Jerome S.

Bruner

Needed:
A Theory of Instruction

OVER the past several years it instruments by which one understood

has become increasingly clear to me, as man and how he was shaped by his fel
to any thinking person today, that both low man.
psychology and the field of curriculum Yet we also realize that a theory of in
design itself suffer jointly from the lack struction is about as practical a thing as
of a theory of instruction. Such a theory one could possibly have to guide one in
of instruction would indeed be interest the process of passing on the knowledge,
ing just for its own sake, for purely the skills, the point of view and the heart
theoretical reasons. There cannot be, for of a culture. Let us, then, see whether
example, a theory of development which we can set forth some possible theorems
leaves somehow to chance the question that might go into a theory of instruc
of the way in which societies pace and tion.
structure the experiences with which
children come in contact; and to talk
Elements of a Theory
about the nature of development without
talking about the way in which society What do we mean by a theory of in
does and can structure the sequence, is struction? I found myself beginning this
to be as intellectually foolish as it is to exercise by putting down theorems that
be morally irresponsible. So even if one tried to separate what we might mean by
were seeking only a better theory about a theory of instruction from other kinds
the nature of man, one would indeed of theories that have been current. The
want a theory of instruction as one of the first thought that occurred to me is that
in its very nature a theory of instruction
is prescriptive and not descriptive. Such
Jerome S. Bruner i< Profe*tor of Piychology, a theory has the aim of producing par
and Director of the Center for Cognitive
Studift. Harvard Vnivenity, Cambridge, ticular ends and producing them in ways
IHattachutettt. He i» alto author of The that we speak of as optimal. It is not a
Process of Education and of On Knowing: description of what has happened when
Essays for the Left Hand. Thii article it learning has taken place it is something
adapted from Dr, Bruner't addrest at the
which is normative, which gives you
Second General Setrion during ASCD't
Eighteenth Annual Conference, March 10, something to shoot at and which, in the
1963, in Si. Louit, Mittouri. end, must state something about what

May 1963 523

you do when you put instruction together vertebrate on up through the highest
in the form of courses. Now, this is not a primate, man, operate by taking large
very surprising thing, yet I am struck by packets of information and breaking
the fact that many persons in the field these down into thei- own bite size and
of education have assumed that we could that unless they have the opportunity to
depend on other kinds of theories than do that, learning may become stereo
the theory of instruction to guide us in typed. At least it is a worthy hypothesis
this kind of enterprise. For example, I about instruction.
find that the dependence upon learning A theory of instruction must concern
theory among educators is as touching itself with the relationship between how
as it is shocking. The fact of the matter is things are presented and how they are
that the learning theory is not a theory of learned. Though I myself have worked
instruction; it is a theory that describes hard and long in the vineyard of learn
what takes place while learning is going ing theory, I can do no better than to
on and after learning has taken place. start by warning the reader away from
There is no clear-cut way in which one it. Learning theory is not a theory of
can derive wisdom,-^ef-»jqTl""^! implica instruction. It describes what happened.
tion, from learning theory that will guide A theory of instruction is a guide to what
him in the constructing of a curriculum. to do in order to achieve certain objec
When I say a theory of instruction is tives. Unfortunately, we shall have to
prescriptive, I mean it is before the fact. start pretty nearly at the beginning, for
It is before learning has taken place and there is very little literature to guide us
not while and after learning has taken in this subtle enterprise.
place. Let me give you an example of the What shall a theory of instruction be
kind of difficulty you get into when you about? I would propose that there are
assume that you can use the slender reed four aspects of such a theory. First, a
of learning theory to lean on. Take, for theory of instruction should concern it
example, the case of programed instruc self with the factors that predispose a
tion. child to learn effectively; and there are
There is in the current doctrine (I will many such factors that predispose. These
call it) of programed instruction the idea are factors which, on the whole, precede
that somehow you should take small the child's entry into our scholastic care.
steps, that each increment should be a These factors relate to his earliest child
small step. Now, this idea is derived hood and indeed one might say that we
willy-nilly from a theory of learning should provide some theorems for a
which states that learning is incremental theory of toys, and for a theory of family,
and goes in small steps. Nowhere in the and for a theory of stimulation, because
evidence upon which such a .theory is the thing that comes to mind here is the
based and it is only partial evidence question of what kind of stimulation
nowhere is there anything that says that ought a child to have before he is faced
simply because learning takes place in with this formidable thing we call a
small steps the environment should be schoolroom and a teacher. What sorts of
arranged in small steps. And so we set identification might he best form? How
up a curriculum that also has small shall we bring his linguistic level up to
steps. In doing so we fail to take sight a point where he is able to handle things
of the fact that, indeed, organisms from symbolically? I shall not treat further
524 Educational Leadership
these predispositions because what I guage. And this I want to speak of as the
want to do after this introduction of the power of a structure. In thinking of
different aspects of the theory Ls to go structure, then, we shall want to consider
back and have a look at each one of economy, productiveness, and power.
these in detail, so let me pass on now to All of these things are relative to a
a second aspect of a theory of instruc learner. It does not do to say simply that
tion. because physics has great economy,
It should concern itself with the opti great productiveness, and great power
mal structuring of knowledge. By this, as practiced by a Feinman or a Purcell,
I mean that for any body of knowledge that therefore you have children ape
there is a minimal set of propositions, those distinguished scientists. You take
or statements, or images from which one the child where you find him and give
can best generate the rest of what exists him the structure that is economical, pro
within that field. For example, from the ductive and powerful for him and that
conservation theorems plus a little more, allows him to grow.
a great deal of physics can be recon A third aspect of a theory of instruc
structed. This is the "guts" of physics. tion deals with the .optimal sequence
Now, I think when we speal; of the that is required for learning. In what
optimal structuring of knowleu^e, we order do we present things? If you are
probably have three things in mind presenting the Napoleonic period, where
about this set of underlying propositions. do you start? If you would give a sense
They should have the power of simplify of the sixteenth century, do you begin
ing the diversity of information within with the fact that mercantile prices and
the field, somehow rendering the partic prosperity were going up at a booming
ular redundant, making it clear that this rate, whereas the rents that were got by
case is just a sub-case of something else, the landlords were not going up because
that one fact is not the same as every there were long-term leases? You might.
other fact. I speak of this power of sim If you want to produce drama, you
plification as the economy of a structure. would. But, we will return to that be
Secondly, such a structure would enable cause there is a question of how to give
you to generate new propositions, to go the learner a place from which to take
beyond the information given. This I off, something upon which to build.
would speak of as the productiveness What order to do it? What exercises do
of a structure. And finally, there is an you give him to strengthen the sinews
other aspect to the structure of knowl of his own thinking? What type of rep
edge which has to do with the extent resentation do you use? How much par
to which it increases the manipulability ticular? How much generality?
of knowledge. It is classically the case, Finally, a fourth aspect of a theory
for example, that when you put some of instruction should concern itself with
thing into words it now becomes pos the nature and pacing of rewards and
sible for you to take that thing which punishments and successes and failures.
before you only intuited in some rough To sum up then, a theory of instruc
way and to subject it to the combinings tion should be constructed around four
and re-combinings that are made possible problems: predispositions, structures, se
by the transformative powers of lan quences, and consequences.

May 1963 525

 Predisposition to be explored can be opened, is to in
crease the informativeness of error. To
What can we say about the factors
increase the informativeness of error
that predispose a student to he a learner?
essentially involves making clear to the
Let us begin with the following simple
child what produced a failure. One of
proposition: that in order to learn or to
the major functions of a teacher is to
solve problems, it is necessary that alter
lead the child to a sense of why he
natives be explored and that you cannot
failed. I do not mean why he failed in
have effective learning or problem solv
terms of a characterological analysis; I
ing without the learner's having the
mean in terms of the nature of what it is
courage and the skill to explore alterna
that he is_doing. If you can somehow
tive ways of dealing with a problem.
make the child aware that his attempted
It seems that if you take this as
answer is not so much a wrong answer,
the first proposition concerning predis
as an answer to another problem, and
position, there are three things that im
then get him back on the track, it be
mediately can be said. First, that if this
comes possible for the child to reduce the
is the case, learning in the presence of
confusion that is produced by picking a
a teacher, or a tutor, or an instructor
wrong alternative. One of the things that,
should somehow minimize the risks and
I believe, keeps us from exploring al
the severity of the consequence that fol
ternatives is precisely the confusion of
lows upon exploration of alternatives. It
making the wrong choice.
should be less risky for a child to ex
Still another goad to the exploration
plore alternatives in the presence of a
of alternatives is through the encour
teacher, than without one present. It is
agement of "subversiveness." I mean
obvious that, at the level of coping with
that you must subvert all of the earlier
nature in the raw, the child searching for
established constraints against the ex
food on his own would stand more risk
ploration of alternatives. This kind of
of eating toadstools and poisoning him
subversiveness has to do with a healthy
self, and thereby bringing exploration
skepticism toward holy cows, prefabri
to a close.
cated doctrines, and stuffed shirtliness.
Yet there are other less obvious things
Let there be no question or doubt that
that have to do with the closing down is "not nice to express." The moment you
of the exploration of alternatives. A as teachers lose your role as subversives
teacher or parent can instill the fear of in this respect, you are doing the child
being a fool. That can surely paralyze an injustice and yourself an injustice as
the will to explore alternatives, for the a teacher. I want to rescue the word
moment an unreasonable alternative is "subversion" from the wrong senses to
made to seem like a foolish one, the inner which it has been put in recent years.
freedom to explore is limited by the re When we think about predispositions
quirements of face saving. The encour to learn, we have to bear in mind that
agement of exploration of alternatives the very relationship that we have with
requires some practical minimization of our pupils is a privileged relationship
the severity of consequences following involving authority and direction; that
exploration. is to say, the exchange is uneven. We
It seems to me, further, that one of know; they do not. Since that is the case,
the wavs in which a sense of alternatives it becomes very necessary for us not to

526 Educational Leadership

use this implicit authoritative relation in the behavior of American children
ship as a means of using our own office and children in the African bush who do
as a way of establishing truth and falsity. not have toys with mechanical or geo
It is so easy in the mind of the impres metrical constraint to play with. We take
sionable child to equate truth with Miss it for granted that our children can deal
Smith! with geometrical forms, put them to
The nature of learning in a school gether and take them apart, yet the fact
situation requires at least a dyadic rela of the matter is that it should not be
tion; at least two people are involved, taken for granted. The experience of
and usually many more than two. This manipulating materials gives our chil
obvious point requires that there be dren a stock of images and geometric
some set of minimal social skills that a transformations that permit him to work
child brings with him to a learning sit geometrically and mechanically in a way
uation. We do not know much about that our African subjects cannot. These
the nature of these social skills that are elementary forms of intellectual skills
required for an exchange of information. are essential. Is there more that we can
The act of exchanging information mu do that we are not doing?
tually, or even of accepting information My last point before passing on to the
and working on it until you make it topic of structure in learning has to do
your own, is not well understood. In ad with attitudes toward the use of mind.
dition to minimum social skills, there are These are predisposing factors of an
elementary intellectual skills that are enormously important kind. For example,
necessary for a first encounter with we know that these vary to some extent,
school learning. We "know" this, but we speaking sociologically, by class, by eth
do little either to investigate these ele nic group, by culture. There is no ques
mentary skills or to devise ways of tion, for example, that in terms of social
strengthening them. I am thinking prin class, very frequently you will find in the
cipally of linguistic skills. Where a child lowest social class an attitude toward life
has been socially underprivileged in his that is governed by the concept of luck.
early years, it may be necessary for ex This means that there is really nothing
ample to look squarely at the situation you can do by your own efforts, that
and say: This child, before he can go on things happen to a considerable extent by
in these subjects, simply needs more luck. The business of applying the mind,
linguistic training or all of our words the idea that man has a chance if he will
will be just mere wind going by his ears. use his mind, is an attitude which is not
I do not mean vocabulary, but, rather, frequently present and which has to be
the development of the full transforma created. This is an extremely difficult
tive power of language which our lin thing to do and I hope no one asks me
guists are only now beginning to under how do you do it, because I do not
stand. know. Yet it is quite clear that we must
It is necessary for the beginning child use the most intelligent opportunism
to have certain kinds of manipulative we can muster, to do anything we can to
and almost intuitive geometric skills. We get the idea started that by the use of
have started studies of children on the mind one can increase effectiveness or
borders of the Sahara in the interior of any other desired state. We also know
Senegal. We are struck at the difference that different ethnic groups have differ-

May 1963 527

ent attitudes toward the us^ of mind, simpler form, simple and step-by-step
and again, I do not think we take full enough for a child to grasp.
advantage of this. The Muslim-African Now, to move ahead one step, I be
culture, for example, has an attitude to lieve it can be said that knowledge about
ward the use of mind that it should be anything can, generally speaking, be
used principally for grasping the word represented in three ways, three parallel
that has been passed en. This is not the systems of processing information. One
kind of use of mind that makes for what of these is what I call the enactive rep
might be called a very active, vigorous resentation of knowledge. How do you
mind. tie a running bowline? You will reply
that you can't quite say it or draw it,
but that you will show me by tieing one.
Structure of Knowledge
Try to tell somebody how to ride a
Now let us turn to the question of bicycle, or ski. It is knowing by doing.
the structure of knowledge, its economy, It is the way in which the young child
productiveness, and power as related to on a seesaw "knows" Newton's Law of
the capacities of a learner. The first point Moments. He knows that in order to
relates to theorem in the theory of com balance two children on the other side
putation proposed by Turing. Turing he has to get farther out on his side,
proposed that any problem that can be and this is the Law of Moments, but
solved can be solved by simpler means. known enactively. Only with time do
That is the theorem. Out of this theorem children free themselves from this ten
has come the technology of computing dency to equate things with the actions
machines. What it says and it says this directed toward them. We never free
only for so-called well-defined problems ourselves from it completely. Let me,
with unique solutions is that however now speak of ikonic representation. If
complicated the problem, we can break somebody says to me, for example,
it down into a set of simpler elementary "What's a square?" I might say, "Well,
operations and finally end up with op a square is a set of sets such that the
erations as simple as: make a mark, number of elements in each set is equal
move a mark, take the mark out, put the to the number of sets." This is a good
mark back, etc. These elementary opera definition of a square, formalistically.
tions are then combined into sub-rou Yet the fact of the matter is that there
tines that are more complex and then is another way of representing a square,
these are combined, etc. The machine by an image. It isn't a square, it's an
succeeds in being practically interesting image of a square, and it's a useful image
because it can run off so many of these we can start with it. Many of the
operations in so short a time. Turing's things we use in representing knowledge
theorem has a certain relevance to the have this ikonic property. I use the word
structure of knowledge; it, in a sense, "ikonic" because I do not really mean a
is another way of stating what by now kind of imitation of nature. Let us not
I am afraid has become an old saw: that run down the importance of these useful
any subject can be taught to anybody images. They have Limits, these repre
at any age in some form that is honest. senting pictures.
There is always some way in which com Finally, a third way in which knowl
plicated problems can be reduced to edge can get represented is symbolically.

May 1963 529

 By this I mean in words or in those more with the highest brow symbolic version,
powerful versions of words, powerful in but by giving it in the muscles, then in
one way in any case, mathematical sym imagery and then giving it in language,
bols. I think you can turn around the with its tools for manipulation. The
Chinese proverb to the effect that one basic task is to orchestrate the three
picture is worth a thousand words. For kinds of representations so that we can
certain purposes one word is worth a lead the child from doing, to imaging
thousand pictures. For example, draw a what he has done, and finally to symboli-
picture of "implosion"; and yet the idea zation.
of implosion as such was one of the Usually in a college catalog when a
basic notions that led to the idea of course is listed it will say something
thermonuclear fusion. Implosion is the about a "prerequisite." Let me urge that
concept that results from the application any topic also has internal prerequisites
of a contrast transformation on the more in addition to the things that you are
familiar concept of explosion. The word supposed to have mastered beforehand.
was so important that it was classified The internal prerequisites may indeed
as top secret during the war. It is this be just precisely the easier modes of
capacity to put things into a symbol representation that get one to a less
system with rules for manipulating, for rigorous, more imageful or enactive
decomposing and recomposing and grasp of a subject before it gets con
transforming and turning symbols on verted either into ordinary or mathe
their heads that makes it possible to ex matical language. The way you get
plore things not present, not picturable, ahead with learning is to translate an
and indeed not in existence. idea into those non-rigorous forms that
Now the three modes of representa can be understood. Then one can, with
tion do not disappear as we grow older; their aid, become more precise and
quite to the contrary, they remain with powerful. In mathematics such tech
us forever. When we speak of the appli niques are called "heuristics." Their use
cation of Turing's theorem to the ques often constitutes a prerequisite to grasp
tion of structuring of knowledge, it is in ing a subject in its full depth. This is
reference to the representation forms most of what is meant when we speak
we have been discussing. Early in life of "spiral curriculum."
and also early in our mastery of a sub
ject we may have to represent things in Optimal Sequence
terms of what we do with them in
much the same way as a child "knows With respect to the sequence in which
about" balance beams by knowing what material is presented, different se j
to do on a seesaw. We may then emerge quences are obviously needed to achieve
with an image of it, however non different objectives. The idea of one
rigorous the image may be. Then and right sequence is a myth. You have to be
only then can language and symbol sys quite clear about what kind of learning
tems be applied with some degree of you are trying to produce before you can
likelihood that their reference will be specify what is a good sequence for pre
understood. I do not think I can say senting it. There are sequences that can
anything more important than that. You be described for the production of par
create a structure, not by starting off rots. We use them all the time. But there

530 Educational Leadership

is also a sequence that is particularly Without guessing he is deprived of his
interesting in that it seems to increase rights as a mind. We cannot get all of
the likelihood that knowledge will be the evidence. It is often by guessing that
converted into a structure that is eco we become aware of what we know.
nomical, productive and powerful and Another question related to sequence
therefore transferable. It is worth paus has to do with what I would call "re
ing over. visiting." Rarely is everything learned
I would like to suggest that if you about anything in one encounter. Yet we
wanted to do this, the first thing that seem to be so impelled to cover, to get
you might do is to try leading the child through the Elizabethan Period, and on
to grasp a structure by induction from through such-and-such period that we
particular instances. You would give forget the obvious point that the pot
him lots of particular instances and let is rarely licked clean at one swipe. Per
him recognize their underlying regu haps we would do well to take music
larity. If you want the child to transfer listening as a model. It is not simply
his learning to new situations you had a matter of mastering this subject, or
better give him some practice in trans even of converting it into more powerful
fer while he is learning. form. Rather, revisit means an oppor
The second thing you might try is tunity of connecting what we have
the use of contrast in your sequence. learned now with what else we know.
The fish will be the last to discover Why is such an obvious point so often
water. Economy of representation often ignored?
makes it necessary for the child to see
the contrasting case. Often concepts are Reward and Punishment
structured in terms of contrast and can
only be fully understood in terms of Now the question of pacing reward
them. To grasp the meaning of commu- and punishment for success and failure.
tativity in arithmetic that 3 4=4 3 First distinguish two states. One is suc
often may require that we recognize cess and failure; the other one is reward
the non-commutative case of ordinary and punishment. By success and failure,
language that for quantifiers, for ex I mean the end state that is inherent
ample, "very much" is not equal to in a task. The problem is solved or not
"much very" or as a little girl once put solved or close to solved. By reward
it "black shoe" isn't "shoe black." and punishment, I mean something quite
Third, if one wants a sequence that different. It relates to the consequences
is going to produce powerful learning, that follow upon success and failure
avoid premature symbolization. Do not prizes, scoldings, gold stars, etc.
give them that word to parrot before It is often the case that emphasis upon
they know what it is about either by reward and punishment, under the con
manipulation or in images. Ask your trol of an outside agent such as a teacher
selves how much you understand about or parent, diverts attention away from
simultaneous equations. success and failure. In effect, this may
Fourth, you might try to give the take the learning initiative away from
child practice at both leaping and plod the child and give it to the person dis
ding. Let him go by small steps. Then pensing the rewards and punishments.
let him take great leaps, huge guesses. This will be the more likely if the learner

May 1963 531

 ment" can be looked at afresh. The in
dependent problem solver is one who
Supervision in Action rewards and punishes himself by judg
ing the adequacy of his efforts. Equip
him with the tools for thinking and let
him be his own man.
"A New Supervisor on the Job"
Reba M. Bumlmin
Some Conclusions

I should warn you, in conclusion, to

beware of the likes of us. We do not
"Supervision Today"
have a tested theory of instruction to
Martha L. King
offer you. What is quite plain is that
one is needed and I would propose that
we work together in its forging.
Useful to the new supervisor. The I warn you for a good reason. Educa
experienced supervisor will find it tors are a curiously doctrinal or ideo
inspiring and helpful. logical kind of people. You are given
to slogans and fight and bleed in their
behalf. You have looked to psychology
65 pages for help and have often been misled
Price: $1.25 into accepting mere hypotheses as the
proven word. It is partly because it is
so hard to test the adequacy of ideas
in an educational setting.
Order from: Now we are living through a great
Association for Supervision and Curriculum revolution in education. Our survival
Development, NEA
1201 Sixteenth Street, N.W. may depend on its successful outcome
Washington 6, D.C. our survival as the human ace. I know
no group in our society more devoted
to the common weal than our educators.
In this era of new curricula, new teach
is not able to determine the basis of ing arrangements, new automated de
success and failure. One of the great vices, your best rudder is a healthy sense
problems in teaching, which usually of experimentation backed by a skepti
starts with the teacher being very sup cism toward educational slogans.
portive, is to give the rewarding func If we are to move toward a serviceable
tion back to the learner and the task. and sturdy theory of instruction and I
Perhaps we can do this by rewarding think we are then your greatest con
good errors so that the child becomes tribution will be a willingness to give
aware of the process of problem solving new ideas a try and full candor in ex
as worthy as well as the fruits of success pressing your reactions to how things
ful outcome. In any case, I wish to men worked. The prospect is strenuous, but
tion these matters to suggest that old gains to be won are enormous. I wish
dogmas about the role of "reinforce you well.

532 Educational Leadership

Copyright © 1963 by the Association for Supervision and Curriculum
Development. All rights reserved.