TRANSMISSION AND DISTRIBUTION

Protecting power transformers from

common adverse conditions
by Ali Kazemi, and Casper Labuschagne, Schweitzer Engineering Laboratories

Power transformers of various size and configuration are used throughout the power system. These transformers play an important role in power
delivery and the integrity of the power system network as a whole. Power transformers have operating limits beyond which transformer loss of
life can occur. This paper examines the adverse conditions to which a power transformer might be subjected.

Our discussion includes transformer windings are insulated from each other
overload, through fault, and over excitation and the core. Operational stresses can
protection. We discuss each operating cause failure of the transformer winding,
condition and its effect on the power insulation, and core.
transformer, and provide a solution in the
The power transformer windings and
protection scheme for each operating
magnetic core are subject to a number
condition.
of different forces during operation [3]:
I n g e n e r a l, t h e m a i n c o n c e r n w i t h
 Expansion and contraction caused by
transformer protection is protecting the
thermal cycling.
transformer against internal faults and
ensuring security of the protection scheme  Vibration caused by flux in the core
for external faults. System conditions that changing direction every half cycle.
indirectly affect transformers often receive  Localised heating caused by eddy
less emphasis when transformer protection c u r r e n t s i n p a r t s o f t h e w i n d i n g,
is specified. induced by magnetic flux.
Overloading power transformers beyond  Impact forces caused by through-fault
the nameplate rating can cause a rise currents.
in temperature of both transformer oil
 Thermal heating caused by
and windings. If the winding temperature
overloading.
rise exceeds the transformer limits, the
insulation will deteriorate and may fail ANSI/IEEE standards [1,2] provide operating
prematurely. Prolonged thermal heating limits for power transformers. Initially, these
weakens the insulation over time, resulting operating limits only considered the Fig. 1: Through-fault capability limit curve for
in accelerated transformer loss-of-life. thermal effects of transformer overload. liquid-immersed category I transformers.
Later, the capability limit was changed to
Po w e r s y s t e m f a u l t s e x t e r n a l t o t h e
include the mechanical effect of higher
transformer zone can cause high levels Category 1 transformers
fault currents through the transformer.
of current flowing through the transformer.
Power transformer through-faults produce Fig. 1 shows the through-fault capability
Through-fault currents create forces
physical forces that cause insulation limit curve for categor y I transformers.
within the transformer that can eventually
c o m p r e s s i o n , i n s u l a t i o n w e a r, a n d The cur ve reflects both thermal and
weaken the winding integrity.
friction-induced displacement in the mechanical considerations. For short-
A comprehensive transformer protection winding. These effects are cumulative and circuit currents at 25 – 40 times the base
scheme needs to include protection should be considered over the life of the current, the I 2t limit of 1250 defines the
against transformer overload, through- transformer. curve, where I is the symmetrical fault
fault, and over excitation, as well as current in multiples of the transformer base
protection for internal faults. This paper Table I shows four categories [1] for liquid- current and t is in seconds.
focuses on liquid-immersed transformers immersed power transformers, based on
the transformer nameplate rating. Current (I) is based on the transformer ’s
because the majority of medium and p e r- u n i t s h o r t c i r c u i t i m p e d a n c e. A
high-voltage transformers are of this type. To p r o v i d e a m o r e c o m p r e h e n s i v e transformer with 4% impedance will
representation of the long-term effects of have a maximum short circuit current of
Power transformer capability limits
system conditions on power transformers, 25 p.u. (0,04), which results in a time of
A power transformer consists of a set of each categor y includes through-fault 2 s (1250/252) for its throughfault capability
windings around a magnetic core. The capability limits, which are a function limit.
of the maximum current through the Category II and III transformers
transformer. The maximum current (in per
Category Single phase Three phase For Category II and III transformers, the
unit [p.u.] of the transformer base rating) is
kVA kVA IEEE standard provides an additional
calculated based on the transformer short-
through-fault capability limit curve. The
I 5 to 500 15 to 500 circuit impedance for category I and II
additional curve takes into account the
II 501 to 1667 501 to 5000 transformers. Maximum current calculation fault frequency that the transformer is
III 1668 to 10 000 5001 to 30 000
for categor y III and IV transformers is subjected to throughout its entire life. In
based on the overall impedance of the general, use a frequent-fault curve if fault
IV Above 10 000 Above 30 000
transformer short-circuit impedance and frequency is higher than ten through-faults
Table 1: Transformer categories. the system impedance. for categor y II transformers and higher

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 TRANSMISSION AND DISTRIBUTION
For categor y II transformers, consider
the mechanical duty for fault currents
higher than 70% of maximum possible
short-circuit current. For category III and
IV transformers, consider mechanical duty
for through-fault currents higher than 50%
of maximum possible short-circuit current.

Fig. 3 shows the through-fault capability

limit curve for a category II transformer
with 7% impedance. The I 2t calculation is
at maximum short-circuit current for a time
of 2 seconds.

For a transformer with 7% impedance, I 2t

calculates at 408 as shown below:

I = 1/0,07 = 14,29; this is the maximum

short-circuit current in p.u. of transformer
base rating

I 2t = 14,29 2·2 = 408

The lower portion of the curve is 70% of

maximum short-circuit current and the I 2t
Fig. 2: Through-fault capability limit calculated above.
Fig. 4: Through-fault capability limit curve for
curve for liquid-Immersed category II liquid-immersed category IV transformers.
and III transformers with infrequent faults. I = 0,7·14,29 = 10

t = 408/I2 = 4,08
Category IV transformers

Fig. 4 shows the through-fault capability

limit curve for category IV transformers. The
curve represents both the frequent and the
infrequent fault occurrences. For category
III and IV transformers the mechanical
duty limit curve starts at 50% of the short
circuit current.
Protection considerations

After determining the proper through-

fault capability limit curve for a particular
transformer, select a time-over current
characteristic to coordinate with the
through-fault capability limit curve.

In distribution transformer applications

where a number of feeders are connected
to the low-voltage bus, the feeder relays
become the first line of defense. IEEE
Standard C37.91 recommends [3] setting
the inverse time-overcurrent characteristic
of the feeder relays to coordinate with the
through-fault capability limit curve of the Fig. 5: TOC coordination with category IV
Fig. 3: Through-fault capability limit
curve for liquid-immersed category II
transformer, as shown in Fig. 5. transformer through-fault capability limit curve.
transformers with frequent faults.
Coordinating an over current element
with an I2t thermal element requires further
Transformer overload
than five through-faults for categor y III consideration. Although the extremely
transformers. Fault frequency is considered inverse time-over current characteristic of Overcurrent vs. overload
over the life of the transformer. the over current relay seems to emulate For this paper, we define over current as
Fi g. 2 : r e p r e s e n t s t h e t h r o u g h - f a u l t the shape of the thermal cur ve, the current flowing through the transformer
capability limit curve for category 2 and coordination is only valid for a fixed resulting from faults on the power system.
3 transformers that experience infrequent initial over current condition [4]. Once an Fault currents that do not include ground
faults. The curve is limited to 2 s. overload or through-fault condition causes are generally in excess of four times full-
the transformer winding temperature to load current; fault currents that include
To acknowledge the cumulative nature
rise, coordination between the over current ground can be below the full-load current
of damage caused by through-faults, the
relay and the thermal element is no longer depending on the system grounding
standard supplements the through-fault
valid. In this situation, the over current relay method. Over current conditions are
capability limit curve to reflect mechanical
damage. It calculates the I 2t curve based does not prevent thermal damage caused typically short in duration (less than two
on the actual transformer impedance. by cyclic overloads. seconds) because protection relays usually

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TRANSMISSION AND DISTRIBUTION
operate to isolate the faults from the power Percentage of kVA rating
system.
Type of cooling Decrease load for each Increase load for each
Overload, by contrast, is current drawn °C higher than 30°C °C lower than 30°C
by load, a load current in excess of Self-cooled (OA) 1,5 1,0
the transformer nameplate rating. IEEE
standard [5] lists nine risks when loading Water-cooled (OW) 1,5 1,0
large transformers beyond nameplate Forced-air cooled (OA/FA, OA/FA/FA) 1,0 0,75
ratings. In summary, loading large power Forced-oil, -air, -water, -cooled (FOA, 1,0 0,75
transformers beyond nameplate ratings FOW, and OA/FOA/FOA)
can result in reduced dielectric integrity,
thermal runaway condition (extreme case) Table 2: Transformer loading with temprature as a factor.
of the contacts of the tap changer, and
reduced mechanical strength in insulation
of conductors and the transformer
structure.
Three factors, namely water, oxygen, and
heat, determine the insulation (cellulose)
life of a transformer. Filters and other oil
preservation systems control the water and
oxygen content in the insulation, but heat
is essentially a function of the ambient
temperature and the load current. Current
increases the hottest-spot temperature
(and the oil temperature), and thereby
decreases the insulation life span.
Eqn. 1 is used as an indication of the
insulation-aging effect of overloading a Fig. 6: Oil temperature curves for full-load current
transformer. and twenty percent overload current.
‫ܪ‬ (1)
%‫= ܮܱܮ‬ ή 100
‫ܧܨܫܮܫ‬
where: absolute temperature of the windings and temperature rise of the transformer oil
transformer oil remains within specified when constant current flows. These models
%LOL = percentage loss-of-life
limits. Transformer ratings are based on project the temperature rise within the
H = Time in hours a 24 h average ambient temperature of transformer as a function of (constant) load
I LIFE = Insulation life 30°C. Note that the ambient temperature current flowing though the transformer. For
is the air in contact with the radiators example, looking at the manufacturers’
In general, assume the insulation life of or heat exchangers. Table II shows the literature, we see that a hypothetical
a transformer to be 180 000 hours and increase or decrease from rated kVA transformer has a time constant (TC) of
the rated hottest-spot temperature to be for other than average daily ambient one hour. Using Equation (3), we calculate
110°C. Therefore, a transformer operating temperature of 30°C. that the transformer will reach steady-
at the rated hottestspot temperature state temperature after five hours (five
of 110°C for 24 hours ages at a rate of Thermal models including ambient
time constants) when constant full-load
0,0133%, calculated as follows: temperature
current flows.
24 ή 100 (2) More sophisticated transformer thermal െ‫ݐ‬
%‫= ܮܱܮ‬ = 0,01333% ߠ(‫ ܮܨܫ = )ݐ‬ቀ1 െ ݁ ܶ‫ ܥ‬ቁ (4)
180,000 models [5] use load current as well as
the ambient temperature to calculate where:
However, overloading the transformer top-oil temperature and hottest-spot
decreases the insulation life span θ = Transformer oil temperature
temperature.
exponentially. To relate the hottest-spot
I FL = Transformer full-load current
temperature to the per-unit insulation life, To c a l c u l a t e t h e a b s o l u t e t o p - o i l
we calculate FAA, the aging acceleration temperature and hottestspot temperature, TC = Time constant
factor. Eqn. 2 shows the calculation for the model adds the calculated top-
FAA, with 15 000 being a design constant. oil and hottest-spot temperatures to t = Time in seconds
the measured ambient temperature Furthermore, we can calculate that, if
15 000 15 000
൤ െ ൨ (subtract for a temperature drop). When full-load current flows for one hour, the
‫݌ݔ݁ = ܣܣܨ‬ 383 ߠ ‫ ܫܫ‬+273 (3)
the ambient temperature is not available, temperature is approximately 63% of the
or communication with the device that final value (solid curve in Fig. 6). However,
where: supplies the ambient temperature we see that, if we overload the transformer
information is lost, the thermal model by 20%, the temperature is approximately
θH is the calculated hottest-spot uses a fixed value as reference for the
temperature 75% of the final value after one hour
ambient temperature. However, using a (dashed curve in Fig. 6).
An FAA factor of 10 means that, at the fixed value instead of the actual ambient
present hottest-spot temperature, the temperature as reference means that the We now use this information (75%) as a
transformer insulation ages 10 times model cannot indicate whether actual warning signal that we are overloading the
faster than the per-unit life over a given damage will occur at any particular level transformer. Because we do not measure
time interval. In terms of temperature, an of overload. the ambient temperature, we cannot
FAA of 10 corresponds to a hottest-spot determine whether actual damage will
Thermal models excluding ambient
temperature of approximately 135°C. occur at this level of overload.
temperature
Ambient temperature Cooling system efficiency
Although less accurate, models without
Excessive load current alone may not direct ambient temperature can still Many installations provide remote
result in damage to the transformer if the provide useful information as to the thermal devices (RTDs) for both ambient

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TRANSMISSION AND DISTRIBUTION
e f f i c i e n c y, r e s u l t i n g Frequency Magnitude % of nominal
from such problems as (primary )
defective fan motors.
Fundamental 22,5 52,0
At first installations, a
practical approach is Third 11,1 26,0
to use the difference Fifth 4,9 11,0
between calculated
Seventh 1,8 4,0
and measured values
to fine-tune setting of Table 3: Transformer excitation
transformer constants. current and harmonics.
Because transformer monitoring for the transformer. RTDs
constants are not provide top oil and ambient temperatures
Fig. 7: Transformer protection relay with connected always available at the to the relay. The thermal element provides
RTDs for thermal monitoring. time of commissioning, the transformer thermal status both as
some constants may alarm points and as a report. The alarm
XFNR 1 Date: 05/09/16 have been assumed points indicate whether a measured
Station A Transformer 1 Time: 07:58:27.241 during the setting value exceeds a settable threshold.
p r o c e s s. O n c e w e These alarm points might include top-oil
establish that the Temperature, hottest-spot temperature,
cooling system is in aging acceleration factor, daily rate
Thermal element condition Normal good working order, of loss-of-life, and total loss-of-life. The
Load(per unit) 0,96 we can assume thermal element report is shown in Fig. 8.

In service cooling stage 1

that the difference
Through-fault monitoring
between calculated
Ambient (°C) 15,0 and measured values As discussed previously, through-fault
Calculated top oil (°C) 23,4 is the result of incorrect current produces both thermal and
Measured top oil (°C) 25
transformer constant mechanical effects than can be damaging
settings. After adjusting to the power transformer. The mechanical
Winding hot spot (°C) 46,7 the transformer effects, such as winding compression
Aging acceleration factor, FAA 0,01 constants to the point and insulation wear, are cumulative. The
Rate of LOL (%/day) 0,01
where calculated and extent of damage from through-faults
measured values are is a function of the current magnitude,
Total accumulated LOL (%) 0,20 t h e s a m e, w e c a n fault duration, and total number of fault
Time-assert TLL (hrs) 0,00 now attribute any occurrences.
subsequent deviations
Fig. 8: Transformer thermal report. Power transformers throughout the power
in calculated and
system experience different levels of
measured values can
through-fault current in terms of magnitude,
now be attributed to
duration, and frequency. The recording
lower efficiency of the
capability of some transformer protection
cooling system.
relays allows for monitoring and recording
Thermal protection of the through-fault current. The relay
application example records the cumulative I 2t value for each
phase and compares it against a threshold
The idea behind a to provide an alarm. Fig. 9 shows the logic
thermal element diagram for the cumulative through-fault
is to provide the logic.
system operator with
meaningful data The recorded values assist the
maintenance crew in prioritising and
about the state of the
scheduling transformer maintenance and
transformer. The thermal
testing. Over time, the recorded values
element provides
also provide additional information in
data for determining
determining problems (winding insulation
whether a transformer failure, insulation compression, loose
can withstand further winding, etc.) with the power transformer.
short-term or long-
term overloads without Excessive through-fault occurrences
sacrificing transformer within a given period can also indicate
Fig. 9: Cumulative through-fault logic. loss-oflife. This the need for maintenance such as tree
information is a function trimming and right of way clearance [8].
Fig. 10 shows the through-fault report for
of the ambient temperature, transformer-
a transformer. The report provides the total
loading history, present loading condition,
temperature and oil temperature I 2t value for each phase. The report also
and cooling system efficiency.
measurement. Measuring both ambient provides the date, time, duration, and
temperature and oil temperature provides The inputs to the transformer thermal maximum current through the transformer
a method for comparing calculated oil m o n i t o r i n c l u d e t r a n s f o r m e r To p - O i l for each occurrence.
temperature values to measured oil- temperature, ambient temperature, and
temperature values. Ideally, calculated transformer loading indication provided Transformer over excitation
oil-temperature values and measured through either the high-side or the low-side The flux in the transformer core is directly
oiltemperature values should be the same. current transformers.
proportional to the applied voltage and
Differences between calculated and Fig. 7 shows a one-line diagram for a inversely proportional to the frequency.
measured values can indicate that the transformer protection relay providing Over excitation can occur when the
cooling system is not performing at full differential protection and thermal per-unit ratio of voltage to frequency

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 TRANSMISSION AND DISTRIBUTION
(Volts/Hz) exceeds 1,05 pu. at full load and 1,10 p.u. at no load.
An increase in transformer terminal voltage or a decrease in
frequency will result in an increase in the flux.

Over excitation results in excess flux, which causes transformer

heating and increases exciting current, noise, and vibration.

Some of the possible causes of over excitation are:

 Problems with generator excitation system
 Operator error
 Sudden loss-of-load
 Unloaded long transmission lines
Transformer differential relay and over excitation

Saturation of the power transformer core caused by over

excitation results in the flow of excitation current. In an
extreme case, the increase in excitation current can cause
the transformer differential relay to operate. Because the
characteristic of the transformer differential relay does not
correlate to the transformer over excitation limit curve, it is
impractical to depend on transformer differential protection to
provide over excitation protection. Furthermore, operation of
the transformer differential relay for an over excitation condition,
which is a system phenomenon, can lead fault investigators to
start their investigation at the transformer instead of looking for
system disturbances. Use a Volts/Hz element to provide over
excitation protection. Under over excitation conditions, block
or restrain the differential element to prevent false operations.
If a Volts/Hz element is not available, use the harmonic
content of the excitation current to determine the degree of
over excitation of the transformer core. Table III shows typical
harmonic content of the excitation current. The excitation
current consists mainly of odd harmonics, with the third
harmonic being the predominant harmonic. The third harmonic
is a triplen harmonic [9]. Delta-connected transformer windings
(power or current transformers) filter out triplen harmonics (3, 9,
15, etc.). Since the next highest harmonic is the fifth harmonic,
most transformer differential relays use the fifth harmonic to
detect over excitation conditions.
In applications where the power transformer might be over
excited, block the differential element from operating on
transformer exciting current.
Over excitation protection
Obtain the over excitation limit for a particular transformer
through the transformer manufacturer. The over excitation limit
is either a curve or a set point with a time delay. Fig. 11 shows
typical overexcitation limit curves for different transformers.
Provide over excitation protection for power transformers
through a Volts/Hz element that calculates the ratio of the
measured voltage to frequency in p.u. of the nominal quantities.
In applications that provide over excitation protection for
a generator step-up (GSU) transformer, consider the over
excitation limits of both the GSU and the generator. Then set the
over excitation element to coordinate with the limit curves of
both the GSU and the generator. Fig. 12 shows the coordination
of the over excitation element with the generator and the GSU
limit curves. Use a composite limit curve to achieve proper
coordination.

Conclusion
Power transformers play a significant role in power system
delivery. Proper application of relay elements that monitor a
transformer’s thermal state and through-faults can provide both
short and long term benefits. These benefits include:
 Transformer overload protection, including cyclic overloads
 Continuous transformer thermal status indication that allows
the system operator to make transformer loading decisions
based on transformer thermal state

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Fig. 10: Transformer through-fault report. Fig. 12: Over excitation protection coordination curve.

 Cooling system efficiency indication Through-Fault Current Duration", IEEE Std

C57.109-1993.
 Records of cumulative per phase
[3] IEEE Guide for Protective Relay Applications to
I 2t values as seen by the transformer Power Transformers, IEEE Std C37.91-2000.
 Settable I 2t alarm thresholds that can [4] Stanley E Zocholl and Armando Guzman,
notify the system operator of excessive “Thermal models in Power System Protection”
through-fault current seen by the Western Protective Relay Conference,
Spokane, 1999.
transformer
[5] IEEE Guide for Loading Mineral-Oil-Immersed
 Cumulative I 2t values as a measure to Transformers, IEEE Std C57.91-1995.
prioritise transformer Maintenance [6] Roy Moxley and Armando Guzman, “Transformer
Maintenance Interval Management.”
Over excitation is a system condition [7] SEL-387-0, -5, -6 Current Differential Relay,
and is not limited to generating stations. Over current Relay, Data Recorder Instruction
Proper application of Volts/Hz elements Manual, Schweitzer Engineering Laboratories,
can prevent damage to transformers Inc., 2005.
resulting from system overvoltage or under [8] Jeff Pope, “SEL-387 Through-Fault Monitoring
Application and Benefits,” SEL Application
frequency conditions. Guide, AG2005-02.
[9] Stephen J Chapman, Electric Machinery
References Fundamentals, Fourth Edition. McGraw Hill,
[1] IEEE Standard General requirements for Liquid- p. 714.
Immersed Distribution, Power, and Regulating
Fig. 11: Typical transformer Transformers, IEEE Standard C57.12.00-2000. C o n t a c t R u d o l f Va n H e e r d e n , S E L,
over excitation limit curves. [2] "IEEE Guide for Liquid-Immersed Transformer Tel 012 664-5930, [email protected] 

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