How To Succeed in Physics

How to Succeed in Physics
(and reduce your workload)
Kyle Thomas, Lead Author

Luke Bruneaux, Supporting Author
Veritas Tutors, LLC
How To Succeed in Physics | 2
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Table of Contents Using Inverse Trigonometric functions to solve triangles.................... 22
HOW TO SUCCEED IN PHYSICS Pythagorean theorem............................................................................ 23

(and reduce your workload) The second use of trig functions:
Introduction............................................................................................. 7 Percentages, rotations, and waves....................................................... 23
MATH CONCEPTS.................................................................... 8 WAVES....................................................................................... 25
The ideas behind the symbols................................................................ 9 Interchangeability of f, T, and ω........................................................ 25
ALGEBRA..................................................................................... 9 The wave equation................................................................................ 25
Techniques for simultaneous equations............................................... 11 Geometry............................................................................................... 21
Principle 1: you need as many equations as there are unknowns...... 11 Demystifying π....................................................................................... 28
The substitution method....................................................................... 12 Demystifying radians............................................................................. 29
The elimination method........................................................................ 13 Calculus (optional section).................................................................... 30
Word problems...................................................................................... 14 No need to fear..................................................................................... 30
Elementary word problem technique: A derivative is a rate of change............................................................ 30

solving for one unknown variable................................................................ 14 A derivative is the slope on a graph..................................................... 31
Units and physics................................................................................... 18 An integral is the area under a curve.................................................... 32
Principle 2: Units should be analyzed algebraically............................ 18 Vectors and scalars................................................................................ 33
S-o/h C-a/h T-o/a................................................................................... 21 Visualizing vectors................................................................................. 35
Trig, meet algebra. Algebra, meet trig................................................. 21 Vectors and trigonometry...................................................................... 35
Using trig functions to find unknown sides.......................................... 21
Algebra Waves Kinematics Energy Momentum Rotation

Principle 3: Whenever you have a problem involving vectors, ENERGY..................................................................................... 49

you should:..................................................................................................... 36
The mystery of energy........................................................................... 49
Cross products and dot products......................................................... 36
Conservation of energy......................................................................... 50
Signs: positive and negative................................................................. 37
Energy’s many forms.............................................................................. 51
One last word........................................................................................ 37
MOMENTUM.............................................................................. 53
PHYSICS CONCEPTS.............................................................. 38
Momentum is a vector........................................................................... 53
Human intuitions................................................................................... 39
Momentum, impulse, and the relationship to force............................. 53
KINEMATICS.............................................................................. 41
Collisions: The confluence of energy and momentum........................ 54
Basic quantities...................................................................................... 41
ROTATION.................................................................................. 56
Velocity and acceleration are vectors................................................... 41
Principle 5: Rotation is just like everything else, but in a circle.......... 56
Kinematics equations............................................................................ 41
From linear dynamics to rotational dynamics and back again............. 56
Principle 4: Make sure you know what every variable represents ..... 42
The first piece of the rotational puzzle:
Forces are vectors.................................................................................. 45 Circumference, distance, and radians.................................................. 57
Forces are accelerations........................................................................ 45 Rotational analogues............................................................................. 58
Forces: causes and descriptions........................................................... 45 Rotational kinematics............................................................................ 58
Superposition and free body diagrams................................................ 46 The second piece of the puzzle: Moment of inertia (I)........................ 59
Equilibrium problems............................................................................ 47 Why moment of inertia?........................................................................ 59
Centripetal forces.................................................................................. 47 Torque (τ)................................................................................................ 60
Conclusion............................................................................................. 61

Introduction This will not work in physics. You should aim to study like this:
This guide will teach you a number of concepts and techniques to help you
ace your physics class with less overall work. We place a strong emphasis
on understanding concepts, not just memorizing formulas and example
problems. This is not only a better way to learn physics, but it is actually an
immensely more efficient way to learn physics, and will make the MCAT (or Time spent
SAT II or GRE, etc.) much easier as well, if that’s on your horizon. studying
First, we need to make a note here about the relationship between study
Progression through
habits and physics education. As you work your way through the course, the quarter
each chapter will build upon the last. As a result, if you do not keep up
in the beginning, you will be in serious trouble by the middle of the class If you are diligent at the beginning and lay a solid foundation,
because you will have no foundation for learning the new material. By the you will probably actually end up studying like this:
time you get to the final
exam, you will likely be
completely lost. In lots of
courses, students tend to
take it easy at the beginning, Time spent Time spent
studying studying
and then cram at the end:
Progression through Progression through

the quarter the quarter
Those of you with a solid calculus background will realize that total time studying is equal to the area under that line. You will also notice that the
last graph has the smallest area, and therefore is the way to get through the course with the least work, and is also the way to assure the most
success. We repeat: lay strong foundations!
For more help ensuring you have mastered all of the necessary concepts for your course, sign up for the Veritas online physics crash course at
www.veritutors.com/PhysicsCourse.

Math Concepts
Math Concepts This math review is structured to remind you how to perform some of
The ideas behind the symbols the symbol manipulation involved in math, but is much more focused on
This book is going to cover math concepts that may seem very familiar teaching what these math equations mean in the context of real physical
to you; you might think about glossing over them. However, since examples.
physics uses math in its own special way, we believe you’ll benefit from Connecting math to real world concepts will help you not just in physics,
the review. but also in any pursuit that requires mathematical thinking (so basically,
Much of math education teaches you how to manipulate symbols (for almost any job). In any case, it is crucial to making physics easy and
example, “x” or “ϴ”). Since it’s all theoretical, math professors tend to intuitive, and cutting your workload considerably.
ignore what all the symbols mean; all that matters is how the symbols
work with each other on the page.
Physics is the opposite. Math is only useful to a physicist if the symbols
are tied to some real world concept. In class, however, most physics
professors assume that everyone already understands what the symbols
mean, and zoom right over the explanation.

Algebra
We will not go over all of the basics of algebra but rather how it will be The most basic algebraic concept is that anything can be done to an
used to solve physics problems. While these might appear very simple equation as long as it is done to both sides, and this is far and away the
to you, it’s important that you know them cold. These trusty concepts most used technique in physics algebra. The following boxes give a few
should always be in your tool belt. general principles you should be familiar with.
FOIL: First Outside Inside Last

Distributive Property a (b+c) = ab + ac and - (b + a) = -b -a
(a + b) (c + d) = ac + ad + bc + bd
Associative Property a + ( b + c) = (a + b) + c
Commutative Property a + b = b + a and ab = ba

Fraction Math
(a + b) a b
= +
c c c
x a xb + ay
+ =
y b yb
abcd a+b+c+d
ad
= bc BUT
ad ≠ b+c
(a/b) a d ad
= x =
(c/d) b c bc
-a a a
= = -
b -b b

Techniques for simultaneous equations The whole point of simultaneous equations is to solve problems like this.
And we can.
Simultaneous equations are multiple algebraic equations that share
unknown variables. What does that mean? Let’s look at an example: Principle 1: In order to solve a problem, you need as many equations as
there are unknowns.
x–y=2
How many unknowns were in the example? Two: apples (x) and oranges
5x + 4y = 19
(y). What if we had just one equation and lost the second?
Both equations have an x and a y. The thing to remember here is that
x-y = 2
x and y are related to each other in both ways. Let me illustrate with a
word problem: We know that we have two more apples than oranges. But that could
mean 5 apples and 3 oranges;
x represents apples
y represents oranges
41 apples and 39 oranges;

You have two more apples than oranges.
x-y = 2
Apples cost 5¢ and oranges cost 4¢. You paid 19¢ total for all your
apples and orange.
5x + 4y = 19
How many apples and oranges do you have? or 2 apples and 0 oranges!
x=?
y=?

Which one is it? We need the second equation to figure it out. Let’s simplify and do some algebra.
Principle 1 is true of one unknown (we only need one equation), three 10 + 5y + 4y = 19
unknown (three equations), or 100 unknowns (100 equations!). Hopefully
10+9y =19
you won’t have to solve that one.
9y = 9
So let’s solve the example above. Since we have two equations, we will
be able to solve for two unknown variables. There are two techniques to y =1
solve multiple equations, the substitution method, and the elimination OK! We have one orange. But how do many apples do we have? Since
method.
x–y=2
The substitution method
We can replace y with 1 to get x
In the substitution method, we rearrange one equation and plug the
result into the second equation. This is most easily seen as an example, x–1=2
so let’s take the above equations, 5x + 4y = 19, and x – y = 2: And simply solve
Start with the first equation: it’s simpler. x=3
x–y=2 Three apples and one orange. In other terms:
Let’s rearrange this for x. x=3
x=2+y
OK. Now we can plug (2+y) wherever we see x in the other equation. y=1
5x + 4y = 19
5(2 + y) + 4y = 19

The elimination method Then we plug x=2 back into one of the original equations:
4(2) + 3y = 10
In the elimination method we essentially do simple arithmetic, but use
8 + 3y = 10
the entire equation. The goal here is to eliminate one of the variables so
y = 2/3
that we are left with a single one-variable equation. This is also easiest
to see in an example, so let’s pick two new equations: We have our answer x = 2 and y = 2/3. That’s the goal in the elimination
Example: method: find a way to get rid of one variable (either x or y). It’s a little
4x + 3y = 10 bit trickier, but you could also have done this with x by multiplying the
2x + 3y = 6: second equation by 2:
2*(2x + 3y) = 2* (6)
We’re going to line these up and subtract like you did in grade school
4x + 6y = 12
4x + 3y = 10
- (2x + 3y = 6) Why does this help? Because now we can subtract out x:
2x + 0 y= 4 4x + 3y = 10
- (4x +6 y = 12)
We can perform arithmetic on each variable and constants:
0x + -3 y= -2
x: 4-2 = 2
y: 3-3 = 0 We get a new equation
constants: 10- 6 =4 -3 y = -2
or y = ⅔
See how we produce a third equation with 0y? We can solve that for x.
2x + 0 y= 4 like above-- which is a good thing! When we plug y back into the first
2x = 4 equation, we retrieve x:
x =2 4x + 3 (2/3) = 10
4x=8
x=2
It checks out!

Word problems 2. Immediately write all defined variables off to the side of the page.
This way you can keep track of what you know and what you don’t.
In your tenure as a physics student, you will be be asked to solve word
problems - a lot of them. Word problems are notoriously painful, and for 3. Figure out the missing variable that the problem is asking you to
good reason: they ask you to think, and thinking is often painful. But if solve for. This can be really tricky but ask yourself: what is the writer
you get good at word problems, they can be fun - like a good workout. asking me for?
We will start by discussing approaches that should help get you 4. Find an equation that contains all of the known variables and the
started. Here we will discuss the most basic techniques using algebraic unknown variable. Look at a list of formulas for the chapter. For most
principles. simple word problems, you can find one that will solve the problem
immediately. For more difficult problems, you’ll need multiple
Elementary word problem technique: solving for one unknown
equations (see below).
variable
5. Once you have an equation that relates all the variables together,
You’ve got a paragraph in front of you with a lot of labels and numbers.
solve for the missing variable.
You’re pretty sure there’s a vaguely worded question in there. How do
you figure it out? 6. Plug in the numbers and carry out the calculation. Keep all the units
(kg, m/s, etc). together too.
1. First off, draw a picture and label everything. This will give you a clear
idea of what is going on and what you need to account for. Even if there 7. Box your answer. Graders love being told where to look.
is already a figure in the book, draw your own so you can mark it up.

Let's say you are given the following problem: Step 3

A spaceship launches with a constant acceleration. After 2 seconds the Find an equation with all of the variables you are given and the
ship has gone up 6 meters. unknown. Because you do not know the equations yet, I will list them
A) What is the acceleration? here:
B) What is its velocity at this point? A) v =v0 + at
Step 1 B) ∆x = v0t + 1/2 at2
Write all variables off to the side C) v2 = v02 + 2a∆x
- we know t is 2 seconds To solve for acceleration we should use equation B) because it contains
our three known variables listed above (t, Δx, v0) and "a" so we can
- we know ∆x is 6 meters
solve the equation with only one unknown
- we also know the initial velocity v0 is 0 meters per second because the
To solve for final velocity we should use equation A) for the same reason
ship started at rest
So your paper will look like this:
So we will put all of these in a list to the right... a∆x = 6m
A) ∆x = v0t + 1/2 at2 t = 2s
Step 2 v0 = 0 m/s
∆x = 6m
Figure out what variable the problem is asking us to solve for. We are
∆x = 1/2 at2 because v0 = 0, v0 t = 0t and so it v0 = 0 m/s
actually being asked to solve for two, a, and v. Generally, we will solve
drops out of the equation
for them in sequential order.
a = 2∆x/t2 Plug in your numbers and a = 3 m/s
you get a = 3 m/s
(This is now one of our variables)
B) v = v0 + at Again, v0 drops out

v = at Plug in your numbers and you get v = 6 m/s

Technique for multiple unknowns: Multiple unknowns require 1. Define unknown variables. What is the problem asking for?
multiple equations Number of jelly beans (let’s call that J) and number of M&M’s (let’s
So you’ve got a problem with two unknowns in it. We solve these word call that M):
problems using basically the same technique as above, except here we J=?
will need to find multiple equations. M=?
1. Remember our first principle: We need as many equations as we 2. Write an equation using the information in the problem.
have unknowns. We know that total candy is J + M, and that we have 36 pieces so:
J + M = 36.
2. Try to limit the number of variables! Every new variable introduced
by an equation will require us to add another equation. Thus if you 3. Check how many unknowns and how many equations you have.
pick an equation that contains an additional unknown, you will need If you don’t have enough equations, look for a way to generate
another equation, and you will not have gained anything. another one.
Notice that we have two unknowns above, J and M, but only one
3. The equations that we choose will have to have at least one variable
equation. We need another. Luckily, we know that we have twice as
in common, or else they cannot be linked together.
many jellybeans as M & Ms, so then J must be equal to 2M, or
4. To solve our set of equations we will use either the substitution J = 2M
method or the elimination method. Typically you will use the
4. Solve the equations using either substitution or elimination
substitution method because the elimination method only tends to
method
be helpful if both equations have the same variables.
We will use the substitution method to solve this. Because J =
Let’s use a simple example to demonstrate: 2M, we can just plug in 2M wherever we have a J. So J + M = 36
You have twice as many jelly beans as you do M & Ms. You have 36 total becomes 2M + M = 36, and now we can solve because we only
pieces of candy. How many of each do you have? have one unknown in our equation:
2M + M = 36
3M = 36
M = 36/3 = 12

We have 12 M & Ms, to find number of jellybeans just plug this

back in
J = 2M
J = 2(12) = 24
We have 24 jellybeans and 12 M & Ms
5. It is generally helpful to double-check your answer using one of

the original equations.
24 jellybeans + 12 M & Ms = 36 pieces of candy. ✔

Units and physics Principle 2: Units should be analyzed algebraically just as if they were
Units give a lot of people fits. We’re talking here about the labels variables.
you use, like kg, m, s, Newtons, Joules. Who cares, right? I just want Here’s a great tip: Always use Standard units! By that we mean “SI”
numbers! units: kilograms (for mass), meters (distance), seconds (time), Newtons
In fact, to a physicist, units are much more important than numbers. (force), Joules (energy), and so on.
Why? Because units actually tell you something about the physics
involved. Numbers are just digits. For example: If you are given a length in centimeters, convert it to
Most students do not realize that they can perform algebra on units meters immediately. If you do this, you never need to worry about
the same way they do algebra on variables. (You might have seen this adding inches to centimeters, or calculating mass with pounds. You
in chemistry as “dimensional analysis”). This is the easiest way to check can focus on solving the problem. Then at the end, give the answer in
your work. Let’s say you get asked to solve for distance, and you give an whatever units it’s asking for. For example, the problem might ask for
answer in seconds. Something went wrong! mass in grams, so solve for kilograms and then convert.
Sounds tedious right? It can be. But it will save you a lot of time and
points in the end. And you’ll actually learn more physics. Trust us. This is most easily shown through an example. So don’t stress now; as
with every skill, mastery comes with practice.

The standard unit for energy is the Joule, which is equal to Kilograms
multiplied by meters squared per seconds squared
1 Joule = Kg (m2/s2)
There are many equations for energy, we will use two simple ones to
demonstrate how the units will always result in Joules
K = 1/2mv2 The equation for kinetic energy is this
m = Kg The units of mass are kilograms
v = m/s The units for velocity are meters per second
v2 = m2/s2 So the units for velocity squared would be meters squared

per second squared
K = 1/2mv2 = Kg(m2/s2) = J Basic arithmetic shows the units of the

variables work out to Joules, exactly what we want
U = mgh An equation for potential energy is this
m = Kg The units of mass are kilograms
g = m/s2 The units of acceleration of gravity are meters per seconds

squared
h =m The units of height are meterse
U = mgh = Kg(m/s2)m = Kg (m2/s2) = J

Again basic arithmetic yields Joules, exactly what you want

Trigonometry As seen in the the three diagrams below...

Trigonometry is the mathematics of right triangles, which are triangles Trigonometric functions can be used for many things in mathematics,
with a 90° angle. This is important to realize because we will always want but we will deal with just two: (1) ratios in right triangles, and (2) wave
to deal with right triangles, and usually these must be constructed (often functions.
by inserting lines artificially) in order to use the tools presented here.
The first and most important concept that you need to understand is
There are only two major concepts that you will need to be familiar with,
that trig functions are ratios of different sides of a right triangle. These
but you need to know them inside and out:
ratio values are constant for any given angle, no matter the size of the
1. Trigonometric functions of sine, cosine, and tangent right triangle. As a triangle gets bigger or smaller, each side changes
2. The Pythagorean theorem in an equivalent way to the others, so that even though the absolute
Tip: Remember that the angles inside a triangle must always add up to values of the sides may change, their ratios do not. Notice in the
180°, so if you know two, you can easily solve for the third. following diagram that as the x-component of the triangle doubles, and
then triples, so does the y-component, so that the ratio of the sides is
The first and most common use of trig functions: Ratios
constant.
The ratio is always tan 30° = .58 = .58/1 = 1.15/2 = 1.73/3
1 2 3
.58 1.15 1.73
30° 30° 30°

S-o/h C-a/h T-o/a always .707, etc. Given this the equation is just an algebra function with
“SohCahToa” is the mnemonic by which most people remember their three variables (x = y/z) where one of these just happens to be a trig
trig functions. It tells us which trig function corresponds to what ratio of function. Let’s say we have a triangle with a known angle and one known
sides in the right triangle. Hypotenuse. We want to know the “opposite” side, which we’ll call y.
6
Hypotenuse
y
Opposite 30°
Θ
Using trig functions to find unknown sides

Adjacent
1. Set up the equation,
cos 30°= y/6
Mnemonic Trig function Formula Ratio
2. Then solve for our unknown,
SOH Sine Sin θ=O/H Opposite over Hypotenuse y = 6(cos30).
CAH Cosine Cos θ= A/H Adjacent over Hypotenuse
3. Replace the trig function with the values.
TOA Tangent Tan θ=O/A Opposite overAdjacent cos 30° = .5
4. Thus
You will not need to know the three other trig functions for basic physics
y = 6(.5) = 3
(sec, csc, and cot). Whew!
Trig, meet algebra; Algebra, meet trig

The math here is actually very simple. Each trig function for any given
angle has a specific value, for example sin 30° is always 0.5, sin 45° is

Notice that as long as we are not solving for the angle, we are just doing Using Inverse Trigonometric functions to solve triangles
algebra on our trig function. Let’s say instead of being given a side and
1. Set up the equation:
an angle we had two sides and wanted an angle.
sin θ = 3/6
2. Then solve for the angle by taking the arcsine of both sides, yielding
6
θ = sin-1 (3/6).
3
3. Either using a calculator or trig table, calculate:
θ = 30°
Conceptually, inverse trig functions are tricky. Try to think of them as

In order to extract the angle, we need to use inverse trigonometric
questions. For example, if x=arcsin (0.5), that’s like asking “What angle
functions. These are just inverse (or opposite) of good old sine, cosine,
has a sine of 0.5?” Oh yeah-- it’s 30°.
and tangent: arcsine (sin ), arccosine (cos ), and arctangent (tan ).
-1 -1 -1
Why do we spend so much time on trigonometry? One word: vectors.

More on this later.

Pythagorean theorem The second use of trig functions: percentages, rotations, and waves
In order to understand these not so intuitive properties of the trig
The trig functions tell us what the relationship between angles and sides
functions of sine and cosine (not tangent) we will first discuss the values,
are for any right triangle, and the Pythagorean theorem tells us the
then the properties of a basic equation, and then a couple of pictorial
relationship between the lengths of the sides. Given the following right
explanations.
triangle:
The value of a sine or cosine function can never be less than – 1, or
greater than 1. That is -1≤ sin θ ≤ 1. This range has a very special
C property—if you multiply anything by a value between -1 and 1, this is
the same as taking a proportion, and so sine and cosine can be thought
B of as percentage functions. That is, A sin θ is always between the values
A and -A. For example if θ = 30°, then sin θ = .5 and therefore A sin θ =
A
.5 A, or 50% of A.
This forms the basis for a basic wave function, x (t) = A sin θ, or x = A cos
The Pythagorean theorem states that A2 + B2 = C2, or C = √(A2 + B2)
θ, which just means that x, the displacement at any time t, is equal to
some percentage of A, the maximum displacement. We will see how this
This will be immensely useful when we get to vectors, because it is how forms a wave function below. To understand wave functions, it is best to
you will put your resulting vectors back together to find the magnitude first walk though a wave equation of one full wavelength step by step.
of the new vector. Go through each of the steps in the following diagram, and make sure
you understand how the graph relates to the equation.

A
π/2 π 3π/2 2π sin 0 = 0 Θ=0
so Asin 0 = 0
Conceptualizing rotation
The easiest way to conceptualize -A
rotation is to picture a bar with an arrow
drawn on it nailed to the origin drawn A
to the far right. You can just think of a sin π/2 = 1 Θ = π/2
π/2 π 3π/2 2π
positive rotation of a vector by an angle so Asin 0 = A
θ as rotating the bar about the origin
counterclockwise by the same angle. In -A
order to conceptualize how rotation maps
A
onto a wave function, imagine the shadow Θ=π
π/2 π 3π/2 2π sin π = 0
this bar would create on the y-axis as it
so Asin 0 = 0
rotates, notice where the point of the
rotating bar is on the y-axis at each point.
-A
It starts at y=0, as does our wave function,
then goes to y=A, as does our wave A
function, then back to y=0, etc.. If this sin 3π/2 = -1 Θ = 3π/2
π/2 π 3π/2 2π
shadow were graphed over time (imagine so Asin 0 = -A
sliding a piece of paper under a pencil
attached to the end of this shadow), it -A
would generate a wave function. A
Θ = 2π
Magnitude
π/2 π 3π/2 2π sin 2π = 0

so Asin 0 = 0
-A
Angle Angular Position

Waves The wave equation
Some mechanics courses discuss waves. We’ll just briefly discuss a few The standard equation that you will learn to deal with waves looks very
related ideas. intimidating, but is actually quite simple. We are going to deal with this
Interchangeability of f, T, and ω by dissecting the parts of the equation, and then showing how a simple
First some definitions, f (also noted as υ) is the frequency, and is a version of the equation relates to the graphical representation. Last we
measure of how many wavelengths go by per second. T is the period, will add in all the pieces so you understand the whole thing. The wave
and is the inverse of f—the period is a measurement of how long it equation will look like this x(t)=Acos(ωt + φ).
takes for one wavelength to go by. We have already seen ω, angular
This is no different than the math of waves introduced above, however.
frequency. Angular frequency is just like frequency (f), its units are
Remember that ωt = θ, just as vt = x. φ is just an adjustment angle, and
radians/second rather than wavelengths/second, requiring a 2π
can be ignored for our initial assessment (it is usually 0 anyways). A is the
conversion factor to get from f to ω. The crucial message here is that
maximum displacement, and x(t) is the displacement at any time t.
these variables all represent the same thing, so if you know one, than
you know all three. Don’t forget this because often the problem will give To start simple, let’s say that ω = 1 rad/s so that ωt=t, and let φ=0. This
you one when you need another such as giving you T, when you need υ simplifies the equation down to just x(t)=Acos t, and this is shown below.
for your equation.
variable Conversion to one Conversion to other
f or υ 1/T ω/2π
T 1/ƒ 2π/ω
ω 2πƒ 2πT

As can be seen in the graph this is just as the one we did in the math A t= 0
π/2 π 3π/2 2π
review section, but with a cosine rather than a sine. Granted the Acos0 = A
equation can be more complicated than this, but not by much. All that -A
ω will do if it is not 1 rad/s, is stretch out the graph or squish it tighter
together. All that φ will do if it is not 0 is shift the graph left or right.
This can be used to model all kinds of motion, like a spring, whose A t= π/2
π/2 π 3π/2 2π
maximum displacement is A from its equilibrium point. so Acos π/2 = 0
-A
A t= π
π/2 π 3π/2 2π
so Acos π = -A
-A
A t= 3π/2
π/2 π 3π/2 2π
so Acos 3π/2 = 0
Magnitude -A
A t= 2π
π/2 π 3π/2 2π
so Acos 2π = A
-A
Angle

Geometry
There are two important concepts from geometry that you will need to An easy way to figure out the dimensionality of a given space is to look
know for physics: dimensions, and the meaning of π. at the power of the variable. Let’s say we have a length we’ll call X. This
is one-dimensional; its exponent is 1. If we then made a square with two
Dimensions
of these lines, it would be two-dimensional; its area would be X2 - notice
A dimension is a degree of freedom, and this is important in two
its exponent is 2. If we were to make a cube with three of these, then the
aspects, both in understanding the relationships of length, area, and
formula would be X3, now it is three-dimensional and the exponent is 3.
volume, and in understanding how to dissect vectors. A degree of
freedom is a way in which something is free to vary, so for example, we Obvious, right? The thing to realize is that dimensionality is the key
live in three dimensions, which just means that we can move forward- to physics. Remember when we said that units are more important
backward, up-down, or left-right. In other words we can vary our position than numbers? Units are a form of dimension. We’re used to thinking of
in space in three ways. dimensions as length, area, and volume, but the same idea applies to
everything: seconds, kilograms, etc. The next time you look at a formula,
Dimensions keep its dimensionality in mind; you should be able to understand it
better and remember it more easily.
1D 2D 3D
The other reason dimensions are important is that they lay bare the
relationship between vectors and algebra. Essentially, algebra only
works in one dimension. However, vectors can represent quantities of
any number of dimensions, usually two, sometimes three. This means
that vectors need to be broken into one-dimensional pieces, in order to
use simple algebra. Furthermore, for most of mechanics dimensions do
Length Area Volume
not interact with each other. Weird, right? But true. This is why we will
x x 2 x3
break vectors into components using trig functions.

Demystifying π (Pi) So what? It’s not that some great mathematician sat down and made up
the number. He just went out and measured it, just like you could do no
The number π (Pi) is often exalted as the most significant number in the
matter where you are, with any circle. The relationship will always be the
universe. Why? Probably because when you look at nature, it shows up
same: 3.14. It’s like a calling card of our universe. Pretty cool, right?
a lot. That’s because it is the ratio of the circumference of a circle to the
length of its diameter.
Let’s say I take a wheel of diameter 1 meter. (It’s a monster truck wheel).
I roll it once along the ground. Where does it end up after one rotation?
3.14 meters away. That’s Pi.
our tire at the beginning our tire after one rotation our tire after 2 rotations
1m
3.14 m 3.14 m
6.28 m total
Our tire has gone the distance of its circumference in one full rotation, twice the circumference in two and so on
C=π Distance = 2π d
Because d = 1, then c = π which is 3.14

Demystifying radians That number might not mean much to you. But we can convert radians
to degrees. There are 360 degrees in a circle, right? How many radians
Radians are like Pi’s little brother. Let’s say you want to measure the
do you think there are? 2 Pi or 6. 28 radians.
length of an arc (around the rim of a circle). For example, you cut
yourself a piece of apple pie. What’s the relationship between the angle Therefore
of the piece, and the length of its crust?
0.8 radians * 360/6.28 = 45.8 degrees
Arc length = radius* angle s=rθ 45 degrees is half of 90 degrees. Easier to visualize, right? Have another
slice!
r
θ
The length of the arc divided by the radius is the number of radians.
For example: the radius of the pie is 10 centimeters. I cut out a piece of
pie, and measure its crust. It carves out an arc of length 8 centimeters.
What’s the angle of piece? It’s just
s/r =0.8 radians.

Calculus (optional section) A derivative is a rate of change

No need to fear Derivatives signify a rate of change, and are analogous to rates of
Many students are very afraid of calculus, even though it is actually not change in algebra, just more precise. This means that whenever you
that complicated. They think that calculus is going to be a big part of have a rate in physics (velocity for example) it can be represented as a
physics and that they are going to have to do complicated derivatives derivative. Velocity is equal to the change in distance divided by the
and integrals. Calculus actually plays a very small role in most of change in time; as a formula, we can say v =Δx/Δt. This is analogous
university physics, and there are only a couple of very simple ideas that to the derivative; we can also say v = dx/dt. The advantage of using
you should be familiar with. Often a professor will use calculus to derive a derivative is that this rate of change is instantaneous. The two main
a formula in lecture, but you probably don’t need to understand the derivatives that you will be responsible for in physics are velocity and
derivation to succeed in the class. Instead you just need to be able to acceleration (a = dv/dt). Velocity is a change in distance over time, and
use the formula at the end to solve word problems. What you do need acceleration is a change in velocity over time.
to know are: (1) the basic operations for performing simple derivatives
and integrals, (2) what derivatives and integrals mean, and (3) how they
are represented in a graph.

A derivative is the slope on a graph
A derivative is the slope of a line tangent to a point on a graph. A

tangent is an arrow coming off a point on a graph that goes where that
single point would go if it went straight. The arrows below are tangents:
1
dx/dy = slope = rise/run = ∆x/∆y = 2
2 Two last words on derivatives:

dx/dy = slope = rise/run = ∆x/∆y = 1/2 1. Note that at any maximum or minimum, the
derivative will be 0.
2. Do not forget that the derivative of a sine wave
becomes a cosine wave and vice versa.

An integral is an antiderivative An integral is the area under a curve

This is the fundamental theorem of calculus: an integral is an Graphically, an integral is represented by the area under a line or
antiderivative. This means that an integral is nothing but the summation curve on a graph. Because x = ∫vdt, this means that total displacement
of the change that has taken place. The non-calculus equivalent is just would be the area under the graph of velocity with respect to time.
a discrete sum (represented by Σ). This is also the inverse operation of Displacement (distance traveled) is represented in the green area of the
a derivative, so if velocity (v) is the derivative of position (x), then graph below.
position would be the integral of velocity. v = dx/dt = Δx/Δt,
and so x = ∫vdt = Σ vΔt.
x = ∫ vdt
v = ∆x / ∆t a = ∆v / ∆t t
Acceleration
Distance
Velocity
Time Time Time
x = ∫ v dt v = ∫ v dt

Vectors and scalars

Vectors are probably the first new mathematical concept that you will
encounter in physics, and are usually not very well explained. You will 5 ft
N
be told, “vectors are quantities with both magnitude and direction,”
and, “scalars are quantities with just magnitude.” These statements are
20 ft
rarely unpacked, however, and that’s bad because vectors are perhaps
15 ft 10 ft 15.8 ft
the single most important mathematical tool in general physics. Scalars
are represented as regular variables, whereas vectors are represented
with little arrows above them (such as force and acceleration in the force
equation below). We know that F and a are vectors because they have
Addition of vector depends on direction
arrows; m is a scalar because it does not.
F = ma
If I walked 15 feet north, and then 5 feet north, I would be 20 feet away.
If I walked 15 feet north, and then 5 feet south, I would be 10 feet away
So, let’s unpack the concept, what exactly does it mean to have both from you. However if I walked 15 feet north and then 5 feet east I would
magnitude and direction? What does it mean to just have magnitude? be 15.81 feet away (given by the Pythagorean theorem).
To say that something has both magnitude and direction means that
we can’t just do arithmetic on the quantity, because we have to take
direction into account. Something that has magnitude but no direction
is just like any number that you are accustomed to dealing with in
arithmetic or algebra. This is most easily understood using examples.
A great example of a vector is walking distance. Let’s say I am standing

right next to you, and I walk 15 feet. I stop and then walk 5 feet, how far
away am I from you now? The answer to this question depends on the
directions that I walked, not just the magnitudes of how far I walked.

A vector can be said to have magnitude and direction, because it can m m m

vary over a space with more than one dimension, so the direction in m
which it is changing must be specified. This means vectors are path- m m
m m m m
dependent—the final outcome depends upon not just the size of the
steps, but also upon the specific path they traversed.
m m
m m
+ m m
m m m
On the other hand a scalar only has magnitude because it can only
vary in one way (in one dimension). That is, a scalar can only increase
Addition of scalars depends only on magnitude
or decrease. A great example of a scalar is any sort of quantity. Let’s
say I give you 15 M&M’s, and then I give you 5 more M&M’s. How many Understanding this distinction is important because algebra can only
M&M’s do you have? The answer to this question is very straightforward be done on one-dimensional quantities. Most of the math that you
because you do not need to take direction into account like above, are probably familiar with is done with scalars. Since vectors are multi-
so you have 20 M&M’s, it would be impossible to have 15.81 M&M’s dimensional, they can be tricky if you aren’t careful. The reason is that
because the Pythagorean theorem is not relevant for a one-dimensional they cannot just be automatically plugged into the math equations that
quantity. you will learn, but rather they must first be broken into components. I
will illustrate this in a couple of ways, because it is crucially important to
understand this concept to succeed in physics. Once vectors are broken
into two or three one-dimensional components, these components do
not interact and can be treated as completely separate entities (with a
couple exceptions like cross products).

Visualizing vectors First break vector 1 (v1) into its two components (v1x, v1y), and do the
same for vector 2 (v2x, v2y). You can then add these components (v1x
Pictorially, vectors add “tip to tail.” Like this:
+ v2x, and v1y+ v2y) to yield the same final vector. It is the equivalent
triangle whether we add the legs or the Hypotenuses. To get the
magnitude of the resulting vector, we would of course have to use the
Pythagorean theorem (demonstrated below).
=
Vectors and trigonometry
The pictures should show you the relationship of vectors and right
You will not usually be adding vectors pictorially like the above, but triangles. Mastering the trig functions is especially important because
mathematically. To do so, you will need to break vectors into x- and they are used to cleave vectors into one-dimensional components so
y-components. The diagram below shows how this works: they can be dealt with using algebra and arithmetic. Once vectors have
been broken into their respective components, a problem proceeds as
though it were two separate and independent problems—one problem
on the x-axis, and one problem on the y-axis. Then at the end of the
v2
v2y problem, these results are put back together using the Pythagorean
theorem to give the magnitude of the final vector. A vector will always
be the Hypotenuse of any right triangle built out of its components.
v2x
v1y
v1
v1x

Principle 3: Whenever you have a problem involving vectors, you components of the vectors you are multiplying. The direction of the
should: resulting vector will actually be perpendicular to the two vectors you are
multiplying (e.g., if you found the cross product of a vector on the x-axis
1. Break them into components.
and a vector on the y-axis, the resulting vector would be on the z-axis),
2. Separate the x-components and y-components so you can deal with and is given by the right-hand-rule (which you will learn in class, and is
them independently. not covered here). Most of the time you will be using dot products, but
3. Do each of the series of analyses/equations separately for the x- and you will need to understand both and the difference between the two.
y-components. A simple example of a case that requires a dot product is pushing a box
4. Put the resultant x-component and y-component vectors back across the floor. You apply a force in the same direction you want the
together using the Pythagorean theorem for magnitude, and one of box to move, and work would be calculated by simply multiplying the
the trigonometric functions for direction. component of this force that is parallel to the floor, and the distance the
box is moved across the floor. A simple example of a case that requires
There is one exception to Principle 3, and that is when you are dealing
a cross product is using a wrench to unscrew a bolt. You must apply a
with cross-products.
force perpendicular to the length of the wrench, and the torque would
Cross products and dot products be calculated by multiplying the component of the force perpendicular
to the wrench by the length of the wrench.
There are two ways to multiply vectors: dot products, and cross
products. Dot products are based on the parallel components—to find
the dot product you need to multiply just the parallel components of the
two vectors being multiplied. The result of a dot product is a scalar—
it has no direction, just magnitude. Cross products are based on the
perpendicular components, and the result of a cross product is a new
vector—it has both direction and magnitude. To find the magnitude
of a vector from a cross product you must multiply the perpendicular

Signs, positive and negative you are consistent, however these are the standard conventions, and
it will be easiest if you adopt them because then your answers will be
The sign of a number, whether it is positive or negative, can have many
consistent with what your graders are looking for.
different meanings, and I will introduce you here to what they mean in
mechanics. In terms of scalars these just have the usual significance, One last word
namely whether you add or subtract a quantity. In order to understand Students new to physics usually want to plug their numbers into the
their meaning in vectors, think about the relationship of positive and equations as soon as they get them on paper. This is a very bad habit to
negative to quantities on a standard number line. Adding a positive get into. You should not plug in the values for your variables until you
number (or subtracting a negative number) is equivalent to moving to have the solution written as a formula at the end of the problem. There
the right, while adding a negative number (or subtracting a positive are several reasons. First, it makes your math transparent, which means
number) is equivalent to moving to the left. On the number line, then that if you make a mistake it is easier to go back and fix, as well as to
positive and negative can be said to correspond to direction. double check your work. Second, it also makes your math transparent
for your grader so you will get more partial credit this way if you do not
This is exactly the meaning that positive and negative will have in
get the right answer. Third, you may realize that you are missing some
relation to vectors, you will add x-component vectors that point right,
important information that is crucial to solving a problem. Fourth, it is
and subtract x-component vectors that point left. Likewise, you will add
just a good habit not to rely on your calculator to do everything for you.
y-component vectors that point up, and subtract y-component vectors
It may seem a little more difficult to do this at first, but start early and
that point down. It doesn’t actually matter whether you use these sign
you’ll thank yourself later!
conventions (positive = right/up, and negative = left/down) as long as

Physics Concepts
Physics Concepts throwing a ball against a strong wind versus with a strong wind. The
ball thrown with the wind will obviously travel faster than the one
Human intuitions
thrown against the wind. Sometimes we have a decent intuition for how
We have a number of intuitions about physics that are part of human
constant forces change the direction of velocity. Imagine throwing a ball
nature and human understanding. In many ways they are very good; for
against a strong cross wind. The ball obviously changes direction; in this
example an outfielder knows intuitively how to catch a fly ball. However,
case the magnitude of the velocity will change as well. However, when
in many ways our intuitions can be misleading. It is helpful to know what
we think about forces that only change the direction of the velocity,
intuitions we must overcome to see why the beginning student (and
our intuitions often get us into trouble. A force that only changes
many advanced students) make mistakes thinking about physics.
the direction of a velocity is called a centripetal force and results in
Our intuitive understanding of physics leads us to believe that the rotational motion. We usually experience this in cases such as going
natural state of objects is to be at rest. When they are moving, our minds around a corner in a car.
think it is because they have a sort of “impetus” or internal energy that
Our problem is that our intuitions are based on an egocentric point
propels them forward. As they move this energy or impetus peters out
of view when we are in rotational motion. We feel as though there is a
and they return to their natural state, rest. In contrast to this model,
“centrifugal force” pulling us outwards when we are moving in any kind
Newtonian physics says that the natural state of objects is constant
of circle. Centrifugal force is an illusion created by using an accelerating
velocity, and that the state of rest is just a specific case in which the
reference frame. What actually happens as you go around a corner in
constant velocity just happens to equal 0. Objects move with a constant
a car is that your body tries to keep going straight (constant velocity),
velocity, which only changes due to an acceleration, and therefore a net
while the car is turning (velocity is not constant because it is changing
force. Keep this in mind: constant velocity is the rule—everything moves
direction); something has to put a centripetal force on you (like a car
at constant velocity unless a force acts upon it.
door) to keep you moving in a circle with the car. We experience this as
Because velocity is a vector that has both magnitude (speed) and though we are being pulled outward, when in fact we are just trying to
direction, a force is needed to change either the magnitude, or go straight and are actually being pulled inward.
the direction of velocity. Our intuition is quite good at helping us
understand forces that affect the magnitude of a velocity. Imagine

Our intuitions tell us that heavy objects fall faster than light objects—a
bowling ball will fall faster than a piece of paper. While this is true, it
is only because there is more air resistance slowing the piece of paper
down as it falls. If you crumple the paper into a ball, it will actually fall
just as fast as the bowling ball. Mass does not affect the rate at which
things fall.
Remember that we have many biases from our evolutionary past that
lead our intuitions astray when thinking about much of physics. Be aware
of these, and it will help you avoid many common pitfalls, as well as help
you develop a real intuition for what is going on in physics.

Kinematics
Basic quantities
Principle 3 revisited: Velocity and acceleration are vectors
Kinematics is where the real physics starts. There are four quantities
Both velocity and acceleration are vectors, so one must be careful
that interact in the kinematic equations: time, distance, velocity, and
when working in more than one dimension. If you have two vectors that
acceleration. Distance, velocity and acceleration are vectors, whereas
are not parallel with each other, then they must both be broken into
time is a scalar. Furthermore, in order for the kinematic equations to
components, and you will solve for the x- and y-components separately.
hold, the acceleration must be constant.
By separately, I mean SEPARATELY! An acceleration that is only in the
y-direction (i.e. up or down, like gravity) will not affect any velocity in
Kinematics quantities: acceleration must be constant
the x-direction. This will be very important in trajectory problems, as
1. Time (t), standard units = seconds (s)
demonstrated below.
2. Distance (x or y), standard units = meters (m)
m
3. Velocity (v), standard units = meters per second ( s ) Kinematics equations
4. Acceleration (a), standard units = meters per second squared (m
s2 ) Kinematics equations will only work with a constant acceleration. What
if there is no acceleration? That would just be a constant acceleration
*Distance is often represented by the variables “d” or “s” as opposed to of zero (a = 0 m/s ). Kinematics problems are usually straightforward
2
“x” or “y” as noted above, I use x and y because these correspond to word problems: you simply need to figure out which variables you know,
the x and y axes to help keep my vectors straight. what variable you are looking for, and then what equation contains
those variables. The kinematic equations provide a foundation for later
Hopefully if you look at the units you can see relationships between
concepts, so it’s worth taking the time to get comfortable with them and
these quantities. For example: velocity is the change in distance divided
make sure you know them well enough that you don’t forget them.
by the change in time, or v = Δx/Δt, and acceleration is the change in
velocity divided by the change in time, or a = Δv/Δt. Check the units
here for unit analysis as discussed in the math intro. “Δ” (pronounced
‘Delta’) simply means “change in”. For any quantity, it’s just the final
value minus the initial value, i.e.. Δx = x final – x initial

Other than the definitional formulas presented above (v = Δx/Δt, and A note on variables and conventions
a = Δv/Δt) there are four kinematics equations that you will need to be I have a specific set of labels that I use (e.g., “x” for position). While
familiar with: these are pretty much standard, they inevitably vary from class to class
and teacher to teacher. I have labeled and named my variables above,
1. vf = vi + at
but have not yet talked about subscripts. Often in problems there will
2. xf = xi + vit + 1/2at which can also be written Δx = vit +1/2at
2 2
be more than one velocity, say a final velocity and an initial velocity as
3. Δx = (vf – vi) t/2 this is just average velocity multiplied by time above. In this case I recommend using subscripts to keep your variables
clear and separate. I use a subscript “i” for initial, and “f” for final, but
4. vf2 = vi2 + 2aΔx*
I could just as easily use “1” for initial and “2” for final. So, above vi =
*this equation will not work if the two velocities have a different sign
initial velocity, and vf = final velocity.
(+ and -), so be careful!
Principle 4: Make sure you know what every variable represents, and its
units. If you don’t know what a variable is in an equation, look it up!

Trajectory problems To solve trajectory problems:
A trajectory problem is a problem where an object starts out with 1. Break your velocity vector into components using your trig functions
some velocity at an angle, and will thus carve out a curved trajectory. as seen in the diagram below
Many students struggle with these problems because they do not
2. Solve for each component separately using your kinematic equations
understand vectors. The big mistake they make is forgetting to break
as if the object was just moving in one dimension
the vector into components, making it difficult to deal with gravity. In
trajectory problems an object is accelerating only in the y-direction! The 3. Solve for the y-component first, usually solving for time, which you
acceleration in the x-direction is zero. You can treat these directions as can then plug into the x-component kinematics. Remember that your
completely independent. acceleration in the y-direction is always gravity (if there are not other
forces involved) and thus a = g = -9.8 m/s2
The trajectory ends when the object hits the ground, and so the
y-component determines how long the object will be in the air. In fact, a 4. Solve for your x-component by using the time from the y-component.
trajectory can be thought of as two trajectories: one that goes straight As long as there is no other force there will be no acceleration in the
up and down, and one that goes straight in the x-direction at constant x-direction, as gravity only acts in the y-direction. The distance the
velocity. object goes in the x-direction is called the range.
For example say we are given the following problem. A batter hits a
baseball with an initial speed of 25 m/s, at an angle of 60° from the
horizontal. What is the range of this ball?
1. We should define our variables and draw a picture:

= + v = 25 m/s
θ = 60°
ax = 0 m/s2
Two dimensions Y dimension x dimension v
ay = g = -9.8 m/s2
(determines timing!) (constant velocity) 0

2. Now that we are set up we need to break this vector into

components so that we can do our algebra.
vxi = v(cos θ)
vyi = v(sin θ)
3. O
nly now can we jump into the kinematics equations. I will use the first method. v = 25 m/s
We will start with the y-component because that will vfy = vfy + ayt θ = 60°
give us a time to plug in for the x-component. There 0 = viy + gt viy = v(sinθ) = 21.6 m/s
are two ways to do this. The first option is to break the -viy = gt ay = g = -9.8 m/s2
trajectory in two pieces, in which case vyf = 0 at the top -viy -21.6 m/s
of the trajectory for the first piece. We can solve for the t= = = 2.2s
g -9.8 m/s2
first piece and simply double it (because the rise and
This is half the trajectory so we multiply by 2 to get t = 4.4s
fall are symmetrical, they will take the same amount
of time). Or, since we know that the rising piece is the vix = v(cosθ) = 12.5 m/s
∆x = vixt + 1/2axt2
exact opposite of the falling piece, we can assume that t = 4.4s
∆x = vixt + 0 = vixt
at the ground vyf = - vyi = -25 m/s (vyi = 0 for the second ax = 0 m/s2
∆x = (12.5 m/s)(4.4s) = 55m
piece because it starts at the top of the trajectory).
∆x = 55m

Forces
Forces are vectors
F = ma experience per unit of force. In other words, any time you have a net
force you have an acceleration. This means that if you add up all of
There are a number of vectors you will need to deal with in physics, your force vectors and get a resulting force that is not 0 then your
but vectors will be the most important when you deal with forces. object will be experiencing some sort of acceleration.
Every time you have more than one force acting on any object
Forces: causes and descriptions
these forces must be added together, and they will add together
There are many types of forces: electrical, gravitational, frictional,
as vectors. This means that you should get in the habit of ALWAYS
drag, etc. Whatever the source of a given force, it will cause
breaking every force into x- and y-components as soon as you
an object to accelerate either in a line or in a circle. These are
want to do any calculations with it. You will then add together all
descriptive equations—they describe the effects a force has.
of the x-components (with right-facing vectors as positive, and left
However, there are also causal equations of force—these describe
facing vectors as negative), and then separately add together all
what creates a force and how strong it is. An example of this second
of the y-components (with upwards-facing vectors as positive, and
type would be gravitation: Causal equations tell you the strength
downwards-facing vectors as negative).
and direction of a force, whereas the descriptive equation tells
Principle 3 revisited: Forces are vectors, so any time you are you what the force does to the object. Usually you can set up an
dealing with forces you will break them into x- and y-components, equation linking the two and never calculating the actually force F.
and add these separately. To get the magnitude of the final vector
Fcausal= Fdescriptive
you will recombine these results using the Pythagorean theorem,
and to get the direction of the final vector you will need to use Mxg=Mxa
trigonometric functions. g=a
Forces are accelerations It takes two bodies to make a force. This is very important, because
Probably the equation that will have the single biggest impact it tells us that a force cannot come from nowhere. At the beginning
on your grade in physics is the basic equation for a force. A you will just be given values for forces, but later in the course you will
simple rearrangement of this formula shows us that mass is just use other equations to actually solve for the magnitude of the force
a measurement of how much acceleration a given object will applied by gravity, or friction, etc. (this is what was done above).

Superposition and free body diagrams

First we draw our box, and a
Because forces are vectors they must be added as such, and the vector for gravity
easiest way to get started so that you can see what forces you should
add together and how, is to draw what is called a free body diagram.
This is just a picture of the object of interest on its own, with all the Fg
force vectors drawn in. Creating a free body diagram is very similar
to defining your variables, you just need to figure out what the forces
are acting on your object, what each one’s direction is, and then Fman
draw them in. Next we will draw in the man’s
25˚
For the following problem we are going to draw a free body pushing force
diagram.
A man moves a box by pushing it across the floor. Because of his Fg

height, he pushes the box forward and down, with his force making
a 25° angle with the horizontal. The floor has not been waxed in
Fman
awhile, and so there is a strong frictional resistance to his push. Draw
a free body diagram. 25˚ Then we add in the friction force,
which will always oppose motion
Friction
Fg
This should have all of the vectors we are dealing with. Now we
can just add them together like any other vectors.

After you do your free body diagram you will break the vectors into In order to solve an equilibrium problem:
components as usual, and then do regular vector math, keeping your
1. Draw a free body diagram
x- and y-components separate, and recombining using Pythagorean
theorem and trig functions. 2. Break all forces into components
Equilibrium problems 3. Set up force equations, and set all of them equal to 0
There is a special class of force problems called equilibrium 4. Solve for all unknowns, making sure you have as many equations
problems. An object is “in equilibrium” when its velocity is constant. as you do unknowns
If the velocity is constant, what does that mean about the net force
Centripetal forces
on the object? The only way to have a constant velocity is if all forces
A centripetal force is any force that acts perpendicular to an
sum to 0. You will no doubt use this information to solve for one
object’s velocity. Velocity has both magnitude and direction, and
of the forces. In order to do so you will create equations for forces
until now we have been discussing forces that change the velocity’s
as usual, but rather than setting them equal to “ma”, you will set
magnitude. Centripetal forces instead change only the direction of
them equal to 0. Often you will have multiple equations here for the
the velocity. Centripetal forces cause bodies to “orbit” the way a
different dimensions and so will have to use the substitution method
planet does around the sun. Have you ever spun a ball around on a
or the elimination method to solve for all the unknowns.
string? The tension you feel in the string keeps the ball moving in a
circle, and you create this tension with the centripetal force of your
Equilibrium Problems
hand. If you were to let go, the ball would fly off in a straight line, a
∑Fx = 0
line tangent to where it flew out of the circle.
∑Fy = 0
∑Fz = 0
∑Torques = 0

When dealing with centripetal motion, remember that the equation Remember that a centripetal force will always be exactly
FC = mv2/r is the “ma” from Newton’s Second Law. In other words, all perpendicular to the velocity. The big circle below is the line of
the forces acting on a body in circular motion with speed v must add motion; everything else is labeled either velocity or centripetal force.
up to equal mv2/r. Notice how the two arrows are always perpendicular. Notice also
how the problem above was solved with just variables. Once you get
the equation at the end, then you can plug in your numbers.
For example to find the radius of an orbiting body, we set the
descriptive formula mv2
(Fc= ) equal to the formula for the
r
G(m m ) v
source of the force, gravity
(Fg= 1 2 ) to get:
r2
mv2 Gm1m2 Fc
= The masses cancel (m=m1)
r r 2
v
v2 Gm2
= Multiply r across Fc
r r2
Gm2
r = Multiply r to the other side, and divide v2 over Fc
v 2
Gm2
r = Draw a box around your answer
v2 v

Energy Because the velocity vector is squared, the directional information

The mystery of energy is lost and kinetic energy is always positive (since directional
Energy is probably the most important single idea in understanding information was stored in the sign of the velocity vector). This is
physical processes. If you find yourself confused about energy, that's helpful when solving many kinematics problems. Whereas before we
ok; it’s hard to define. However, we do know how to measure it, and needed to know distance, time, and acceleration to find the velocity,
how it behaves. The important thing to remember is that though now we can simply use energy. Here is a little illustration. Notice that
energy comes in many forms, and can be transferred from one form the path the ball takes is irrelevant to the energy, and therefore to
to another, energy is always conserved. the velocity as well.
Energy is a scalar
E = U = 50 J E = U = 50 J
Energy is not a vector like force, velocity, and acceleration. This
means that it is path independent. That is the technical way of saying
that it does not matter how something gets there, the only important
thing is where it is and what it is doing. For example a ball rolling
to the right would have a positive velocity. The same ball going the h h
same speed, but going left would have a negative velocity. However,
in both situations the ball would have the same amount of energy,
K=1/2mv2.
E = K = 50 J E = K = 50 J
In the above diagram K represents kinetic energy and U represents

potential energy
Because this is the same ball, and thus has the same mass, both
of these have the same amount of kinetic energy at the bottom
and therefore both have the same speed (although not the same
velocity because they are moving in different directions)

Conservation of energy You can’t make matter disappear; you can only make it change form.
For example, a ball on a cliff has gravitational potential energy (let’s
You will learn that energy is always conserved. You will also learn that
say 50 Joules). When the ball rolls off the cliff, it will lose its potential
“it can neither be created nor destroyed.” These are the technical
energy. But for every Joule of potential energy it loses, it will gain
phrasings, and we are going to unpack them a little here. To say that
a Joule in kinetic energy. It speeds up! At the bottom of the cliff,
energy is conserved means that it can change forms, but you must
right before the ball makes impact with the ground, it has lost all of
always finish with as much as you start with. This is just like mass,
its potential energy. Then we know it must have 50 Joules of kinetic
which is also conserved. You can take an object and take matter from
energy; it’s going really fast now! That’s the meaning of conservation
it (think of taking a piece out of a cake), but that matter is now just
of energy. Energy has changed forms, but we always have the same
another object (the piece of cake on your plate), in a new form (you
amount we started with.
can eat it but then it is just broken up into its chemical components).
Total Energy is K and U so E = K + U
1
U = mgh and K = mv2
2
U = 50 J
K = 0J E = U + K = 50J E = U + K = 50J E = U + K = 50J
U = 25 J
K = 25 J
v
U=0J
K =50 J
v

Energy’s many forms Notice the fourth equation down is E = W = Fd. W is work, and this
equation is the foundation of the Work-Energy Theorem, covered
You will learn about many different forms that energy can take. As
below. F is force, and can be any force, and d is a distance. So
problems become more complicated, it’s important that you become
energy is just a force applied over a distance as discussed below,
an “energy auditor” making sure every last Joule is accounted for.
and this equation couples energy and forces. Just as acceleration
If energy ever seems to disappear, look for it to reappear elsewhere
couples together forces and kinematics, work couples together
(except in problems that explicitly lose energy such as inelastic
energy and forces.
collisions). Energy equations are listed below in the order that you
will encounter them through the course.
Energy Equations
1 G(m1m2)
K= mv2 Kinetic Energy Ug = Gravitational Potential Energy
2 r
Ug = mgh Gravitational Potential Energy E = Pt Power - Energy Relationship
1 Spring Potential Energy Electric Potential Energy

Us = kx2 Ue = qV
2
K(q1q2)
E = W = Fd Work - Force Relationship Ue = Electric Potential Energy
r
1 Rotational Kinetic Energy

K= Iϖ2
2

The Work-Energy Theorem: connecting energy

and forces
The work energy theorem states that the work done by the net force
on a particle equals the change in the particle’s energy. This means
essentially that work is energy. Work is important in two major ways:
1. It provides an interface between forces and energy, just like

acceleration does with forces and the kinematics
2. It shows how we can put energy into a system (like pushing a ball
up a hill), or take it out (like losing energy to the resistance of
friction).
The following equations are definitional for the work energy theorem
Work Energy Theorem
W = Fd
W = ∆E
∆E = F∆d
Revised Energy Equation

E=K+U+W

Momentum
p = mv Momentum, impulse, and the relationship to force

You have learned to use acceleration to describe motion, but
P is for Problems originally Issac Newton used momentum instead. He stated in terms
Momentum is one of the easiest concepts in general physics, but of what we now call an impulse, which is denoted by the variable J.
it leads to many common pitfalls. The first major issue is that the J is the change in momentum, and is also equal to a force multiplied
variable that represents momentum is P, as shown above. Makes by the time it is exerted.
sense, right? (no). “P” seems to have no connection to momentum
unlike most variables that are just the first letter of the word. Worse,
there are a number of other quantities labelled “P”: Power (Energy J = F∆t = ∆p
per unit time or E/t, or E = Pt); Pressure (Force per Area). Fortunately
neither of these are vectors, and so if you have a P with the vector
This is not usually a major topic, and is typically introduced to
arrow above you can know that it is momentum.
explain momentum, you get one homework problem, and then you
Momentum is a vector get the inevitable question on the test about it. This is a very easy
Momentum is a vector just like forces, velocities, accelerations, etc. concept and should be free points, but everyone always forgets
This means that momentums must be added as vectors, which will about it come test time.
be especially relevant for doing problems on collisions. Furthermore,
There are very few derivations in this book but the following one
this is very important to keep track of in problems in which velocity
is easy to understand, is historically important, and is a simple
changes direction, don’t forget your signs here. For example if the
demonstration of how really understanding equations can be helpful.
initial velocity is 15 m/s to the right or vi = 15 m/s, and the final
velocity is 15 m/s to the left or vf = -15 m/s then Δv = vf - vi which
is -30 m/s, not 0 m/s. This is a common mistake and an easy
one to make.

Principle 3 revisited: Momentum is a vector, so make your drawing

Newton's original formulation of his force
first and immediately break all vectors into components. Do the
was actually about changing momentum.
math on the x-components, do the math on the y-components, and
then put the resultant vectors back together using trig functions and
This was his original formulation (except it was calculus) the Pythagorean theorem. Beware of the signs, positive and negative
vectors can cause careless mistakes!
This is the deﬁ nition of momentum Collisions: the confluence of energy and momentum
A collision problem is exactly what it sounds like, two objects with
Just substitute mΔv for p energy and momentum colliding. There are two fundamental types
of collision problems: elastic and inelastic. There are three types of
This is the deﬁ nition of acceleration problems you will be solving though because inelastic can be broken
down further into a subcategory of perfectly inelastic. In an elastic
Just substitute a for Δv/Δt collision both energy and momentum are conserved. In an inelastic
collision momentum is conserved but energy is not. A perfectly
inelastic collision is just like an inelastic collision, with one added
Can it be this simple?
condition—the objects stick together. This is all very important to
The concept of momentum itself is straightforward; however, keep track of because it will dictate how we do our problems, and it
momentum problems can quite difficult, especially collision is summarized on the table on the next page.
problems. Collision problems are not conceptually difficult; they
usually just have a lot of moving parts. With a little practice, these
should be easy to master. This is your chance mid-semester to take
a little breather, as long as you know how to solve equations with
multiple unknowns, and are very good with your vectors (yet another
reason to master such concepts early on). You will want to use a lot
of drawings and then just do your vector math.

Type of Collision What is conserved What equations you can expect to use
p1 = pf
Momentum is conserved
m1v1i + m2v2i = m1v1f + m1v1f+ m2v2f
Elastic
Ei = Ef
Energy is conserved
1 m1 ( v1i)2 + 1 m2( v2i)2 = 1 m1(v1f ) + 1 m2(v2f)2
2 2 2 2
p1 = pf
Momentum is conserved
m1v1i + m2v2i = m1v1f + m2v2f
Inelastic
Energy is NOT conserved Ei ≠ Ef
Momentum is conserved p1 = pf
Completely Inelastic Energy is NOT conserved m1v1i + m2v2i = (m1+ m2) vf
(also objects stick together)
Ei ≠ Ef
You will notice that I write pi = pf , and Ei = Ef above the equations

where these are elaborated and expanded, this is a good technique, as
these simple equations mean “momentum is conserved” and “energy is
conserved” respectively (of course don’t put in that energy is conserved
in an inelastic collision problem). This will usually get you partial credit,
even if you can’t write anything else. The lesson here is to always put
down what you know in any problem, even if you can’t get further, you
can usually still squeeze out a few points.

Rotation
Principle 5: Rotation is just like everything else, but in a circle. This
sounds ridiculous at first but you will realize that there is a rotational
analog of everything you have learned so far, there is angular
displacement, angular velocity, angular acceleration, angular forces
(called torques), angular kinetic energy, angular momentum, and so
on. Once you understand how similar everything is, the complexity
should just melt away.
From linear dynamics to rotational dynamics and back again

There are two factors that you need to understand inside and out to
understand how linear dynamics corresponds to rotational dynamics:
(1) how circumferences, distances, and radians are related; and,
(2) what a moment of inertia is. Once you understand these two
concepts and work with them a little bit you should see that there
are really very few differences between rotational dynamics and
linear dynamics, even all the equations are basically the same. If you
can wrap your mind around all of this, you can simply transfer all of
your existing knowledge onto rotation and save yourself a lot of time
and angst.

The first piece of the rotational puzzle:

Circumference, distance, and radians
The entire reason that we reviewed circumference and radians so
extensively in the math review is because it is the key we need to unlock
the rotational dynamics equations. We are going to start by thinking
about a tire on a unicycle and build everything from that. If you had a
unicycle tire with a radius of one meter, how far forward would you have
traveled if the tire went around once? The easiest way to conceptualize
this is to first realize that every part of the tire will touch the part of
ground that it goes over, so it is covering the same amount of distance
forward as the length of its circumference.
our tire at the beginning our tire after one rotation our tire after 2 rotations
1m
3.14 m 3.14 m
6.28 m total
Our tire has gone the distance of its circumference in one full rotation, twice the circumference in two and so on
C=π Distance = 2π d
Because d = 1, then c = π which is 3.14

Through this very simple demonstration we can see that our distance Linear quantity Rotational analogue
is always going to be the number of rotations multiplied by the Displacement (x) Angular displacement (0)
circumference. If the circumference is 2πr, then we can also see that
Velocity (v) Angular velocity (ω)
our distance traveled will always be (2π)(# of rotations)(r).Wouldn’t it be
Acceleration (a) Angular acceleration (α)
convenient if we could just set 2π equal to one rotation, so we could
call one rotation 2π, two rotations 4π, and three rotations 6π, instead Mass (m) Moment of inertia (I)
of 360°, 720°, and 1080°? It would indeed. In fact, that that is exactly Force (F) Torque (τ)
what radians accomplish. Recall that in radians 2π = 360°. You may also
Momentum (p) Angular momentum (L)
remember that radians are said to be a “unit-less” number: they don’t
Kinetic energy (K = 1/2mv2) Kinetic energy (K = ½ Iω2)
need units, like meters or degrees. This is because they are a conversion
factor between rotational distance and linear distance. As long as we Rotational kinematics
measure the angle of rotation θ in radians then our linear displacement Every single equation in kinematics has an analogue in rotational
along the circumference of a circle, x will just be our radius times θ. kinematics. First I want to show you another quick derivation so you see
why these are all essentially the same equations as the linear kinematics.
∆x = rθ
Deriving rotational kinematics equations from linear kinematics equations
This insight provides the backbone for understanding rotational
Vf = V1 + at We start with one of our basic kinematic equations
dynamics based upon what you already know about linear dynamics. θ
is analogous to displacement in rotation, in fact it is called our angular Vf = V1 + at We divide both sides by r. We know that
r r r v = ωr and a = ar so, ω = v/r and α = a/r
displacement. This behaves just like displacement, x, does in our linear
We arrive at one of our basic rotational kinematic
equations, but is just for rotational kinematics. ωf = ω1 + at equations we can always go back by just multiplying
everything by r
Rotational analogues
All of our rotational variables and quantities have linear analogues, and You will see that all the kinematic equations have a direct rotational
here they are: analogue. You can easily get back and forth by simply multiplying or
dividing by the radius.

The second piece of the puzzle: moment of inertia (I) This is because for rotation, it is not just the amount of mass that is
important, but how far the mass is from the axis of rotation. Moment
In order to understand moment of inertia we must first take a closer
of inertia takes this into account: the further mass is from the axis of
look at what exactly mass is. We know that F = ma, or better for our
rotation, the greater the moment of inertia. The equation for moment of
current purposes, m =F/a. That is, mass is essentially a measure of
inertia is:
how much acceleration we get per unit of force. Think about what this I = ∑ mr2
means, it is essentially the amount of inertia that an object has, the
amount that object resists change, since the normal state of matter is
Why moment of inertia?
constant velocity. Therefore, Mass is a measure of an object’s inertia. It
should come as no surprise then that the rotational analogue of mass The amount that an object resists linear change is merely dependent
is called a moment of inertia. By analogy, then, the moment of inertia, upon how much mass it has, but the amount that an object resists
I, is a measure of how much angular acceleration will be produced by a rotational change is dependent upon not just how much mass the object
torque, or I = T/α. d has, but also how that mass is distributed. This can be understood using
a simple example of weights on a barbell. Imagine I place two weights
on a bar very close together. As a workout, I lift the weights, and then
m m
spin the weights around in a circle. It’s a pretty good workout. Then I
move the weights to the end of the bar. Again I lift the weights, which
Total Mass = m+m=2m feels exactly the same. However, when I try to spin the weights, I can
Moment of Inertia (l) = m (d/2)2+m (d/2)2 = 1/2 md2 barely do it!
2d
m m
Total Mass = m+m=2m

Moment of Inertia (l) = m d2 + m d2 = 2 md2
(4 x above!)

Torque (τ)
τ=Fxr
Torque is probably the most difficult topic in rotational dynamics.
Torque is the rotational analogue of force. Once you understand moment
of inertia conceptually, torque is not that hard to conceptualize, except that
it has one new unique feature: a cross product. We’ll get to that below.
Just as the distribution of mass is irrelevant in linear dynamics, so is the Force

exact place where a force is applied. All that matters is the net magnitude
and direction of the force. If one pushes a box on the top, the middle, or
the bottom, these are all exactly the same. However, just as distribution
of mass makes a difference in moment of inertia, where a force is applied
also matters in torque. Luckily, this is also easy to conceptualize intuitively.
Imagine that you need to remove a lug nut from a tire: would you prefer to
Radius
use a miniature monkey wrench, or a giant lug wrench? It would probably
be impossible with a miniature wrench because the leverage arm is too Just remember that the cross product means that we multiply the
short. This gives us the intuition that the further from the axis of rotation a perpendicular components of these vectors. You can do the following:
force is applied, the greater the torque. Easy enough, this is nicely captured
1. If the force is not already perpendicular to the radial arm then use the
in the torque equation to the right.
trig function such that: Torque = (F)(r)(Sinθ)
Torque is the first place that we really deal with a cross product. Think
2. Take only the perpendicular component of the force, and then just
of it as a way to multiply vectors wherein the maximum result when they
multiply it by the radial arm as usual to get the magnitude of the
are perpendicular to each other. Try opening a door and thinking about
torque
torque. How and where do you push the door open? You want to push
at an angle perpendicular to the door, and you could imagine that as the 3. The direction of the torque vector is given by the right-hand-rule,
angle you push at becomes more parallel to the door, the harder you something you will cover in class, but won’t be covered here.
will have to push to open it.

Conclusion Of course, if you need any additional help, please visit

www.veritutors.com or contact us at [email protected]
The goal of this book is to give you a conceptual framework to
or 1-877-265-6582.
complement the technical material you will cover in class and in your
course book. To accomplish this goal we have stripped out most of If you are taking a physics course this semester, you may also be
the technical math, and tried to get you ready for what you will see by interested in our online Physics Crash Course. For more information on
walking through key math concepts in a non-technical way, and giving scheduling and pricing, please visit www.veritutors.com/PhysicsCourse.
you a conceptual overview of important physics concepts. We hope that
the math review is helpful, and will supply you with the tools you need
to understand the math as it is applied to physics. We further hope that
this book has helped you build up an adequate framework for you to
hang the technical concepts on when you learn them, and has helped
prepare you in a way to make them easier to learn and fully understand
when you do come across them in class.
As you go through the course you may find it helpful to review the
relevant material covered here before you learn each topic, and as you
work your way through how best to understand each concept. Physics
is often thought of as a very difficult course, and no matter how you go
about learning physics it will certainly require a lot of work. But, if you
work to understand the concepts, rather than just trying to memorize
how to solve specific sets of problems, the class can actually be quite
enjoyable, you will get more out of it with less effort, and you will be
prepared to solve any problem your professor can throw at you, not just
the specific problems you have worked through and studied. We hope
this book helps you on your way, and best of luck in the class!

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What are the goals of the book?

What are the goals of the book?

What topics does the book cover conceptually?

What topics does the book cover conceptually?

How to Succeed in Physics

(and reduce your workload)

Kyle Thomas, Lead Author

About the Authors About Veritas Tutors

Veritas Tutors, LLC

Table of Contents Using Inverse Trigonometric functions to solve triangles.................... 22

HOW TO SUCCEED IN PHYSICS Pythagorean theorem............................................................................ 23

MATH CONCEPTS.................................................................... 8 WAVES....................................................................................... 25

The ideas behind the symbols................................................................ 9 Interchangeability of f, T, and ω........................................................ 25

ALGEBRA..................................................................................... 9 The wave equation................................................................................ 25

Techniques for simultaneous equations............................................... 11 Geometry............................................................................................... 21

The substitution method....................................................................... 12 Demystifying radians............................................................................. 29

The elimination method........................................................................ 13 Calculus (optional section).................................................................... 30

Word problems...................................................................................... 14 No need to fear..................................................................................... 30

Elementary word problem technique: A derivative is a rate of change............................................................ 30

Algebra Waves Kinematics Energy Momentum Rotation

Principle 3: Whenever you have a problem involving vectors, ENERGY..................................................................................... 49

Forces are accelerations........................................................................ 45 Rotational analogues............................................................................. 58

Forces: causes and descriptions........................................................... 45 Rotational kinematics............................................................................ 58

Equilibrium problems............................................................................ 47 Why moment of inertia?........................................................................ 59

Centripetal forces.................................................................................. 47 Torque (τ)................................................................................................ 60

Algebra Waves Kinematics Energy Momentum Rotation

Progression through Progression through

Algebra Waves Kinematics Energy Momentum Rotation

Algebra Waves Kinematics Energy Momentum Rotation

FOIL: First Outside Inside Last

Commutative Property a + b = b + a and ab = ba

Algebra Waves Kinematics Energy Momentum Rotation

Algebra Waves Kinematics Energy Momentum Rotation

41 apples and 39 oranges;

Algebra Waves Kinematics Energy Momentum Rotation

Algebra Waves Kinematics Energy Momentum Rotation

Algebra Waves Kinematics Energy Momentum Rotation

Algebra Waves Kinematics Energy Momentum Rotation

Let's say you are given the following problem: Step 3

B) What is its velocity at this point? A) v =v0 + at

Step 1 B) ∆x = v0t + 1/2 at2

Write all variables off to the side C) v2 = v02 + 2a∆x

B) v = v0 + at Again, v0 drops out

Algebra Waves Kinematics Energy Momentum Rotation

Algebra Waves Kinematics Energy Momentum Rotation

We have 12 M & Ms, to find number of jellybeans just plug this

5. It is generally helpful to double-check your answer using one of

Algebra Waves Kinematics Energy Momentum Rotation

Algebra Waves Kinematics Energy Momentum Rotation

K = 1/2mv2 The equation for kinetic energy is this

m = Kg The units of mass are kilograms

v = m/s The units for velocity are meters per second

v2 = m2/s2 So the units for velocity squared would be meters squared

K = 1/2mv2 = Kg(m2/s2) = J Basic arithmetic shows the units of the

U = mgh An equation for potential energy is this

m = Kg The units of mass are kilograms

g = m/s2 The units of acceleration of gravity are meters per seconds

h =m The units of height are meterse

U = mgh = Kg(m/s2)m = Kg (m2/s2) = J

2. Now that we are set up we need to break this vector into