Reservoir Production Processes

Basics of Reservoir Engineering

(Reserves, Reservoir Drive Mechanisms, GOR, Phase
Diagrams, Oil Recovery Factor)

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 Hydrocarbon Volumes
(Basic Concepts)

„ OIIP: Oil Initially In Place

„ STOIIP: Stock Tank Oil Initially In Place
„ Reserves
„ Recovery Factor

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 Oil Initially In Place (OIIP)

Where;
A: Area
h: Thickness
φ: Porosity
Sw: Water Saturation

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 Stock Tank Oil Initially In Place (STOIIP)

Where:
„ A: area h: formation thickness
„ φ: porosity Sw: water saturation
„ Bo: formation volume factor

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 What are Reserves?

Oil and gas trapped beneath the earth’s surface that can be
recovered under existing economic conditions and with current
technology.

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 Recovery Factor

Np
RF =
N
„ where:
– N: stock tank oil originally in place
– Np: cumulative stock tank oil prod.
„ Affected by:
– Reservoir Rock
– Fluid Properties
– Reservoir Continuity, Heterogeneity
– Economic Conditions
– Technology

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 Reserves Uncertainty

I II III

Range of
Increasing Recovery Estimates
Recovery
True Ultimate
Recovery
Cumulative
Production

Time
Wells Abandonment At
Completed Economic Limit

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 Global Oil and Gas Fields

Gas
Oil

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 Where are those Reserves?

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 Largest Hydrocarbon Basins by Ultimate
Potential

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 World Fuel Consumption: 1975-2000
Oil
Natural Gas
8,000 Nuclear Energy
Hydroelectricity
7,000 Coal
Million tonnes oil equivalent

6,000

5,000

4,000

3,000

2,000

1,000

1995
1983

1999
1979

1993

1997
1975

1977

1981

1985

1987

1989

1991
Year
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 Projected World Energy Supplies

Careers in
Oil & Gas Hydroelectric

New Technologies
1993 Will be Important
100
100 BILLION
BARRELS Solar Wind
Geothermal
80
Billion World Energy Demand
Nuclear Electric
Coal
Equivalent

(GBOE) Natural
40 Gas

Fossil Fuels
Decreasing
Crude Oil
20

Tar Sands/Oil Shales

1900 1920 1940 1960 1980 2000 2020 2040 2060 2080 2100

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 Gas-Oil Ratio (GOR)

„ What is the STOIIP in the following case (in bbls)?

A: 300m x 500m h: 200m φ: 20%
Sw: 25% Bo: 1.35
1m3 = 6.289bbls
„ If ultimate RF of this reservoir is 30% and oil price is $30/bbl,
how much is the total revenue? Assume there is no market
for the gas in this case.

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 Oil Reservoir Drive Mechanisms

„ Solution-gas drive
„ Gas-cap drive
„ Water drive
„ Combination drive
„ Gravity-drainage drive

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 Sources of Reservoir Energy

„ Liberation, expansion of solution gas

„ Influx of aquifer water
„ Expansion of reservoir rock and compression of pore volume
„ Expansion of original reservoir fluids
– Free gas
– Interstitial water
– Oil, if present
„ Gravitational forces

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 Solution Gas Drive in Oil Reservoirs

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 Solution Gas Drive in Oil Reservoirs

„ No original gas cap or aquifer

„ Main source(s) of reservoir energy
– liberation and expansion of dissolved gas
„ Possible secondary gas cap
– liberated free gas can migrate up-structure
„ Typical production characteristics
– Rapid GOR increase after Pb

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 Solution Gas Drive in Oil Reservoirs
Formation of Secondary Gas Cap

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 Solution Gas Drive in Oil Reservoirs
Typical Production Characteristics

Initial reservoir
Reservoir pressure, psig

pressure
Reservoir pressure behavior

Bubblepoint
pressure

0 5 10
15 Oil recovery, % of OOIP

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 Solution Gas Drive in Oil Reservoirs
Typical Production Characteristics

400
Oil production rate, STB/D

800 400 Production data

Gas/oil ratio, SCF/STB

Pressure, psia

Gas/oil
600 300 ratio 300

400 200 Reservoir 200

pressure

Oil production rate

200 100 100

0 0 0
Time, years

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 Gas Cap Drive

Oil producing well

Oil Oil
zone Gas cap zone

Cross Section
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 Gas Cap Drive

„ Free gas phase exists as an original gas cap

„ Pure gas-cap drive reservoir has no aquifer
„ Main source(s) of reservoir energy
– Expansion of gas cap and liberation and expansion of solution
gas in the oil zone
„ Gas cap expands pushing GOC down and maintaining
higher pressure
„ Good sweep
„ Typical production characteristics
– dramatic GOR increase when gas breakthrough
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 Gas Cap Drive
Typical Production Characteristics
Pressure, psia
Production data
1300
Reservoir pressure
1200
1100

Gas/oil ratio, scf/STB

1000
900 800
Gas/oil ratio
600
Oil production rate,

400
2 200
MSTB/D

0
Oil
1

0
Time, years

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 Water Drive in Oil Reservoirs

„ Oil zone in communication with acquifer

„ Main source(s) of reservoir energy
– influx of acquifer water - edge-water drive, bottom-water drive
„ Pressure decline relatively slow
„ GOR kept relatively low and stable
„ Water production increases steadily
„ Oil production declines when water breakthrough
„ Reasonable sweep - depends on mobility ratio

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 Water Drive in Oil Reservoirs
Edge-Water Drive

Oil producing well

Oil Zone

Water Water

Cross Section
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 Water Drive in Oil Reservoirs
Bottom-Water Drive

Oil producing well

Oil Zone

Water

Cross Section

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 Water Drive in Oil Reservoirs
Typical Production Characteristics

Production data
Pressure, psia

Gas/oil ratio, MSCF/STB

2300
2200
Reservoir pressure
2100
2000 2
Gas/oil ratio
1900 40

Water cut, %
1
0 30
Oil production rate,

100 Water
20
80 10
MSTB/D

60 0
Oil
40
20
0

Time, years
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 Water Drive in Oil Reservoirs
Effect of Production Rate on Pressure
Production data - lower oil production rate
Pressure, psia

2000

Gas/oil ratio, MSCF/STB

Reservoir pressure
1900
1800 2
Gas/oil ratio
1700 1

Water Cut, %
0 60
Water
40
Oil production,

20 20
MSTB/D

15 0
Oil
10
5
0
Time, years

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 Reservoir pressure

Reservoir pressure in this reservoir declines more slowly and

even rises because the aquifer is able to provide enough
pressure support to offset lower fluid withdrawal from this
reservoir. Oil production rate in the figure above is lower than
in the previous example.

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 Combination Drive in Oil Reservoirs

Gas cap

Oil zone

Water

Cross Section

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 Combination Drive in Oil Reservoirs

„ Basic drive mechanisms usually occur in combination.

„ A large aquifer and a large gas cap can occur in a reservoir
simultaneously.
„ Oil production pressure drop results in some dissolved gas drive
component in any oil reservoir drive mechanism (even in water-drive
and gas-cap drive).

„ Dominant drive mechanism depends on the “strength" of each of the

source(s) of reservoir energy: size of original gas cap, "strength" of
aquifer (size and permeability), and degree of pressure decline.

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 Gravity Drainage in Oil Reservoirs

Main energy - gravitational force

Good drainage efficiency and recovery factor

Gas

Gas

Oil

Gas
Oil Point C

Point B
Oil
Point A

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 Gravity Drainage in Oil Reservoirs

„ Gravity drainage may occur in any type of reservoir.

„ Gravity drainage is particularly important in solution-gas and gas-cap
drive oil reservoirs.

„ Gravitational segregation can improve recovery efficiency substantially

when it has time to act.
„ In solution-gas drive reservoirs, liberated solution gas may segregate
from oil to form a secondary gas cap.
„ In gas-cap drive reservoirs, oil in gas-invaded region drains down to
rejoin oil column, reducing residual oil saturation (and thus improving
recovery efficiency).
„ Recovery efficiency for a gravity-drainage reservoir may approach that
of better water-drive reservoirs.

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 Pressure Trend
Reservoir pressure trends
100

Water drive
80
Reservoir pressure,
Percent of original

60

Gas-cap drive
40

20
Solution
-gas drive
0 0 20 40 60 80 100
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Cumulative oil produced, percent of original oil in place
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 GOR Trends

Gas/oil ratio trends

5

Solution-
gas drive
4
Gas/oil ratio, MSCF/STB

Gas-cap drive
3

1
Water drive

0
Cumulative oil produced, percent of original oil in place
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 Gas Reservoir Drive Mechanisms

„ Volumetric reservoir (gas expansion drive)

„ Water drive

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 Volumetric Gas Reservoirs

„ Gas reservoir with no acquifer

„ Main source(s) of reservoir energy
– expansion of gas
„ Pressure decline slowly and continuously
„ No water production
„ Flowing life can be increased by reducing surface back-
pressure through installing compression

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 Water Drive in Gas Reservoirs

„ Gas reservoir with acquifer

„ Main source(s) of reservoir energy
– expansion of gas and water influx
„ Pressure decline slower than volumetric gas reservoir
„ Water production may start early and increases with time
„ Flowing life can be increased by installing continuous or
intermittent water removal equipment

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 Average Recovery Factors
Oil Reservoirs

Average Oil Recovery

Drive Mechanism Factors,
% of OOIP
Range Average
Solution-gas drive 5 - 30 15
Gas-cap drive 15 - 50 30
Water drive 30 - 60 40
Gravity-drainage 16 - 85 50
drive
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 Average Recovery Factors
Gas Reservoirs

Average Gas Recovery Factors,

Drive Mechanism % of OGIP
Range Average
Volumetric 70 - 90 80
reservoir
(Gas expansion
drive)
Water drive 35 - 65 50

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 Properties Favorable for Oil Recovery

„ Solution-gas drive oil reservoirs

– Low oil density
– Low oil viscosity
– High oil bubblepoint pressure
„ Gas-cap drive oil reservoirs
– Favorable oil properties
– Relatively large ratio of gas cap to oil zone
– High reservoir dip angle
– Thick oil column

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 Properties Favorable for Oil Recovery

Water drive oil reservoirs

„ Large aquifer „ High relative oil permeability
„ Low oil viscosity „ Little reservoir heterogeneity
and stratification
Gravity drainage oil reservoirs
„ High reservoir dip angle „ Large fluid density difference
„ Favorable permeability „ Large segregation area
distribution „ Low withdrawal

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 Properties Favorable for Gas Recovery

„ Volumetric gas reservoir (gas expansion drive)

– Low abandonment pressure
„ Water-drive gas reservoir
– Large aquifer
– Small degree of reservoir heterogeneity and stratification

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 Oil Recovery factor

(Solution Gas Drive – API study)

ER = Oil recovery efficiency (recovery factor), [% (for API study)]

φ = Reservoir porosity, fraction
Swi = Interstitial water saturation, fraction
Bob = Formation volume factor of oil at bubblepoint, RB/STB
k = Reservoir permeability, [darcy (for API study);
mob = Oil viscosity at bubblepoint pressure, cp
pb = Bubblepoint pressure of oil, psig
pa = Abandonment reservoir pressure, psig

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 Oil Recovery factor

(Water Drive – API study)

ER = Oil recovery efficiency (recovery factor), [% (for API study)]

φ = Reservoir porosity, fraction
Swi = Interstitial water saturation, fraction
Bob = Formation volume factor of oil at bubblepoint, RB/STB
k = Reservoir permeability, [darcy (for API study);
mob = Oil viscosity at bubblepoint pressure, cp
mo = Oil viscosity at initial conditions, cp
mw = Water viscosity, cp
pb = Bubblepoint pressure of oil, psig
pa = Abandonment reservoir pressure, psig
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 Oil Recovery factor

(Water Drive – Guthrie-Greenberger study)

ER = Oil recovery efficiency (recovery factor), [fraction]

k = Reservoir permeability, md
Swi = Interstitial water saturation, fraction
φ = Reservoir porosity, fraction
µo = Oil viscosity, cp
h = Thickness, ft

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 The Area and the Thickness of the Reservoir

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 Exercise

Determine the Recovery Factor for one of your fields

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