have two other
factors coming in the picture, Kc and Kd
 These two reduces the emf induced
 RMS value of emf induced = (Kd) (Kc) 4.44 f φ T Volt

Armature
Reaction of
Alternator
Armature Reaction
 Main Flux Field Winding

 Secondary Flux Armature Winding
 Effect of Armature Flux on the Main Flux is
called Armature Reaction
Armature Reaction in alternator
I.) When load p.f. is unity

II.) When load p.f. is zero lagging
III.) When load p.f. is zero leading
Armature Reaction in alternator
I.) When load p.f. is unity

 distorted but not weakened.- the average flux in the
air-gap practically remains unaltered.
II.) When load p.f. is zero lagging
 the flux in the air-gap is weakened- the field
excitation will have to be increased to compensate
III.) When load p.f. is zero leading
the effect of armature reaction is wholly
magnetizing- the field excitation will have to be
reduced
1. Unity Power Factor Load
 Consider a purely resistive load connected to the

alternator, having unity power factor. As induced
e.m.f. Eph drives a current of Iaph and load power
factor is unity, Eph and Iph are in phase with each
other.
 If Φf is the main flux produced by the field
winding responsible for producing Eph then Eph lags
Φf by 90o .
 Now current through armature Ia, produces the
armature flux say Φa. So flux Φa and Ia are always in
the same direction.
• Phase difference of 90o between the armature flux and the main flux
• the two fluxes oppose each other on the left half of each pole while assist
each other on the right half of each pole.
• Average flux in the air gap remains constant but its distribution gets
distorted.
• Due to such distortion of the flux, there is small drop in the terminal voltage
2. Zero Lagging Power Factor Load
 Consider a purely inductive load connected to the

alternator, having zero lagging power factor.
 Iaph driven by Eph lags Eph by 90o which is the power
factor angle Φ.
 Induced e.m.f. Eph lags main flux Φf by 90o while
Φa is in the same direction as that of Ia.
 the armature flux and the main flux are exactly in
opposite direction to each other.
• As this effect causes reduction in the main flux, the terminal voltage
drops. This drop in the terminal voltage is more than the drop
corresponding to the unity p.f. load.
3. Zero Leading Power Factor Load
 Consider a purely capacitive load connected to the

alternator having zero leading power factor.
 This means that armature current Iaph driven by Eph,
leads Eph by 90o, which is the power factor angle Φ.
 Induced e.m.f. Eph lags Φf by 90o while Iaph and
Φa are always in the same direction.
 the armature flux and the main field flux are in the
same direction
• As this effect adds the flux to the main flux, greater

e.m.f. gets induced in the armature. Hence there is
increase in the terminal voltage for leading power factor
loads.
Phasor Diagram
for Synchronous
Generator/Alternator
Phasor Diagram of loaded
Alternator
Ef which denotes excitation voltage
Vt which denotes terminal voltage
Ia which denotes the armature current
θ which denotes the phase angle between Vt and Ia
ᴪ which denotes the angle between the Ef and Ia
δ which denotes the angle between the Ef and Vt
ra which denotes the armature per phase resistance
Two important points:
(1) If a machine is working as a synchronous generator then
direction of Ia will be in phase to that of the Ef.
(2) Phasor Ef is always ahead of Vt.
Lagging PF Unity PF Leading PF
a. Alternator at Lagging PF
 Ef by first taking the component of the Vt in the
direction of Ia
 Component of Vt in the direction of Ia is Vtcosθ ,
Total voltage drop is (Vtcosθ+Iara) along the Ia.
 we can calculate the voltage drop along the direction
perpendicular to Ia.
 The total voltage drop perpendicular to Ia is
(Vtsinθ+IaXs).
 With the help of triangle BOD in the first phasor
diagram we can write the expression for Ef as
b. Alternator at Unity PF
 Ef by first taking the component of the Vt in
the direction of Ia.
 θ = 0 hence we have ᴪ=δ.
 With the help of triangle BOD in the second
phasor diagram we can directly write the
expression for Ef as
c. Alternator at Leading PF
 Component in the direction of Ia is Vtcosθ.
 As the direction of Ia is same to that of the Vt thus
the total voltage drop is (Vtcosθ+Iara).
 Similarly we can write expression for the voltage
drop along the direction perpendicular to Ia.
 The total voltage drop comes out to be (Vtsinθ-IaXs).
 With the help of triangle BOD in the first phasor
diagram we can write the expression for Ef as
Determination of the parameters of
the equivalent circuit from test data
 The equivalent circuit of a synchronous generator

that has been derived contains three quantities that
must be determined in order to completely
describe the behaviour of a real synchronous
generator:
The saturation characteristic: relationship between
If and φ (and therefore between If and Ef)
The synchronous reactance, Xs
The armature resistance, Ra
VOLTAGE
REGULATION
Voltage regulation of an alternator is
defined as the rise in terminal voltage of the
machine expressed as a fraction of
percentage of the initial voltage when
specified load at a particular power factor is
reduced to zero, the speed and excitation
remaining unchanged.
Voltage
Regulation
A convenient way to compare the voltage
behaviour of two generators is by their
voltage regulation (VR). The VR of a
synchronous generator at a given load,
power factor, and at rated speed is defined
as
Enl − V fl
VR = × 100%
V fl
Voltage
Regulation
Case 1: Lagging power factor:
A generator operating at a lagging power factor has a
positive voltage regulation.
Case 2: Unity power factor:
A generator operating at a unity power factor has a small
positive voltage regulation.
Case 3: Leading power factor:
A generator operating at a leading power factor has a
negative voltage regulation.
Voltage
Regulation
This value may be readily determined from
the phasor diagram for full load operation.
If the regulation is excessive, automatic
control of field current may be employed to
maintain a nearly constant terminal voltage
as load varies
Methods of
Determination of
voltage regulation
Methods of Determination of
voltage regulation
Synchronous Impedance Method / E.M.F.
Method
Ampere-turns method / M.M.F. method
ZPF(Zero Power Factor) Method / Potier
ASA Method
1. Synchronous Impedance
Method / E.M.F. Method
The method is also called E.M.F. method of determining
the regulation. The method requires following data to
calculate the regulation.
1. The armature resistance per phase (Ra).
2. Open circuit characteristics which is the graph of open
circuit voltage against the field current. This is possible by
conducting open circuit test on the alternator.
3. Short circuit characteristics which is the graph of short
circuit current against field current. This is possible by
conducting short circuit test on the alternator.
The alternator is coupled to a prime mover capable
of driving the alternator at its synchronous speed.
The armature is connected to the terminals of a
switch. The other terminals of the switch are short
circuited through an ammeter. The voltmeter is
connected across the lines to measure the open
circuit voltage of the alternator.
 The field winding is connected to a suitable d.c.
supply with rheostat connected in series. The field
excitation i.e. field current can be varied with the
help of this rheostat. The circuit diagram is shown
in the Fig.
Circuit Diagram for OC & SC test
a. Open Circuit Test
Procedure to conduct this test is as follows :

i) Start the prime mover and adjust the speed to the synchronous
speed of the alternator.
ii) Keeping rheostat in the field circuit maximum, switch on the d.c.
supply.
iii) The T.P.S.T switch in the armature circuit is kept open.
iv) With the help of rheostat, field current is varied from its
minimum value to the rated value. Due to this, flux increasing
the induced e.m.f.
Hence voltmeter reading, which is measuring line value of open
circuit voltage increases. For various values of field current,
voltmeter readings are observed.
Open-circuit test Characteristics
The generator is turned at the rated speed
The terminals are disconnected from all loads, and
the field current is set to zero.
Then the field current is gradually increased in
steps, and the terminal voltage is measured at each
step along the way.
It is thus possible to obtain an open-circuit
characteristic of a generator (Ef or Vt versus If)
from this information
Connection for Open Circuit Test
Open-Circuit
Characteristic
Short-circuit
test
Adjust the field current to zero and short-
circuit the terminals of the generator
through a set of ammeters.
Record the armature current Isc as the field
current is increased.
Such a plot is called short-circuit
characteristic.
Short-circuit test
 After completing the open circuit test observation, the field
rheostat is brought to maximum position, reducing field
current to a minimum value.
 The T.P.S.T switch is closed. As ammeter has negligible
resistance, the armature gets short circuited. Then the field
excitation is gradually increased till full load current is
obtained through armature winding.
 This can be observed on the ammeter connected in the
armature circuit. The graph of short circuit armature
current against field current is plotted from the observation
table of short circuit test. This graph is called short circuit
characteristics, S.C.C.
Short-circuit
test
Adjust the field current to zero and short-circuit
the terminals of the generator through a set of
ammeters.
Record the armature current Isc as the field current
is increased.
Such a plot is called short-circuit characteristic.
Connection for Short
Circuit Test
Open and short circuit
characteristic
Curve feature
The OCC will be nonlinear due to the

saturation of the magnetic core at higher
levels of field current. The SCC will be
linear since the magnetic core does not
saturate under short-circuit conditions.
Determination of Xs
 For a particular field current IfA, the internal voltage Ef (=VA) could be found from
the occ and the short-circuit current flow Isc,A could be found from the scc.
 Then the synchronous reactance Xs could be obtained using
V A (= E f )
Z s ,unsat = R +X
2
a
2
s ,unsat =
I scA
Ef or Vt (V) Air-gap line
OCC Isc (A) X s ,unsat = Z s2,unsat − Ra2
Vrated
SCC
: Ra is known from the DC test.
VA
Isc,B
Since Xs,unsat>>Ra,
Isc, A
Ef Vt , oc
IfA IfB
If (A) X s ,unsat ≈ =
I scA I scA
Xs under saturated condition
Air-gap line
Ef or Vt (V)
OCC Isc (A)

Vrated
SCC
VA
Isc,B
At V = Vrated,
Isc, A
Vrated (= E f ) If (A)
Z s , sat = R +X
2
a
2
s ,sat = IfA IfB
I scB
X s , sat = Z s2, sat − Ra2: Ra is known from the DC test.
Advantages and Limitations of
Synchronous Impedance Method
 The value of synchronous impedance Zs for any load

condition can be calculated. Hence regulation of the
alternator at any load condition and load power factor can
be determined. Actual load need not be connected to the
alternator and hence method can be used for very high
capacity alternators.
 The main limitation of this method is that the method
gives large values of synchronous reactance. This leads to
high values of percentage regulation than the actual results.
Hence this method is called pessimistic method
Equivalentwww.Vidyarthiplus.com
circuit & phasor diagram under
condition
jXs Ra
Vt=0 Ef
+
Ia
+ jIaXs
Ef Ia
Vt=0
I aR a
Short-circuit Ratio
 Another parameter used to describe synchronous generators is the
short-circuit ratio (SCR). The SCR of a generator defined as the ratio
of the field current required for the rated voltage at open circuit to the
field current required for the rated armature current at short circuit.
SCR is just the reciprocal of the per unit value of the saturated
synchronous reactance calculated by
Ef or Vt (V) Air-gap line

Isc (A)
OCC
Vrated I f _ Vrated
SCC
SCR =
Isc,rated I f _ Iscrated
1
=
X s _ sat [in p .u .]
If (A)
If_V rated If_Isc rated
Synchronous Generator Capability
Curves
 Synchronous generator capability curves are used to

determine the stability of the generator at various points of
operation. A particular capability curve generated in Lab
VIEW for an apparent power of 50,000W is shown in Fig.
The maximum prime-mover power is also reflected in it.
Capability
Curve
2. MMF method (Ampere turns method)
Tests: Conduct tests to find
 OCC (up to 125% of rated voltage)  refer diagram EMF
 SCC (for rated current)  refer diagram EMF
3. ZPF method (Potier method)
 ZPF (for rated current and rated voltage)
 Armature Resistance (if required)
4. ASA methodwww.Vidyarthiplus.com

 ZPF (for rated current and rated voltage)
 Armature Resistance (if required)
Losses and
Efficiency
The losses in synchronous generator include:
1. Copper losses in
a) Armature
b) Field winding
c) The contacts between brushes
2. Core losses, Eddy current losses and
Hysteresis losses
Losses
3. Friction and windage losses,the brush
friction at the slip rings.
4. Stray load losses caused by eddy currents in
the armature conductors and by additional
core loss due to the distribution of magnetic
field under load conditions.
synchronous generator power flow
diagram
The three-phase synchronous generator power flow diagram
Synchronization
& Parallel
operation of
Alternator
Parallel operation of synchronous generators
There are several major advantages to operate generators in

parallel:
• Several generators can supply a bigger load than one machine

by itself.
• Having many generators increases the reliability of the power
system.
• It allows one or more generators to be removed for shutdown
or preventive maintenance.
Synchronization
Before connecting a generator in parallel with another
generator, it must be synchronized. A generator is said to be
synchronized when it meets all the following conditions:
• The rms line voltages of the two generators must be
equal.
• The two generators must have the same phase sequence.
• The phase angles of the two a phases must be equal.
• The oncoming generator frequency is equal to the
running system frequency.
a
Generator 1
b Load
c
Switch
a/
Generator 2 b/
c/
Parallel operation of
synchronous generators
Most of synchronous generators are operating in parallel with other
synchronous generators to supply power to the same power system.
Obvious advantages of this arrangement are:
1. Several generators can supply a bigger load;
2. A failure of a single generator does not result in a total power loss to the load
increasing reliability of the power system;
3. Individual generators may be removed from the power system for maintenance
without shutting down the load;
4. A single generator not operating at near full load might be quite inefficient.
While having several generators in parallel, it is possible to turn off some of
them when operating the rest at near full-load condition.
Conditions required for
paralleling
A diagram shows that Generator 2
(oncoming generator) will be connected
in parallel when the switch S1 is closed.
However, closing the switch at an
arbitrary moment can severely
damage both generators!
If voltages are not exactly the same in both lines (i.e. in a and a’, b and b’ etc.), a
very large current will flow when the switch is closed. Therefore, to avoid this,
voltages coming from both generators must be exactly the same. Therefore, the
following conditions must be met:
1. The rms line voltages of the two generators must be equal.
2. The two generators must have the same phase sequence.
3. The phase angles of two a phases must be equal.
4. The frequency of the oncoming generator must be slightly higher than the
frequency of the running system.
Conditions required for
paralleling
If the phase sequences are different,
then even if one pair of voltages
(phases a) are in phase, the other two
pairs will be 1200 out of phase creating
huge currents in these phases.
If the frequencies of the generators are different, a large power transient may occur
until the generators stabilize at a common frequency. The frequencies of two
machines must be very close to each other but not exactly equal. If frequencies
differ by a small amount, the phase angles of the oncoming generator will change
slowly with respect to the phase angles of the running system.
If the angles between the voltages can be observed, it is possible to close the
switch S1 when the machines are in phase.
General procedure for
paralleling generators
When connecting the generator G2 to the running system, the following steps
should be taken:
1. Adjust the field current of the oncoming generator to make its terminal voltage
equal to the line voltage of the system (use a voltmeter).
2. Compare the phase sequences of the oncoming generator and the running
system. This can be done by different ways:
1) Connect a small induction motor to the terminals of the oncoming generator
and then to the terminals of the running system. If the motor rotates in the
same direction, the phase sequence is the same;
2) Connect three light bulbs across the
open terminals of the switch. As the phase
changes between the two generators, light
bulbs get brighter (large phase difference)
or dimmer (small phase difference). If all
three bulbs get bright and dark together,
both generators have the same phase
sequences.
General procedure for
paralleling generators
If phase sequences are different, two of the conductors on the oncoming
generator must be reversed.
3. The frequency of the oncoming generator is adjusted to be slightly higher than
the system’s frequency.
4. Turn on the switch connecting G2 to the system when phase angles are equal.
The simplest way to determine the moment when two generators are in phase is by
observing the same three light bulbs. When all three lights go out, the voltage
across them is zero and, therefore, machines are in phase.
A more accurate way is to use a synchroscope – a meter

measuring the difference in phase angles between two a
phases. However, a synchroscope does not check the
phase sequence since it only measures the phase
difference in one phase.
The whole process is usually automated…
Synchronization
Generat Load
or
Rest of the
power system
Xs1
Ef1
Xs2
Generato Ef2
r
G
Xsn Infinite bus
Efn V, f are
constant
Xs eq = 0
Concept of the infinite bus
When a synchronous generator is connected to a power

system, the power system is often so large that nothing, the
operator of the generator does, will have much of an effect
on the power system. An example of this situation is the
connection of a single generator to the power grid. Our
power grid is so large that no reasonable action on the part
of one generator can cause an observable change in
overall grid frequency. This idea is idealized in the concept
of an infinite bus. An infinite bus is a power system so large
that its voltage and frequency do not vary regardless of
how much real or reactive power is drawn from or supplied
to it.
Steady-state power-
angle characteristics
Active and reactive power-angle characteristics
Pm
Pe, Qe
Vt
Fig. Synchronous generator connected to an infinite bus.
• P>0: generator operation

• P<0: motor operation
• Positive Q: delivering inductive vars for a generator action or
receiving inductive vars for a motor action
• Negaive Q: delivering capacitive vars for a generator action or
receiving capacitive vars for a motor action
Pm
Pe, Qe
Vt
• The real and reactive power delivered by a synchronous

generator or consumed by a synchronous motor can be
expressed in terms of the terminal voltage Vt, generated voltage
Ef, synchronous impedance Zs, and the power angle or torque
angle δ.
• Referring to Fig. 8, it is convenient to adopt a convention that
makes positive real power P and positive reactive power Q
delivered by an overexcited generator.
• The generator action corresponds to positive value of δ, while
the motor action corresponds to negative value of δ.
Pm
Pe, Qe
The complex power output of the generator in volt- Vt
amperes per phase is given by

_
S = P + jQ = V t I *a
where:
Vt = terminal voltage per phase
Ia* = complex conjugate of the armature current per phase
Taking the terminal voltage as reference

_
V t = Vt + j 0
the excitation( at stator in case of motor) or the generated voltage,

_
E f = E f (cos δ + j sin δ )
and the armature current,
(E cos δ − Vt ) + jE f sin δ
_ _ Pm
_
E f −V t Pe, Qe
Ia = =
f
Vt
jX s jX s
where Xs is the synchronous reactance per phase.

_ _ ( )
 E f cos δ − Vt − jE f sin δ 
S = P + jQ = V t I a = Vt
*
 
 − jX s 
Vt E f sin δ Vt E f cos δ − Vt2
= +j
Xs Xs
Vt E f sin δ
∴ P= &
Xs
Vt E f cos δ − Vt2
Q=
Xs
Pm
Pe, Qe
Vt
Vt E f sin δ Vt E f cos δ − Vt2

∴ P= & Q=
Xs Xs
• The above two equations for active and reactive powers hold
good for cylindrical-rotor synchronous machines for negligible
resistance
• To obtain the total power for a three-phase generator, the above
equations should be multiplied by 3 when the voltages are line-to-
neutral
• If the line-to-line magnitudes are used for the voltages, however,
these equations give the total three-phase power
Steady-state power-angle or torque-angle characteristic of a
cylindrical-rotor synchronous machine (with negligible
armature resistance).
Real power or
torque
Pull-out
torque as a
generator
generato
r
−π −π/2
−δ +δ
0 +π/2 +π
motor
Pull-out
torque as a
motor
Steady-state stability limit
3Vt E f
Total three-phase power:P = sin δ
Xs
The above equation shows that the power produced by a
synchronous generator depends on the angle δ between the Vt and
Ef. The maximum power that the generator can supply occurs when
δ=90o.
3Vt E f
P=
Xs
The maximum power indicated by this equation is called steady-state
stability limit of the generator. If we try to exceed this limit (such as by
admitting more steam to the turbine), the rotor will accelerate and lose
synchronism with the infinite bus. In practice, this condition is never
reached because the circuit breakers trip as soon as synchronism is
lost. We have to resynchronize the generator before it can again pick
up the load. Normally, real generators never even come close to the
limit. Full-load torque angle of 15o to 20o are more typical of real
machines.
Pull-out torque
The maximum torque or pull-out torque per phase that a two-
pole round-rotor synchronous motor can develop is
Pmax Pmax
Tmax = =
ωm 2π s 
n
 60 
where ns is the synchronous speed of the motor in rpm
P or Q
δ
Fig. Active and reactive power as a function of the internal angle
BLONDELS TWO REACTION

THEORY
BLONDELS TWO REACTION
THEORY
In case of cylindrical pole machines, the direct-axis
and the quadrature axis mmfs act on the same magnetic
circuits, hence they can be summed up as complexors.
However, in a salient-pole machine, the two mmfs do not
act on the same magnetic circuit.
The direct axis component Fad operates over a
magnetic circuit identical with that of the field system,
while the q-axis component Faq is applied across the
interpole space, producing a flux distribution different
from that of Fad or the Field mmf.
The Blondel's two reaction theory hence
considers the results of the cross and direct-
reaction components separately and if saturation
is neglected, accounts for their different effects
by assigning to each an appropriate value for
armature-reaction "reactive" respectively Xaq and
Xad .
Considering the leakage reactance, the combined reactance
values becomes
Xad = X + X ad and X sq = X aq
Xsq < Xsd as a given current component of the q-axis gives rise
to a smaller flux due to the higher reluctance of the magnetic path.
• www.Vidyarthiplus.com
Let lq and Id be the q and d-axis components
of the current I in the armature reference to the
phasor diagram in Figure. We get the following
relationships
• Iq= I cos (σ+θ) Ia = I cosφ
• Id = I sin (σ+ φ) Ir = I sinφ
I = √(Id2 + Iq2)= = √(Id2 + Ir2)
• where Ia and Ir are the active and reactive

components of current I.
SLIP TEST
Slip Test (for salient pole machines only)
Short Circuit Transients

for Synchronous
Generator
Short Circuit Phenomenon
Consider a two pole elementary single phase alternator with concentrated
stator winding as shown in Fig. 4. Consider a two pole elementary single
phase alternator with concentrated stator winding as shown in Fig. 4.
The corresponding waveforms for stator and rotor currents are shown in the
Fig
Let short circuit occurs at position of rotor shown in Fig. 4(a)
when there are no stator linkages. After 1/4 Rev as shown Fig. 4(b), it
tends to establish full normal linkage in stator winding. The stator
opposes this by a current in the shown direction as to force the flux in
the leakage path. The rotor current must increase to maintain its flux
constant. It reduces to normal at position (c) where stator current is
again reduces to zero. The waveform of stator current and field current
shown in the Fig. 5. changes totally if the position of rotor at the instant
of short circuit is different. Thus the short circuit current is a function of
relative position of stator and rotor.
Using the theorem of constant linkages a three phase short
circuit can also be studied. After the instant of short circuit the flux
linking with the stator will not change. A stationary image of main pole
flux is produced in the stator. Thus a d.c. component of current is
carried by each phase.
The magnitude of d.c. component of current is different for each
phase as the instant on the voltage wave at which short circuit occurs is
different for each phase. The rotor tries to maintain its own poles
The rotor current is normal each time when rotor poles
occupy the position same as that during short circuit and the
current in the stator will be zero if the machine is previously
unloaded. After one half cycle from this position the stator and
rotor poles are again coincident but the poles are opposite. To
maintain the flux linkages constant, the current in rotor reaches to
its peak value.
The stationary field produced by poles on the stator
induces a normal frequency emf in the rotor. Thus the rotor
current is fluctuating whose resultant a.c. component develops
fundamental frequency flux which rotates and again produces in
the stator winding double frequency or second harmonic
currents. Thus the waveform of transient current consists of
fundamental, a.c. and second harmonic components of currents.
Thus whenever short circuit occurs in three phase generator
then the stator currents are distorted from pure sine wave and
are similar to those obtained when an alternating voltage is
suddenly applied to series R-L circuit.
Stator Currents during Short Circuit
• If a generator having negligible resistance, excited and
running on no load is suddenly undergoing short circuit at its
terminals, then the emf induced in the stator winding is used
to circulate short circuit current through it. Initially the
reactance to be taken into consideration is not the
synchronous reactance of the machine. The effect of armature
flux (reaction) is to reduce the main field flux.
• But the flux linking with stator and rotor can not change
instantaneously because of the induction associated with the
windings. Thus at the short circuit instant, the armature
reaction is ineffective. It will not reduce the main flux. Thus
the synchronous reactance will not come into picture at the
moment of short circuit. The only limiting factor for short
circuit current at this instant is the leakage reactance.
After somewww.Vidyarthiplus.com
time from the instant of short circuit, the
armature reaction slowly shows its effect and the alternator then
reaches to steady state. Thus the short circuit current reaches to
high value for some time and then settles to steady value.
It can be seen that during the initial instant of short circuit
is dependent on induced emf and leakage reactance which is
similar to the case which we have considered previously of
voltage source suddenly applied to series R-L circuit. The
instant in the cycle at which short occurs also affects the short
circuit current. Near zero e.m.f. (or voltage) it has doubling
effect. The expressions that we have derived are applicable only
during initial conditions of short circuit as the induced emf also
reduces after some tome because of increased armature
reaction.
The short circuit currents in the three phases during short
circuit are as shown in the Fig(next slide)
Capability Curves of
Synchronous
Generators
• The rating of www.Vidyarthiplus.com
synchronous generators is specified in terms of
maximum apparent power in KVA and MVA load at a specified
power factor (normally 80, 85 or 90 percent lagging) and voltage for
which they are designed to operate under steady state conditions.
This load is carried by the alternators continuously without
overheating. With the help of automatic voltage regulators the
terminal voltage of the alternator is kept constant (normally within
±5% of rated voltage).
• The power factor is also important factor that must be specified.
This is because the alternator that is designed to operate at 0.95 p.f.
lagging at rated load will require more field current when operate at
0.85 p.f. lagging at rated load. More field current results in
overheating of the field system which is undesirable. For this
compounding curves of the alternators can be drawn.
• If synchronous generator is supplying power at constant
frequency to a load whose power factor is constant then curve
showing variation of field current versus armature current when
constant power factor load is varied is called compounding curve for
alternator. www.Vidyarthiplus.com
• To maintain thewww.Vidyarthiplus.com
terminal voltage constant the lagging power factors
require more field excitation that that required for leading power
factors. Hence there is limitation on output given by exciter and
current flowing in field coils because of lagging power factors.
• The ability of prime mover decides the active power output of the
alternator which is limited to a value within the apparent power
rating. The capability curve for synchronous generator specifies the
bounds within which it can operate safely.
• The loading on generator should not exceed the generator rating as it
may lead to heating of stator. The turbine rating is the limiting factor
for MW loading. The operation of generator should be away from
steady state stability limit (δ = 90o). The field current should not
exceed its limiting value as it may cause rotor heating.
• All these considerations provides performance curves which are
important in practical applications. A set of capability curves for an
alternator is shown in Fig. 2. The effect of increased Hydrogen
pressure is shown which increases the cooling.
• When the active power and voltage are fixed the allowable reactive
power loading is limited by either armature or field winding heating.
From the capability curve shown in Fig. 2, the maximum reactive
power loadings can be obtained for different power loadings with
the operation at rated voltage. From unity p.f. to rated p.f. (0.8 as
shown in Fig. 2), the limiting factor is armature heating while for
lower power factors field heating is limiting factor.
This fact can be derived as follows :
• If the alternator is operating is constant terminal voltage and
armature current which the limiting value corresponding to heating
then the operation of alternator is at constant value of apparent
power as the apparent power is product of terminal voltage and
current, both of which are constant.
• If P is per unit active power and Q is per unit reactive power
then per unit apparent power is given by,
• Similarly, considering the alternator to be operating at constant terminal
voltage and field current (hence E) is limited to a maximum value obtained
by heating limits.
• Thus induced voltage E is given by,
If Ra is assumed to be zero then
The apparent power can be written as,
Substituting value of Īa obtained from (1) in equation (2),
Taking magnitudes,
• This equation also represents a circle with centre at (0, -Vt2/Xs). These two circles are
represents in the Fig. 3 (see next post as Fig. 1). The field heating and armature heating
limitation on machine operation can be seen from this Fig. 3 (see next post as Fig.1).
• The rating of machine which consists of apparent power and power factor is specified as
the point of intersection of these circles as shown in the Fig. 4. So that the machine operates
safely. www.Vidyarthiplus.com
UNIT-2
SYNCHRONOUS MOTOR
Presented by
C.GOKUL
AP/EEE
UNIT 2 Syllabus
Synchronous Motor
 3 phase AC supply is given to the stator and

mechanical energy is obtained from the rotor
 Reverse of alternator operation
 However, field poles are given electrical
supply to excite the poles (electromagnets !)
 Rated between 150kW to 15MW with speeds
ranging from 150 to 1800 rpm.
 Constant speed motor
Rotating Magnetic Field

(RMF)
Basics – Rotating Magnetic Field
 When 3 phase supply is given to the stator

winding, 3 phase current flows which
produces 3 phase flux
 The MMF wave of the stator will have
rotating effect on the rotor
 The effect of the field will be equal to that
produced by a rotating pole
Rotating Magnetic Field (R.M.F) –
contd.
RMF – contd.
RMF – contd.
=φR φ=
m sin ωt φm sin θ .......................(a)
φ=
Y φm sin (ωt − 120=
) φm sin (θ − 120 ) ...................(b)
φ=
B φm sin (ωt − 240=
) φm sin (θ − 240 ) ...................(c)
RMF – contd.
 Looking back at the waveform again, we see

that at any instant, one waveform has zero
magnitude and one has a positive value and
the other, negative value
 Let us consider at the following instances –
0, 60, 120, 180 degrees
RMF – contd.
 Case (i) φ = 0 (look at the waveform)
RMF – contd.
 Simply substitute φ = 0 in equations a, b, c
=φR φ=
m sin θ φ=
m sin 0 0
3
φm sin (θ − 120 ) =
φY = φm sin ( 0 − 120 ) =
− φm
2
3
φm sin (θ − 240 ) =
φB = φm sin ( 0 − 240 ) =
+ φm
2
RMF – contd.
 Case (i) - Phasor diagram
RMF – contd.
RMF – contd.
 Case (ii) φ = 60 (look at the waveform)
RMF – contd.
3
=φR φ=
m sin θ φm=
sin 60 φm
2
3
φm sin (θ − 120 ) =
φY = φm sin ( 60 − 120 ) =
− φm
2
φ=
B φm sin (θ − 240=) φm sin ( 60 − 240=) 0
RMF – contd.
RMF – contd.
RMF – contd.
 Case (iii) φ = 120 (look at the waveform)
RMF – contd.
3
=φR φ=
m sin θ φm sin120
= φm
2
φ=
Y φm sin (θ − 120=) φm sin (120 − 120=) 0
3
φm sin (θ − 240 ) =
φR = φm sin (120 − 240 ) =
− φm
2
RMF – contd.
RMF – contd.
 Case (iv) φ = 180 (look at the waveform)
RMF – contd.
=φR φ=
m sin θ φm sin180
= 0
3
φ=
Y φm sin (θ − 120=
) φm sin (180 − 120=) φm
2
3
φm sin (θ − 240 ) =
φB = φm sin (180 − 240 ) =
− φm
2
RMF – contd.
RMF – contd.
 It is found that the resultant flux line is

rotating at constant magnitude
 This we refer as rotating field or revolving
field
 The speed at which it rotates will be at
synchronous speed – Ns = (120 f / P )
 Direction of rotation will be in the clockwise
direction as shown in the previous slide
Principle of
operation
Operation
 We have a rotating field at the stator

 Rotor is another magnet
 If properly aligned (?!) these two magnets will
attract each other
 Since the stator field is rotating at
synchronous speed, it will carry the rotor
magnet along with it due to attraction
(magnetic locking)
Magnetic Locking - Illustration
Operation – contd.
Why - ?
 It is true that magnetic locking will make the

rotor run at synchronous speed
 Locking cannot happen instantly in a
machine (?)
 This makes synchronous motors not self
starting
Not self starting
 Due to inertia
How to make Syn. Motor self
starting
 If the rotor is moved by external means (to

overcome inertial force acting on it) then
there is a chance for the motor to get started
Procedure to make SM self start
 3 ph supply is given to the stator

 Motor is driven by external means
 Rotor is excited
 At an instant rotor poles will be locked with
the stator field and motor will run at syn.
speed
Back EMF &

V Curves ,
Inverted V Curves
EMF generation in a motor ? !
 We call it as back emf

 Similar to generated emf in an alternator
 Rotor rotating at synchronous speed will
induce emf in the stationary armature
conductors
 The ac voltage applied has to overcome this
back emf to circulate current through the
armature winding
Back emf
Eb = 4.44 K C K d φ fT
 As given, emf is proportional to flux
Back emf
Slight deviation from the topic (?)
Coming back to Back emf
Increase in Load…
 In a Synchronous motor with increase in load

δ increases
Increase in Load, o.k – What about
the speed ?
 The speed of the Synchronous motor speed

stays constant at synchronous speed even
when the load is increased
 Magnetic locking between the stator and
rotor (stiffness of coupling) keeps the rotor
run at synchronous speed
 But when the angle of separation (δ) is 90,
then stiffness (locking) is lost and the motor
ceases to run
At constant load, varying the
excitation…
Kindly see to it that
 In all the cases discussed above, magnitude

of current vector changes
 Power factor changes
 But the product Icosφ would be constant so
that active power drawn by the machine
remains constant
What actually happens ?
 The resultant air gap flux is due to ac

armature winding and dc field winding
 If the field is sufficient enough to set up the
constant air gap flux then the magnetizing
armature current required from the ac source
is zero – hence the machine operates at
unity power factor – this field current is the
normal field current or normal excitation
 If the field current is less than the normal

excitation – then the machine is under
excited
 This deficiency in flux must be made by the
armature mmf – so the armature winding
draws magnetizing current or lagging
reactive MVA – leaving the machine to
operate at lagging power factor
 In case the field current is made more than

its normal operation – then the machine is
over excited
 This excess flux must be neutralized by the
armature mmf – so the machine draws
demagnetizing current or leading reactive
MVA – leaving the machine to operate at
leading power factor
Better illustration
Better Illustration
 Similarly,
Synchronous motor in pf
improvement
 This feature of synchronous motor makes it

suitable for improving the power factor of the
system
 Motors are overexcited so that it draws
leading current from the supply
 The motor here is referred to as synchronous
condenser
V - curves
Inverted V - curves
CIRCLE
DIAGRAM
Circle Diagrams
 This offers a quick graphical solution to many

problems
Circle Diagrams – contd.
 Excitation Circle diagram

 It gives the locus of armature current, as the
excitation voltage and load angle are varied
Excitation Circle Diagram
 It is based on the voltage equation of a motor

given by
V=t E f + I a Z s
 It can be expressed as
Vt Ef
I=
a −
Zs Zs
Excitation Circle Diagram – contd.
Vt Ef
I=
a −
Zs Zs
 Each component in the above expression is
a current component
 It can be taken in such a way that they lag
from their corresponding voltage component
by power factor angle
 Same result can be obtained mathematically

as follows
 With Vt as reference
Vt Ef
I=
a −
Zs Zs
Vt ∠0 E f ∠ − δ
= Ia −
Z s ∠φ Z s ∠φ
Vt Ef
I=
a ∠ −φ − ∠ −δ −φ
Zs Zs
 Vt Ef 
=I a  ( cos φ − j sin φ ) − ( cos (δ + φ ) − j sin (δ + φ ) ) 
 Zs Zs 
Re arranging
 Vt Ef   Vt Ef 
=I a  cos φ − cos (δ + φ )  + j  − sin φ + sin (δ + φ ) 
 Zs Zs   Zs Zs 
Magnitude
2 2
V Ef   V  Ef
=I a2  t cos φ − cos (δ + φ )  +  − t sin φ + sin (δ + φ ) 
 Zs Zs   Zs Zs 
2 2
 Vt   E f  Vt E f
I =   +
2
a  −2 cos (δ + φ ) cos φ + sin (δ + φ ) sin φ 
 Zs   Zs  Zs Zs
2 2
 V   Ef  Vt E f
I a2 =  t  +   − 2 ( cos δ cos φ − sin δ sin φ ) cos φ + ( sin δ cos φ + cos δ sin φ ) sin φ 
 s  s
Z Z Z s Z s

2 2
 V   Ef  V Ef
I a2 =  t  +   − 2 t ( cos δ cos φ − sin δ sin φ ) cos φ + ( sin δ cos φ + cos δ sin φ ) sin φ 
2 2
 V   Ef  V Ef
I a2 =  t  +   − 2 t cos δ cos 2 φ − sin δ sin φ cos φ + sin δ cos φ sin φ + cos δ sin 2 φ 
2 2
 Vt   E f  Vt E f
I =  +   − 2
2
a
cos δ cos 2 φ + cos δ sin 2 φ 
2 2
V  E  V Ef
I a2 = t  +  f  − 2 t cos δ
 s 
Z  s 
Z Z s Z s
2 2
 Vt   E f  Vt E f
I =  +   − 2
2
a cos δ
 The above equation says that Vt / Zs is one

side of a triangle, whose other side is given
by Ef / Zs
 The third side is given by Ia
 Coming back to our diagram (kindly verify the

sides)
 In the diagram, if Vt is assumed constant,

then Vt / Zs is a constant
 Now, if Ef (the excitation) is fixed, Ef / Zs
vector and Ia vector follow the path of a circle
as load is changed on the motor
 This locus is referred to as Excitation circle
 Excitation circle defines the magnitude and
power factor of Ia and the load angle δ, for
different shaft loads
 Same old diagram
Power Circle Diagram
 This again gives the locus of armature

current, as the mechanical power developed
and power factor is varied
 Power output per phase is given as
=P Vt I a cos φ − I a2 ra
 P is the mechanical power developed
including iron and mechanical losses
 The equation can be written as,

 Dividing the whole equation by ra and
rearranging it, we get
Vt P
I − 2
a I a cos φ + =
0
ra ra
Vt P
I cos φ + I sin φ − I a cos φ + =
2
a
2 2
a
2
0
ra ra
Vt P
I cos φ + I sin φ − I a cos φ + =
2
a
2 2
a
2
0
ra ra
 Subsitituting x = Ia sinφ and y = Ia cosφ, the equation
becomes
Vt P
x +y −
2 2
y+ =
0
ra ra
 This is equation of circle with
2
 Vt   Vt  P
=
centre  0,  &=
radius   −
 2ra   a 
2 r ra
 Alternatively,
 We know,
Vt P
I − I a cos φ + =
2
a 0
ra ra
 Adding Vt / 2 ra on either side we get,
2 2
Vt P  Vt   Vt 
I − I a cos φ + + 
2
a  =
 
ra ra  2ra   2ra 
Re arranging ,
2 2
 Vt  Vt  Vt  P
I +
2
a  − I a cos φ =   −
 a
2 r ra  a
2 r ra
 Slight Modification, yields
2 2
 Vt  Vt  Vt  P
I +2
a  −2 I a cos φ =   −
 2ra  2ra  2ra  ra
2 2
 Vt  Vt  Vt  P
Ia + 
2
 −2 I a cos φ =   −
 2ra  2ra  2ra  ra
 The above expression shows that
2
 Vt  P
  −
 2ra  ra
is one side of a triangle whose other two

sides are Ia and Vt / 2ra seperated by φ
 Going back to the power circle diagram
Power Circle Diagram - Inference
 At Pmax, armature current is in phase with

Vt/2ra, hence the power factor is unity
 Magnitude of armature current is given by
Vt/2ra
Power Circle Diagram - Inference
 At Pmax, we know, radius of the power circle

is zero
 Substituting, radius = 0, we get
2
 Vt  Pmax
  − =
0
 2ra  ra
Vt 2
⇒ Pmax =
4ra
Power Circle Diagram- Inference
 Maximum power input,

 Vt  Vt 2
⇒ Pin ,max φ Vt 
= Vt I a cos= =
 .1
 2ra  2ra
 Efficiency is given by
=η =
Pmax (Vt / 4ra )
2
= 50%
Pin ,max (Vt / 2ra )
2
 As we see, 50 % efficiency is too low a value

for synchronous motor
 At this efficiency, since the losses are about
half of that of the input, temperature rise
reaches the permissible limit
 As such, maximum power output presented
earlier cannot be met in practice
V – curves (again?!)
 We know, excitation circle diagram shows

locus of armature current as a function of
excitation voltage
 Power circle diagram shows locus of
armature current as a function of power
 When these two circles are super imposed…
V – curves – contd.
TORQUE EQUATION
& POWER
EQUATION
Power Developed by Synchronous

Motor
 Consider the phasor diagram

Motor
 In a motor power developed can be given as
Pm = Eb I a cosψ
 Looking at the phasor diagram again

Motor
 We need to manipulate the vector diagram to

arrive at the expression

Motor
Torque Developed by Synchronous

Motor
 We know(e), T (2π Ns) = P if Ns is in rps

 So, T = P / (2π Ns)
 or T = P / (2π Ns) if Ns is in rpm
Maximum power developed
 Condition for maximum power developed can

be found by differentiating the power
expression by δ and equating it to zero (as
usual) 2
EbV Eb
=Pm cos (θ − δ ) − cos θ
Zs Zs
Differentiating ,
dPm EbV
= − sin (θ − δ )=
0
dδ Zs
Maximum power developed -
condition
EbV
− sin (θ − δ )=
0
Zs
sin (θ − δ ) =
0
⇒θ −δ =0
⇒θ =
δ
 Substituting θ = δ, in the power expression,

we get,
EbV Eb2
Pm=
,max − cos δ
Zs Zs
or
EbV Eb2
Pm=
,max − cos θ
Zs Zs
 If
Ra ≈ 0
EbV
Pm ,max =
Zs
 Substituting, cos θ = Ra / Zs
EbV Eb2  Ra 
Pm=
,max −  
Zs Zs  Zs 
EbV Eb2  Ra 
Pm=
,max −  
Zs Zs  Zs 
Solving ,
E=
Zs V ± V 2 − 4 R ( P ) 
b
2 Ra  a m ,max 

Maximum power developed –
condition
 As the equation says, Power developed

depends on excitation
EbV Eb2
=Pm cos (θ − δ ) − cos θ
Zs Zs
 Differentiating with respect to Eb
dPm 
d EbV 2
Eb 
=  cos (θ − δ )=
− cos θ  0
dEb dEb  Z s Zs 
condition
dPm 
d EbV 2
Eb 
=  cos (θ − δ )=
− cos θ  0
dEb dEb  Z s Zs 
VZ s
Eb =
2 Ra
condition
VZ s
Eb =
2 Ra
 This is the value of Eb which will make
developed power to be maximum
 The maximum power is given by substituting
the condition (Eb) in Pm expression
V2 V2
Pm=
,max −
2 Ra 4 Ra
Operation of
infinite bus
bars
Operation of AC Generators in Parallel
with Large Power Systems
• Isolated synchronous generator supplying its own load is very
rare (emergency generators)
• In general applications more than one generator operating in
parallel to supply loads
• In Iran national grid hundreds of generators share the load on
the system
• Advantages of generators operating in parallel:
1- several generators can supply a larger load
2- having many generators in parallel increase the
reliability of power system
3- having many generators operating in parallel allows
one or more of them to be removed for shutdown &
preventive maintenance
4- if only one generator employed & not operating near full load, it
will be relatively inefficient
INFINITE BUS
• When a Syn. Gen. connected to power system,
power sys. is so large that nothing operator of
generator does, have much effect on pwr. sys.
• Example: connection of a single generator to a
large power grid (i.e. Iran grid), no reasonable
action on part of one generator can cause an
observable change in overall grid frequency
• This idea belong to definition of “Infinite Bus”
which is: a so large power system, that its
voltage & frequency do not vary, (regardless of
amount ofwww.Vidyarthiplus.com
real and reactive power load)
• When a syn. Gen.
connected to a
power system:
1-The real power
versus frequency
characteristic of
such a system
2-And the reactive
power-voltage
characteristic
• Behavior of a generator
connected to a large
system
A generator connected in
parallel with a large
system as shown
• Frequency & voltage of

all machines must be the
same, their real power-
frequency (& reactive
power-voltage)
characteristics plotted
back to back 
• Assume generator just been paralleled with
infinite bus, generator will be “floating” on the
line, supplying a small amount of real power
and little or no reactive power
• Suppose generator paralleled, however its
frequency being slightly lower than system’s
operating frequency
 At this frequency power supplied by
generator is less than system’s operating
frequency, generator will consume energy and
runs as motor
• In order that a generator comes on line and
supply power instead of consuming it, we
should ensure that oncoming machine’s
frequency is adjusted higher than running
system’s frequency
• Many generators have “reverse-power trip”
system
• And if such a generator ever starts to consume
power it will be automatically disconnected from
line
Starting Methods
of Syn Motor
• As seen earlier, synchronous motor is not self
starting. It is necessary to rotate the rotor at a
speed very near to synchronous speed. This is
possible by various method in practice. The
various methods to start the synchronous motor
are,
1. Using pony motors
2. Using damper winding
3. As a slip ring induction motor
4. Using small d.c. machine coupled to it.
1. Using pony motors
• In this method, the rotor is brought to the
synchronous speed with the help of some
external device like small induction motor. Such
an external device is called 'pony motor'.
• Once the rotor attains the synchronous
speed, the d.c. excitation to the rotor is switched
on. Once the synchronism is established pony
motor is decoupled. The motor then continues to
rotate as synchronous motor.
2. Using Damper Winding
3. As a Slip Ring Induction Motor
Refer Unit 3 for detail understanding
4. Using Small D.C. Machine
• Many a times, a large synchronous motor are provided
with a coupled d.c. machine. This machine is used as a
d.c. motor to rotate the synchronous motor at a
synchronous speed. Then the excitation to the rotor is
provided. Once motor starts running as a synchronous
motor, the same d.c. machine acts as a d.c. generator
called exciter. The field of the synchronous motor is then
excited by this exciter itself.
Current loci for constant

power input, constant
excitation and constant power
developed
Refer Book for
detail study
Current loci for constant power input
Current loci for constant power
developed(PM)
Current locus for constant Excitation
HUNTING
Natural
frequency of
oscillations
Refer Book
Damper
windings
Refer Book for
detail study
Synchronous www.Vidyarthiplus.com
motors are not self starting machines. These
machines are made self starting by providing a special winding in the
rotor poles, known as damper winding or squirrel cage windings. The
damper winding consists of short circuited copper bars embedded in the
face of the rotor poles
When an ac supply is provided to stator of a 3-phase
synchronous motor, stator winding produces rotating magnetic field.
Due to the damper winding present in the rotor winding of the
synchronous motor, machine starts as induction motor (Induction
machine works on the principle of induction. Damper windings in
synchronous motor will carryout the same task of induction motor rotor
windings.
Therefore due to damper windings synchronous motor starts as
induction motor and continue to accelerate). The exciter for synchronous
motor moves along with rotor. When the motor attains about 95% of the
synchronous speed, the rotor windings is connected to exciter terminals
and the rotor is magnetically locked by the rotating magnetic field of
stator and it runs as a synchronous motor.
Functions of Damper Windings:
• Damper windings helps the synchronous motor to start
on its own (self starting machine) by providing starting
torque
• By providing damper windings in the rotor of
synchronous motor "Hunting of machine“ can be
suppressed.
When there is change in load, excitation or change in
other conditions of the systems rotor of the synchronous
motor will oscillate to and fro about an equilibrium
position. At times these oscillations becomes more
violent and resulting in loss of synchronism of the motor
and comes to halt.
Synchronous
Condensers
• When synchronous motor is over excited it takes leading
p.f. current. If synchronous motor is on no load, where
load angle δ is very small and it is over excited (Eb > V)
then power factor angle increases almost up to 90o. And
motor runs with almost zero leading power factor
condition.
• This characteristics is similar to a normal capacitor
which takes leading power factor current. Hence over
excited synchronous motor operating on no load
condition is called as synchronous condenser or
synchronous capacitor. This is the property due to which
synchronous motor is used as a phase advancer or as
power improvement device.
Disadvantage of Low Power Factor
• In various industries, many machines are of induction motor
type. The lighting and heating loads are supplied through
transformers. The induction motors and transformers draw lagging
current from the supply. Hence the overall power factor is very low
and lagging in nature.
• The power is given by,
P = VI cosΦ .............. single phase
. .. I = P/(VcosΦ)
The high current due to low p.f. has following disadvantages
:
1. For higher current, conductor size required is more which

increases the cost.
2. The p.f. is given by
cosΦ = Active power/ Apparent = (P in KW)/ (S in KVA)
Thus for fixed active power P, low p.f. demands large KVA
rating
alternators and transformers. This increases the cost.
3. Large current means more copper losses and poor
efficiency.
4. Large current causes large voltage drops in transmission
lines, alternators and other equipments. This results into poor
regulation.
Unit-3
Three phase Induction

Motor
Presented By
C.GOKUL
www.Vidyarthiplus.com AP/EEE
UNIT 3 Syllabus
Construction of
Induction Motor
Types of Rotor
Principle of
Operation
SLIP(s)
Compare
Induction motor &
Transformer
Equivalent circuit
Losses &
Efficiency
Losses - Summary
Poutput
Efficiency (η) =
Pinput
www.Vidyarthiplus.com 356
Motor Torque
9.55 Pm
Tm =
n
9.55 (1 – s) Pr
=
ns (1 – s)
= 9.55 Pr / ns
Tm = 9.55 Pr / ns
Presented by C.GOKUL,AP/EEE Velalar College of Engg & Tech , Erode 357
I2R losses in the rotor
Pjr = s Pr
Pjr = rotor I2R losses [W]

s = slip
Pr = power transmitted to the rotor [W]
Mechanical Power
Pm = Pr - Pjr
= Pr - s Pr
= (1 – s) Pr
Torque-Slip
Characteristics
Condition for
Maximum Torque
LOAD TEST
LOAD TEST ON THREE PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR
NO LOAD TEST
No Load Test or Running Light Test or
Open Circuit Test
W0 This test gives
I0
1. Core loss
A 2. F & W loss
R
N 3. No load current I0
4. No load power factor
V0 V STATOR 5. Ic, Rc, Iμ, Xm
6. Mechanical faults, noise
B Y
ROTOR Rated per voltage V0, with

rated freq is given to stator.
Motor is run at NO LOAD
P0, I0 and V0 are recorded
P0 = I02r1+Pc+Pfw
P0
Cosθ0 = No load power factor is small,
V0 I0 0.05 to 0.15
1. Ic=I0cosθ0 2. Iμ=I0sinθ0 provided x1 is known
E0 E0
3. R c = , E 0 =V 0 − I 0 (r 1 + jx 1) 4. X m =
Ic Iµ
On No load, Motor runs near to syn speed
So, s ≈ zero 1/s=α or open circuit
r1 I jx1 I
jx2
0 2
I0
open circuit
Ic IΦ
V0 Rc jXm r2/s
The Fwww.Vidyarthiplus.com
& W loss Pfw, can be obtained from this
test.
Vary input voltage and note input power
Input Power
Pfw
Input Voltage
Thus Pc=P0 - I02r1 - Pfw
BLOCKED
ROTOR TEST
Blocked Rotor test or Short Circuit Test
Rotor is blocked, Speed = 0, slip = 1
I Wsc
sc
A
R
N
IM
V Vsc
B Y
Rotor is blocked or held stationary by
belt pulley or by hand
3-ph Variac
Low voltage is applied upto rated stator current
Voltage Vsc, Current Isc and Power Psc are measured.
Since www.Vidyarthiplus.com
slip is 1, secondary is short circuited
r1 jx1 r2 jx2
Isc
I0
Ic IΦ
1 −s 
Vsc Rc r2  
jXm  s 
This test gives copper loss

Therefore, Zsc = Vsc / Isc
Mechanical loss =0
=Rsc+jXsc
Core loss negligible
Rc and Xm >> r2+jx2 P sc
cosθsc = =0.8 to 0.9
VscI sc
Hence omitted
Rsc= www.Vidyarthiplus.com
Psc/Isc2 = r1+r2
r2= Rsc – r1
X sc= Z sc −R sc
2 2
=x 1+x 2
For wound rotor motor, x1 = x2 = Xsc /2
For squirrel cage motor,
Class of motor x1 x2
1. Class A (normal Tst and Ist) 0.5 0.5
2. Class B (normal Tst and low Ist) 0.4 0.6

3. Class C (high Tst and low Ist) 0.3 0.7
4. Class D (high Tst and high slip) 0.5 0.5
CIRCLE
DIAGRAM
Circle Diagram of Ind Motor
Graphical representation
The equivalent ckt., operating ch. can be obtained
by computer quickly and accurately
But the advantage of circle diagram is that
extremities or Limits of stator current, Power,
torque and slip can be known from circle diagram
The circle diagram is constructed with the help of
1. No load test (I0 & θ0)
2. Blocked rotor test (Isc & θsc)
y www.Vidyarthiplus.com
V1 Isc
Output line
θsc
θ0 I
0
O x
4. Join I0 and Isc
1. Draw x and y axes(V1 on y axis)
2. Draw I0 and Isc(=V1/Zsc) Line I0Isc is
output line
3. Draw parallel line to x axis from I0.
This line indicates constant loss vertically
y www.Vidyarthiplus.com
V1 Isc
Output line
T
θsc
θ0 I L1
0 C x
O L2
5. Draw perpendicular bisector to output line
6. Draw circle with C as a centre
7. Draw perpendicular from Isc on x axis..
I scT r2' Rotor Cu Loss
8. Divide IscL1 in such a way that. = =
www.Vidyarthiplus.com T L1 r1 Stator Cu Loss
y www.Vidyarthiplus.com R
rated output power
V1 Isc
Output line
T Torque line
θsc
θ0 I L1
0 C x
O L2
9. Join I0T. This is called as Torque Line.

10. Suppose 1cm=Xamp, so 1cm=V1.X= power scale
Rated output power/V1X = Total cm for rated o/p power
Total cm for rated output power=IscR
P’
V1 Isc
P Output line
θ1 T Torque line
θsc O’
T’
θ0 I L1
L ’
0 1 C x
O L2’ L2
11. From R, draw line parallel to output line crossing at P & P’.
P is operating point
12. Join O and P. Cosθ1 is operating pf.
13. From P draw perpendicular on x axis
Lebel O’, T’ , L1’ and L2’
P’
V1 Isc
P Output line
θ1 T Torque line
θsc O’
T’
θ0 I L1
L1’
0 C x
O L2’ L2
14. Determine the following

1. Constant Losses and copper losses
L1L2=L1’L2’=constant losses =Core loss + F & W loss
α no load current I0
P’
V1 Isc
P Output line
θ1 T Torque line
θsc O’
T’
θ0 I L1
L1’
0 C x
O L2’ L2
At standstill, input power = IscL2 L1L2=Constant Loss
Constant loss= Stator core loss +rotor core loss (f)

F & W loss=0
P’
V1 Isc
P Output line
θ1 T Torque line
θsc O’
T’
θ0 I L1
L1’
0 C x
O L2’ L2
At operating point P, input power = PL2’, L1’L2’=Constant Loss

Constant loss = Stator core loss + F & W loss
Rotor core loss ≈ 0 (sf)
Thus L1L2=L1’L2’= Constant loss
P’
V1 Isc
P Output line
θ1 T Torque line
θsc O’
T’
θ0 I L1
L1’
0 C x
O L2’ L2
At standstill, Stator Cu loss=TL1 rotor Cu loss = IscT

At P, stator Cu loss =T’L1’ and
rotor Cu loss = O’T’
P’
Pmax
V1 Isc
P Output line
θ1 T Torque line
O”
θsc O’
T’ T”
θ0 I L1
L ’ L ”
0 1 1
C x
O L2’ L2” LP2max
2. Output Power and Torque
Output Power = O’P
The gap betn output line and circle is OUTPUT
0 Power.
Speed Ns
At I0, o/p=0, at Isc, o/p=0 1 Slip 0
Max output power=P maxO”
P’
Pmax
V1 Isc
Tmax
P Output line
θ1 O”’ T Torque line

O”
θsc O’
T’ T” T”’
θ0 I L1”’ L1
L ’ L ”
0 1 1
L ”’ C x
O L2’ L2” 2 L2
2. Output Power and Torque Tmax
Output Torque = T’P
The gap betn torque line and circle is OUTPUT torque.
At I0, torque=0, but at 0 Speed Ns
Isc, torque=T Isc=Starting torque 1 Slip 0
Max output torque=T maxT”’
P’
Pmax
V1 Isc
Tmax
P Output line

O”
θsc O’
T’ T” T”’
θ0 I L1”’ L1
L ’ L ”
0 1 1
L ”’ C x
O L2’ L2” 2 L2
2. Output Power and Torque
Max Power and Max Torque are not occurring at same time
Contradiction to max power transfer theorem
P’
Pmax
V1 Isc
Tmax
P Output line

O”
θsc O’
T’ T”’
T” L1
θ0 I L1’ L1” L1”’
0
L ”’ C x
O L2’ L2” 2 L2
3. Slip, Power factor and Efficiency
Air gap power Pg = Input power – Stator Cu loss- core loss
=PL2’-T’L1’-L1’L2’ = PT’
O"T " O" ' T " '
s = rotor Cu loss/Pg =O’T’/PT’ smp = smt =
www.Vidyarthiplus.com Pmax T " Tmax T " '
P’
Pmax
V1 Isc
Tmax
P Output line

O”
θsc O’
T’ T”’
T” L1
θ0 I L1’ L1” L1”’
0
L ”’ C x
O L2’ L2” 2 L2
3. Slip, Power factor and Efficiency
Power factor cosθ1 = PL2’/OP
Efficiency= PO’/PL2’
P’
Pmax
V1 Isc
Tmax
P Output line
braking torque
θ1 T Torque line
O”
θsc O’
T’ T” s=1
Te L
θ0 I L1’ 1
0 C x
O L2’ L2
4. Braking Torque s=α
s=0 0 Speed Ns
The gap betn circle and T & s=α is braking 1
α torque Slip 0
P’
Pmax
V1 Isc
Tmax
P Output line
braking torque
θ1 T Torque line
O”
θsc O’
T’ T” s=1
θ0 I L1
L1’
0 C x
O L2’ L2
5. Induction Generator s=α
s=0
P’
Pmax
V1 Isc
Tmax
P Output line
braking torque
θ1 T Torque line
O”
θsc O’
T’ T” s=1
θ0 I L1
L1’
0 C x
O L2’ L2
s=0
θG OG=Gen Current
s= -ve O’G=Mech I/p
G
(Generator) L2’G=Active power
PGmax OL2’=reactive power
P’
Pmax
V1 Isc
Tmax
P Output line
braking torque
θ1 T Torque line
O”
θsc O’
T’ T” s=1
θ0 I L1
L ’ Te
0 1 C x
O L2’ L2
s=0 0 Speed Ns Speed
θG OG=Gen 2Ns
Current
α 1 Slip 0 Slip -1
s= -ve O’G=Mech I/p
G
(Generator) L2’G=Active power
PGmax OL2’=reactive power
CIRCLE DIAGRAM OF AN INDUCTION MOTOR- Summary
T
Fig. 3.3
Separation of
Losses
SEPARATION OF NO LOAD LOSSES
The separation of core loss and mechanical loss (windage and friction) can be obtained by
no load test conducted from variable voltage, rated frequency supply. Step by step reduce
the voltage till the machine slip suddenly start to increase and the motor tends to rest
(stall). The core loss decrease almost square of the voltage and windage and friction loss
remains almost constant. Plot the curve between applied voltage (V) and power (Po),
extended to V=0 which gives mechanical loss.
Mechanical loss will be obtained from graph

Magnetic loss + mechanical loss = output power
Therefore., magnetic loss = output power – mechanical loss
Formulae for calculating the equivalent circuit parameters:
Z0 = Voc /(Ioc / √3)
R0 = Woc / (Ioc) 2
X0 = √[( Z0)2 - (R0)2
ϕ0 = cos-1 [Woc / (√3 * Voc * Ioc )]
RBR = Wsc / (Isc)2
ZBR = Vsc / (Isc/ √3)
XBR = √[( ZBR)2 - (RBR)2]
RiWF – Resistance accounting for rotational losses
R1 = 1.2 * stator winding resistance (dc)
Pr = Woc – Ioc2 * R1 (since Pr = P0 – 3 * (Ioc / √3)2 * R1)
RiWF = Voc2 / Pr
Xm – Magnetizing reactance
IiWF = Voc / Riwf
Im = (Ioc2 - IiWF2)1/2
Xm = Voc / Im
Equivalent Circuit: www.Vidyarthiplus.com
Double cage
Induction Motors
DOUBLE CAGE ROTOR
Double Cage Rotor has two independent cages on the same rotor slots,
one inside the other for the production of high starting torque. The
outer cage (alloy) in the rotor has high resistance and low reactance
which is used for starting purpose. The inner cage (copper) has a low
resistance and high reactance which is used for running purpose. The
constructional arrangement and torque-speed characteristics as shown
in fig. 3.5.
Advantages:
 High starting torque.
 Low I2R loss under running conditions and high efficiency.
Double Cage construction
Fig. 3.5
Slip
Torque-Slip Characteristics
Equivalent Circuit:
‘ ‘
If the magnetising current is neglected, then the equivalent circuit is reduced to
Rotor
Induction
Generators
INDUCTION GENERATOR
Principle of operation
Induction generators and motors produce electrical power when
their rotor is rotated faster than the synchronous speed. For a four-
pole motor operating on a 50 Hz will have synchronous speed equal
to 1500 rpm.
In normal motor operation, stator flux rotation is faster than the
rotor rotation. This is causing stator flux to induce rotor currents,
which create rotor flux with magnetic polarity opposite to stator. In
this way, rotor is dragged along behind stator flux, by value equal to
slip.
In generator operation, a prime mover (turbine, engine) is driving
the rotor above the synchronous speed. Stator flux still induces
currents in the rotor, but since the opposing rotor flux is now cutting
the stator coils, active current is produced in stator coils and motor
is now operating as a generator and sending power back to the
electrical grid.
a. Sub-synchronous (motor) b. Super-synchronous (generator)

Fig. 3.4 current Locus for Induction Machine
Fig.3.5 Phasor Diagram

Fig. 3.6 Torque-Slip Characteristics
When the machine runs as induction generator, the vector diagram shown in fig.3.5. This is
possible only if the machine is mechanically driven above the synchronous speed.
OA-no load current
AB-stator current to overcome rotor mmf
OB-total stator current
The torque-slip curve is shown in fig.3.6.Torque will become zero at synchronous speed. If the
speed increases above the synchronous speed, the slip will be negative.
Fig.3.4b the point P in the lower half of the circle shows operating point as an induction
generator.
PT-stator electrical output
ST-Core, friction and windage losses
RS-Stator copper loss
QR-Rotor copper loss
PQ-Mechanical input
PR-Rotor input
rotor copper loss QR
Slip = =
rotor input PR
output PT
Efficiency = =
input PQ
Induction generator differs from the synchronous generator as
 Dc current excitation is not required.
 Synchronisation is not required.
Advantages:
 It does not hunt or drop out of synchronism
 Simple in construction
 Cheaper in cost
 Easy maintenance
 Induction regulators provide a constant voltage adjustment depending on the
loading of the lines.
Disadvantages:
 Cannot be operated independently.
 Deliver only leading current.
 Dangerously high voltages may occur over long transmission lines if the
synchronous machines at the far end become disconnected and the line capacitance
excites the induction machines.
 The induction generator is not helpful in system stability.
Applications:
 For installation in small power stations where it can be operated in parallel and
feeding into a common mains without attendant.
 For braking purpose in railway work.
Synchronous
Induction Motor
SYNCHRONOUS INDUCTION MOTOR
It is possible to make the slip ring induction motor to run at synchronous speed when its
secondary winding is fed from a dc source. Such motors are then called as synchronous
induction motor.
Stator
3Φ
Supply
Fig. 3.3
Rotor connections for dc excitation:
Fig 3.4
Heating will always occur with normal three phase rotor winding as in fig.3.4. The two phase
windings (e and f) gives uniform heating but produce large harmonics and noise. In those
machines primary chording is commonly employed to reduce the effect of harmonics.
The synchronous induction motor is generally built for outputs greater than 30HP because of its
higher cost of the dc exciter. These motors are employed in applications where a constant speed
is desirable such as compressors, fans, pumps, etc., If load torque is high and the machines goes
out of synchronism, it continues to run as an induction motor. As soon as the load torque falls
sufficiently low, the machines will automatically synchronize.
Advantages:
 It will start and synchronise itself against heavy loads.
 No separate damper winding is required.
 The exciter may be small unit due to smaller air-gap.
Problems in
Induction
Motors
Example 5.1 A 3-phase, 460 V, 100 hp, 60 Hz, four-pole induction machine delivers
rated output power at a slip of 0.05. Determine the:
(a) Synchronous speed and motor speed.
(b) Speed of the rotating air gap field.
(c) Frequency of the rotor circuit.
(d) Slip rpm.
(e) Speed of the rotor field relative to the
(i) rotor structure.
(ii) Stator structure.
(iii) Stator rotating field.
(f) Rotor induced voltage at the operating speed, if the stator-to-rotor turns ratio is 1 :
0.5.
Solution:
120 f 120 * 60
ns = = = 1800 rpm
p 4
n = (1 − s )ns = (1 − 0.05) *1800 = 1710 rpm
(b) 1800 (same as synchronous speed)
Example 4.2 A no-load test conducted on a 30 hp, 835 r/min, 440 V, 3-phase, 60 Hz squirrel-cage
induction motor yielded the following results:
No-load voltage (line-to-line): 440 V
No-load current: 14 A
No-load power: 1470 W
Resistance measured between two terminals: 0.5 Ω
The locked-rotor test, conducted at reduced voltage, gave the following results:
Locked-rotor voltage (line-to-line): 163 V
Locked-rotor power: 7200 W
Locked-rotor current: 60 A
Determine the equivalent circuit of the motor.
Solution:
Assuming the stator windings are connected in way, the resistance per phase is:
R1 = 0.5 / 2 = 0.25 Ω
From the no-load test:
VLL 440
V1 = = = 254 V / Phase
3 3
V1 254
Z NL = = = 18.143 Ω
I1 14
PNL 1470 www.Vidyarthiplus.com
R NL = = = 2.5 Ω
3I12 3 *14 2
X NL = Z NL
2
− RNL
2
= 18.1432 − 2.52 = 17.97
X 1 + X m = X NL = 17.97 Ω
From the blocked-rotor test
PBL 7200
RBL = = = 0.6667 Ω
2
3I12 3 * 60
BL
The blocked-rotor reactance is:
X BL = (Z 2
BL − RBL
2
)
= 1.5685 2 − 0.6667 2 = 1.42 Ω
X BL ≅ X 1 + X 2′ = 1.42 Ω
∴ X 1 = X 2′ = 0.71www.Vidyarthiplus.com
Ω
X m = X NL − X 1 = 17.97 − 0.71 = 17.26 Ω

R = RBL − R1 = 0.6667 − 0.25 = 0.4167 Ω
2 2
 X 2′ + X m  + 
 R = 
0 . 71 17 . 26
∴ R2′ =    * 0.4167 = 0.4517 Ω
 Xm   17.26 
Example 5.3 The following test results are obtained from a three-phase 60 hp, 2200
V, six-pole, 60 Hz squirrel-cage induction motor.
(1) No-load test:
Supply frequency = 60 Hz, Line voltage = 2200 V
Line current = 4.5 A, Input power = 1600 W
(2) Blocked-rotor test:
Frequency = 15 Hz, Line voltage = 270 V
Line current = 25 A, Input power = 9000 W
(3) Average DC resistance per stator phase: 2.8 Ω
(a) Determine the no-load rotational loss.
(b) Determine the parameters of the IEEE-recommended equivalent circuit
(c) Determine the parameters (Vth, Rth, Xth) for the Thevenin equivalent circuit of
Fig.5.16.
2200 V1 1270.2
V1 = = 1270.2 V / Phase Z NL = = = 282.27 Ω
3 I1 4.5
PNL 1600
RNL = 2 = 2
= 26.34 Ω
3I1 3 * 4.5
(a) No-Load equivalent Circuit (b) Locked rotor equivalent circuit
X NL = Z NL
2
− RNL
2
= 282.27 2 − 26.34 2 = 281Ω 281.0 = Ω.
X 1 + X m = X NL = 281 Ω
PBL 9000
RBL = 2 = 2
= 4.8 Ω
3I1 3 * 25
R2′ = RBL − R1 = 4.8 − 2.8 = 2Ω

impedance at 15 Hz is: V1 270
Z BL = = = 6.24 Ω
I1 3 * 25
The blocked-rotor reactance at 15 Hz is
X BL = (6.24 2
)
− 4.82 = 3.98 Ω
Its value at 60 Hz is 60
X BL = 3.98 * = 15.92 Ω
15
X BL ≅ X 1 + X 2′
15.92
∴ X 1 = X 2′ = = 7.96 Ω at 60 Hz
2
X m = 281 − 7.96 = 273.04 Ω
R = RBL − R1 = 4.8 − 2.8 = 2 Ω
7.96 + 273.04 
2

R2′ =   2 = 2.12 Ω
 273 .04 
)c (
273.04www.Vidyarthiplus.com
Vth ≅ V1 = 0.97 V1
7.96 + 273.04
Rth ≅ 0.97 R1 = 0.97 * 2.8 = 2.63 Ω

2 2
X th ≅ X 1 = 7.96 Ω
Example 4.4 A three-phase, 460 V, 1740 rpm, 60 Hz, four-pole
wound-rotor induction motor has the following parameters per
phase:
R1 = 0.25 Ω, R2′ = 0.2 Ω, X 1 = X 2′ = 0.5 Ω, X m = 30 Ω
The rotational losses are 1700 watts. With the rotor terminals
short-circuited, find
(a) (i) Starting current when started direct on full voltage.
(ii) Starting torque.
(b) (i) Full-load slip.
(ii) Full-load current.
(iii) Ratio of starting current to full-load current.
(iv) Full-load power factor.
(v) Full-load torque.
(iv) Internal efficiency and motor efficiency at full load.
(c) (i) Slip at which maximum torque is developed.
(ii) Maximum torque developed.
(d) How much external resistance per phase should be
connected in the rotor circuit so that maximum torque occurs at
start?
=163.11 N.m
28022.3 www.Vidyarthiplus.com
ηmotor = *100 = 87.5%
32022.4
ηint ernal = (1 − s ) *100 = (1 − 0.0333) *100 = 96.7%
(c) (i)
(c) (ii)
Note that for parts (a) and (b) it is not necessary to use Thevenin
equivalent circuit. Calculation can be based on the equivalent circuit of
Fig.5.15 as follows:
A three-phase, 460 V, 60 Hz, six-pole wound-rotor induction motor
drives a constant load of 100 N - m at a speed of 1140 rpm when
the rotor terminals are short-circuited. It is required to reduce the
speed of the motor to 1000 rpm by inserting resistances in the
rotor circuit. Determine the value of the resistance if the rotor
winding resistance per phase is 0.2 ohms. Neglect rotational
losses. The stator-to-rotor turns ratio is unity.
Example Thewww.Vidyarthiplus.com
following test results are obtained from three
phase 100hp,460 V, eight pole star connected induction machine
No-load test : 460 V, 60 Hz, 40 A, 4.2 kW. Blocked rotor test is
100V, 60Hz, 140A 8kW. Average DC resistor between two stator
terminals is 0.152 Ω
(a) Determine the parameters of the equivalent circuit.
(b) The motor is connected to 3ϕ , 460 V, 60 Hz supply and runs
at 873 rpm. Determine the input current, input power, air
gap power, rotor cupper loss, mechanical power developed,
output power and efficiency of the motor.
(c) Determine the speed of the rotor field relative to stator
structurewww.Vidyarthiplus.com
and stator rotating field
Solution: www.Vidyarthiplus.com
From no load test:
460 / 3
(a ) Z NL = = 6.64 Ω
40
PNL 4200
RNL = = = 0.875Ω
2 2
3 * I1 3 * 40
X NL = 6.64 2 − 0.8752 = 6.58Ω
X 1 + X m = 6.58Ω
From blocked rotor test:
8000 0.152
RBL = = 0.136Ω R1 = = 0.076Ω
3 *140 2 2
100 / 3
Z BL = = 0.412Ω
140 www.Vidyarthiplus.com
X1 +
X BL = 0.412 2 −www.Vidyarthiplus.com
0.136 2 = 0.389Ω X 2′ = 0.389
0.389
X 1 = X 2′ = = 0.1945Ω
2
X m = 6.58 − 0.1945 = 6.3855
R = RBL − R1 = 0.136 − 0.076 = 0.06Ω
0.1945 + 6.3855 
2

R2′ =   * 0.06 = 0.0637
 6.3855 
0.076 Ω j0.195 Ω j0.195 Ω
j6.386 Ω 0.0637
s
120 f www.Vidyarthiplus.com
120 * 60
(b ) ns = = = 900rpm
P 8
ns − n 900 − 873
s= = = 0.03
ns 900
R2′ 0.0637
= = 2.123
s 0.03
Input impedance ( j 6.386)(2.123 + j 0.195)
Z1 = 0.076 + j 0.195 + = 2.121∠27.16o Ω
2.123 + j (6.386 + 0.195)
V1 460 / 3
I1 = = = 125.22∠ − 27.16 o
Z1 2.12∠27.16
Input power:
Pin = 3 *
460
3
(
*125.22 cos 27.16o = 88.767 kW )
Stator CU losses:
Pst = 3 *125.22 * 0.076 = 3.575 kW
2
Air gap power

Pag = 88.767 − 3.575 = 85.192 kW
Rotor CU losses
P2 = sPag = 0.03 * 85.192 = 2.556 kW
Mechanical power developed:
Pmech = (1 − s ) Pag = (1 − 0.03) * 85.192 = 82.636 kW

Pout = Pmech − Prot
From no load test: Prot = PNL − 3I12 * R1 = 4200 − 3 * 40 2 * 0.076 = 3835.2 W
Pout = 82.636 *103 − 3835.2 = 78.8 kW

Pout 78.8
η= *100 = *100 = 88.77 %
Pin 88 . 767
Example A three phase, 460 V 1450 rpm, 50 Hz, four pole
wound rotor induction motor has the following parameters per
phase ( R1 =0.2Ω, R2′ =0.18 Ω, X 1 = X 2′ =0.2Ω, X m =40Ω). The
rotational losses are 1500 W. Find,

(a) Starting current when started direct on full load voltage.
Also find starting torque.
(b) (b) Slip, current, power factor, load torque and efficiency
at full load conditions.
(c) Maximum torque and slip at which maximum torque will
be developed.
(d) How much external resistance per phase should be
connected in the rotor circuit so that maximum torque
occurs atwww.Vidyarthiplus.com
start?
460
V1 = = 265.6 V www.Vidyarthiplus.com
/ phase
3
j 40 * (0.18 + 0.2 )
Z1 = 0.2 + j 0.2 + = 0.55∠46.59 Ω
o
0.18 + j 40.2
V1 265.6
I st = = = 482.91 ∠ − 46.3 Ωo
I1 0.55∠46.59 o
1500 − 1450
s= = 0.0333
1500
R2′ 0.18
= = 5.4
s 0.0333
j 40 * (5.4 + j 0.2 )
Z1 = 0.2 + j 0.2 + = 4.959 ∠10.83o Ω
5.4 + j 45.4
265www.Vidyarthiplus.com
.6
I1 FL = = 53.56∠ − 10.83 A
o
4.959∠10.83o
Then the power factor is: cos 10.83 = 0.9822 lag.

o
1500
ω sys = * 2π = 157.08 rad / sec .
60
265.6 * ( j 40 )
Vth = = 264.275 ∠0.285o V
(0.2 + j 40.2)
Then,
j 40 * (0.2 + j 0.2 )
Z th = = 0.281432 ∠45.285o = 0.198 + j 0.2 Ω
0.2 + j 40.2
3 * (264.275) * 5.4
2
∴T = = 228.68 Nm
157.08 * (www.Vidyarthiplus.com
0.198 + 5.4 ) + (0.2 + 0.2 )
2 2
Then, Pag = T * ωwww.Vidyarthiplus.com
sys = 228.68 *157.08 = 35921.1W
Then, P2 = sPag = 0.0333 * 35921.1 = 1197 W
And, Pm = (1 − s )Pag = 34723.7W
Then, Pout = Pm − Prot = 34723.7 − 1500 = 33223.7W
Pin = 3 * 265.6 * 53.56 * 0.9822 = 41917 W

Pout 33223.7
Then, η = = = 79.26 %
Pin 41914
3 * (264.275)2
∴ Tm = = 862.56 Nm
[ (
2 *188.5 0.198 + 0.1982 + (0.2 + 0.2 ) )]
2 1/ 2
0.18
sTmax = = 0.4033
[0.198 2
+ (0.2 + 0.2 ) ]
2 1/ 2
R2′ + Rext
′
=1=
[ ]
(d) sTmax
0.198 + (0.2 + 0.2 )
2 2 1/ 2
Then, R2′ + Rext

′ = 0.446323
′ = 0.446323 − 0.18 = 0.26632 Ω
Then, Rext
Example 5.6 The rotor current at start of a three-phase, 460 volt,
1710 rpm, 60 Hz, four pole, squirrel-cage induction motor is six
times the rotor current at full load.
(a) Determine the starting torque as percent of full load torque.
(b) Determine the slip and speed at which the motor develops
maximum torque.
(c) Determine the maximum torque developed by the motor as
percent of full load torque.
Note that the equivalent circuit parameters are not given. Therefore equivalent circuit
parameters cannot be used directly for computation.(a) The synchronous speed is
2 2
I R2 I R2
T= α2 2
sω syn s
Example 4.9 A 4www.Vidyarthiplus.com
pole 50 Hz 20 hp motor has, at rated voltage
and frequency a starting torque of 150% and a maximum torque of
200 % of full load torque. Determine (i) full load speed (ii) speed
at maximum torque.
Solution:
Tst Tmax Tst 1.5
= 1.5 and = 2 then, = = 0.75
TFL TFL Tmax 2
Tst 2 sTmax
= = 0.75
Tmax 1 + sTmax
2
Then,
2
0.75 sTmax − 2 sTmax + 0.75 = 0
Then sTmax = 2.21525 (unacceptable) Or sTmax = 0.451416

Tmax sT2max +www.Vidyarthiplus.com
2
s FL
= =2
TFL 2sTmax * s FL
But sTmax = 0.451416
Tmax 0.4514162 + s FL
2
Then = =2
TFL 2 * 0.451416 * s FL
2
s FL − 4 * 0.451416 s FL + 0.451416 2 = 0
2
s FL − 1.80566 s FL + 0.203777 = 0
s FL = 1.6847 (unacceptable) or s FL = 0.120957
120 * 50 www.Vidyarthiplus.com
ns = = 1500 rpm
4
then (a) nFL = (1− s FL ) * ns
nFL = (1 − 0.120957 ) *1500 = 1319 rpm

( )
(b) nTmax = 1 − sTmax * ns = (1 − 0.451416) *1500 = 823 rpm
3φ, 280 V, 60 Hz, 20 hp, four-pole induction
Example 4.10 Awww.Vidyarthiplus.com
motor has the following equivalent circuit parameters.
R1 = 0.12 Ω, R2′ = 0.1 Ω, X 1 = X 2′ = 0.25 Ω, and X m = 10 Ω
The rotational loss is 400 W. For 5% slip, determine (a) The
motor speed in rpm and radians per sec. (b) The motor current. (c)
The stator cu-loss. (d) The air gap power. (e) The rotor cu-loss. (f)
The shaft power. (g) The developed torque and the shaft torque.
(h) The efficiency.
Solution:
120 * 60 1800
ns = = 1800 rpm , ω s = * 2π = 188.5 rad / sec
4 60
0.12 Ω j0.25 Ω j0.25 Ω
j10 Ω 0.1
=2
0.05
Z1 = 0.12 + j 0.25 + Re + X e
j10 * (2 + j 0.25)
Z1 = 0.12 + j 0.25 + = 2.1314∠23.55o Ω
2 + j10.25
208
V1 = = 120.1 V
3
120.1
I1 = = 2 .1314∠ − 23. 55 o
A
2.1314∠23.55 o
(c) P1 = 3 * 56.3479 * 0.12 = 1143.031W

2
(
(d) Ps = 3 *120.www.Vidyarthiplus.com )
1 * 56.3479 * cos − 23.55 = 18610.9794 W
o
Pag = Ps − P1 = 17467.9485 W
(e) P2 = sPag = 0.05 *17467.9785 = 873.3974 W
(f) Pm = (1 − s ) Pag = 16594.5511W
Pag 17467.9485
(g) T = = = 92.6682 N .m
188.5 188.5
Pshaft 16194.5511
Tshaft = = = 85.9127 Nm
188.5 188.5
Pshaft
(h) η = *100 = 87.02%
Ps
Example 4.11 A 30, 100 WA, 460 V, 60 Hz, eight-pole induction
machine has the following
equivalent circuit parameters:
R1 = 0.07 Ω, R2′ = 0.05 Ω, X 1 = X 2′ = 0.2 Ω, and X m = 6.5 Ω
(a) Derive the Thevenin equivalent circuit for the
induction machine.
(b) If the machine is connected to a 30, 460 V, 60 Hz supply,
determine the starting torque, the maximum torque the machine
can develop, and the speed at which the maximum torque is
developed.
(c) If the maximum torque is to occur at start, determine the
external resistance required in each rotor phase. Assume a
turns ratio (stator to rotor) of 1.2.
Solution: Vth =
Xwww.Vidyarthiplus.com
m
* V1 =
6.5
* 265.6 = 257.7 V
X1 + X m 0.2 + 6.5
Rth + jX th =
( j 6.5) * ( j 0.2 + 0.07 ) = 0.06589 + j 0.1947 Ω
0.07 + j 0.2 + j 6.5
0.06589Ω j0.1947 Ω j0.2 Ω
257.7V 0.05
s
3 * 257.7 2 * 0.05
(b) Tst = = 624.7 Nm
[
94.25 (0.06589 + 0.05) + (0.1947 + 0.2 )
2 2
]
3 * 257.7 2
Tmax =
[
2 * 94.25 0.06589 + 0.06589 2 + (0.1947 + 0.2 )2 ]
= 2267.8 Nm
0.05
sTmax = = 0.1249
0.06589 2 + (0.1947 + 0.2 )2
Speed in
rpm for which max torque occurs
( )
= 1 − sTmax * ns = (1 − 0.1249 ) * 900 = 787.5 rpm
R2′
(c) sTmax = α R2′
R12 + ( X 1 + X 2′ ) 2
s start = 1 1
or R2′ start
= * R2′ = * 0.05 = 0.4 Ω
sTmax 0.1249
Then Rext = (0.4 − 0.05) / 1.2 2 = 0.243 Ω
UNIT-4
Starting & Speed control
of 3ph Induction Motor
Presented by
C.GOKUL
AP/EEE
UNIT-4 Syllabus
Necessity of
Starters / NEED
FOR STARTING
Why we need starters?
 As it is seen that a 3 phase induction motor has

positive finite starting torque ‘T’ when slip s=1. this
mean that 3-pahse induction motor is a self-starting
motor and begins to rotate on its own when
connected to a 3-phase supply.
 At the instant of starting 3-phase induction motor
behaves like a transformer with a short-circuited
secondary.
 Consequently, a 3-pahse induction motor takes high
starting current if started at full voltage. In order to
limit this high starting current to reasonable limits
starting methods are used.
STARTING
METHODS OF
INDUCTION
MACHINE
Methods of Starting
 There are primarily two methods of starting the

induction motor:-
a) Full voltage starting.
b) Reduced voltage starting.
 Full voltage starting methods consist of:-
a) DOL (Direct-on-line starting)
 Reduced voltage starting consist of:-
a) Stator resistor (or reactor) starting.
b) Auto-transformer starting.
c) Star-delta starting.
AUTO
TRANSFORMER
STARTER
V1
xV1
xV1
Rotor
IL Stator
I st = xI sc
Fig: Auto-transformer starting

The fraction of xV1 is applied to the stator wdg at starting.
As speed increases, gradually voltage is increased
Finally full voltage is applied to the motor.
Advantages 1. Voltage is changed by transformer action
and not by dropping voltage as that of reactor
2. So power loss and input current are less.
V1
xV1
xV1
Rotor
IL Stator
I st = xI sc

The stator starting current is I st = xV1 / z1 = xI sc
For auto-transformer, input VA= output VA
ILV1=Ist (xV1)
Therefore, line current at
input is x2 times the DOL IL=xIst
current. IL=x2Isc
2
Test
 I1st  
2 I sc
2

Thus, =   sfl = x   sfl
I   I 
Tefl  1fl 
www.Vidyarthiplus.com  fl 
V1
xV1
xV1
Rotor
IL Stator
I st = xI sc

Line current at input due to auto-transformer starting
=x
Line current at input due to stator reactor starting
V1
xV1
xV1
Rotor
IL Stator
I st = xI sc
V1
xV1
xV1
Rotor
IL Stator
I st = xI sc

Line current at input due to auto-transformer starting
=x
Line current at input due to stator reactor starting
Starting torque with auto transformer starting
=x 2
Starting torque with DOL starting
Starting torque with auto transformer starting

=1
Starting torque with stator reactor starting
STAR DELTA
STARTER
Star-Delta starting
For star, 3 terminals of stator wdg are required.
For delta, 6 terminals are required.
Now make delta
R Y B Connection.
Stator
2- Run - Delta
TPDT
1- Start - Star
Fig.: Star-Delta starting

Rotor www.Vidyarthiplus.com
Atwww.Vidyarthiplus.com
starting TPDT to 1, wdg in star
Reduced voltage is applied to wdg = VL/√3
Motor rotates.
The starting current is
Now TPDT to 2- Delta I st.y =VL / 3z 1
Line voltage applied R Y B
= I Starting
to wdg. Motor runs at rated speed L.y
Line current
Stator
2- Run - Delta
TPDT
1- Start - Star

Motor rotates.
Line voltage applied R Y B
= I Starting
to wdg Motor runs at rated speed L.y
Line current
Stator
2- Run - Delta
TPDT
1- Start - Star

Motor rotates.
Line voltage applied
= I Starting
to wdg Motor runs at rated speed L.y
Line current
At starting, if, wdg in delta
I st.d =VL / z 1 = I sc.d
I L.d = 3 I st.d
1
∴ I st.y = I st.d
3
Starting line current with Y-Δ starter Ist.y 1
= =
Starting line current with stator in Δ √3 Ist.d 3
Thus Ist.y in star is one third of that current in delta.

Starting www.Vidyarthiplus.com
torque with Y-Δ starting (V1/√3)2 1
= =
Starting torque with stator in Δ V1 2
3
This shows that Tst.y in star is one third of starting torque
in delta.
In case of auto-transformer, if turn ratio x = 1/√3
Then starting line current and is starting torque are
reduced to one third of their values with delta.
This shows that
Star delta starting is equivalent to auto transformer
if auto transformer turn ratio x=1/√3=0.58 or 58% tapping
This method is cheap, effective and used extensively
Used for tool drives, pumps, motor-generator set.
Used up to rating of 3.3kV,
After this voltage, m/c becomes expensive for delta winding
Example www.Vidyarthiplus.com
Determine the % tapping of the auto-transformer so
that the supply current during starting of IM does not
exceed 1.5 times full load current. The short circuit current
on normal voltage is 4.5 times the full load current and the
full load slip is 3%. Calculate the ratio of starting torque
full load torque.
Solution
V1
IL=1.5IFL xV1
xV1
Rotor
Isc=4.5IFL
IL Stator
I st = xI sc
IL/Isc=0.333
In auto-transformer IL/Isc=x2 x=0.577

Hence % tapping is 57%
2
Test  I1st 
2
www.Vidyarthiplus.com
2 I sc

 s =x  
Now = I  fl  I  sfl
Tefl  1fl   fl 
= 0.333 (4.5 ) 0.03
2
= 0.202
V1
xV1
xV1
Rotor
IL Stator
I st = xI sc
Example www.Vidyarthiplus.com
The short circuit line current of a 6hp IM is 3.5 times
its full load current, the stator of which is arranged for star
delta starting. The supply voltage is 400V, full load effn is
82% and full load power factor is 0.85% (lag).
Calculate the line current at the instant of starting.
Neglect magnetizing current.
Solution
6hp IM, P=√3 VLILcosθ
Isc=3.5IFL  6 ×746  1
IFL= I L =  
Star-delta starting  0.82  3 × 400 ×0.85
=9.26A (line current for
Isc (line) =3.5 IFL
delta)
Voltage =400V =5.34A (phase current
η =82%, pf=0.85 (lag) for delta)
FL www.Vidyarthiplus.com
Isc=3.5IFL=3.5x5.34
=18.73A
At the instant of starting, motor wdg is in star
For star, line current is equal to phase current.
IL at the instant of start =18.73A for delta (400V)
IL at the instant of start =18.73/√3 A for star (400/√3)
=10.81A
DOL(Direct-on-line)
Starter
DOL(Direct-on-line)starting
 This method involves direct switching of
poly-phase stator on to the supply mains.
 The motor takes starting current of 5 to 7 times its
full load current depending upon its size and
design.
 Such large current of short duration don’t harm the
rugged squirrel cage motor, but the high currents
may cause objectionable voltage drop in power
supply feeding the induction motor
 These large voltage drop causes undesirable dip in
the supply line voltage, consequently affecting the
other equipments connected to the same supply.
 The relation between the starting torque Ts and full
load torque Tf is now obtained .
 Let Is and If be the per phase stator currents drawn
from the supply mains corresponding to starting
and full load conditions respectively.
 We know:- 1 2 r2
Te = .I 2 .
ωs s
 Therefore:-
2
Ts I s r2 1  I s 
2
= 2 = .s f
  
T f I f r2 s f  I f  ------Eqn(1)
 Now V1
I st = = I sc
Z sc
 V1 is www.Vidyarthiplus.com
per-phase stator voltage & Zsc
=(r1+r2)+j(x1+x2), is the leakage impedance.
 Therefore Eqn(1) can be written as:-
2
Ts  I sc 
= .s f

Tf  I f  
 ----Eqn(2)
Stator
resistance(reactor)
Starter
Stator resistance(reactor)method
 In this method, a resistor or a reactor is inserted in

between motor terminals and supply mains.
 At the time of starting some voltage drop occurs
across the starting resistor and therefore only a
fraction ‘x’ of supply voltage appears across it.
 This reduces the per phase starting currents Is
drawn by the motor from the supply mains.
 As the motor speeds up, the
reactor is cut out in steps
and finally short-circuited
when the motor speed is
near to synchronous speed.
 Since the per phase voltage is reduced to ‘xV1’ the
per phase starting current is:-
xV1
Is = = xI sc
Z sc
 Now we know:-
1 I 22 r2
T= .
ωs s
 Therefore we have:-
2
Ts  
2  I sc 
=x sf
 Tf   -----Eqn(1)
 If 
 Therefore:-
2
starting torque with reactor starting  xV1 
=   = x 2
starting torque with direct switching  V1 
Rotor resistance
Starter
ROTOR RESISTANCE STARTER(only for
slip ring induction motor)
• Increasing the rotor resistance, not only is the rotor
(and hence stator) current reduced at starting, but at
the same time, the starting torque is also increased
due to improvement in power factor.
• The introduction of additional external resistance in
the rotor circuit enables a slip-ring motor to develop
a high starting torque with reasonably moderate
starting current.
• Hence, such motors can be started under load. This
additional resistance is for starting purpose only. It is
gradually cut out as the motor comes up to speed.
Speed control of
3 phase Induction Motor
Speed Control of IM
• Given a load T–ω characteristic, the steady-state speed can be
changed by altering the T–ω curve of the motor
Te =
3R '
r Vs
2
2 Varying voltage
(amplitude)
sωs  ' 2
Rr  
 Rs +  + ( X ls + X lr ) 
2
 s  
2 4
ωs = ω = πf 3 Varying line
frequency
P P
1 Pole Changing
a) By changing the applied voltage:
Torque equation of induction motor is
Rotor resistance R2 is constant and if slip s is small

then sX2 is so small that it can be neglected. Therefore, T
∝ sE22 where E2 is rotor induced emf and E2 ∝ V
& hence T ∝ V2, thus if supplied voltage is decreased,
torque decreases and hence the speed decreases.
This method is the easiest & cheapest, still rarely used because-
1) A large change in supply voltage is required for
relatively small change in speed.
2) Large change in supply voltage will result in large
change in flux density, hence disturbing the magnetic
conditions of the motor.
b) By changing the applied frequency
• Synchronous speed of the rotating magnetic field of
induction motor is given by,
f = frequency & P = number of stator poles.

• Thus, synchronous speed changes with change in
supply frequency, and thus running speed also
changes. However, this method is not widely used.
This method is used where, only the induction motor
is supplied by a generator (so that frequency can be
easily change by changing the speed of prime
mover).
V/F control
Variable Frequency Control of IM (v/f control)
 Speed control above rated (base) speed

 Requires the use of PWM inverters to control frequency of motor
 Frequency increased (i.e. ωs increased)
 Stator voltage held constant at rated value
 Air gap flux and rotor current decreases
 Developed torque
decreases
Te ∝ (1/ωs)
 For control below
base speed –
use Constant
Volts/Hz method
Constant Volts/Hz (V/f) Control
 Airgap flux in the motor is related to the induced stator
voltage E1 :
E1 Vs Assuming small voltage drop
φag = ≈ across Rs and Lls
f f
 For below base speed operation:
 Frequency reduced at rated Vs - airgap flux saturates
(f ↓ ,φag ↑ and enters saturation region oh B-H curve):
- excessive stator currents flow
- distortion of flux wave
- increase in core losses and stator copper loss
 Hence, keep φag = rated flux
 stator voltage Vs must be reduced proportional to reduction
in f (i.e. maintaining Vs / f ratio)
 Max. torque remains almost
constant
 For low speed operation:
2
E1 Vs Vs
 can’t ignore voltage drop across
φag = ≠ Tmax ∝
f f ωs
Rs and Lls (i.e. E1 ≠ Vs)
 poor torque capability
(i.e. torque decreased at low
speeds shown by dotted lines)
 stator voltage must be boosted
– to compensate for voltage
drop at Rs and Lls and maintain
constant φag
 For above base speed operation
(f > frated):
 stator voltage maintained at
rated value
 Same as Variable Frequency
control (refer to slide 13)
Vs
Vs vs. f relation in Constant Volts/Hz drives Boost - to
compensate for
Vrated voltage drop at Rs
and Lls
Linear offset curve –

Linear offset
• for high-starting
torque loads
• employed for most
applications
Non-linear offset
curve –
• for low-starting
Non-linear offset – varies with Is torque loads
Boost
f
f
www.Vidyarthiplus.com rated 509
• For operation at frequency K times rated frequency:

– fs = Kfs,rated ⇒ ωs = Kωs,rated
(1)
(Note: in (1) , speed is given as mechanical speed)
 KVs ,rated , when f s < f s ,rated
– Stator voltage:Vs = 
(2)  Vs ,rated , when f s > f s ,rated
–Voltage-to-frequency ratio = d = constant:

Vs,rated
d=
ω s,rated (3)
 For operation at frequency K times rated frequency:

Hence, the torque produced by the motor:
' 2
3R Vs
Te = r
sω s  ' 2
Rr   (4)
 Rs +  + K ( X ls + X lr ) 
2 2
 s  
where ωs and Vs are calculated from (1) and (2)

respectively.
 For operation at frequency K times rated frequency:

The slip for maximum torque is:
Rr' (5)
smax = ±
Rs + K 2 ( X ls + X lr )
2 2
 The maximum torque is then given by:

2
3 Vs
Tmax = (6)
2ω s  R ± R + K 2 ( X + X ) 
2 2
 s s ls lr 
where ωs and Vs are calculated from (1) and (2)
respectively.
Constant
Torque Area Field Weakening Mode (f > frated)
Rated (Base) (below base speed)
frequency • Reduced flux (since Vs is constant)
• Torque reduces
⇒Constant Power Area
(above base speed)
Note:
Operation restricted
between synchronous
speed and Tmax for
motoring and braking
regions, i.e. in the
linear region of the
torque-speed curve.
Constant Torque Area
Constant Power Area
c) By changing No. of poles
synchronous speed(Ns) (and hence, running speed) can be changed

by changing the number of stator poles. This method is generally used
for squirrel cage induction motors, as squirrel cage rotor adapts itself for
any number of stator poles. Change in stator poles is achieved by two or
more independent stator windings wound for different number of poles in
same slots.
For example, a stator is wound with two 3phase windings, one for 4 poles
and other for 6 poles.
For supply frequency of 50 Hz
i) synchronous speed when 4 pole winding is connected,
Ns = 120*50/4 = 1500 RPM
ii) synchronous speed when 6 pole winding is connected,
Ns = 120*50/6 = 1000 RPM
CASCADING OPERATION
Cascaded connection
• In this method of speed control, two motors
are used. Both are mounted on a same shaft
so that both run at same speed.
• One motor is fed from a 3phase supply and
other motor is fed from the induced emf in
first motor via slip-rings.
Motor A is called main motor and motor B is called auxiliary
motor.
Let, Ns1 = frequency of motor A
Ns2 = frequency of motor B
P1 = number of poles stator of motor A
P2 = number of stator poles of motor B
N = speed of the set and same for both motors
f = frequency of the supply
Now, slip of motor A, S1 = (Ns1 - N) / Ns1.

frequency of the rotor induced emf in motor A, f1 = S1f
now, auxiliary motor B is supplied with the rotor induce emf
therefore, Ns2 = (120f1) / P2 = (120S1f) / P2.
now putting the value of S1 = (Ns1 - N) / Ns1
• At no load, speed of the auxiliary rotor is almost same as its synchronous speed.
i.e. N = Ns2.
Four different speeds can be obtained

1. when only motor A works, corresponding
speed = Ns1 = 120f / P1
2. when only motor B works, corresponding
speed = Ns2 = 120f / P2
3. if cummulative cascading is done,
speed of the set = N = 120f / (P1 + P2)
4. if differential cascading is done,
speed of the set = N = 120f (P1 - P2)
Slip power
recovery
•Kramer
•Scherbius
1) Kramer System
RYB Voltage
f regulating
device
MIM ACM
If brush emf is more than slip voltage
Power flows from ACM-Rotor of MIM.
MIM operates at Super-Synchronous speed
If brush emf is less than slip voltage
Power flows from Rotor of MIM- ACM.
MIM operates at Sub-Synchronous speed
Since power is flowing from one machine to another with one
shaft, it is constant power drive.
2) Scherbius System
RYB RYB
f
Voltage
regulating
MIM device
ACM AIM
At Super-Synchronous speed, power flows from supply-AIM

(Motor) - ACM -rotor of MIM.
At Sub-Synchronous speed, power flows from rotor of MIM
- ACM – AIM (Gen) - supply.
Power changes Constant torque drive

Braking of 3ph
Induction
Motors
•Plugging
•Dynamic Braking
•Regenerative Braking
Braking Methods
• Regenerative Braking
• Plugging or reverse voltage braking
• Dynamic ( or rheostatic ) braking :
a) ac dynamic braking
b) Self-excited braking using capacitor
c) dc dynamic braking
d) zero-sequence braking
1. Regenerative Braking
• If an induction motor is forced to run at speeds in
excess of the synchronous speed, the load
torque exceeds the machine torque and the slip
is negative, reversing the rotor induced EMF and
rotor current. In this situation the machine will
act as a generator with energy being returned to
the supply.
• If the AC supply voltage to the stator excitation is
simply removed, no generation is possible
because there can be no induced current in the
rotor.
Regenerative braking
• In traction applications, regenerative braking is
not possible below synchronous speed in a
machine fed with a fixed frequency supply. If
however the motor is fed by a variable frequency
inverter then regenerative braking is possible by
reducing the supply frequency so that the
synchronous speed becomes less than the
motor speed.
• AC motors can be microprocessor controlled to
a fine degree and can regenerate current down
to almost a stop
B TL
A
Te 8 poles 4 poles D
D TL A
0 Speed Ns
1 Slip C 0 -Te +Te
B Two quadrant operation

• Power input to induction motor:
Pin=3VIscosφs
Motoring operation φs<90º ωm< ωms

Braking φs>90º ωm> ωms
• Advantage: Generated power is usefully
employed
• Disadvantage: It can not be employed
below synchronous speed when fed from
constant frequency source.
• Speed Range : Between synchronous
speed and the speed for which braking
torque is maximum.
2. Plugging
• Plugging induction motor braking is done by reversing
the phase sequence of the motor. Plugging braking of
induction motor is done by interchanging connections
of any two phases of stator with respect of supply
terminals. And with that the operation of motoring shifts
to plugging braking.
• During plugging the slip is (2 - s), if the original slip of the
running motor is s, then it can be shown in the following
way.
• From the figure beside we can see that
the torque is not zero at zero speed.
That’s why when the motor is needed to
be stopped, it should be disconnected
from the supply at near zero speed.
• The motor is connected to rotate in the
reverse direction and the torque is not
zero at zero or any other speed, and as a
result the motor first decelerates to zero
and then smoothly accelerates in the
opposite direction.
3. DC Dynamic Braking
or Rheostatic or AC Dynamic Braking
The disadvantages of plugging are removed in dynamic
braking. Dynamic braking requires less power.
Under normal operating condition
Stator - Rotating Magnetic Field - Ns Faster sNs
Rotor - Te - Rotates - Nr Slower
If DC supply is given to stator

Stator - Stationary Magnetic Field -Ns =0 Slower
Rotor - Teb Rotates - Nr Faster Ns(1-s)=

This Teb is dynamic braking torque. NsS
Teb depends on 1. DC source. 2. Rotor resistance 3. Speed
Consider rotor is running at syn speed Ns
Stator is excited by DC
The relative speed between stator field and
rotor is Ns.
Slip = (Relative speed Ns)/Ns = 1
This is equivalent to IM with a rotor at STANDSTILL
Now consider, rotor is at rest and stator is excited by DC
Stationary flux induces no rotor emf
This is equivalent to IM with a rotor RUNNING at Syn speed
Conclusions
1. Rotor at syn speed with DC dynamic braking is similar to
rotor at rest during IM operation
2. Rotor at rest with DC dynamic braking is similar to
rotor running at syn speed during IM operation
Circuit Diagram
AC DC
R1
Stator R1 is connected to limit

stator current
Additional rotor resistance
is also connected to limit
Rotor the current and to obtain
braking characteristics
Circuit Diagram
AC
Rectifier
R1 Transformer
Stator
Rotor
Under normal operating condition
Rotor speed w r t stator field under DC dynamic
braking is Ns(1-s) = NsS
In the equivalent ckt diagram, replace s by S
jx2 In phasor diadram
I1 I2 also replace s by S
V1
IΦ
VDC jXm r2/S I1

I1’
I0
x1 = 0, and no stator core loss I2r2

SE2
I2 jI2Sx2
Thewww.Vidyarthiplus.com
dynamic braking torque is
3 r2
Ted =
2
I2
ωs S
Te The T-s ch is similar to IM but with slip scale reversed
R2’ < R2’’< R2’’’
TL A
0 Speed Ns
1 Slip 0
r2 Ted
R2’
R2’’
R2’’’
Ted increases with increase in rotor circuit resistance
Due to this it is also called as RHEOSTATIC braking
The entire power developed in rotor is dissipated in R2
MMF produced by 3-ph wdg due to AC
MMFAC = 3 I m N
2
MMF produced by single ph due to DC = IDC N
The resultant MMF produced due to DC
IDC N
60 MMFDC = 3IDC N
IDC N
√3IDC N
∴For equal MMF due to AC and DC
3
I m N = 3IDC N
2
3
IDC = I1 N
2
AC dynamic braking in nothing but SEIG operation
A bank of capacitors is connected across
three phases of stator wdg.
IG receives AC excitation from bank of capacitor
The generated electrical energy is
AC dissipated as heat in rotor circuit
Due to high cost of capacitor, this
method is not used in practice.
Advantages of
Dynamic Braking
C C 1. Smooth stop
2. Less rotor ckt
Stator C loss
3. No tendency to
reverse
Rotor
Disadvantage: Less quick than plugging
UNIT-5
Single phase Induction
Motor & Special Machines
Presented by
C.GOKUL
AP/EEE
Single phase
Induction Motor
Introduction
• What is single phase induction motors?

is an induction motor having a squirrel cage
rotor and a single phase stator winding.
Working Principle
Suppose the rotor is at rest and a single phase

supply is given to the stator winding. Now the current
flowing in the stator winding will produce a m.m.f
with in the stator and this m.m.f induces a current in
the rotor. Again the induced current inside the rotor
will produce a m.m.f with in the rotor itself which is
equal in magnitude and opposite in direction with the
stator m.m.f. Thus the two m.m.f cancel out each
other and as a result there will be no net torque
acting on the rotor. There for the rotor will stay at
rest. So due to this effect, we have to find another
method to start the motor.
Types of Single Phase Induction Motors
Depending on the method used to start the

motor : -
• 1) Capacitor-start motors
• 2) Capacitor-run motors
• 3) Capacitor start-and run motors
• 4) Shaded-pole motors
1) Capacitor-Start phase induction
motor
• A capacitor-Start motor is a spilt phase
induction motor with a starting capacitor
inserted in series with the start winding
creating an LC Circuit which is capable of
producing a much greater torque.
• An Lc circuit refers to a circuit containing
an inductor w/c connected together they
can act as an electrical resonator w/c
stores electrical energy.
Workingwww.Vidyarthiplus.com
Principle of single phase
capacitor-start motor
• In capacitor-start motors the capacitor enables
the motor to handle heavy start loads by increasing
the strength of the magnetic field created by the
windings. The capacitor is individually mounted
outside of the motor as a separate unit either on the
top or side of the motor with a centrifugal switch
located between the capacitor and the start winding.
The switch connects the capacitor with the motor at
startup and disconnects them when the motor has
reached about 75% of its operating speed. And during
startup period when the centrifugal switch is closed,
capacitor-start motors typically deliver from 250-350%
of the full load torque.
Equivalent circuit of capacitor-start
motors
Types of single phase capacitor-start
motor
Among this the basic types include:-
A) Single voltage externally reversible
B) Single voltage non reversible
Applications of single phase
capacitor-start motors
Capacitor-start from high torque (>175%
full load) are used: -
 Operation having high starting loads
such as: - Elevators
- Compressors &
- Refrigerators
• Capacitor-start moderate torque (<175%

full load) are used:-
 Operation having low starting
loads such as:- Fans
- Blowers &
- Small pumps.
2) Capacitor run motors
Capacitor-run motors are motors having a
capacitor connected in series with the start
winding in order to increase the running
efficiency.
Capacitor-run motors use run-capacitors
that are designed for continuous duty which
are energized the entire time during
operation of the motor.
principle of single phase
capacitor-run motors
• In capacitor-run motors, a run-capacitor
is connected to the start winding of the
motor and it constantly energizes the start
winding while the motor is running. And this
creates a 90o phase change between the start
winding current and the run winding current
making a two phase motor. As a result a
rotating magnetic field is created within the
motor which causes the rotor to rotate more
efficiently.
Advantages and disadvantages of
capacitor-run motors
Advantages
The capacitor remains in the circuit at all
times thus no centrifugal switch is required.
They can be designed to have low vibration
and less noise under full load condition.
If properly designed, they are more efficient
than other type of motors.
Disadvantages
Since capacitor start motors have low
starting torque they cannot be used in
applications with severe starting conditions.
Application of single phase capacitor-
run motors
 are mainly used for applications requiring

low starting torque and high efficiency
such as:- Small compressors,
Pumps &
Fans.
3) Capacitor start-and-run motors
Capacitor-start-and-run motors or permanent-
split capacitor motors
 are single phase induction motors having
capacitors connected in the circuit during both
the starting and the running period. In this type
of motors both the start winding and the run
windings are permanently connected to the
power source through a capacitor at all times.
Types of single phase capacitor start-
and-run motors
Depending on the number of capacitors
used: -
1. Single value capacitor start-and-run
motors:
2. Two value capacitor start-and-run
motors
The two values of capacitance can be obtained
using two different methods.
a. By using two capacitors in parallel
b. By using a step up transformer
Advantage
• Ability to start heavy loads

• Ability to develop 25% overload capacity
• Higher efficiency and power factor
• Extremely quiet operation
Applications of single phase capacitor
start-and-run motors
• Two value capacitor start and run motors are

frequently used in applications requiring
variable speed such as : -
Air handlers,
Blowers and
Fanes.
• Single value capacitor start-and-run

motors are used in applications requiring
low starting torque such as:-
 Fans
 Blowers &
 Voltage regulators.
4) Shaded pole motors
• A shaded pole motor is a single phase induction
motor having one or more short circuited
windings acting only on a portion of the
magnetic circuit.
• Generally the winding is a closed copper ring
embedded in the face of the pole together
known as the shaded pole which provides the
required rotating field for starting purpose.
principles of single phase
shaded pole motors
• Now when an alternating current is passed through

the field or main winding surrounding the whole pole, the
magnetic axis of the pole shifts from the unshaded part to
the shaded part. which is analogous with the actual
physical movement of the pole. As a result the rotor starts
rotating in the direction of this shift from the unshaded
part to thewww.Vidyarthiplus.com
shaded part.
Advantages and disadvantages of single
phase shaded pole motors
Advantages
Simple in construction
Tough surface
Reliable and cheap
Disadvantages
Low starting torque
Very little overload capacity
Low efficiency (5% for tiny sizes – 35%
for higher ratings)
Applications of single phase shaded-
pole motors
• Because of its low starting torque, the shaded
pole motor is generally used for
Small fans,
Toys,
Hairdryers,
Ventilators etc.
Special Machines
There are variety of special machines available

Here, our territory includes
 Stepper Motor
 Hysteresis Motor
 AC series Motor
 Linear Reluctance Motor
 Repulsion Motor
Stepper
Motor
Stepper Motor
 Stepper Motor, derives its name from the fact that it follows
definitive step in response to input pulses
 See to it, that the input is in the form of pulses
 Straightaway it is understood that the input, being pulses, can
be controlled and in turn the output gets controlled
 Wherever precise positioning is required stepper motors are
widely employed
 Typical values – stepper motors develop torque ranging from 1
µN-m upto 40 µN-m – power output range from 1 W to 2500 W
Stepper Motor – types
 There are three designs of stepper motors

available in the literature
 They are
 Variable Reluctance stepper motor
 Permanent magnet stepper motor
 Hybrid stepper motor
Stepper Motor – Variable

Reluctance Stepper Motor
 Operating principle
1. Variable Reluctance
Stepper Motor
 As usual, it has
 Stator
 Rotor
Variable Reluctance Stepper Motor
- Stator
 Stator is a hollow cylinder whose inner

periphery houses salient poles
- Rotor
 Rotor is a solid cylinder whose outer

periphery has salient poles
 When we emphasize that the operation just

performed is 1-phase-ON mode we indirectly
mean that we have something called as 2-
phase-ON mode and so on
 As the name goes, 2-phase-ON mode
denotes 2 phases being switched ON at the
same time
 2-phase-ON mode
 When we started, 2-phase-ON mode, many

would have thought that step angle would be
15 deg
 But the table in the previous slide shows the
step angle is same as that of the previous
case (30 deg, maintained)
 But the position of the rotor is changed,
which is a desirable factor in some of the
position control experiments
 If the step angle is altered from the original intended design, it

would add much to the application side of our machine
 Can we bring any other step size here?
 Is it possible, first of all?
 The answer is yes, it is possible
 There is no restriction imposed on us in altering the
combination of switching pulses
 In fact, the 2-phase-ON mode is the child of our manipulation of
combination of phases involved in switching
 Going by the same discussion, if we resort to

the combination of 1-phase-ON mode and 2-
phase-ON mode we will end up with some
interesting operation
 It is interesting to note here that this

discussion has no end in it
 We have something called as micro-stepping
and the reader is advised to do it as an
assignment
 All the previous slides regarding Variable

Reluctance Stepper Motor can be confined to
what is referred to as single-stack variable
reluctance stepper motor
 It becomes clear by now that we have
something called as multi-stack variable
reluctance stepper motor
2. Permanent Magnet
Stepper Motor
 It is very similar to Variable Reluctance
stepper motor
 The only difference being that the rotor is
made up of permanent magnet
 In VR motors, the rotor is a magnetic material
(It can carry the flux lines through it)
Permanent Magnet Stepper Motor
 Stator and Rotor
 The stator phases can be excited with either

positive current or negative current
 Positive current in phase A will create a set
of poles while the negative current will create
opposite poles
 Similar is the case with phase B
 Consider positive current in phase A
 Advantages
 Permanent magnets require no external
exciting current – low power loss
 High inertia
 Develops more torque than VR motor
 Disadvantages
 It is very difficult to produce permanent
magnet rotor with more number of poles
 This makes the design of PM motors with
higher step angle
3. Hybrid Stepper Motor

 Hybrid stepper motor combine the features of
VR and PM stepper motors
 The stator is an electromagnet
 The rotor is a permanent magnet
 The difference in the rotor is that the rotor
magnet is axial with one end completely
north pole and other, south pole
Hybrid Stepper Motor
 The confusion, if any, can be better

illustrated with the schematic representation
given below
 The side view of the axial permanent magnet

in the rotor is shown below
 The operation is left as an assignment for the

reader
 The reader can build on this idea that the
rotor alignment would be based on the
attraction between formed stator poles (this
being electromagnet) and permanent rotor
poles
Applications
 Type-writers
 Tape drives
 Floppy disk drivers
 Process control systems
 X-Y plotters
Hysteresis Motor
Hysteresis Motor
 This is based on the principle of hysteresis
 Basically this is a constant speed motor
similar to synchronous motor
 As is always the case
It has a
 Stator and a Rotor
Hysteresis Motor - Stator
 Stator of hysteresis motor is similar to single

phase induction motor
 The stator winding can be either split phase
type of shaded pole type
Hysteresis Motor - Rotor
 Rotor is a smooth cylinder made of chrome-

steel
 Materials of high resistivity comparable to
that of an insulator are normally chosen to
make the eddy current loss zero which make
the core loss equal only to hysteresis loss
Hysteresis Motor – Operating Principle
 The concept of hysteresis is the basis

of such motor
 As we know, hysteresis is the lagging
of magnetic flux density (B) with
respect to magnetizing field strength
(H)
Hysteresis loss
 Remember, the very old hysteresis curve

 It looks as shown
Hysteresis loss
 At the outset, what we can elaborate is that if an

attempt is made to induce pole in a magnetic
material with higher retentivity – the induced pole will
not loose its magnetic property even though the
induction is taken out completely
 It is like remembering some event even after the
event is over (retaining something)
Hysteresis loss
 Where this come in the machine?
The typical hysteresis loop for the

rotor material
Torque – Slip characteristics
 The torque – slip characteristics of hysteresis

motor has some interesting points to note
Applications
 Precision Audio equipments

 Record players
 Electric clocks
 Tele-printers
AC series Motor
AC series motor
 An AC motor with commutator and brush
assembly is referred to as commutator motor
 (Remember commutator and brush assembly
in the wound rotor of an Induction motor)
 There are two types of commutator motor
 AC series motor
 Universal motor
AC series motor
 What would happen if a normal dc series motor is connected to

ac supply?
 The motor will run normally as the torque will still be
unidirectional
 This is due to the fact that current and flux will change direction
simultaneously (dealt during 3 ph IM)
 But, power factor would be very poor due to very high
inductance of armature and field windings
 At the same time, alternating flux would induce eddy emf in the
core leading to heavy eddy current loss in the machine
 Also, sparking occur at brushes during the commutation period
due to heavy voltage and current
AC series motor
 These disadvantages make the machine

unsuitable with AC supply
 Proper modifications can make the machine
suitable with AC supply
AC series motor – Required

Modifications
 Eddy current loss and the associated heating

loss can be overcome by properly laminating
the machine’s armature core and field core
 The power factor can be controlled by
decreasing the reactance of armature
winding and field winding
AC series motor – Modifications

Elaborated
 Decreasing the reactance of the field winding

increases the speed of the machine due to reduction
in the air gap flux
 Increase in the speed gives rise to decreased torque
 Now to improve the torque, armature turns has to be
increased proportionately
 But this will again increase the effective reactance of
the machine which is undesirable

Elaborated
 To keep the armature reactance minimum and the

associated armature reaction reactance effect, a
special compensating winding is provided
 The compensating winding is connected in such a
way so that the flux produced by the compensating
winding will be exactly in opposition to the flux
produced by the armature winding
 This will neutralize the armature reaction reactance
effect

Implementation
 This compensating winding can be connected in two ways

 Based on the connection it is referred as conductively
compensated and inductively compensated

Implementation
 Another major set back is the sparking associated

with commutation
 In dc motors, this is overcome by commutating
poles (com poles) or inter poles
 The voltage induced in the short circuited armature
winding is huge enough (this voltage is absent in the
case of dc motors) which creates undesirable
sparking even when inter poles are provided

Implementation
 One method to reduce sparking connecting a shunt

resistance with the commutating winding of the
machine
 By adjusting the resistance, voltage across the
compole winding is adjusted
AC series motor – Characteristics
 The characteristics of AC series motor are very

similar to dc series motor
Repulsion Motor
Repulsion Motor
 It has a
 Stator
 Rotor
Repulsion Motor - Stator
 Stator is a hollow cylinder whose inner periphery

houses armature conductors
 Winding is excited with single phase supply
Repulsion Motor - Motor
 Rotor is a solid cylinder whose outer periphery has

conductors
 It is very similar to the armature of the dc motor with
commutator and brush arrangement
 The brushes are short circuited by low resistance
jumper (why?)
Repulsion Motor - Operation
 The operation of the repulsion motor is shown with

stator designed as salient pole type
 The operation will remain same with stator discussed
as salient pole type
 But take it that the stator is distributed type with slots
carrying single phase armature conductors
 To make it clear
 Then, how to make the motor start?
Repulsion Motor - Shortcomings
 Speed changes as the load is changed

 It becomes very high (dangerously high) at no load
 Working power factor is very poor
 Likely sparking at brushes
Repulsion Motor - Shortcomings
 Speed changes as the load is changed

 It becomes very high (dangerously high) at no load
 Working power factor is very poor
 Likely sparking at brushes
Repulsion Motor – Overcoming the
disadvantages
 An attempt in overcoming the disadvantages has

given way to new types of Repulsion motor
 Compensated Repulsion Motor
 Here, an extra winding called the compensating
winding is added in series with the armature winding
 This winding is placed in the inner slots of the stator
 The main purpose of compensating winding is to
improved the power factor (as in the case of
compensation provided in the AC series motor) and
to improve the speed regulation
disadvantages
 Repulsion-start Induction-Run Motor

 As the name indicates the motor starts as a
repulsion motor and after attaining 75 percent of the
speed the brushes are lifted and the armature
winding is shorted as Induction Motor
 This arrangement is advantageous as the brushes
would not any current during operation
 There are also designs in which the brushes ride on
the commutator throughout the operation
disadvantages
 Repulsion Induction Motor

 This is the third design in which stator is the same as
in normal repulsion motor
 But the rotor has two separate windings
 One winding carries commutator and brush
arrangement similar to dc motor
 Other winding is squirrel cage winding similar to
cage induction motor
 Both these windings operate during the entire period
of operation of the motor
disadvantages
 Squirrel cage windings are placed deep inside the

rotor and remains inactive during start due to its high
reactance
 When the rotor attains 85 % of the speed, squirrel
cage windings takes control
 Commutated windings provide the starting torque
which is seen to well above 350 percent of the full-
load torque
Linear Induction
Motor
Linear Induction Motor

 The readers are advised to do this part as an
assignment
 Interested people can this important points before
taking up the assignment
 A normal Induction motor has a stator and a rotor

 Stator is a hollow cylinder with conductors in its inner
periphery
 Rotor is a solid cylinder with conductors on its outer
periphery
 If the stator is cut in to half parallel to its axis (It will

look as english alphabet “U” from the front end), the
motor is referred to as sector Induction Motor
 The important to note is that the motor will work
developing almost 30 % of its power rating
 Anyway the voltage has to be reduced to prevent
saturation since the number of conductors has been
reduced to half of its original value
 If the U shaped stator and cylindrical rotor is made

flat, then the machine is referred to as Linear
Induction Motor
 As a passing reference, the reader can note that this
type of machine is employed in trains which operate
on the principle of Magnetic Levitation
Servo
Motor
Introduction
 They are also called control motors and have high-torque
capabilities
 Basic principle of operation is the same as that of other
electromagnetic motors. However, their construction, design
and mode of operation are different.
 Their power ratings vary from a fraction of a watt up to a few
100 W.
 Both DC and AC (2-phase and 3-phase) servomotors are used.
Applications
 In radar , tracking and guidance systems, process controllers,
computers and machine tools.
DC Servomotors
 These motors are either separately-excited dc motors or permanent-
magnet dc motors.
 The schematic diagram of a separately-excited DC motor along with its
armature and field MMFs and torque/speed characteristics is shown in
Fig. 39.26. The speed of DC servomotors is normally controlled by
varying the armature voltage. Their armature is deliberately designed
to have large resistance so that torque-speed characteristics are linear
and have a large negative slope as shown in Fig. 39.26 (c). The
negative slope serves the purpose of providing the viscous damping
for the servo drive system.
 As shown in Fig. 39.26 (b), the armature mmf. and excitation field mmf
are in quadrature. This fact provides a fast torque response because
torque and flux become decoupled.
 Accordingly, a step change in the armature voltage or current
produces a quick change in the position or speed of the rotor.
AC Servomotors
 Such motors normally run on a frequency of 60 Hz or 400
Hz (for airborne systems). The stator has two distributed
windings which are displaced from each other by 90º
(electrical).
 The main winding (also called the reference or fixed
phase) is supplied from a constant voltage source,
Vm∠ 0º (Fig. 39.27). The other winding (also called the
control phase) is supplied with a variable voltage of the
same frequency as the reference phase but is phase-
displaced by 90º (electrical).
 The control phase voltage is controlled by an electronic
controller. The speed and torque of the rotor are
controlled by the phase difference between the main and
control windings. Reversing the phase difference from
leading to lagging (or vice-versa) reverses the motor
direction.
Magnetic
Levitation
System
- Introduction
Introduction
• What are Magnetic levitation systems?
Maglev. are devices that suspend
ferromagnetic materials with the aid of
electromagnetism. It has wide number
of applications such as high-speed
trains, aerospace shuttles, magnetic
bearings and high-precision platforms.
System Block Diagram
Set point Intel micrcontroller
+ Ts
Reference Interface Digital z Interface Magnetic
input + E(s) Circuit Controller o Circuit U(s)Levitation
E*(s) h System
-
Maglev Front Panel
Actual Ball position Y(s)
References
• Electrical Machines-II by S. B.
Sivasubramaniyan -MSEC, Chennai
• http://yourelectrichome.blogspot.in/
• http://www.electricaleasy.com/p/electrical-
machines.html
• www.scribd.com
• www.slideshare.net
References
• Armature Reaction of Alternator by N.Karthikeyan
• BEE2123 ELECTRICAL MACHINES Muhamad Zahim
• EE20A - Electromechanical Energy Conversion
• Alternators and Synchronous Motors by Amit Mishra
• Electrical Machines www.utm.my
• INDUCTION MOTOR by MUHAMMAD WAQAR
• Single phase Induction Motor
Magnetic Levitation by Tori Johnson and Jenna Wilson
Books Reference
• Electric Machinery by A.E. Fitzgerald Charles
Kingsley, Jr.Stephen D. Umans
• Electrical Machines by Nagrath & Kothari
• Electrical Machines by P.S.Bimbhra
• Electrical Machines-II by Godse
• Electrical Machines-II by Gnanavadivel

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LOCAL AUTHORS: {For THEORY use this books}

 Electric Machines by Nagrath & Kothari {Refer Solved Problems}

 Electrical Machines (irrespective of

 Faraday’s Law of Electromagnetic

 The effect is same if the magnet is

 The previous case is referred to as

 It becomes evident that there exists a

Fleming’s Right hand rule

Fleming’s Left hand rule

 First finger - direction of magnetic field (N-S)

Maxwell’s Corkscrew rule

 If the electric current is moving away from the

Corkscrew (Screw driver) rule -

 To augment the effect of flux, we coil the conductor

 The magnetic property of current carrying

 This is useful because it is very difficult to

 Opposition to flow of current

Resistive Network – Vector diagram

Inductive Network – Vector Diagram

Capacitive Network – Vector Diagram

Inductive & Capacitive effects -

Pure L & C networks – not at all

Pure L & C networks – not at all

Current & Flux

Star and Delta

Input Magnetic Electrical Output

Stationary magnets - rotating magnets - electromagnets

Input Magnetic Output

2.Asynchronous Machines(Induction Machines)

• Synchronous generators or alternators are used to convert

 Basic parts of a synchronous generator:

 The manner in which the active parts of a synchronous machine

• Under steady state condition, the field or exciting

• Can be classified as: (a) Cylindrical Rotor and (b) Salient

• Large salient-pole rotors are made of laminated poles

 Cylindrical or round rotor

Working of Alternator &

No of cycles/revolution = No of pairs of poles = P/2

Pitch factor (Kp)

 Coil Span = 5 / 6 of pole pitch

There is a disadvantage attached to it

Pitch factor – contd.

Pitch factor – contd.

Pitch factor – contd.

Pitch factor – contd.

Distribution factor (Kd)

emf _ with _ distributed _ winding

 For calculating Vector sum

Equation of Induced EMF

 Average emf induced per conductor = dφ / dt

Equation of Induced EMF – contd.

Equation of Induced EMF – contd.

 We know, RMS value / Avg. Value = 1.11

 RMS value of emf induced = (Kd) (Kc) 4.44 f φ T Volt

 Main Flux Field Winding

Armature Reaction in alternator

I.) When load p.f. is unity