Elegant Geometric Constructions

Paul Yiu
Department of Mathematical Sciences
Florida Atlantic University

Dedicated to Professor M.K. Siu

After a half century of curriculum reforms, it is fair to say that mathematicians and
educators have come full circle in recognizing the relevance of euclidean geometry in the
teaching and learning of mathematics. For example, in [15], J. E. McClure reasoned that
“Euclidean geometry is the only mathematical subject that is really in a position to provide
the grounds for its own axiomatic procedures”. See also [19]. Apart from its traditional
role as the training ground for logical reasoning, Euclidean geometry, with its construction
problems, provides a stimulating milieu of learning mathematics constructivistically. One
century ago, D. E. Smith [17, p.95] explained that the teaching of constructions using ruler
and compass serves several purposes: “it excites [students’] interest, it guards against the
slovenly figures that so often lead them to erroneous conclusions, it has a genuine value
for the future artisan, and its shows that geometry is something besides mere theory”.
Around the same time, the British Mathematical Association [16] recommended teaching
school geometry as two parallel courses of Theorems and Constructions. “The course of
constructions should be regarded as a practical course, the constructions being accurately
made with instruments, and no construction, or proof of a construction, should be deemed
invalid by reason of its being different from that given in Euclid, or by reason of its being
based on theorems which Euclid placed after it”
A good picture is worth more than a thousand words. This is especially true for stu-
dents and teachers of geometry. With good illustrations, concepts and problems in ge-
ometry become transparent and more understandable. However, the difficulty of drawing
good blackboard geometric sketches is well appreciated by every teacher of mathematics.
It is also true that many interesting problems on constructions with ruler and compass are
genuinely difficult and demanded great insights for solution, as in the case of geometrical
proofs. Like handling difficult problems in synthetic geometry with analytic geometry,
one analyzes construction problems by the use of algebra. It is well known that histori-
cally analysis of such ancient construction problems as the trisection of an angle and the
duplication of the cube gave rise to the modern algebraic concept of field extension. A
geometric construction can be effected with ruler and compass if and only if the corre-
sponding algebraic problem is reducible to a sequence of linear and quadratic equations
with constructible coefficients. For all the strength and power of such algebraic analysis of
geometric problems, it is often impractical to carry out detailed constructions with paper
and pencil, so much so that in many cases one is forced to settle for mere constructibility.
For example, Howard Eves, in his solution [6] of the problem of construction of a triangle
1
2 Elegant geometric constructions

given the lengths of a side and the median and angle bisector on the same side, made the
following remark after proving constructibility.
The devotee of the game of Euclidean constructions is not really interested
in the actual mechanical construction of the sought triangle, but merely in
the assurance that the construction is possible. To use a phrase of Jacob
Steiner, the devotee performs his construction “simply by means of the
tongue” rather than with actual instruments on paper.
Now, the availability in recent years of computer software on dynamic geometry has
brought about a change of attitude. Beautiful and accurate geometric diagrams can be
drawn, edited, and organized efficiently on computer screens. This new technological
capability stimulates the desire to strive for elegance in actual geometric constructions. The
present paper advocates a closer examination of the geometric meaning of the algebraic
expressions in the analysis of a construction problem to actually effect a construction as
elegantly and efficiently as possible on the computer screen. 1 We present a fantasia of
euclidean constructions the analysis of which make use of elementary algebra and very
basic knowledge of euclidean geometry. 2 We focus on incorporating simple algebraic
expressions into actual constructions using the Geometer’s Sketchpad
. The tremendous
improvement on the economy of time and effort is hard to exaggerate. The most remarkable
feature of the Geometer’s Sketchpad
is the capability of customizing a tool folder to make
constructions as efficiently as one would like. Common, basic constructions need only be
performed once, and saved as tools for future use. We shall use the Geometer’s Sketchpad

simply as ruler and compass, assuming a tool folder containing at least the following tools 3
for ready use:
(i) basic shapes such as equilateral triangle and square,
(ii) tangents to a circle from a given point,
(iii) circumcircle and incircle of a triangle.
Sitting in front of the computer screen trying to perform geometric constructions is a
most ideal constructivistic learning environment: a student is to bring his geometric knowl-
edge and algebraic skill to bear on natural, concrete but challenging problems, experiment-
ing with various geometric interpretations of concrete algebraic expressions. Such analysis
and explicit constructions provide a fruitful alternative to the traditional emphasis of the
deductive method in the learning and teaching of geometry.

1. Some examples
We present a few examples of constructions whose elegance is suggested by an analysis
a little more detailed than is necessary for constructibility or routine constructions. A
number of constructions in this paper are based on diagrams in the interesting book [9].
We adopt the following notation for circles:
(i) A(r) denotes the circle with center A, radius r;
(ii) A(B) denotes the circle with center A, passing through the point B, and
(iii) (A) denotes a circle with center A and unspecified radius, but unambiguous in context.

1
See §6.1 for an explicit construction of the triangle above with a given side, median, and angle bisector.
2
The Geometer’s Sketchpad
files for the diagrams in this paper are available from
http://www.math.fau.edu/yiu/Geometry.html.
3A construction appearing in sans serif is assumed to be one readily performable with a customized tool.
Paul Yiu 3

1.1. Construct a regular octagon by cutting corners from a square.

D C D C

Q Q
x

A x 1 − 2x P x B A P B

Figure 1A Figure 1B

Suppose an isosceles right triangle of (shorter) side x is to be cut from each corner of
a unit square
√
to make a regular octagon. See√Figure 1A. A simple calculation shows that
x = 1 − 2 . This means AP = 1 − x = 22 . The point P , and the other vertices, can
2

be easily constructed by intersecting the sides of the square with quadrants of circles with
centers at the vertices of the square and passing through the center O. See Figure 1B.
1.2. The centers A and B of two circles lie on the other circle. Construct a circle tangent
to the line AB, to the circle (A) internally, and to the circle (B) externally.

Y C

K K

XA B XA M B

Figure 2A Figure 2B

Suppose AB = a. Let r = radius of the required circle (K), and x = AX, where X is
the projection of the center K on the line AB. We have
(a + r)2 = r2 + (a + x)2 , (a − r)2 = r2 + x2 .
Subtraction gives 4ar = a 2 + 2ax or x + a2 = 2r. This means that in Figure 2B, CM XY
is a square, where M is the midpoint of AB. The circle can now be easily constructed by
first erecting a square on CM .
1.3. Equilateral triangle in a rectangle. Given a rectangle ABCD, construct points P and
Q on BC and CD respectively such that triangle AP Q is equilateral.
Construction 1. Construct equilateral triangles CDX and BCY , with X and Y inside
the rectangle. Extend AX to intersect BC at P and AY to intersect CD at Q.
The triangle AP Q is equilateral. See Figure 3B.
This construction did not come from a lucky insight. It was found by an analysis. Let
AB = DC = a, BC = AD = √ b. If BP = y, DQ√= x and AP Q is equilateral, then a
calculation shows that x = 2a − 3b and y = 2b − 3a. From these expressions of x and
y the above construction was devised.
4 Elegant geometric constructions

D Q C D Q C

X
P P
A B A B
Figure 3A Figure 3B

1.4. Partition of an equilateral triangle into 4 triangles with congruent incircles. Given
an equilateral triangle, construct three lines each through a vertex so that the incircles of
the four triangles formed are congruent. See Figure 4A and [9, Problem 2.1.7] and [10,
Problem 5.1.3], where it is shown that√if each√ side of the equilateral triangle has length a,
then the small circles all have radii 18 ( 7 − 3)a. Here is a calculation that leads to a very
easy construction of these lines.

A A

Y

Z Z
F E

X Z
X

Y Y
B C B D C


X

Figure 4A Figure 4B

In Figure 4A, let CX = AY = BZ = a and BX √

= CY = AZ = b. The equilateral
3
triangle XY Z has sidelength a − b and inradius 6 (a − b). Since ∠BXC = 120◦ ,
√
BC = a2 + ab + b2 , and the inradius of triangle BXC is
√
1
3

(a + b − a2 + ab + b2 ) tan 60◦ = (a + b − a2 + ab + b2 ).
2 2
√
These two inradii are equal if and only if 3 a2 + ab + b2 = 2(a + 2b). Applying the
law of cosines to triangle XBC, we obtain
(a2 + ab + b2 ) + b2 − a2 a + 2b 3
cos XBC = √ = √ = .
2b a2 + ab + b2 2 a2 + ab + b2 4
In Figure 4B, Y  is the intersection of the arc B(C) and the perpendicular from the
midpoint E of CA to BC. The line BY  makes an angle arccos 34 with BC. The other
two lines AX  and CZ  are similarly constructed. These lines bound the equilateral tri-
angle XY Z, and the four incircles can be easily constructed. Their centers are simply the
reflections of X  in D, Y  in E, and Z  in F .
Paul Yiu 5

2. Some basic constructions

2.1. Geometric mean and the solution of quadratic equations. The following constructions
of the geometric mean of two lengths are well known.
Construction 2. (a) Given two segments of length a, b, mark three points A, P , B on a
line (P between A and B) such that P A = a and P B = b. Describe a semicircle with
AB as diameter, and let the perpendicular through P intersect the semicircle at Q. Then
P Q2 = AP · P B, so that the length of P Q is the geometric mean of a and b. See Figure
5A.
(b) Given two segments of length a < b, mark three points P , A, B on a line such
that P A = a, P B = b, and A, B are on the same side of P . Describe a semicircle with
P B as diameter, and let the perpendicular through A intersect the semicircle at Q. Then
P Q2 = P A · P B, so that the length of P Q is the geometric mean of a and b. See Figure
5B.

Q
Q

√
ab A
P B

A a P b B

Figure 5A Figure 5B

More generally, a quadratic equation can be solved by applying the theorem of inter-
secting chords: If a line through P intersects a circle O(r) at X and Y , then the product
P X · P Y (of signed lengths) is equal to OP 2 − r2 . Thus, if two chords AB and XY
intersect at P , then P A · P B = P X · P Y . See Figure 6A. In particular, if P is outside the
circle, and if P T is a tangent to the circle, then P T 2 = P X · P Y for any line intersecting
the circle at X and Y . See Figure 6B.

O O

Y
A P B X P

X T
Figure 6A Figure 6B

A quadratic equation can be put in the form x(x ± a) = b 2 or x(a − x) = b2 . In the

latter case, for real solutions, we require b ≤ a2 . If we arrange a and b as the legs of a right
6 Elegant geometric constructions

triangle, then the positive roots of the equation can be easily constructed as in Figures 6C
and 6D respectively.
B

X Y
A
X

a
B
a C

C b A

Figure 6C Figure 6D

The algebraic method of the solution of a quadratic equation by completing squares can
be easily incorporated geometrically by using the Pythagorean theorem. We present an
example.
2.1.1. Given a chord BC perpendicular to a diameter XY of circle (O), to construct a
line through X which intersects the circle at A and BC at T such that AT has a given
length t. Clearly, t ≤ Y M , where M is the midpoint of BC.
Let AX = x. Since ∠CAX = ∠CY X = ∠T CX, the line CX is tangent to the
circle ACT . It follows from the theorem of intersecting chords that x(x − t) = CX 2 . The
method of completing squares leads to

 2
t 2
t
x = + CX + .
2 2
This suggests the following construction. 4
Y

Q
A

A

P
O

B T
M T C

Figure 7

4 This also solves the construction problem of triangle ABC with given angle A, the lengths a of its opposite
side, and of the bisector of angle A.
Paul Yiu 7

Construction 3. On the segment CY , choose a point P such that CP = 2t . Extend XP

to Q such that P Q = P C. Let A be an intersection of X(Q) and (O). If the line XA
intersects BC at T , then AT = t. See Figure 7.
2.2. Harmonic mean and the equation a1 + 1b = 1t . The harmonic mean of two quantities
2ab
a and b is a+b . In a trapezoid of parallel sides a and b, the parallel through the intersection
of the diagonals intercepts a segment whose length is the harmonic mean of a and b. See
Figure 8A. We shall write this harmonic mean as 2t, so that a1 + 1b = 1t . See Figure 8B.

D a C

b
a
t
A B
b
Figure 8A Figure 8B

Here is another construction of t, making use of the formula for the length of an angle
bisector in a triangle. If BC = a, AC = b, then the angle bisector CZ has length
2ab C A
tc = cos = 2t cos .
a+b 2 2
The length t can therefore be constructed by completing the rhombus CXZY (by con-
structing the perpendicular bisector of CZ to intersect BC at X and AC at Y ). See Figure
9A. In particular, if the triangle contains a right angle, this trapezoid is a square. See Figure
9B.

X

t
Y b
M

t t t

A Z B a
Figure 9A Figure 9B

3. The shoemaker’s knife

3.1. Archimedes’ Theorem. A shoemaker’s knife (or arbelos) is the region obtained by cut-
ting out from a semicircle with diameter AB the two smaller semicircles with diameters
AP and P B. Let AP = 2a, P B = 2b, and the common tangent of the smaller semi-
circles intersect the large semicircle at Q. The following remarkable theorem is due to
Archimedes. See [12].
8 Elegant geometric constructions

Theorem 1 (Archimedes). (1) The two circles each tangent to P Q, the large semicircle
ab
and one of the smaller semicircles have equal radii t = a+b . See Figure 10A.
(2) The circle tangent to each of the three semicircles has radius
ab(a + b)
ρ= . (1)
a2+ ab + b2
See Figure 10B.

C1
C2 C

A O1 O P O2 B A O1 O P O2 B

Figure 10A Figure 10B

Here is a simple construction of the Archimedean “twin circles”. Let Q 1 and Q2 be

the “highest” points of the semicircles O 1 (a) and O2 (b) respectively. The intersection of
ab
C3 = O1 Q2 ∩ O2 Q1 is a point “above” P , and C 3 P = t = a+b .
Construction 4. Construct the circle P (C 3 ) to intersect the diameter AB at P1 and P2
(so that P1 is on AP and P2 is on P B).
The center C1 (respectively C2 ) is the intersection of the circle O1 (P2 ) (respectively
O2 (P1 )) and the perpendicular to AB at P 1 (respectively P2 ). See Figure 11.
Q

C1

Q1 C2

Q2

C3

A O1 P1 O P P2O2 B

Figure 11

Theorem 2 (Bankoff [3]). If the incircle C(ρ) of the shoemaker’s knife touches the smaller
semicircles at X and Y , then the circle through the points P , X, Y has the same radius t
as the Archimedean circles. See Figure 12.
This gives a very simple construction of the incircle of the shoemaker’s knife.
Construction 5. Let X = C3 (P ) ∩ O1 (a), Y = C3 (P ) ∩ O2 (b), and C = O1 X ∩ O2 Y .
The circle C(X) is the incircle of the shoemaker’s knife. It touches the large semicircle at
Z = OC ∩ O(a + b). See Figure 13.
Paul Yiu 9

C Q1 C

X X Q2

Y C3 Y
C3

A O1 O P O2 B A O1 O P O2 B

Figure 12 Figure 13

A rearrangement of (1) in the form

1 1 1
+ =
a+b ρ t
leads to another construction of the incircle (C) by directly locating the center and one
point on the circle. See Figure 14.
Q0 Q

Q1 C

K Q2
S
C3

A O1 O P O2 B

Figure 14

Construction 6. Let Q0 be the “highest” point of the semicircle O(a + b). Construct
(i) K = Q1 Q2 ∩ P Q,
(ii) S = OC3 ∩ Q0 K, and
(iii) the perpendicular from S to AB to intersect the line OK at C.
The circle C(S) is the incircle of the shoemaker’s knife.
3.2. Other simple constructions of the incircle of the shoemaker’s knife. We give four more
simple constructions of the incircle of the shoemaker’s knife. The first is by Leon Bankoff
[1]. The remaining three are by Peter Woo [21].
Construction 7 (Bankoff). (1) Construct the circle Q 1 (A) to intersect the semicircles
O2 (b) and O(a + b) at X and Z respectively.
(2) Construct the circle Q 2 (B) to intersect the semicircles O1 (a) and O(a + b) at Y
and the same point Z in (1) above.
The circle through X, Y , Z is the incircle of the shoemaker’s knife. See Figure 15.

Construction 8 (Woo). (1) Construct the line AQ 2 to intersect the semicircle O2 (b) at X.
(2) Construct the line BQ 1 to intersect the semicircle O1 (a) at Y .
(3) Let S = AQ2 ∩ BQ1 . Construct the line P S to intersect the semicircle O(a + b) at
Z.
The circle through X, Y , Z is the incircle of the shoemaker’s knife. See Figure 16.
10 Elegant geometric constructions

Z
Z

Q1
Q1

Q2
Q2
Y X S
Y
X

A O1 O P O2 B
A O1 O P O2 B

Figure 15 Figure 16

Construction 9 (Woo). Let M be the “lowest” point of the circle O(a + b). Construct
(i) the circle M (A) to intersect O1 (a) at Y and O2 (b) at X,
(ii) the line M P to intersect the semicircle O(a + b) at Z.
The circle through X, Y , Z is the incircle of the shoemaker’s knife. See Figure 17.

K1
Z

Z
K2

Y
X C

A B
O1 O P O2

Y
X

M A O1 O P O2 B

Figure 17 Figure 18

Construction 10 (Woo). Construct squares on AP and P B on the same side of the shoe-
maker knife. Let K1 and K2 be the midpoints of the opposite sides of AP and P B respec-
tively. Let C = AK2 ∩ BK1 , and X = CO2 ∩ O2 (b).
The circle C(X) is the incircle of the shoemaker’s knife. See Figure 18.

4. Animation of bicentric polygons

A famous theorem of J. V. Poncelet states that if between two conics C 1 and C2 there
is a polygon of n sides with vertices on C 1 and sides tangent to C 2 , then there is one such
polygon of n sides with a vertex at an arbitrary point on C 1 . See, for example, [5]. For
circles C1 and C2 and for n = 3, 4, we illustrate this theorem by constructing animation
pictures based on simple metrical relations.

4.1. Euler’s formula. Consider the construction of a triangle given its circumcenter O,
incenter I and a vertex A. The circumcircle is O(A). If the line AI intersects this circle
Paul Yiu 11

again at X, then the vertices B and C are simply the intersections of the circles X(I) and
O(A). See Figure 19A. This leads to the famous Euler formula
d2 = R2 − 2Rr, (2)
5
where d is the distance between the circumcenter and the incenter.

A A

O O
C C
I I

B B

X X

Figure 19A Figure 19B

4.1.1. Given a circle O(R) and r < R2 , to construct a point I such that O(R) and I(r)
are the circumcircle and incircle of a triangle.

Construction 11. Let P (r) be a circle tangent to (O) internally. Construct a line through
O tangent to the circle P (r) at a point I.
The circle I(r) is the incircle of triangles which have O(R) as circumcircle. See Figure
20.

P I
O O
T

Figure 20 Figure 21

5Proof : If I is the incenter, then AI = 2R

r
and IX = IB = . See Figure 19B. The power of I
sin A2
sin A
2
2R
with respect to the circumcircle is d2 − R2 = IA · IX = −r sin A
· = −2Rr.
2 sin A
2
12 Elegant geometric constructions

4.1.2. Given a circle O(R) and a point I, to construct a circle I(r) such that O(R) and
I(r) are the circumcircle and incircle of a triangle.

Construction 12. Construct the circle I(R) to intersect O(R) at a point P , and construct
the line P I to intersect O(R) again at Q. Let T be the midpoint of IQ.
The circle I(T ) is the incircle of triangles which have O(R) as circumcircle. See Figure
21.

4.1.3. Given a circle I(r) and a point O, to construct a√circle O(R) which is the circum-
circle of triangles with I(r) as incircle. Since R = r + r2 + d2 by the Euler formula (2),
we have the following construction. See Figure 22.

Construction 13. Let IP be a radius of I(r) perpendicular to IO. Extend OP to a point

A such that P A = r.
The circle O(A) is the circumcircle of triangles which have I(r) as incircle.

A
P

I
O O

I P
Q

Figure 22 Figure 23

4.1.4. Given I(r) and R > 2r, to construct a point O such that O(R) is the circumcircle
of triangles with I(r) as incircle.

Construction 14. Extend a radius IP to Q such that IQ = R. Construct the perpendic-

ular to IP at I to intersect the circle P (Q) at O.
The circle O(R) is the circumcircle of triangles which have I(r) as incircle. See Figure
23.

4.2. Bicentric quadrilaterals. A bicentric quadrilateral is one which admits a circumcircle

and an incircle. The construction of bicentric quadrilaterals is based on the Fuss formula

2r2 (R2 + d2 ) = (R2 − d2 )2 , (3)

where d is the distance between the circumcenter and incenter of the quadrilateral. See [7,
§39].
Paul Yiu 13

4.2.1. Given a circle O(R) and a point I, to construct a circle I(r) such that O(R) and
I(r) are the circumcircle and incircle of a quadrilateral.
The Fuss formula (3) can be rewritten as
1 1 1
= + .
r2 (R + d)2 (R − d)2
In this form it admits a very simple interpretation: r can be taken as the altitude on the
hypotenuse of a right triangle whose shorter sides have lengths R ± d. See Figure 24.
Construction 15. Extend IO to intersect O(R) at a point A. On the perpendicular to IA
at I construct a point K such that IK = R − d. Construct the altitude IP of the right
triange AIK.
The circles O(R) and I(P ) are the circumcircle and incircle of bicentric quadrilaterals.

K
R−d
r I
P
R+d
A A
I O
O

Figure 24 Figure 25

4.2.2. Given a circle O(R) and a radius r ≤ √R2 , to construct a point I such that I(r)
is the incircle of quadrilaterals inscribed in O(R), we rewrite the Fuss formula (3) in the
form    
r 2 r r 2 3r
2
d = R2 + − R2 + − .
4 2 4 2
This leads to the following construction. See Figure 25.
Construction 16. Construct a right triangle OAK with a right angle at A, OA = R and
AK = r2 . On the hypotenuse OK choose a point P such that KP = r. Construct a
tangent from O to the circle P ( r2 ). Let I be the point of tangency.
The circles O(R) and I(r) are the circumcircle and incircle of bicentric quadrilaterals.
4.2.3. Given a circle I(r) and a point O, to construct a circle (O) such that these two
circles are respectively the incircle and circumcircle of a quadrilateral. Again, from the
Fuss formula (3),
   
r 2 r r 2 3r
2
R = d2 + + d2 + + .
4 2 4 2
Construction 17. Let E be the midpoint of a radius IB perpendicular to OI. Extend
 the
ray OE to a point F such that EF = r. Construct a tangent OT to the circle F r2 . Then
OT is a circumradius.
14 Elegant geometric constructions

5. Some circle constructions

5.1. Circles tangent to a chord at a given point. Given a point P on a chord BC of a circle
(O), there are two circles tangent to BC at P , and to (O) internally. The radii of these two
BP · P C
circles are , where h is the distance from O to BC. They can be constructed as
2(R ± h)
follows.

X X

K
H

O O

C C
B M P B M P
H

Y Y Q

Figure 26A Figure 26B

Construction 18. Let M be the midpoint of BC, and XY be the diameter perpendicular
to BC. Construct
(i) the circle center P , radius M X to intersect the arc BXC at a point Q,
(ii) the line P Q to intersect the circle (O) at a point H,
(iii) the circle P (H) to intersect the line perpendicular to BC at P at K (so that H and
K are on the same side of BC).
The circle with diameter P K is tangent to the circle (O). See Figure 26A.
Replacing X by Y in (i) above we obtain the other circle tangent to BC at P and
internally to (O). See Figure 26B.

5.2. Chain of circles tangent to a chord. Given a circle (Q) tangent internally to a circle
(O) and to a chord BC at a given point P , there are two neighbouring circles tangent to
(O) and to the same chord. These can be constructed easily by observing that in Figure 27,
the common tangent of the two circles cut out a segment whose midpoint is B. If (Q  ) is
a neighbour of (Q), their common tangent passes through the midpoint M of the arc BC
complementary to (Q). See Figure 28.

Construction 19. Given a circle (Q) tangent to (O) and to the chord BC, construct
(i) the circle M (B) to intersect (Q) at T 1 and T2 , M T1 and M T2 being tangents to (Q),
(ii) the bisector of the angle between M T 1 and BC to intersect the line QT 1 at Q1 .
The circle Q1 (T1 ) is tangent to (O) and to BC.
Replacing T 1 by T2 in (ii) we obtain Q 2 . The circle Q2 (T2 ) is also tangent to (O) and
BC.
Paul Yiu 15

Q1 T1 Q
O
O T2
Q2

C C
B P B P

Figure 27 Figure 28

5.3. Mixtilinear incircles. Given a triangle ABC, we construct the circle tangent to the
sides AB, AC, and also to the circumcircle internally. Leon Bankoff [4] called this the
A- mixtilinear incircle of the triangle. Its center is clearly on the bisector of angle A. Its
radius is r sec2 A
2 , where r is the inradius of the triangle. The mixtilinear incircle can be
constructed as follows. See Figure 29.
A

Y
I
Z O

Ia

B C

Figure 29

Construction 20 (Mixtilinear incircle). Let I be the incenter of triangle ABC. Construct

(i) the perpendicular to IA at I to intersect AC at Y ,
(ii) the perpendicular to AY at Y to intersect the line AI at I a .
The circle Ia (Y ) is the A-mixtilinear incircle of ABC.
The other two mixtilinear incircles can be constructed in a similar way. For another
construction, see [23].
5.4. Ajima’s construction. The interesting book [10] by Fukagawa and Rigby contains a
very useful formula which helps perform easily many constructions of inscribed circles
which are otherwise quite difficult.
16 Elegant geometric constructions

Theorem 3 (Ajima). Given triangles ABC with circumcircle (O) and a point P such that
A and P are on the same side of BC, the circle tangent to the lines P B, P C, and to the
circle (O) internally is the image of the incircle of triangle P BC under the homothety with
center P and ratio 1 + tan A BP C
2 tan 2 .

A
A

O Y
I X
P
I
I
Z

B Q C B P C

Figure 30 Figure 31

Construction 21 (Ajima). Given two points B and C on a circle (O) and an arbitrary
point P , construct
(i) a point A on (O) on the same side of BC as P , (for example, by taking the midpoint M
of BC, and intersecting the ray M P with the circle (O)),
(ii) the incenter I of triangle ABC,
(iii) the incenter I  of triangle P BC,
(iv) the perpendicular to I  P at I  to intersect P C at Z.
(v) Rotate the ray ZI  about Z through an (oriented) angle equal to angle BAI to intersect
the line AP at Q.
Then the circle with center Q, tangent to the lines P B and P C, is also tangent to (O)
internally. See Figure 30.
5.4.1. Thébault’s theorem. With Ajima’s construction, we can easily illustrate the famous
Thébault theorem. See [18, 2] and Figure 31.
Theorem 4 (Thébault). Let P be a point on the side BC of triangle ABC. If the circles
(X) and (Y ) are tangent to AP , BC, and also internally to the circumcirle of the triangle,
then the line XY passes through the incenter of the triangle.
5.4.2. Another example. We construct an animation picture based on Figure 32 below.
Given a segment AB and a point P , construct the squares AP X  X and BP Y  Y on the
segments AP and BP . The locus of P for which A, B, X, Y are concyclic is the union
of the perpendicular bisector of AB and the two quadrants of circles with A and B as
endpoints. Consider P on one of these quadrants. The center of the circle ABY X is the
center of the other quadrant. Applying Ajima’s construction to the triangle XAB and the
point P , we easily obtain the circle tangent to AP , BP , and (O). Since ∠AP B = 135 ◦
and ∠AXB = 45◦ , the radius of this circle is twice the inradius of triangle AP B.
Paul Yiu 17

Y

X
O

X
P

A B

Figure 32

6. Some examples of triangle constructions

There is an extensive literature on construction problems of triangles with certain given
elements such as angles, lengths, or specified points. Wernick [20] outlines a project of
such with three given specific points. Lopes [14], on the other hand, treats extensively the
construction problems with three given lengths such as sides, medians, bisectors, or others.
We give three examples admitting elegant constructions. 6
6.1. Construction from a sidelength and the corresponding median and angle bisector.
Given the length 2a of a side of a triangle, and the lengths m and t of the median and
the angle bisector on the same side, to construct the triangle. This is Problem 1054(a) of
the Mathematics Magazine [6]. In his solution, Howard Eves denotes by z the distance
between the midpoint and the foot of the angle bisector on the side 2a, and obtains the
equation
z 4 − (m2 + t2 + a2 )z 2 + a2 (m2 − t2 ) = 0,
from which he concludes constructibility (by ruler and compass). We devise a simple
construction, assuming the data given in the form of a triangle AM  T with AT = t,
AM  = m and M  T = a. See Figure 33. Writing a 2 = m2 + t2 − 2tu, and z 2 =
m2 + t2 − 2tw, we simplify the above equation into
1
w(w − u) = a2 . (4)
2
Note that u is length of the projection of AM  on the line AT , and w is the length of the
median AM on the bisector AT of the sought triangle ABC. The length w can be easily
constructed, from this it is easy to complete the triangle ABC.
Construction 22. (1) On the perpendicular to AM  at M  , choose a point Q such that


M  Q = M√2T = √a2 .
(2) Construct the circle with center the midpoint of AM  to pass through Q and to
intersect the line AT at W so that T and W are on the same side of A. (The length w of
AW satisfies (4) above).
(3) Construct the perpendicular at W to AW to intersect the circle A(M  ) at M .
(4) Construct the circle M (a) to intersect the line M T at two points B and C.
The triangle ABC has AT as bisector of angle A.

6
Construction 3 (Figure 7) solves the construction problem of triangle ABC given angle A, side a, and the
length t of the bisector of angle A. See Footnote 4.
18 Elegant geometric constructions

M

C
T M Q
B
W

Figure 33

6.2. Construction from an angle and the corresponding median and angle bisector. This
is Problem 1054(b) of the Mathematics Magazine. See [6]. It also appeared earlier as
Problem E1375 of the American Mathematical Monthly. See [11]. We give a construction
based on Thébault’s solution.
Suppose the data are given in the form of a right triangle OAM , where ∠AOM = A
or 180◦ − A, ∠M = 90◦ , AM = m, along with a point T on AM such that AT = t. See
Figure 34.

T
T C

X
M O X

Q P

K
A

Figure 34

Construction 23. (1) Construct the circle O(A). Let A  be the mirror image of A in M .
Construct the diameter XY perpendicular to AA  X the point for which ∠AXA = A.
(2) On the segment A  X choose a point P such that A  P = 2t . and construct the
parallel through P to XY to intersect A  Y at Q.
(3) Extend XQ to K such that QK = QA  .
(4) Construct a point B on O(A) such that XB = XK, and its mirror image C in M .
Triangle ABC has given angle A, median m and bisector t on the side BC.
6.3. Construction from the incenter, orthocenter and one vertex. This is one of the un-
solved cases in Wernick [20]. See also [22]. Suppose we put the incenter I at the origin,
Paul Yiu 19

A = (a, b) and H = (a, c) for b > 0. Let r be the inradius of the triangle. A fairly
straightforward calculation gives
b−c 1
r2 − r − (a2 + bc) = 0. (5)
2 2
If M is the midpoint of IA and P the orthogonal projection of H on the line IA, then
1 2
2 (a + bc), being the dot product of IM and IH, is the (signed) product IM · IP . Note
that if angle AIH does not exceed a right angle, the equation (5) admits a unique positive
root. In the construction below we assume H closer than A to the perpendicular to AH
through I.
Construction 24. Given triangle AIH in which the angle AIH does not exceed a right
angle, let M be the midpoint of IA, K the midpoint of AH, and P the orthogonal projec-
tion of H on the line IA.
(1) Construct the circle C through P , M and K. Let O be the center of C and Q the mid-
point of P K.
(2) Construct a tangent from I to the circle O(Q) intersecting C at T , with T farther from
I than the point of tangency.
The circle I(T ) is the incircle of the required triangle, which can be completed by
constructing the tangents from A to I(T ), and the tangent perpendicular to AH through
the “lowest” point of I(T ). See Figure 35.
If H is farther than A to the perpendicular from I to the line AH, the same construction
applies, except that in (2) T is the intersection with C closer to I than the point of tangency.
A

K T
M

O P
H
I

B C

Figure 35

Remark. The construction of a triangle from its circumcircle, incenter, orthocenter was
studied by Leonhard Euler [8], who reduced it to the problem of trisection of an angle.
In Euler’s time, the impossibility of angle trisection by ruler and compass was not yet
confirmed.

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20 Elegant geometric constructions

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