2D Face Recognition
2D Face Recognition
2D Face Recognition
Review
A Survey of 2D Face Recognition Techniques
Mejda Chihaoui *, Akram Elkefi, Wajdi Bellil and Chokri Ben Amar
REGIM: Research Groups on Intelligent Machines, University of Sfax, National School of Engineers (ENIS),
Sfax 3038, Tunisia; [email protected] (A.E.); [email protected] (W.B.); [email protected] (C.B.A.)
* Correspondence: [email protected]; Tel.: +216-5460-1073
Abstract: Despite the existence of various biometric techniques, like fingerprints, iris scan, as well
as hand geometry, the most efficient and more widely-used one is face recognition. This is because
it is inexpensive, non-intrusive and natural. Therefore, researchers have developed dozens of face
recognition techniques over the last few years. These techniques can generally be divided into three
categories, based on the face data processing methodology. There are methods that use the entire
face as input data for the proposed recognition system, methods that do not consider the whole face,
but only some features or areas of the face and methods that use global and local face characteristics
simultaneously. In this paper, we present an overview of some well-known methods in each of these
categories. First, we expose the benefits of, as well as the challenges to the use of face recognition
as a biometric tool. Then, we present a detailed survey of the well-known methods by expressing
each method’s principle. After that, a comparison between the three categories of face recognition
techniques is provided. Furthermore, the databases used in face recognition are mentioned, and some
results of the applications of these methods on face recognition databases are presented. Finally,
we highlight some new promising research directions that have recently appeared.
1. Introduction
The advent of the computer and its capacity to store and visualize large amounts of information
have led to the emergence of biometrics, such as face recognition, voice recognition, retinal scanning,
fingerprint, etc.
Biometric technology is getting not only more and more important, but also more and more
widely studied by many researchers. Thanks to its incomparable performance, it encompasses both
the technologies used to measure and those applied to analyze the unique characteristics of a person.
Indeed, there are two types of biometrics: behavioral and physical. The former is generally used for
verification, while the latter can be used either for identification or verification.
For instance, “facial recognition” is one of the biometrics used for identification. It has been
for a long time a very interesting area that has attracted the interest of several researchers for being
non-intrusive, very popular and not expensive. Over the last few decades, many techniques, whose
applications include video conferencing systems [1–5], facial reconstruction, security, etc., have been
proposed to recognize a face in a 2D image.
As shown in Figure 1, a face recognition system can be divided into three stages, namely face
detection, feature extraction and face recognition.
Face recognition system starts with detecting the existence of a face in an image. Generally, a face
detection system can decide if an image contains a face or not. If it does, the system’s role is to locate
the position of one or more faces in the image.
However, this step becomes difficult if variations in illumination, position, facial expression
(smiling, surprise, etc.), orientation and morphological criteria (mustaches, glasses, etc.) occur.
All of these obstacles can prevent the proper face detection and consequently decrease the rate
of face detection.
After detecting a face in an image, we proceed to extract the features of the face [6–8]. This step is
important for the recognition of facial expressions and also for their animation. This step is to extract
a feature vector called the signature from the detected face. The latter is then sufficient to represent
a face. It must verify the uniqueness of the face, as well as the property of discriminating between two
different individuals. It should be noted that this phase can be made with the face detection step.
Finally, the face recognition involves authentication and identification. Authentication involves
comparing a face with another in order to approve the requested identity. Identification, however,
compares a face with several other faces given to find the identity of the face among several possibilities.
In this paper, we present the state of the art of existing works in this area by focusing on approaches
that revolutionized the world of face recognition, as well as recent approaches.
Although there are many recognition tools, the most commonly-used one is fingerprints.
Nevertheless, several studies proved that the most reliable characteristic is iris texture, because
it is stable throughout life. The two previously-mentioned methods (fingerprints and iris texture)
have the major drawback of being intrusive. They also present constraints for users; that is why their
application areas are considerably limited.
Conversely, the facial image recognition systems exhibit no constraint for users. Indeed, face
recognition has several advantages, among which we can mention:
• Short time: This is one of the fastest biometric modalities. One can talk about real-time application
because you have to go through the biometric system only once.
• High security: Let us take the example of a company that is checking the identities of people at the
entry; such a biometric system allows not only employees to check presence at the time, but also
any visitor can be added to the biometric system. Therefore, this system does not provide access to
individuals not included in the system.
• Automatic system: This system works automatically without being controlled by a person.
• Easy adaptation: It can be easily used in a company. It only requires the installation of the capturing
system (camera).
• High success rate: This system has achieved high recognition rates, especially with the emergence
of three-dimensional technology, which makes it very difficult to cheat. Subsequently, this gives
confidence to the system users.
• Acceptance in public places: It allows getting gigantic databases and, thus, improving the
recognition performance.
Among the six biometric attributes (face, voice, eye, hand, signing, fingers) considered by [9],
facial features mark a compatibility score in the MRTD system (“Machine-Readable Travel Documents”)
based on several evaluation factors, like enrollment, renewal data, required materials and user
perception [10]. This score is shown in Figure 2.
Like other biometrics, face recognition has its specificity and its application fields. It has become a
viable technology in our modern life.
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There are various areas of face recognition application that can be used in the public sector
(driving license, military application, sporting event, airport, etc.) and in the private one (online service,
commerce, banking, embedded application, mobile device security, etc.).
Figure 2. Compatibility score for various biometric technologies in the Machine-Readable Travel
Documents (MRTD) system.
create an occlusion during which part of the information is lost or replaced. It is worth noting that
methods based on the local regions have been successfully used in the case of partial occlusion.
• Image falsification: Some facial recognition systems can be easily fooled by face images.
For example, mobile device unlocking, based on facial recognition, can easily be faked with a picture
of a person’s facial image, which can be available on the Internet, as well as on social networks.
• Noise: This noise occurs because of the camera sensor during image capturing. The nature of these
cameras in the world and the quality of the sensors make this noise inevitable, badly affecting
face recognition.
• Blur effect: Movement and atmospheric blur are the main sources of blur in face images.
This blurring can be caused either by peoples’ movement (such as surveillance) or by the relative
motion between the camera and the captured subject, as is the case in the maritime environment.
are not very effective in classifying the face/non-face forms and individuals. Therefore, the detection
and recognition rate of these methods are generally unsatisfactory. Several techniques can be classified
as linear techniques:
• Eigenface [11]: This is a very popular approach used for face recognition. It is based on the PCA
technique (principal component analysis) allowing the transformation of any training image into
an “eigenface”. Its principle is the following: given a set of sample faces images, it essentially aims
at finding the main components of these faces. This amounts to determining the eigenvectors of
the covariance matrix formed by the set of the sample images. Each example will then be described
by a linear combination of these eigenvectors. Figure 3 shows the eigenfaces constructed from the
ORL database.
Figure 3. Eigenfaces (eigenvectors) of the 12 largest eigenvalues are presented from the AT&T division
of the ORL database [12].
To construct the covariance matrix, each face image is transformed into a vector. Each element
of the vector corresponds to the pixel intensity. This transformation of the pixel matrix destroys the
geometric structure of the image.
• 2D PCA (two-dimensional PCA) [13]: To avoid losing information about the neighborhood during
the transformation of the image into a vector, a two-dimensional PCA method (2D PCA) was
proposed. This method takes as input images rather than vectors. Figure 4 shows five reconstructed
images from an image of the ORL database by adding the first number of eigenvectors d (d = 2, 4,
6, 8, 10) of sub-images together at the same time.
The reconstructed images appear more clearly when the number of sub-images increases.
PCA (eigenfaces) was also used to represent and reconstruct the same face image. It is not so efficient
in reconstructing the image.
• Independent Component Analysis (ICA) [14]: This is a method conceived primarily for signal
processing. It consists of expressing a set of N random variables x1 , ..., xn as a linear combination
of N statistically-independent random variables s j , such as:
• Multidimensional scaling (MDS) [15]: This is another well-known technique of linear dimension
reduction. Instead of keeping the variance of data during projection, it strives to preserve all
distances between each pair of examples dist( xi , x j ) seeking a linear transformation that minimizes
energy. This minimization problem can be solved by eigenvalue decomposition. Using the
Euclidean distance between data, the outputs of the MDS are the same as those of PCA. They are
obtained by a rotation followed by a projection.
• Non-negative matrix factorization (NMF) [16]: The non-negative matrix factorization is another
method that represents the face without using the notion of class. The algorithm of NMF, such as
PCA, treats the face as a linear combination of vectors of the reduced space base. The difference
is that NMF does not allow negative elements in the vectors of the base in the combination
weight. In other words, certain vectors in space reduced by PCA (eigenfaces) resemble the distorted
versions of the entire face, while those reduced by NMF are located objects that better reflect parts
of the face.
• Linear discriminant analysis (LDA) [17]: There are other techniques that are also constructed
from linear decomposition, such as linear discriminant analysis (LDA). While PCA builds a
subspace to represent, in an optimal way, “only” the object “face”, LDA constructs a discriminant
subspace to distinguish, in an optimal way, the faces of different people. LDA, also called
“Fisher linear discriminant” analysis, is one of the most widely-used approaches for face recognition.
It uses the reduction criterion based on the concept of the separability of data per class. LDA
includes two stages: the original space reduction by the PCA and the vectors of the final projection
space, called “Fisher faces”. The latter are calculated on the basis of the classes’ separability
criterion, but in the reduced space. This need for the input space reduction is caused by the
total scattering matrix singularity criterion of the LDA approach. Comparative studies show that
methods based on the LDA usually give better results than those based on PCA.
• Improvements of PCA, LDA and ICA techniques: Many efforts have been made to improve
the linear techniques of subspace analysis for face recognition. For example, the work done
in [18] improved PCA to deal with pose variation. The probabilistic subspace was introduced
to provide a more significant measure similarity in the probabilistic framework. Besides, the
author [19] presented a combination between the D-LDA (direct LDA) and the F-LDA (fractional
LDA), a variant of the LDA in which the weighted functions are used to avoid misclassification
caused by too close categories’ products. Thus, the author [20] proposed an approach based on the
multi-linear tensor decomposition of image sets to resolve the confusion of several factors related
to the same face recognition system, such as lighting and pose.
• Independent high intensity Gabor wavelet [21]: To improve face recognition, high intensity feature
vectors are extracted from the Gabor wavelet transform of frontal facial images combined together
with the ICA [14]. The characteristics of the Gabor wavelet have been recognized as one of the best
face recognition representations.
• Gabor features, LDA and ANN classifier [22]: In this work, a methodology was adopted to improve
the robustness of the facial recognition system using two popular methods of statistical modeling
to represent a face image: PCA and LDA. These techniques allow extracting the discriminative
features of a face. A human face image pre-processing was done using Gabor wavelets that
eliminate variations due to pose and lighting. PCA and LDA extract discrimination and low
dimension feature vectors. The latter was used in the classification phase during which the
back-propagation neural network (BPNN) was applied as a classifier. This proposed system was
successfully tested on the ORL face database with 400 frontal images of 40 different subjects of
variable lighting and facial expressions. Furthermore, a very large number of linear techniques
was used to calculate the feature vectors. Among these techniques, we can mention:
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Although these global linear methods, based on global appearance, avoid the instability of the
first geometric methods that were developed, they are not specific enough to describe the subtleties
of geometric varieties present in the space of the original image. This is due to their limitations to
manage the non-linearity in facial recognition. In other words, their nonlinear varieties’ deformations
can be smoothed, and concavities may be fulfilled, causing adverse consequences.
• Kernel principal component analysis, KPCA [34]: This is a non-linear reformulation of the classic
linear technology PCA using kernel functions. KPCA calculates the main eigenvectors of the matrix
of kernels rather than the covariance matrix. This reformulation of classical PCA can be seen as a
realization of PCA on the large space transformed by the associated kernel function. KPCA allows,
then, the construction of nonlinear mappings. First, it calculates the matrix of kernel K of points, xi ,
whose entries are defined by [35].
As the KPCA technique is based on “kernels”, its performance greatly depends on the choice of the
kernel function K. The typically-used kernels are linear, then they amount to performing classical
PCA, the polynomial kernel or the Gaussian kernel [35]. KPCA was successfully applied in several
problems, such as speech recognition [36] or the detection of new elements of a set [34], but the
major weakness of KPCA is that the size of the kernel matrix is the square of the number of samples
of the training set, which can quickly be prohibitive.
• Support vector machine (SVM) [37]: This is a learning technique effectively used for “pattern”
recognition with its high generalization performance without the need to add more knowledge.
Intuitively, given a set of points belonging to two classes, SVM finds the hyperplane that separates
the largest possible fraction of points of the same class at the same side, while maximizing the
distance between two classes to a hyperplane called the optimal separating hyperplane (OSH).
It reduces the risk of misclassification not only for examples of the learning set, but also for the
invisible example of the test set. SVM can also be considered as a way to train polynomial neural
networks or “radial basis” function classifiers. Learning techniques used here are based on the
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principle of structure risk minimization (SRM), which states that the best generalization capabilities
are achieved by minimizing the boundary of the generalization error. The application of SVM in
computer vision problem was, afterward, proposed.
Years later, the work presented in [38] used the SVM with a binary tree recognition strategy to
solve the problems of face recognition. He began by extracting the features and then the functions
of discrimination between each pair learned by SVM. After that, the disjoint test sets passed to the
recognition system. To construct a binary tree structure, [39] proposed to recognize the test samples.
Other nonlinear techniques have also been used in the context of facial recognition:
These methods of projecting the space of images on the feature space are nonlinear, allowing,
to a certain extent, a better reduction of the image size. However, although these techniques often
improve recognition rates on some given tests, they are too flexible to be robust to new data, unlike the
linear methods.
• Interest-point based on face recognition methods: we first detect the points of interest. Then, we
extract features localized on these points.
• Local appearance-based face recognition methods: the face is divided into small regions (or patches)
from which local characteristics are directly extracted.
• Dynamic link architecture (DLA) [56]: This approach is based on the use of a deformable topological
graph instead of a fixed topological graph as in [57] in order to propose a facial representation
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model called DLA. This approach allows varying the graph in scale and position based on the
appearance change of the considered face.
Indeed, the graph is a rectangular grid localized on the image where the nodes are labeled with the
responses of Gabor filters in several directions and several spatial frequencies, called “jets”.
However, the edges are labeled by distances, where each edge connects two nodes on the
graph. The comparison between two face graphs is performed by deforming and mapping
the representative graph of the test image with each of the representative graphs of the
reference images.
• Elastic bunch graph matching (EBGM) [58]: This is an extension of DLA in which the nodes of
the graphs are located on a number of selected points of the face. For instance, EBGM was one of
the most efficient algorithms in the FERET competition in 1996. Similarly, Wiskott et al. [58] used
Gabor wavelets to extract the characteristics of the points detected because Gabor filters are robust
to illumination changes, distortions and scale variations.
• Geometric feature vector [59]: This technique uses a training set to detect the position of the eye in
an image. It first calculates, for each point, the correlation coefficients between the test image and
the images of the training set and then it searches the maximum values.
• Face statistical model [60]: This approach used many detectors of specific features for each part of
the face, such as eyes, nose, mouth, etc. The work presented in [61] proposed to build statistical
models of facial shapes. Despite all of these research works, there are no sufficiently reliable and
accurate feature points.
• Feature extraction by Gabor filter [62]: This consists of detecting and representing facial features
from Gabor wavelets. For each detected point, two types of information are stored: its position
and its characteristics (the features are extracted using Gabor filter on this point). To model the
relationship between the characteristic points, a topological graph is built for each face.
Years later, the success of these methods was an incentive for some recent works.
To conclude, many methods, based on extracting feature points, have been proposed. They can
be effectively used for face recognition where only one reference picture is available. However, their
performance depends on many effective algorithms for locating facial feature points. In practice, the
precise characteristic point detection task is not easy and has not been completely resolved, especially
in cases where the shape or appearance of a facial image can vary widely [65].
• LBP and its recent variant [73]: The original LBP method labels the image pixels with decimal
numbers. LBP encodes the local structure around each pixel compared with its eight neighbors in
a (3 × 3) neighborhood by subtracting the value of the central pixel. Therefore, strictly-resultant
negative values are encoded with zero and the other with one.
For each given pixel, a binary number is obtained by concatenating all of the binary values in
a clockwise direction, which starts from one of its top left neighborhoods. The corresponding
decimal value of the generated binary number is then used to mark the given pixel derivative
binary numbers called LBP codes [74].
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The methodology of LBP has recently been developed with a great number of variations in order
to improve various applications’ performance. These variations focus on different aspects of the
original LBP operator:
- Improvement of its discriminatory capacity [75].
- Improvement of its robustness [76].
- The selection of the neighborhoods [77].
Compared to global approaches, local methods have certain advantages. First, they can provide
additional information based on the local regions. In addition, for each type of local characteristic,
we can choose the most appropriate classifier.
Despite these advantages, the integration of more general structure information is required in
local approaches.
In general, there are two ways to achieve this goal. The first way is to integrate global information
on the algorithms using data structures, such as a graph where each node represents a local feature,
while an edge between two nodes represents the spatial relationship between them.
Face recognition is therefore a problem of matching two graphs. However, the second way is to
use the score fusion techniques: separated classifiers are used on each local characteristic to calculate
similarity. Then, the similarities obtained are combined to provide a global score for the final decision.
• Hidden Markov model (HMM) [78]: The hidden Markov models began to be used in 1975 in
different fields, especially in voice recognition. They were fully operated from the 1980s in speech
recognition. Then, they were applied in manuscript text recognition, image processing, music and
bioinformatics (DNA sequencing, etc.), as well as in cardiology (segmentation of the ECG signal).
The hidden Markov models, also called Markov sources or “probabilistic functions of Markov”,
are powerful stochastic signals modeling statistic tools. These models have been proven to be
efficient since their invention by Baum and his colleagues. They were mainly used in speech
processing. They can be defined by a statistical model of the Markov chain. This latter is a
statistical model composed of “states” and “transitions”.
For face images, significant facial regions (hair, forehead, eyebrows, eyes, nose, mouth and chin)
are placed in a natural order from top to bottom even if the image is taken under small rotations.
For each of these regions, a state from left to right is affected. The structure of the face model of the
state and the non-zero transition probabilities are shown in Figure 5:
Figure 5. The recognition of face from the right side to the left side using HMM.
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• Gabor wavelet transform based on the pseudo hidden Markov model (GWT-PHMM) [21]: This
is an approach that combines the multi-resolution capability of Gabor wavelet transform (GWT)
with local interactions of facial structures expressed through the pseudo-hidden Markov model
(HMM). Unlike the traditional “zigzag scanning” method for feature extraction, a continuous
analysis method should be carried out from top left to right then from top to bottom and right to
left, and so on, until the bottom right of the image, spiral scanning, which is proposed for a better
selection of features. Furthermore, unlike traditional HMM, PHMM does not carry the state of
conditional independence of the states of the visible observation sequence hypothesis. This result
is achieved thanks to the concept of local structures introduced by the PHMM used to extract face
bands and automatically select the most informative features of a facial image. Again, the use of
the most informative pixels rather than the whole picture makes this proposed face recognition
method reasonably quick.
• Recognition system using PCA and discrete cosine transform (DCT) in HMM [79]: Without using
DCT, PCA is directly used to reduce the dimension. First, the details of the face are taken in blocks,
and the DCT is applied on these blocks. Then, without using the inverse DCT transform, the PCA
method is applied directly to the reduced dimensions and, thus, makes this system faster.
• HMM-LBP [80]: This is a hybrid approach called HMM-LBP permitting the classification of a 2D
face image by using the LBP tool (local binary pattern) for feature extraction. It consists of four
steps. First, [80] decomposes the face image into blocs. Then, this approach extracts image features
using LBP. After that, it calculates probabilities. Finally, it selects the maximum probability.
• Hybrid approach based on 2D wavelet decomposition SVD singular values [81]: This approach
presents an effective face recognition system using the eigenvalues of the wavelet transform as
feature vectors and the radial basis function neural network (RBF) as a classifier. Using the 2D
wavelet transform, face images are decomposed into two levels. Then, the wavelet coefficients’
average is calculated to find the characteristic centers.
• Multi-task learning-based discriminative Gaussian process latent variable model DGPLVM [82]:
This is a different approach that relies on a single data source learning to gain more data from
multiple sources/domains to improve performance in the target area. In this work, we use
asymmetric multi-task learning as it focuses only on improving the performance of the target task.
This constraint aims at maximizing the mutual information between the target data distributions
of the domain and data from multiple sources/domains. In addition, the Gaussian face model is a
reformulation based on the Gaussian process (GP), a method of the nonparametric Bayesian core.
Therefore, this model can also adapt its complexity to complex data distributions in the real world
without heuristics or parameters’ manual settings.
• Discriminant analysis on Riemannian manifold of Gaussian distributions (DARG) [83]: Its objective
consists of capturing the distribution of the underlying data in each set of images in order to
facilitate the classification and make it more robust. To this end, [83] represents the set of images
as a mixture of m Gaussian models (GMM) comprising a prior number of Gaussian components
with probabilities. He sought to discriminate the various Gaussian components of different classes.
Given the geometric information, Gaussian components lie on a specific Riemannian manifold.
To correctly encode such a Riemannian manifold, DARG uses several distances between Gaussian
components and draws a series of provably-defined positive probabilistic cores. With the latter,
a weighted discriminate analysis of cores is finally developed to treat Gaussian GMM as samples
and their prior probabilities as sample weights.
• Affine local descriptors and probabilistic similarity [84]: This technique combines the affine
transform of invariant features SIFT with probabilistic similarity under a great change of
perspective. The affine SIFT, an extension of SIFT that detects local invariant descriptors, generates
a series of different views using the affine transformation. In this context, it allows a difference of
views between the face image of the “gallery”, the “probe” and the face of the probe. However,
the human face is not flat because it contains important 3D depth. Obviously, this approach is
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not effective for large changes in pose. In addition, it combines with probabilistic similarity that
obtains the similarity between the face of “probe” and “gallery” based on the sum of squared
differences (SSD) distribution in an online learning process.
• PCA and Gabor wavelets [85]: This is a new approach that uses a face recognition algorithm with
two steps of recognition based on both global and local features. For the first step of the coarse
recognition, the proposed algorithm applies the principal components analysis (PCA) to identify a
test image. The recognition step ends at this stage if the result of the confidence level proves to be
reliable. Otherwise, the algorithm uses this result to filter images of the top candidates with a high
degree of similarity and transmits them to the next recognition step where Gabor filters are used.
Since the recognition of a face image with Gabor filter is a heavy calculation task, the contribution
of this work is to propose a more flexible and faster hybrid algorithm of face recognition carried
out through two stages.
• Manual segmentation-Gabor filter-neural network [86]: This is another feature extraction technique
that has given a high recognition rate. In this approach, facial topographical features are extracted
using a manual segmentation of the facial regions of the eyes, nose and mouth. Thereafter, the
Gabor transform of these regions’ maximum is extracted to calculate the local representation
of these regions. In the learning phase, this approach uses the method of nearest neighbor to
compute the distances between the three feature vectors of these regions and the corresponding
stored vectors.
• HMM-SVM-SVD [87]: This is a combination of two classifiers: SVM and HMM. The former
is used with the features of PCA, while the latter is a one-dimensional model in seven states
wherein features are based on the singular value decomposition (SVD). This approach uses these
combination rules for merging the outputs of SVM and HMM. It was successful with a 100%
recognition rate for the ORL database.
• Merging of local and global features based on Gabor-contourlet and PCA [88]: This is a combination
of two types of features using local features, extracted by Gabor transform, and global ones,
extracted via “contourlet transform”. The recognition step is finally made by the PCA classifier.
• SIFT-2D-PCA [89]: This global approach combines the SIFT, a local feature extraction method, and
2D-PCA, which represents an improvement of PCA. Since SIFT is used to extract distinctive features
that are invariant to scale changes, orientation and lighting; it will be beneficial for recognition
even if the global features are not available. 2D-PCA is used for the extraction of the global features,
as well as for the size reduction.
• Multilayer perceptron-PCA-LBP [90]: This approach applies a very recent recognition method
used to show the different changes (lighting, head position, facial expressions). That is why it
makes the global and local feature extractions respectively using PCA and LBP. Thus, these global
and local features are introduced to the network called MLP (multilayer perceptron). Finally, the
classification is made by the BPMLP network (backpropagation multilayer perceptron).
• Local directional pattern [91]: This is a method using the model of local direction. In this approach,
the LDP feature to each pixel position is obtained by calculating the response values for the image
in the eight different directions. Then, this image LDP is used as an input of the 2D-PCA for feature
extraction and representation. However, the nearest neighbor classifier is used for face recognition.
Although this method has a good recognition accuracy under various lighting environments,
it works only with frontal images.
• Wavelet transform and directional LBP [92]: This begins with the pre-treatment using the
wavelet transform in order to get series of different resolutions of sub-images and the wavelet
decomposition to get different scale components. Thereafter, a Directional Wavelet LBP (DW-LBP)
histogram for the different weighted face image sub-regions is calculated. Chi square is used for
matching sequences of the histogram. This method reduces the computational complexity and
improves the recognition rate, but it cannot be applied on different poses.
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Figure 6 summarizes the classification of face recognition approaches presented in this paper.
4. 2D Face Databases
Many face databases (public or private) are available for research purposes. These databases
differ from each other according to several criteria. The most interesting ones are the following:
• The number of images contained in each database is the most important criterion.
• The number of images per individual class: knowing that each individual is designated by a class c,
the number of images of a class represents the number of the individual’s representative images.
Indeed, images are acquired under different conditions (orientation, facial expression, etc.).
• The size of images.
• Pose and orientations of faces.
• The change of illumination.
• Sex of the acquired persons.
• The presence of artifacts (glasses, beards, etc.).
• The presence of static images or videos.
• The presence of a uniform background.
• The period between shots.
It is thus recommended to choose the appropriate database during the testing of an algorithm.
Indeed, some have a well-defined protocol allowing direct comparison of the results. Moreover,
the choice should depend on the problem to be tested: illumination, recognition over time, facial
expressions, etc. The availability of many different images per person can be a decisive argument for
the proper performance of an algorithm.
Table 2 below shows the main 2D faces databases. These databases present many variations in
terms of: RGB image or gray, size, number of people, number of images by person, variations of the
image (illumination (i) pose (p), expression (e) occlusions (o) time delay (t)) and home page on the web.
5. Results
The emergence of face recognition in analyzing 2D face images and the enormous interest given
to this research domain have led to a continuous improvement of the results obtained by testing
the previously-mentioned approaches on the different 2D face databases presented in the previous
section. Table 3 below shows some results presented by the inventories of these approaches. For more
organization, these results are grouped according to the used database.
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Table 2. 2D face databases. The image variations are represented by (i) illumination, (p) pose, (e) facial expression, (o) occlusion and (t) delay time.
Table 2. Cont.
Table 2. Cont.
LFW [108] RGB 150 × 150 13,233 P,i,e,o,t -Non controlled database
RGB
FRAV2D
Transformed 92 × 112 100 11 i,e -Frontal views
[109]
to gray
-Various head orientations
480 × 512 -Different zoom and lighting
MIT [110] Gray 16 27 p,i
15 × 16 -Non-extensive control and without precision
-No Effort to protect objects against the motion between 2 images
-Brazilian face image database
FEI database [111] RGB 200 14 -All images are taken against a white homogenous background in an upright
frontal position and vary 180 degrees of rotation
Recognition
Database Approach Details
Rate (%)
Table 3. Cont.
Recognition
Database Approach Details
Rate (%)
-The DB is divided into 200
- Boosted parameter based on images (10 for each person) for
100
combined classifier [136] training and 200 for testing
(10 for each person)
• 3D face recognition: Despite the high success rate achieved in 2D face recognition, this latter still has
two major unsolved problems, which are illumination and pose variations. To overcome these two
issues, 3D face recognition has emerged in order to provide more exact shape information of facial
Computers 2016, 5, 21 21 of 28
surfaces. For this reason, several recent techniques using 3D data have been proposed [143–148].
3D face recognition has been proposed to have the potential to achieve better accuracy than the 2D
field by measuring rigid feature geometry on the face.
• Multimodal face recognition: On the other hand, some recent research works state that the
fusion of multimodal 2D and 3D face recognition is more accurate and robust than the single
modality [149] and that it improves the performance when compared to single modal face
recognition. They investigate the potential benefit of fusing 2D and 3D features [150,151].
• Deep learning techniques: Deep learning techniques [152] have established themselves as a
dominant technique in machine learning. Deep neural networks (DNNs) have been top performers
on a wide variety of tasks, including image classification, speech recognition and face recognition.
In particular, convolutional neural networks (CNN) have recently achieved promising results in
face recognition. These deep learning techniques often use the public database LFW (Labeled Faces
in the Wild) to train CNNs.
• Infrared imagery: Amongst the various approaches that have been proposed to overcome face
recognition limitations, such as pose, facial expression, illumination changes, as well as facial
disguises, which can significantly decrease recognition accuracy, infrared (IR) imaging has emerged
as a novel promising research direction [153,154]. IR imagery is a modality that has attracted
particular attention due to its invariance to illumination changes [155]. Indeed, data acquired
using IR cameras have many advantages as compared with common cameras, which operate in
the visible spectrum. For instance, Infrared images of faces can be obtained under any lighting
condition, even in a completely dark environment, and there is some proof that the infrared
technique may achieve a higher degree of robustness to facial expression changes [156].
Finally, researchers have gone further by combining these new areas as [157], which has benefited
from multimodal face recognition and infrared, and [158], who has used both multimodal face
recognition and deep learning.
7. Conclusions
In this paper, we first introduced face recognition as a biometric technique. Subsequently,
we presented the state of the art of biometric approaches classified into three categories. Next,
we presented face databases used by researchers in this field to test their approaches and a table
summarizing the experimental findings. Finally, we highlighted some new promising research
directions.
Acknowledgments: The authors would like to acknowledge the support of Research Groups on Intelligent
Machines (ReGim-Lab).
Author Contributions: Mejda Chihaoui developed this project as part of his research. Akram ElKefi, Wajdi Bellil
and Chokri Ben Amar supervised the research and participated in the revision processes. All authors have read
and approve the final manuscript.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.
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